1.
Academic dress
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It is also known as academical dress, academicals, and, in the United States, as academic regalia. Contemporarily, it is seen only at graduation ceremonies, but formerly academic dress was. Today the ensembles are distinctive in some way to each institution, and generally consists of a gown with a separate hood, Academic dress is also worn by members of certain learned societies and institutions as official dress. Some older universities, particularly Oxford and Cambridge, have a set of dress to be worn under the gown. In the Commonwealth, gowns are worn open, while in the United States it has become common for gowns to close at the front, as did the original roba. In either case, the American Council of Education allows for the comfort of the wearer, and concedes that lighter materials be used in tropical climates, in addition, it acknowledges cotton poplin, broadcloth, rayon, or silk as appropriate. The materials used for academic dress vary and range from the economical to the very expensive. For some doctoral graduates commencement will be the time they wear academic regalia. These rented gowns are made of inexpensive polyester or other man-made synthetic fibre. In Britain, rented gowns are almost always polyester while Russell cord, undergraduate gowns are usually made from cotton or cotton and polyester mix and are relatively inexpensive to encourage students to own them. People who choose to buy their dress may opt for finer fabrics, such as poplin, grosgrain, Percale, cotton, wool, cassimere, broadcloth, Russell cord or corded/ribbed material. For silk, there are a range of types including artificial silk/rayon, Ottoman, taffeta, satin, alpaca, true silk, pure Ottoman silk is rarely used except for official gowns as it is very expensive. Some gowns may be trimmed with lace, cords, buttons or other forms of decoration. In the past, fur has been used to line certain hoods which range from rabbit to ermine, in the past, sheepskin was widely used. Most now use imitation fur instead, mainly because of cost, some robemakers will use fur if the customer requests and pays for it, as some feel that the quality and feel of artificial fur has yet to match that of real fur. Doctors robes usually use wool flannel, panama, superfine cloth and they tend to be the most expensive because they must be dyed in a specific colour and/or be trimmed in coloured silks. Many doctoral gowns have a special undress version so adding to the cost of a full set, a full set may cost about $360 for cheap materials to as much as $5800 for high quality materials. Usually, ex-hire gowns are available for purchase at cheaper prices though the quality may be lower, many institutions whose dress includes gowns of varying lengths prescribe the appropriate length of each gown with reference to parts of the wearers body
2.
University of St Andrews
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The University of St Andrews is a British public research university in St Andrews, Fife, Scotland. It is the oldest of the four ancient universities of Scotland, St Andrews was founded between 1410 and 1413, when the Avignon Antipope Benedict XIII issued a papal bull to a small founding group of Augustinian clergy. St Andrews is made up from a variety of institutions, including three constituent colleges and 18 academic schools organised into four faculties, the university occupies historic and modern buildings located throughout the town. The academic year is divided into two terms, Martinmas and Candlemas, in term time, over one-third of the towns population is either a staff member or student of the university. It is ranked as the third best university in the United Kingdom in national league tables, the Times Higher Education World Universities Ranking names St Andrews among the worlds Top 50 universities for Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities. St Andrews has the highest student satisfaction amongst all multi-faculty universities in the United Kingdom, St Andrews has many notable alumni and affiliated faculty, including eminent mathematicians, scientists, theologians, philosophers, and politicians. Six Nobel Laureates are among St Andrews alumni and former staff, a charter of privilege was bestowed upon the society of masters and scholars by the Bishop of St Andrews, Henry Wardlaw, on 28 February 1411. Wardlaw then successfully petitioned the Avignon Pope Benedict XIII to grant the university status by issuing a series of papal bulls. King James I of Scotland confirmed the charter of the university in 1432, subsequent kings supported the university with King James V confirming privileges of the university in 1532. A college of theology and arts called St Johns College was founded in 1418 by Robert of Montrose, St Salvators College was established in 1450, by Bishop James Kennedy. St Leonards College was founded in 1511 by Archbishop Alexander Stewart, St Johns College was refounded by Cardinal James Beaton under the name St Marys College in 1538 for the study of divinity and law. Some university buildings that date from this period are still in use today, such as St Salvators Chapel, St Leonards College Chapel, at this time, the majority of the teaching was of a religious nature and was conducted by clerics associated with the cathedral. During the 17th and 18th centuries, the university had mixed fortunes and was beset by civil. He described it as pining in decay and struggling for life, in the second half of the 19th century, pressure was building upon universities to open up higher education to women. In 1876, the University Senate decided to allow women to receive an education at St Andrews at a roughly equal to the Master of Arts degree that men were able to take at the time. The scheme came to be known as the L. L. A and it required women to pass five subjects at an ordinary level and one at honours level and entitled them to hold a degree from the university. In 1889 the Universities Act made it possible to admit women to St Andrews. Agnes Forbes Blackadder became the first woman to graduate from St Andrews on the level as men in October 1894
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Undergraduate gowns in Scotland
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Undergraduate gowns are a notable feature of academic dress for students at the ancient universities in Scotland. The most famous form of Scottish undergraduate dress is the red or scarlet gown and it is differentiated slightly according to the university at which it is worn. These gowns are worn by students of the University of St Andrews, Glasgow, Aberdeen, Edinburgh, the University of Strathclyde did not adopt the red gown, and instead students use the black supertunica, adorned with saltire blue buttons and cords. It is likely that pre-Reformation undergraduates would have worn a black supertunica in common with students at all European universities of the time, by the latter part of James VIs reign, this had formalised into scarlet. Traditionally, the red colour was symbolic of a lower status, the post-Reformation gown evolved as a uniform for students, its visibility preventing them from engaging in illicit activities in their university towns. In reference to the University of Glasgow, Here is a principal, with regents and professors in science, as there is at Edinburgh, and the scholars wear gowns. Their gowns here are red, but the Masters of Arts, a significant example of this is the actions of John Anderson, a professor at the University of Glasgow and founder of what went on to become the University of Strathclyde. As such, these became known as his Anti-toga classes, the University of Glasgows undergraduate gown is as follows, Scarlet cloth, with full sleeves half the length of the gown. At the University of Aberdeen, and particularly within the predecessor Kings College the gown has had varied fortunes over the years. During one of the slumps in its use in 1885 it was noted that fewer than one-quarter of students wore it, regulations existed compelling gown-wearing amongst students, although were rarely enforced. In 1888, a plebcite was organised at Kings by the Students Representative Council, which continued to support compulsion by 258 votes to 32 and this was to little avail, with the gown still not becoming universal as it had been previously, and remaining subject to fashion. In the 1850s, Sir George Reid painted an image of an Aberdeen student in the gown, the toga was criticised as being unsuited to the climate of Aberdeen. It was considered proper amongst students to wear an old and worn gown, a tradition of gown-tearing by older students to new bajans therefore developed. Matriculation at Aberdeen traditionally occurred on the first Sunday of term, out of enforced respect for Sabbath, despite the cost of gowns, attempts to outlaw this practice were difficult to enforce, particularly as all students of the era carried a penknife in order to mend quills. In 1924, their views were aired in the university newspaper, stating, when we leave the gates of Kings we become citizens of Aberdeen in this year of grace 1924, the undergraduate gown has lost popularity at different times in the different universities. The requirements of town residence made it impractical, however the more isolated locations of Aberdeen, at present, the gowns are most commonly a feature associated with the University of St Andrews where they are very commonly worn by students to formal events, pier walks and exams. It is perhaps most commonly seen at academic ceremonies, particularly in relation to the installation of a new Rector, the undergraduate style influences several gowns of office, particularly for members of Students Representative Councils and Rectors. The colour of the red gown is rarely defined precisely, however the University of Dundee
4.
