1.
Barricade
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Barricade, from the French barrique, is any object or structure that creates a barrier or obstacle to control, block passage or force the flow of traffic in the desired direction. Adopted as a term, a barricade denotes any improvised field fortification. Stripes on barricades and panel devices slope downward in the traffic must travel. There are also pedestrian barricades - sometimes called bike rack barricades for their resemblance to a now obsolete form of bicycle stand and they originated in France approximately 50 years ago and are now produced around the world. They were first produced in the U. S.40 years ago by Friedrichs Mfg for New Orleanss Mardi Gras parades, anti-vehicle barriers and blast barriers are sturdy barricades that can respectively counter vehicle and bomb attacks. Contrary to a number of sources, barricades were present in various incidents of the great French Revolution of 1789. The barricade had, by the middle of the nineteenth century, Barricade references appear in many colloquial expressions and are used, often metaphorically, in poems and songs celebrating radical social movements. Bulwark Border barrier Rampart Jersey barrier Visi-Flash Barricade Lights
2.
Paris Commune
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The Paris Commune was a radical socialist and revolutionary government that ruled Paris from 18 March to 28 May 1871. Following the defeat of Emperor Napoleon III in September 1870, the French Second Empire swiftly collapsed, in its stead rose a Third Republic at war with Prussia, which laid siege to Paris for four months. A hotbed of radicalism, Frances capital was primarily defended during this time by the often politicized. In February 1871 Adolphe Thiers, the new executive of the French national government, signed an armistice with Prussia that disarmed the Army. Soldiers of the Communes National Guard killed two French army generals, and the Commune refused to accept the authority of the French government, the regular French Army suppressed the Commune during La semaine sanglante beginning on 21 May 1871. Debates over the policies and outcome of the Commune had significant influence on the ideas of Karl Marx, on 2 September 1870, after Frances unexpected defeat at the Battle of Sedan in the Franco-Prussian War, Emperor Napoleon III surrendered to the Prussian Chancellor Otto von Bismarck. When the news reached Paris the next day, shocked and angry crowds came out into the streets, Empress Eugénie de Montijo, the Emperors regent, fled the city, and the Government of the Second Empire swiftly collapsed. Republican and radical deputies of the National Assembly went to the Hôtel de Ville, proclaimed the new French Republic, though the Emperor and the French Army had been defeated at Sedan, the war continued. The German army marched swiftly toward Paris, in Paris, however, the republican candidates dominated, winning 234,000 votes against 77,000 for the Bonapartists. Only about 40,000 were employed in factories and large enterprises, most were employed in industries in textiles, furniture. There were also 115,000 servants and 45,000 concierges, in addition to the native French population, there were about 100,000 immigrant workers and political refugees, the largest number being from Italy and Poland. The working class and immigrants suffered the most from the lack of activity due to the war. The Commune resulted in part from growing discontent among the Paris workers and this discontent can be traced to the first worker uprisings, the Canut Revolts, in Lyon and Paris in the 1830s. Many Parisians, especially workers and the classes, supported a democratic republic. They also wanted a more just way of managing the economy, if not necessarily socialist, socialist movements, such as the First International, had been growing in influence with hundreds of societies affiliated to it across France. In early 1867, Parisian employers of bronze-workers attempted to de-unionize their workers and this was defeated by a strike organized by the International. Later in 1867, a public demonstration in Paris was answered by the legal dissolution of its executive committee. The International had considerable influence even among unaffiliated French workers, particularly in Paris, the killing of journalist Victor Noir incensed Parisians, and the arrests of journalists critical of the Emperor did nothing to quiet the city
3.
March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom
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The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, the March on Washington, or The Great March on Washington, was held in Washington, D. C. on Wednesday, August 28,1963. The purpose of the march was to stand up for civil, at the march, Martin Luther King Jr. standing in front of the Lincoln Memorial, delivered his historic I Have a Dream speech in which he called for an end to racism. The march was organized by A, philip Randolph and Bayard Rustin, who built an alliance of civil rights, labor, and religious organizations that came together under the banner of jobs and freedom. Estimates of the number of participants varied from 200,000 to 300,000, observers estimated that 75–80% of the marchers were black. The march was one of the largest political rallies for human rights in United States history, the march is credited with helping to pass the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and preceded the Selma Voting Rights Movement which led to the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. In the early 1960s, a system of discrimination, known as Jim Crow laws, were pervasive in the American South. They also experienced discrimination from businesses and governments, and in places were prevented from voting through intimidation. The impetus for a march on Washington developed over a period of time. Philip Randolph—the president of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, president of the Negro American Labor Council, and vice president of the AFL-CIO—was a key instigator in 1941. With Bayard Rustin, Randolph called for 100,000 black workers to march on Washington, in protest of discriminatory hiring by U. S. military contractors, faced with a mass march scheduled for July 1,1941, President Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8802 on June 25. The order established the Committee on Fair Employment Practice and banned discriminatory hiring in the defense industry, Randolph and Rustin continued to organize around the idea of a mass march on Washington. They envisioned several large marches during the 1940s, but all were called off and their Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom, held at the Lincoln Memorial on May 17,1957, featured key leaders including Adam Clayton Powell, Martin Luther King Jr. and Roy Wilkins. The 1963 march was an important part of the rapidly expanding Civil Rights Movement,1963 also marked the 100th anniversary of the signing of the Emancipation Proclamation by Abraham Lincoln. Members of The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, many whites and blacks also came together in the urgency for change in the nation. Violent confrontations broke out in the South, in Cambridge, Maryland, Pine Bluff, Arkansas, Goldsboro, North Carolina, Somerville, Tennessee, Saint Augustine, Florida, most of these incidents involved white people retaliating against nonviolent demonstrators. Many people wanted to march on Washington, but disagreed over how the march should be conducted, some called for a complete shutdown of the city through civil disobedience. Others argued that the movement should remain nationwide in scope, rather than focus its energies on the nations capital, there was a widespread perception that the Kennedy administration had not lived up to its promises in the 1960 election, and King described Kennedys race policy as tokenism. On May 24,1963, Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy invited African-American novelist James Baldwin, along with a group of cultural leaders
4.
Feminist movement
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The movements priorities vary among nations and communities, and range from opposition to female genital mutilation in one country, to opposition to the glass ceiling in another. Feminism in parts of the world has gone through three waves. First-wave feminism was oriented around the station of middle- or upper-class white women and involved suffrage, second-wave feminism attempted to further combat social and cultural inequalities. Although during the first wave of feminism, the women that rebelled consisted of middle class white women, however the second wave brought in women of color and women form other developing nations that were seeking for solidarity. Third-wave feminism is continuing to address the financial, social and cultural inequalities and includes renewed campaigning for greater influence of women in politics, in reaction to political activism, feminists have also had to maintain focus on womens reproductive rights, such as the right to abortion. Feminism in the United States, Canada and a number of countries in western Europe has been divided into three waves by feminist scholars, first, second and third-wave feminism, recent research suggests there may be a fourth wave characterized, in part, by new media platforms. The women’s movement became popular in May 1968 when women began to read again, more widely. De Beauviors writing explained why it was difficult for talented women to become successful, de Beauvoir also argues that woman lack ambition because of how they are raised. Girls are told to follow the duties of their mothers, whereas boys are told to exceed the accomplishments of their fathers, along with other influences, Simone de Beauvoir’s work helped the feminist movement to erupt, causing the formation of Le Mouvement de Libération des Femmes. This determined group of women wanted to turn ideas into actions. Contributors to The Women’s Liberation Movement include Simone de Beauvoir