Ancient universities of Scotland
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The ancient universities of Scotland are medieval and renaissance universities which continue to exist in the present day. The Universities Act 1966 uses the older universities to refer to St Andrews, Glasgow, Aberdeen. The same act provided for the independence from St Andrews of Dundee, the first new university of the era was the University of Strathclyde which received its royal charter in 1964, although it traces its origins back to the Andersonian Institute founded in 1796. Despite being held as an ancient university, the University of Aberdeen was only created in 1860. The Act of Parliament uniting the two universities specified that the date of the foundation of the new united university would be taken to be that of the older Kings College, another, short lived, university existed in the Aberdeenshire town of Fraserburgh from 1595 to 1605. All of the ancient universities, with the exception of St Andrews, were both simultaneously universities and colleges, with titles being used. The University of St Andrews was, however, a collegiate university with a number of colleges. Queens College in Dundee became an independent university, the University of Dundee, the University of St Andrews owed its origin to a society formed in 1410 by Laurence of Lindores, archdeacon Richard Cornwall, bishop William Stephenson and others. Bishop Henry Wardlaw issued a charter in 1411 and attracted the most learned men in Scotland as professors, in 1413 Avignon Pope Benedict XIII issued six bulls confirming the charter and constituting the society a university. University College Dundee was absorbed into St Andrews University, subsequently metamorphosing into Queens College, the University of Dundee separated from the University of St Andrews in 1967. Today the University of St Andrews has just over 10,000 students, the independent IpsosMORI National Student Survey 2006 commissioned by HEFCE placed it third among the UK universities. St Andrews reported the highest student satisfaction overall in Scotland for 2007,2008,2009 and 2010, nearly nine in ten graduates obtain a First Class or an Upper Second Class Honours degree. The university was ranked 3rd in the UK by the Guardian University Guide 2017 and its founding came about as a result of King James IIs wish that Scotland have two Universities, to equal Oxford and Cambridge of England. Today Glasgow University now boasts almost 27,000 students with 40% coming from the West of Scotland and is a member of the Russell Group of leading British universities. Both the Universitys teaching quality and income from research contracts are assessed to be among the top 10 in the United Kingdom. The Times University ranking list places Glasgow among the best Scottish universities while the QS ranks it 2nd in Scotland, there are currently almost eight applications for every place, making it one of the most competitive universities in the UK to obtain entry into. No college is mentioned in the bill, only a university. Subsequently a single college, originally known as St. Mary of the Nativity, was established, soon the entity came to be called Kings College, after its royal founder James IV
5.
United College, St Andrews
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The United College of St Salvator and St Leonard is one of the two statutory colleges of the University of St Andrews in St Andrews, Scotland. It was founded in 1747 by the merger of St Salvators College, the College encompasses the Faculties of Arts, Medicine and Science and is headed by the Master of the United College. The current Master of the United College is Professor Garry Taylor, the college no longer functions as an administrative body and its use is purely formal. The other statutory college of the University is St Marys College which encompasses the Universitys Faculty of Divinity, a third college, St Leonards College was re-established in 1972 as a non-statutory college, which encompasses postgraduate and postdoctoral students
6.
St Mary's College, St Andrews
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The College was founded in 1538 by Archbishop James Beaton, uncle of Cardinal David Beaton on the site of the Pedagogy or St Johns College. St Marys College was intended to preserve the teachings of the Roman Catholic church against the teachings of the reformers. It was dedicated to a revival of learning on the Continental trilingual model and from the outset laid emphasis on the knowledge of Latin, Greek, St Marys College retains much of its original sixteenth century buildings, specifically the north and West ranges. The Quad contains a thorn said to have been planted by Mary, Queen of Scots. The Quad also contains the historic King James Library founded by King James VI & I in 1612, in addition the College has The Roundel, a 16th-century building dedicated for doctoral students studying divinity at the University of St Andrews. The College is one of five approved centres for the training of Church of Scotland ministers, graduates include the Very Rev Dr Finlay Macdonald, the immediate past Principal Clerk to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland and a former Moderator. As of May 2015, the Faculty and School of Divinity forms a community of some 131 persons,16 members of staff,55 postgraduate students. According to The Complete University Guide 2016 the School of Divinity is placed first in the United Kingdom for undergraduate studies ahead of Durham in second place, in the 2016 Guardian University Guide it is also ranked first in the United Kingdom in religious studies and theology. The college has three research centres, the Institute for Theology, Imagination and the Arts was founded within the College by professors Trevor Hart and Jeremy Begbie in 2000. The current director is Dr Gavin Hopps and these supporters who have continued as Patrons of the Centre include Gustavo Gutiérrez, Cardinal OBrien, Bishop Desmond Tutu, Carole Hillenbrand, Ian Linden, Julian Filokowski, J. D. Y. Peel, Rev Joel Edwards, Professor George P. Smith II, with the study of general hermeneutical theory and practice at its centre, it will be outward-looking and keen to engage with issues arising from the contemporary world. The current director is Dr. Mark Elliott
7.
Burgon Society
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The Burgon Society, concerned with academic dress, should not be confused with the Dean Burgon Society, concerned with the advocacy of the King James Bible. The Burgon Society was founded in 2000 for the study and promotion of academical dress, to preserve its history and to film and television companies. The president of the society is Graham Zellick, CBE, QC, thomson, former Master of London Charterhouse and the organist John Birch, who served two terms. He also designed the gowns of the University of Malta and his design, selected from entries submitted in an international competition, debuted in November 2011 at a degree ceremony in Valletta, Malta. The society is named after John William Burgon from whom the Burgon shape academic hood takes its name, the Burgon hood is depicted in profile in the societys emblem, surrounded by Bishop Andrewes caps. In 2010, the society received charity status from the Charity Commission, the society publishes an annual journal of peer-reviewed research into academic dress. There are also occasional garden parties hosted in the country somewhere. The patrons of the society are, The Rt Revd and Rt Hon. Richard J. C, membership is open to all who support the aims of the society. Fellowship is awarded to members on the submission of a piece of original work on a topic approved by the executive committee. Fellowship may also be awarded to any member who has demonstrated in other way a significant contribution to the study of academic dress. Occasionally, the fellowship may be awarded honoris causa, el jefe de Protocolo de la Universidad de Salamanca ofrece una conferencia en la Burgon Society de Londres. Article about Jerónimo Hernández de Castro becoming the first Spaniard to address the Society, article describing the Societys tenth anniversary activities. The New York Times Reference article about the history of academic dress including quote from the Dean of Studies of the Burgon Society, the Burgon Society, founded to promote the study of Academical Dress, traces graduation gowns to the cloaks of medieval monks, students in the first. The design of the cap, or mortarboard, resulted from combining two different types of commonly worn in medieval times, according to the Burgon Society. A History of Graduation Gowns & Academic Dress and this article was kindly provided by the Burgon Society
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Mediaeval
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In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or Medieval Period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance, the Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history, classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is subdivided into the Early, High. Population decline, counterurbanisation, invasion, and movement of peoples, the large-scale movements of the Migration Period, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the seventh century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Byzantine Empire—came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power, the empires law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or Code of Justinian, was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions, monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th, the Crusades, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. Kings became the heads of centralised nation states, reducing crime and violence, intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities. Controversy, heresy, and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the conflict, civil strife. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages, the Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history, classical civilisation, or Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Modern Period. Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the Six Ages or the Four Empires, when referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being modern. In the 1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua, leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People. Bruni and later argued that Italy had recovered since Petrarchs time. The Middle Ages first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or middle season, in early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or middle age, first recorded in 1604, and media saecula, or middle ages, first recorded in 1625. The alternative term medieval derives from medium aevum, tripartite periodisation became standard after the German 17th-century historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods, Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is 476, for Europe as a whole,1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there is no universally agreed upon end date. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period
9.
University of St Andrews Students' Association
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The University of St Andrews Students Association was first founded as a Students Representative Council in 1885. The Board comprises seven student members and six non-student members, the student members are the four sabbatical officers, the Association Chair, and the Senior Officers of the SSC and SRC. Under the Universities Acts, all students of the University automatically become members of the Students Association, the Student Services Council supports the activities and events run by the Students Association and the Universitys clubs and societies by providing facilities, organisation and funding. The SRC is responsible for representing students interests to the management of the University, the SRC comprises a number of officers, who chair the respective subcommittees, and members, St Andrews SA
10.
University of St Andrews Athletic Union
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The University of St Andrews Athletic Union is the umbrella organisation for the support and development of sport and sports clubs at the University of St Andrews. Run by students, for students, it structure and advice to over 60 clubs. The Athletic Union is a student representative body with its own constitution sanctioned by the University Court, the Athletic Union is run by an Executive Committee elected by the student body of the University of St Andrews. There are over 60 clubs affiliated to the Athletic Union which receive various levels of support, BUCS is responsible for the organisation of the majority of university sport and claims to set more sports fixtures than any other sports organisation in Europe. Every sport that is recognised by BUCS is allocated points towards it and these are compiled and at the end of the season all institutions are ranked for sport. The University of St Andrews Athletic Union affiliates to SSS annually, SSS runs a lot of the sports events and fixtures on behalf of BUCS in Scotland, in particular the British University Games. SSS also takes responsibility for a lot of the sports BUCS does not recognise such as rifle, shinty, gaelic football, Athletic Union University Canoe Club University of St Andrews British Universities and Colleges Sport Scottish Universities and Colleges Sport
11.
St Andrews
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St Andrews is a town on the east coast of Fife in Scotland,10 miles southeast of Dundee and 30 miles northeast of Edinburgh. The town is home to the University of St Andrews, the third oldest university in the English-speaking world, according to some rankings, it is ranked as the third best university in the United Kingdom, behind Oxbridge. The University is an part of the burgh and during term time students make up approximately one third of the towns population. St Andrews has a population of 16,800, the town is named after Saint Andrew the Apostle. There has been an important church in St Andrews since at least the 8th century, the settlement grew to the west of St Andrews cathedral with the southern side of the Scores to the north and the Kinness burn to the south. The burgh soon became the capital of Scotland, a position which was held until the Scottish Reformation. The famous cathedral, the largest in Scotland, now lies in ruins, St Andrews is also known worldwide as the home of golf. Visitors travel to St Andrews in great numbers for several courses ranked amongst the finest in the world, as well as for the sandy beaches. The Martyrs Memorial, erected to the honour of Patrick Hamilton, George Wishart, the civil parish has a population of 18,421. The earliest recorded name the area is Muckross, after the founding of a religious settlement in Muckross in around 370 AD, the name changed to Cennrígmonaid. This is Old Gaelic and composed of the elements cenn, ríg and this became Cell Rígmonaid and was anglicised Kilrymont. The modern Gaelic spelling is Cill Rìmhinn, the name St Andrews derives from the towns claim to be the resting place of bones of the apostle Andrew. According to legend, St Regulus brought the relics to Kilrymont and this is the origin of a third name for the town Kilrule. The first inhabitants who settled on the fringes of the rivers Tay. This was followed by the people who settled around the modern town around 4,500 BC as farmers clearing the area of woodland. In AD877, king Causantín mac Cináeda built a new church for the Culdees at St Andrews and later the same year was captured and executed after defending against Viking raiders. In AD906, the became the seat of the bishop of Alba. In 940 Constantine III abdicated and took the position of abbot of the monastery of St Andrews, the establishment of the present town began around 1140 by Bishop Robert on an L-shaped vill, possibly on the site of the ruined St Andrews Castle
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Fife
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Fife is a council area and historic county of Scotland. It is situated between the Firth of Tay and the Firth of Forth, with boundaries to Perth and Kinross. By custom it is held to have been one of the major Pictish kingdoms, known as Fib. It is an area, and was a county of Scotland until 1975. It was very occasionally known by the anglicisation Fifeshire in old documents, a person from Fife is known as a Fifer. Fife was a government region divided into three districts, Dunfermline, Kirkcaldy and North-East Fife. Since 1996 the functions of the councils have been exercised by the unitary Fife Council. Fife is Scotlands third largest local authority area by population and it has a resident population of just under 367,000, over a third of whom live in the three principal towns of Dunfermline, Kirkcaldy and Glenrothes. The historic town of St Andrews is located on the northeast coast of Fife and it is well known for the University of St Andrews, one of the most ancient universities in the world and is renowned as the home of golf. Fife, bounded to the north by the Firth of Tay, the earliest known reference to the common epithet The Kingdom of Fife dates from only 1678, in a proposition that the term derives from the quasi-regal privileges of the Earl of Fife. The notion of a kingdom may derive from a misintrepretation of an extract from Wyntoun, the name is recorded as Fib in A. D.1150 and Fif in 1165. It was often associated with Fothriff, the hill-fort of Clatchard Craig, near Newburgh, was occupied as an important Pictish stronghold between the sixth and eighth centuries AD. Fife was an important royal and political centre from the reign of King Malcolm III onwards, Malcolm had his principal home in Dunfermline and his wife Margaret was the main benefactor of Dunfermline Abbey. The Abbey replaced Iona as the resting place of Scotlands royal elite. The Earl of Fife was until the 15th century considered the principal peer of the Scottish realm, wool, linen, coal and salt were all traded. Salt pans heated by local coal were a feature of the Fife coast in the past, the distinctive red clay pan tiles seen on many old buildings in Fife arrived as ballast on trading boats and replaced the previously thatched roofs. This endeavour lasted until 1609 when the colonists, having been opposed by the population, were bought out by Kenneth Mackenzie. Fife became a centre of industry in the 19th century
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Scotland
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Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east. In addition to the mainland, the country is made up of more than 790 islands, including the Northern Isles, the Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707. By inheritance in 1603, James VI, King of Scots, became King of England and King of Ireland, Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain. The union also created a new Parliament of Great Britain, which succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. Within Scotland, the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of styles, titles, the legal system within Scotland has also remained separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland, Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in both public and private law. Glasgow, Scotlands largest city, was one of the worlds leading industrial cities. Other major urban areas are Aberdeen and Dundee, Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third-largest city in Scotland, the title of Europes oil capital, following a referendum in 1997, a Scottish Parliament was re-established, in the form of a devolved unicameral legislature comprising 129 members, having authority over many areas of domestic policy. Scotland is represented in the UK Parliament by 59 MPs and in the European Parliament by 6 MEPs, Scotland is also a member nation of the British–Irish Council, and the British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly. Scotland comes from Scoti, the Latin name for the Gaels, the Late Latin word Scotia was initially used to refer to Ireland. By the 11th century at the latest, Scotia was being used to refer to Scotland north of the River Forth, alongside Albania or Albany, the use of the words Scots and Scotland to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the Late Middle Ages. Repeated glaciations, which covered the land mass of modern Scotland. It is believed the first post-glacial groups of hunter-gatherers arrived in Scotland around 12,800 years ago, the groups of settlers began building the first known permanent houses on Scottish soil around 9,500 years ago, and the first villages around 6,000 years ago. The well-preserved village of Skara Brae on the mainland of Orkney dates from this period and it contains the remains of an early Bronze Age ruler laid out on white quartz pebbles and birch bark. It was also discovered for the first time that early Bronze Age people placed flowers in their graves, in the winter of 1850, a severe storm hit Scotland, causing widespread damage and over 200 deaths. In the Bay of Skaill, the storm stripped the earth from a large irregular knoll, when the storm cleared, local villagers found the outline of a village, consisting of a number of small houses without roofs. William Watt of Skaill, the laird, began an amateur excavation of the site, but after uncovering four houses
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English-speaking world
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Approximately 330 to 360 million people speak English as their first language. More than half of live in the United States, followed by some 55 million in England. English is the third largest language by number of speakers, after Mandarin. Estimates that include second language speakers vary greatly, from 470 million to more than 1 billion, david Crystal calculates that non-native speakers as of 2003 outnumbered native speakers by a ratio of 3 to 1. When combining native and non-native speakers, English is the most widely spoken language worldwide, there are six large countries with a majority of native English speakers that are sometimes grouped under the term Anglosphere. They are, in descending order of English speakers, the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, Ireland, other substantial communities of native speakers are found in South Africa, and Nigeria. Also there are countries where in a part of the territory English became a language, e. g. Colombias San Andrés y Providencia. This was a result of the influence of British colonization in the area, English is one of the eleven official languages that are given equal status in South Africa. It is also the language in current dependent territories of Australia and of the United States. Although the United States federal government has no official languages, English has been official status by 32 of the 50 state governments. It is, by treaty, the official language for aeronautical. English is one of the languages of the United Nations and many other international organizations. In 2012, excluding native speakers,38 percent of Europeans consider that they can speak English, in publishing, English literature predominates considerably with 28 percent of all books published in the world and 30 percent of web content in 2011. This increasing use of the English language globally has had a impact on many other languages, leading to language shift and even language death. English itself has more open to language shift as multiple regional varieties feed back into the language as a whole. Variation in Nonnative Varieties of English, Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency. Census 2011, Key Statistics for Northern Ireland December 2012, language in England and Wales,2011. Language Use in the United States,2011, Population by mother tongue and age groups,2011 counts, for Canada, provinces and territories
15.
University of St Andrews Union Debating Society
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The University of St Andrews Union Debating Society is a student debating society at the University of St Andrews in Scotland. Tracing its origins back to 1794 and established in 1890, it is the second UKs oldest student debating societies after The Cambridge Union. It competes at a level in national and international debating competitions. It also holds weekly public debates in the Lower Parliament Hall, in 2015, the society became the first in Scotland to win the European Universities Debating Championship. The origins of the University of St Andrews Debating Society can be traced to the formation in 1794 of the university Literary Society, at this stage of its history, the Literary Society operated under a strange mixture of egalitarianism and exclusiveness. Initially, there was no president of the Society and meetings were chaired by member in rotation. The only distinct posts allowed were that of Secretary and Treasurer, in addition, all decisions were taken collectively by the Society as a whole. However, membership was limited to students, was strictly by election. In 1846, The Classical Society, a debating society, was re-established and was soon vying with the Literary Society for the attention of the student body. The acquisition of James Crichtons House by the fledgling Students Union afforded the Society a permanent home and this, and the fact that the Union Debating Society now had over seventy members, gave the Society renewed confidence and a greater importance than ever before in the lives of students. In 1910 the post of President of the Union Debating Society was created, in 1925 the Union Debating Society agreed to be affiliated to the Students Union, and all matriculated students of the university would be members. The Chair of the Union Debating Society would be elected as the Union Convenor of Debates, the Debates Board ceased to exist and the title of President of the Union Debating Society was kept purely as a courtesy title. In 1932 the society elected to re-create the Debates Board, in order to regain independence from the students union. It was to consist of the Convenor of Debates and two Clerks to the House, during this period debates were held in the Council Chamber of the Men’s students Union, apart from some large-scale events which were held in the Union Diner. In the 1970s, the move of the Students Union from its home to a new purpose built building provided the Union Debating Society with the opportunity to make a move of its own. The Convenor of Debates took the opportunity to move debates to Lower College Hall in St Salvators Quadrangle and this physical move away from the Students Union was accompanied by an organisational one. In 1979, the society decided to change the Debating Sub-Committee into the Debating Board of Ten, the President would continue to be elected as the Convenor of Debates but the Board of Ten would be elected in an Annual General Meeting of the Union Debating Society. Today the Union Debating Society continues to fulfill its mission of holding regular debates in Lower Parliament Hall
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Black tie
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Traditionally worn only for events after 7 p. m. black tie is less formal than white tie but more formal than informal or business dress. In the United States, the form of black tie attire is often referred to as a tuxedo. Specifically it can include, Evening shoes and A ballgown. Cocktail dresses may be long or moderately short and neednt be black, in England, evening trousers with a palazzo cut are another acceptable option. Unlike the gentlemans standard, the specifics of black tie for ladies is linked to whatever evening wear is currently in fashion. When the dinner jacket first came into fashion in the Victorian era, lapels were often faced or edged in silk or satin in varying widths. Dinner jackets were considered from the first less formal than full dress, the dinner jacket was also increasingly accepted at less formal evening occasions such as warm-weather gatherings or intimate dinners with friends. After World War I, the jacket became de facto evening wear. During this interwar period, double-breasted jackets, turndown-collar shirts and cummerbunds became popular for black-tie evenings as did white, in the decades following World War II, black tie became special occasion attire rather than standard evening wear. The 1980s and 1990s saw a return to nostalgic styles, with black jackets, the 21st century has seen increased variation and a relaxation of previous strict standards, midnight blue once again became popular and lapel facings were sometimes reduced to wide edging. Traditionally, black tie was considered informal, in the 21st century black tie is often referred to as being semi-formal. Unlike white tie, which is strictly regulated, black-tie ensembles can display more variation. In brief, the components for men are, A jacket with silk facings on a shawl lapel. Many current fashion stylists and writers see notched lapels as less formal although they were used in some of the forms of the garment. Trousers with a silk or satin braid covering the outer seams, uncuffed. A black low-cut waistcoat or a cummerbund, a white dress shirt with double cuffs and a turndown collar. While the turndown is most appropriately semi-formal, the wing collar has been popular with American men since the 1980s. However, many style authorities argue that the version now typically offered is insubstantial with minuscule wings
17.
Lord Chancellor
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The Lord Chancellor, formally the Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain, is a senior functionary in the government of the United Kingdom. They are appointed by the Sovereign on the advice of the Prime Minister, the Lord Chancellor is the second highest ranking of the Great Officers of State, ranking after only the Lord High Steward. Prior to the Union there were separate Lords Chancellor for England and Wales, the Lord Chancellor is a member of the Cabinet and, by law, is responsible for the efficient functioning and independence of the courts. In 2007 there were a number of changes to the legal system, the current Lord Chancellor is Elizabeth Truss, who is also Secretary of State for Justice. One of the Lord Chancellors responsibilities is to act as the custodian of the Great Seal of the Realm, a Lord Keeper of the Great Seal may be appointed instead of a Lord Chancellor. The two offices entail exactly the same duties, the distinction is in the mode of appointment. The seal is then said to be in commission, since the 19th century, however, only Lord Chancellors have been appointed, the other offices having fallen into disuse. The office of Lord Chancellor of England may trace its origins to the Carolingian monarchy, in England, the office dates at least as far back as the Norman Conquest, and possibly earlier. Some give the first Chancellor of England as Angmendus, in 605, other sources suggest that the first to appoint a Chancellor was Edward the Confessor, who is said to have adopted the practice of sealing documents instead of personally signing them. A clerk of Edwards, Regenbald, was named chancellor in some documents from Edwards reign, in any event, the office has been continuously occupied since the Norman Conquest. The chancellor headed the office or chancery. Formerly, the Lord Chancellor was almost always a churchman, as during the Middle Ages the clergy were amongst the few men of the realm. The Lord Chancellor performed multiple functions—he was the Keeper of the Great Seal, the royal chaplain. Thus, the position emerged as one of the most important ones in government and he was only outranked in government by the Justiciar. As one of the Kings ministers, the Lord Chancellor attended the curia regis or Royal Court, if a bishop, the Lord Chancellor received a writ of summons, if an ecclesiastic of a lower degree or, if a layman, he attended without any summons. The curia regis would later evolve into Parliament, the Lord Chancellor becoming the prolocutor of its upper house, as was confirmed by a statute passed during the reign of Henry VIII, a Lord Chancellor could preside over the House of Lords even if not a Lord himself. The Lord Chancellors judicial duties also evolved through his role in the curia regis, petitions for justice were normally addressed to the King and the curia, but in 1280, Edward I instructed his justices to examine and deal with petitions themselves as the Court of Kings Bench. Important petitions were to be sent to the Lord Chancellor for his decision, by the reign of Edward III, this chancellery function developed into a separate tribunal for the Lord Chancellor
18.
Speaker of the House of Commons (United Kingdom)
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The Speaker of the House of Commons is the presiding officer of the House of Commons, the United Kingdoms lower chamber of Parliament. The office is held by John Bercow, who was initially elected on 22 June 2009. He was returned as an MP in the 2010 general election and was re-elected as Speaker when the House sat at the start of the new Parliament on 18 May 2010. He was again returned as an MP in the 2015 general election and was re-elected, unopposed, the Speaker presides over the Houses debates, determining which members may speak. The Speaker is also responsible for maintaining order during debate, the Speaker does not take part in debate or vote. Aside from duties relating to presiding over the House, the Speaker also performs administrative and procedural functions, the Speaker has the right and obligation to reside in Speakers House at the Palace of Westminster. The office of Speaker is almost as old as Parliament itself, the earliest year for which a presiding officer has been identified is 1258, when Peter de Montfort presided over the Parliament held in Oxford. Early presiding officers were known by the title parlour or prolocutor, Edward III was frail and in seclusion, his prestigious eldest son, Edward the Black Prince, terminally ill. It was left to the son, a furious John of Gaunt. He arrested De la Mare and disgraced other leading critics, in the next, Bad Parliament, in 1377, a cowed Commons put forward Gaunts steward, Thomas Hungerford, as their spokesman in retracting their predecessors misdoings of the previous year. On 6 October 1399, Sir John Cheyne of Beckford was elected speaker, the powerful Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Arundel, is said to have voiced his fears of Cheynes reputation as a critic of the Church. Eight days later, Cheyne resigned on grounds of ill-health, although he remained in favour with the king, in such a situation, the influence of the speaker should not be underestimated. Sir Thomas More was the first speaker to go on to become Lord Chancellor, until the 17th century, members of the House of Commons often continued to view their Speaker as an agent of the Crown. As Parliament evolved, however, the Speakers position grew into one that involved more duties to the House than to the Crown, such was definitely the case by the time of the English Civil War. This change is said to be reflected by an incident in 1642. The development of Cabinet government under King William III in the late 17th century caused further change in the nature of the Speakership, Speakers were generally associated with the ministry, and often held other government offices. For example, Robert Harley served simultaneously as Speaker and as a Secretary of State between 1704 and 1705, the Speaker between 1728 and 1761, Arthur Onslow, reduced ties with the government, though the office did remain to a large degree political. The Speakership evolved into its modern form—in which the holder is an impartial and apolitical officer who does not belong to any party—only during the middle of the 19th century, over 150 individuals have served as Speaker of the House of Commons
19.
St Leonard's College, St Andrews
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St Leonards College is a postgraduate institute at the University of St Andrews in St Andrews, Scotland. Founded in 1512 as a theological college of the University of St Andrews. In 1972 it was re-instituted as a postgraduate institute and its creation was a result of the poverty and declining status of St Johns College/Pedagogy and Arts Faculty of St Andrews. The first Provost was the Dominican, John Annand and a reformer of the clergy. St Leonards was consequently extremely monastic in nature, with members of the college being subjected to a far more rigorous, the buildings of St Leonards College on South Street were sold and teaching limited to the St. Salvators College site on North Street. The old college site was visited by Samuel Johnston and James Boswell in August 1773, the old college site has, since the late 19th century, been occupied by St Leonards School. The college chapel remains the property of the university, famous alumni of St Leonards College include Alexander Ales, John Knox, George Buchanan, Patrick Adamson and James Melville. St Leonards College was re-established in 1972 as a college exclusively for postgraduates, postdoctoral fellows. After matriculation such students are de facto members of St Leonard’s College, St Leonards College does not own any property - its function is to act as a central point of administration for postgraduate and postdoctoral students, as such it organises postgraduate events. The head of the college retains the title of the older St Leonards College. Previous provosts of St Leonards College include Prof. Malcolm MacLeod, Prof. Martin Kemp, Dr. Frank Riddell, the current Provost of St Leonards College is Professor Derek Woolins. Cant The University of St. Andrews, A Short History Official College website
20.
Lining (sewing)
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In sewing and tailoring, a lining is an inner layer of fabric, fur, or other material inserted into clothing, hats, luggage, curtains, handbags and similar items. Linings provide a neat inside finish and conceal interfacing, padding, the raw edges of seams, a lining reduces the wearing strain on clothing, extending the useful life of the lined garment. A smooth lining allows a coat or jacket to slip on over other clothing easily, linings are typically made of solid colors to coordinate with the garment fabric, but patterned and contrasting-colored linings are also used. In tailoring, home sewing, and ready-to-wear clothing construction, linings are usually completed as a unit before being fitted into the garment shell, in haute couture, the sleeves and body are usually lined separately before assembly. Some specialized types of lining include the following, This is a layer of fabric between the lining and the outer garment shell. Insulating interlinings for winter garments are usually sewn to the individual lining pieces before the lining is assembled and this type lines only the upper back and front of the garment, concealing the shoulder pads and interfacings, with or without sleeves. This is a warm removable lining for a jacket, coat, or raincoat that is held in place with a zipper, snap fasteners, or buttons. Garments with removable linings are usually lined with a fabric as well. Tailoring, The Classic Guide to Sewing the Perfect Jacket
21.
University of Paris
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The University of Paris, metonymically known as the Sorbonne, was a university in Paris, France. Emerging around 1150 as an associated with the cathedral school of Notre Dame de Paris. Vast numbers of popes, royalties, scientists and intellectuals were educated at the University of Paris, following the turbulence of the French Revolution, education was suspended in 1793 whereafter its faculties were partly reorganised by Napoleon as the University of France. In 1896, it was renamed again to the University of Paris, in 1970, following the May 1968 events, the university was divided into 13 autonomous universities. Others, like Panthéon-Sorbonne University, chose to be multidisciplinary, in 1150, the future University of Paris was a student-teacher corporation operating as an annex of the Notre-Dame cathedral school. The university had four faculties, Arts, Medicine, Law, the Faculty of Arts was the lowest in rank, but also the largest, as students had to graduate there in order to be admitted to one of the higher faculties. The students were divided into four nationes according to language or regional origin, France, Normandy, Picardy, the last came to be known as the Alemannian nation. Recruitment to each nation was wider than the names might imply, the faculty and nation system of the University of Paris became the model for all later medieval universities. Under the governance of the Church, students wore robes and shaved the tops of their heads in tonsure, students followed the rules and laws of the Church and were not subject to the kings laws or courts. This presented problems for the city of Paris, as students ran wild, students were often very young, entering the school at age 13 or 14 and staying for 6 to 12 years. Three schools were especially famous in Paris, the palatine or palace school, the school of Notre-Dame, the decline of royalty brought about the decline of the first. The other two were ancient but did not have much visibility in the early centuries, the glory of the palatine school doubtless eclipsed theirs, until it completely gave way to them. These two centres were much frequented and many of their masters were esteemed for their learning, the first renowned professor at the school of Ste-Geneviève was Hubold, who lived in the tenth century. Not content with the courses at Liège, he continued his studies at Paris, entered or allied himself with the chapter of Ste-Geneviève, and attracted many pupils via his teaching. Distinguished professors from the school of Notre-Dame in the century include Lambert, disciple of Fulbert of Chartres, Drogo of Paris, Manegold of Germany. Three other men who added prestige to the schools of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève were William of Champeaux, Abélard, humanistic instruction comprised grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. To the higher instruction belonged dogmatic and moral theology, whose source was the Scriptures and it was completed by the study of Canon law. The School of Saint-Victor arose to rival those of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève and it was founded by William of Champeaux when he withdrew to the Abbey of Saint-Victor
22.
Bahram Beyzai
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Bahrām Beyzāie is a critically acclaimed Iranian film director, playwright, theatre director, screenwriter, film editor, producer, and researcher. Bahram Beyzaie is the son of the poet Ostād Nematollāh Beyzāie, the celebrated poet Adib Ali Beyzāie, considered as one of the most profound poets of 20th-century Iran, is Bahram Beyzaies paternal uncle. Bahram Beyzaies paternal grandfather, Mirzā Mohammad-Rezā Ārāni, and paternal great-grandfather, Beyzaie was interested in the arts from a very young age. In high school, Darol-Fonoun, he wrote two plays which went on to become his preferred method of writing. He studied literature at Tehran University, but started skipping school from around the age of 17 in order to go to movies which were becoming popular in Iran at a rapid pace and this only fed his hunger to learn more about the cinema of Iran and the visual arts. This in turn led him to studying Eastern theatre and traditional Iranian theatre and he also became acquainted with Persian painting. By late 1961 he had published numerous articles in various arts. In 1962 he made his first short film in 8 mm format, in the next two years he wrote several plays and published Theatre in Japan. It is during this period that he wrote books which are often regarded as masterpieces, The Eight Voyage of Sinbad, Banquet, Serpant King, Dolls, The Story of the Hidden Moon. In 1968, Beyzaie became one of the first people to join the Iranian Writers Guild, Beyzaies early study and interest in drama and the theatre is well known, but less well-known is his early work as a dramatist. As a young man Beyzaie had always fascinated by the traditions of Iranian theatre. His Se Nemayeshname-ye Arusaki was published in 1963, and The Marionettes was the first one of three plays. But for all that it is based on the model of the traditional puppet theatre, The Marionettes is shaped by other traditions. It is the work of someone au fait with the work of Pirandello, in the 1960s, plays by dramatists such as Beckett and Ionesco were often translated into the Persian language and performed in Iran soon after their premieres in the West). Drawing on these influences, Beyzaies play is a little-known master-piece of 20th-century drama. Beyzaies Drama in Iran, published in late 1960s is still considered the most important text on the history of Iranian theater, Beyzaie is also the first scholar in Iran to publish books on theater in China and Japan. Some of his plays such as his masterpiece Marg-e Yazdgerd have been made into films, Beyzaie has over 50 published plays, some of which are as follows. Theses works have appeared in French, English, German
23.
Academic dress of the University of Oxford
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The University of Oxford has a long tradition of academic dress, which continues to the present day. In addition, gowns are worn with cap, hood, and subfusc to, on certain occasions, e. g. the Encaenia garden party, by tradition, graduates wear gown and hood without subfusc. The wearing of subfusc remains a popular tradition, a previous referendum in 2006 showed 81% support for subfusc. After the names of the components, the Groves classification system is given, the gowns in use in Oxford can be divided into two basic shapes. All gowns are open-fronted, except for the Doctors convocation habit which is closed at the front, all of the above have open bell-shaped sleeves, with the exception of the MA gown and the Doctors convocation habit. The MA gown has long closed sleeves with arm slits just above the elbow, the Doctors convocation habit is sleeveless. Gowns of the basic shape are worn by barristers, preachers. Gowns of the basic shape are worn by solicitors, Queens Counsel, court ushers, the Speaker of the House of Commons, the Chancellor of the Exchequer. Hoods in Oxford are of three shapes, Doctors and Bachelors of Divinity wear hoods in the Oxford full shape, scarlet in the case of doctors and black in the case of Bachelors of Divinity. All other hoods can be either in the Burgon shape or the Oxford simple shape, most of the newer degrees use the Burgon whilst older degrees use either, although the Burgon shape is becoming more popular. Generally, hoods are worn by graduates whenever subfusc is worn, men wear a mortarboard, which is not worn indoors, except by the Chancellor, Vice-Chancellor and Proctors. When meeting the Vice-Chancellor, Proctors, or other official of the university in the street. In practice few people wear their caps nowadays, and instead carry their caps on occasions where caps are required, women may choose between the mortarboard or the soft cap. Originally, women were required to wear their caps during university ceremonies. From Michaelmas 1995, they were required to wear the soft cap, from Hilary 2008, they are now, like men, required to carry their mortarboards when at university ceremonies indoors. Women who opt for the cap must still wear, and not carry. Doctors in the lay faculties wear Tudor bonnets, which are round, subfusc comes from the Latin for of a dark/dusky colour, and refers to the clothes worn with full academic dress in Oxford. Previously, men were required to wear, Dark suit and socks, women were previously required to wear, White blouse
24.
International Standard Serial Number
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An International Standard Serial Number is an eight-digit serial number used to uniquely identify a serial publication. The ISSN is especially helpful in distinguishing between serials with the same title, ISSN are used in ordering, cataloging, interlibrary loans, and other practices in connection with serial literature. The ISSN system was first drafted as an International Organization for Standardization international standard in 1971, ISO subcommittee TC 46/SC9 is responsible for maintaining the standard. When a serial with the content is published in more than one media type. For example, many serials are published both in print and electronic media, the ISSN system refers to these types as print ISSN and electronic ISSN, respectively. The format of the ISSN is an eight digit code, divided by a hyphen into two four-digit numbers, as an integer number, it can be represented by the first seven digits. The last code digit, which may be 0-9 or an X, is a check digit. Formally, the form of the ISSN code can be expressed as follows, NNNN-NNNC where N is in the set, a digit character. The ISSN of the journal Hearing Research, for example, is 0378-5955, where the final 5 is the check digit, for calculations, an upper case X in the check digit position indicates a check digit of 10. To confirm the check digit, calculate the sum of all eight digits of the ISSN multiplied by its position in the number, the modulus 11 of the sum must be 0. There is an online ISSN checker that can validate an ISSN, ISSN codes are assigned by a network of ISSN National Centres, usually located at national libraries and coordinated by the ISSN International Centre based in Paris. The International Centre is an organization created in 1974 through an agreement between UNESCO and the French government. The International Centre maintains a database of all ISSNs assigned worldwide, at the end of 2016, the ISSN Register contained records for 1,943,572 items. ISSN and ISBN codes are similar in concept, where ISBNs are assigned to individual books, an ISBN might be assigned for particular issues of a serial, in addition to the ISSN code for the serial as a whole. An ISSN, unlike the ISBN code, is an identifier associated with a serial title. For this reason a new ISSN is assigned to a serial each time it undergoes a major title change, separate ISSNs are needed for serials in different media. Thus, the print and electronic versions of a serial need separate ISSNs. Also, a CD-ROM version and a web version of a serial require different ISSNs since two different media are involved, however, the same ISSN can be used for different file formats of the same online serial
25.
Menzies Campbell
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Walter Menzies Campbell, Baron Campbell of Pittenweem, CH, CBE, PC, QC, often known as Ming Campbell, is a British Liberal Democrat politician, advocate and former athlete. He was the Member of Parliament for North East Fife from 1987 to 2015 and was the Leader of the Liberal Democrats from 2 March 2006 until 15 October 2007. Campbell held the British record for the 100 metres sprint from 1967–74 and he captained the Great Britain athletics team in 1965-66. He is currently the Chancellor of the University of St Andrews and he was nominated for a life peerage in the 2015 Dissolution Honours. He has stated that he believes the House of Lords should be mainly elected, Menzies is a Scottish name, originally written Minȝies, the z being a graphic approximation of the yogh, originally found in the name. Born in Glasgow, Campbell was educated at Hillhead High School and the University of Glasgow, graduating with a Scottish Master of Arts in 1962 and he was elected President of the Glasgow University Liberal Club in 1962, and of the Glasgow University Union for 1964–65. He later received a scholarship to study at Stanford University in California, Campbell qualified as an advocate before he became a politician. He was admitted to the Faculty of Advocates in 1968 and became a Queens Counsel in 1982 and he specialised in planning and licensing law. He ceased to practise as an advocate in 2003, but returned to practice in January 2008, Campbell married Elspeth, Lady Grant-Suttie, daughter of Major General Roy Urquhart, in June 1970. The couple have no children, but Lady Campbell has a son from her previous marriage and he also captained the Great Britain athletics team in 1965 and 1966, and held the British 100 metres record from 1967 to 1974. At one time he was known as the fastest white man on the planet, in his first 10.2 second race he beat O. J. Simpson who was then an aspiring athlete. Campbell became chairman of the Scottish Liberals in 1975, and was a candidate at various general elections between 1974-83. In February and October 1974 he stood in Greenock and Port Glasgow, being defeated by Labours Dickson Mabon, after boundary changes he fought the successor seat of North East Fife in 1983, before finally gaining election there, defeating Henderson at the 1987 general election. He has not lived in his constituency during his tenure as MP and he was made the Liberal Democrat chief spokesman on foreign affairs and defence in 1992. He considered standing as a candidate to replace Paddy Ashdown as party leader in the 1999 leadership election and he later said that he regretted that decision for about 10 minutes a day. He was also one of candidates for the position of Speaker when Betty Boothroyd stood down in 2000. Campbell was diagnosed with lymphoma, a form of cancer, in 2002. Campbell replaced Alan Beith as deputy leader of the Liberal Democrats in February 2003 and he took over in the general election campaign for three days from 12 April 2005 when Charles Kennedy took paternity leave
26.
Governance of the University of St Andrews
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The governance of the University of St Andrews is laid down in a series of Acts of Parliament enacted between 1858 and 1966. In common with the other Ancient universities of Scotland, there are three bodies responsible for governance, as determined by the Universities Act 1858 and this Act created three bodies, the General Council, University Court and Academic Senate. The General Council is an advisory body of all the graduates, academics. It meets twice a year and appoints a Business Committee to transact business between those meetings, the most important jobs it performs is in appointing two Assessors to the University Court and electing the University Chancellor. Under the University Act 1858 the University Court is the governing body of the University, having responsibilities for the finances. Its twenty-three members come from within the University, the local community and it also has the power to review decisions of the Academic Senate. There is a handbook for members available here, the Court is chaired by the Rector who is elected by all the matriculated students of the University. 121 and approved by the Privy Council of the United Kingdom May 22,2002. It is recognised that the Rector, when present, will preside over meetings of the Court, given this special status of the Rector, the Court appoints one of its lay members to preside at Court meetings in the absence of the Rector. The appointee - known as the Senior Governor - is responsible for appointing an alternate president to act at a meeting when neither the Rector nor the Senior Governor can be present and they have a more active role in the business of court. They have become de jure the working President of the Court, appointed in June 2007, the current Senior Governor is Professor Ewan Brown. Professor Brown is an alumnus of the University, the Senatus Academicus is the supreme academic body under the presidency of the University Principal. It consists of all professors, deans of faculties, heads of school, a number of elected members of staff. Another function of the Senate is the discipline of students, under the Sponsio Academica the Senate has the power to expel a student should they bring the University into disrepute. However, the full Senatus Academicus has not met for many years, much of the Senates business is delegated to a smaller body, the Academic Council. The Principal is the executive of the University and is assisted in that role by several key officers. The Deans of Faculties and other faculty officers, including those responsible for postgraduate matters, are elected by the Faculty Councils, the Faculty Councils meet once annually, towards the end of each academic year. There is ample scope for student participation in University government, at undergraduate and postgraduate level
27.
History of the University of St Andrews
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The history of the University of St Andrews began with its foundation in 1410 when a charter of incorporation was bestowed upon the Augustinian priory of St Andrews Cathedral. The University grew in size rapidly, St. Salvators College was established in 1450, St. Leonards College in 1511. Some of the buildings in use today date from this period as does St Salvators Chapel. At this time much of the teaching was of a nature and was conducted by clerics associated with the cathedral. In 1411 the Bishop of St Andrews, Henry Wardlaw, issued a charter which attracted the most learned men in Scotland as professors, in 1413 Avignon Pope Benedict XIII issued six bulls confirming the charter and constituting the society a university. Lectures took place in parts of the town until 1430. In 1512 Prior John Hepburn and Archbishop Alexander Stewart founded St Leonards College on the site of the buildings which at one time served as a hospital for pilgrims, the outline of the ancient structure has survived, but various restorations have much altered its general character. It forms two sides of a quadrangle, the library and principals residence standing on the north and the lecture rooms, during the 17th to 19th centuries, the university underwent many changes. The distinctive red gowns which are still in use today were adopted in 1672 and towards the end of the century a move to Perth was considered. In 1747 St Salvators and St Leonardss were merged to form the United College of St. Salvator, during the nineteenth century student numbers were very low and the university having to close was a very real possibility. In 1876, the University Senate decided to allow women to receive an education at St Andrews at a roughly equivalent to the MA men were able to take at the time. The scheme came to be known as the L. L. A, examination, required women to pass five subjects at an ordinary level and one at honours level, and entitled them to hold a diploma from the University. She entered the university in 1892, making St Andrews the first university in Scotland to admit women undergraduates on the level as men. In response to the number of female students residing in St Andrews, the first womens hall was built in 1896. Today the university is growing rapidly and in sound financial health. It was situated in a building on the site of the old Pedagogy, later remodelled in 1764. The lower hall in the part of the building was used for University meetings, examinations and academical ceremonials. When the constitution of the colleges was remodelled in 1579 St Marys was set apart for theology, the co-educational St Leonards School now occupies the buildings of the former St. Leonards College
28.
Museum of the University of St Andrews
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The Museum of the University of St Andrews opened in October 2008 and is associated with the University of St Andrews. The museum houses a selection of the Universitys historic and artistic collections and they are displayed across four galleries which aim to tell the story of the University. The museum also contains a ‘Learning Loft’ for workshops and a terrace with panoramic views over St Andrews Bay. The four galleries aim to tell the story of the University of St Andrews from its foundation in 1410 until the present day, each gallery takes a different theme. Scotlands First University covers the foundation and early period of the Universitys history, living and Learning examines student life at St Andrews and looks at aspects such as dining, student societies and the iconic red gown. The fourth gallery is now used for exhibitions and shows a range of changing displays. The Universitys collection includes three Recognised Collections of National Significance and these are collections that are judged to be of national or international importance. The three Recognised Collections at the University are the Heritage Collection, the Collection of Historic Scientific Instruments, a selection of the most important items from each of these collections is on display in MUSA. The museum considers its highlight to be three medieval ceremonial maces which date from the 15th century, the oldest of these, the Mace of the Faculty of Arts, was commissioned in 1416 and was probably made in Paris. It has a hexagonal head on which are engraved the images of saints. The second mace, that of the College of St Salvator, was made in Paris by Jean Maiel in 1461, the head is considered by some to be one of the finest pieces of medieval European silverware in existence. It shows Christ, or St Salvator, in the centre of an architectural shrine and he stands on a globe with his hands raised to show the nail marks. Around him stand three angels, each holding a symbol of the passion and its probable origin in Scotland makes it particularly rare. These maces are used during graduation ceremonies. Other highlights include the Great Astrolabe, made in 1575, which was purchased by James Gregory in the 17th century and it is believed this is the biggest historic astrolabe in existence. Some items give insights into student life, such as the black stone, the museum occasionally displays the only surviving one of the six bulls sent by Pope Benedict XIII to found the University of St Andrews in 1413. Owing to its age and consequent fragility, however, a facsimile is usually on display, the museum runs a wide ranging programme of talks, workshops and tours on a variety of subjects related to its collections. The programme currently comprises around 200 events each year, on top of this the museum offers a comprehensive schools programme
29.
University of Dundee
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The University of Dundee is a public research university based in the city and Royal burgh of Dundee on the east coast of the central Lowlands of Scotland. It is consistently ranked within the Top 250 universities in the world, following significant expansion, the University of Dundee became an independent body in 1967 whilst retaining much of its ancient heritage and governance structure. Since its independence, the university has grown to become a recognised centre for research. The main campus of the university is located in Dundees West End and consists of a mixture of Victorian, Edwardian and postmodern architecture. Dundee has developed a significant reputation for students entering the professions, most notably law, medicine and dentistry as well as emerging areas such as life sciences. The University of Dundee has its roots in the earlier University college based in Dundee, at the same time, the University of St Andrews was, as were the other universities in Scotland at the time, suffering from significant financial problems. Moreover, St Andrews position, isolation and small size contributed to a significant decline, finally, agreement was reached that what was needed was expansion of the sciences and professions, rather than the arts at St Andrews. In this endeavour, she was assisted by her relative, Dr John Boyd Baxter, no religious oaths were to be required of members. Later that year, University College, Dundee was established as an academic institution, when opened in 1883, it comprised five faculties, Maths and Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, Engineering and Drawing, English Language and Literature and Modern History, and Philosophy. The University College had no power to award degrees and for some students were prepared for external examinations of the University of London. The policy of no discrimination between the sexes, which was insisted upon by Mary Ann Baxter, meant that the new college recruited several able female students. Their number included the social reformer Mary Lily Walker and, later and this move was of notable benefit to both, enabling the University of St Andrews to support a medical school. Medical students could choose to undertake preclinical studies either in Dundee or St Andrews after which all students would undertake their studies at Dundee. Eventually, law, dentistry and other subjects were taught at University College. By 1904 University College had a roll of 208, making up 40 per cent of the roll of the University generally, by session 1909-10234 students were studying at University College,101 of whom were female. Attempts were made to raise income, kipling implored those who had lost their sons in the Great War to consider giving a donation so that their names would live on. In 1947, the Principal of University College, Douglas Wimberley released the Wimberley Memo, in 1954, after a Royal Commission, University College was renamed Queens College and the Dundee-based elements of the University gained a greater degree of independence and flexibility. It was also at this time that Queens College absorbed the former Dundee School of Economics, Queens Colleges size and location, alongside a willingness to expand, led to an eventual decision to separate from the wider University of which it remained an integral part
30.
St Salvator's College, St Andrews
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St Salvators College was a college of the University of St Andrews in St Andrews, Scotland. Founded in 1450, it is the oldest of the Universitys colleges, in 1747 it merged with St Leonards College to form United College. St Salvators College was founded in 1450 by Bishop James Kennedy, in 1528, the Protestant martyr, Patrick Hamilton, was burned alive outside the college, though Patrick himself was a member of St Leonards college. Initially a college of Theology and the Arts, St Salvators was created to revitalize, shortly after this, the initial site of St Leonards College was sold, though the university retained ownership of St Leonards College Chapel. Although the buildings of St Salvators College were grand by medieval standards, from 1837 the quadrangle was rebuilt and extended into its current form, with a north and a west wing in Jacobean style. To the south is the Chapel, where many university services are held, St Salvators College was residential until the unification with St Leonards. The current St Salvators Hall, which lies east of the college, is one of the halls of residence for students, the chapel, tower and Hebdomadars Building are all designated as Category A listed buildings by Historic Scotland. Other buildings and structures are listed as Category B, the college chapel is unusual for a collegiate church in that the main entrance faces out into the town, and not like those in Oxford or Cambridge, closed into the college itself. It is indeed the only chapel in Scotland with this arrangement. The chapel was used as a church after the St Leonards college chapel was unroofed in the 1750s until this arrangement was withdrawn by the university. The 1450 college had cloister buildings to the north of the college chapel - the two doors to the side of the chapel show the alignment of the cloister. It is commonly referred to as “the quad”, and is the setting of Raisin Monday festivities, the point of the post-Graduation processions. Cant The University of St. Andrews, A Short History
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James Gregory Telescope
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The James Gregory Telescope was constructed in 1962 by the University of St Andrews. It is of a Schmidt-Cassegrain design and is fitted with a CCD camera, the James Gregory Telescope is named after the Scottish mathematician, astronomer and University academic James Gregory, who invented the Gregorian telescope. List of largest optical telescopes in the 20th century Gregor telescope at the Teide Observatory, Gregorian telescope is a type of telescope. James Gregory is the inventor of the Gregorian telescope
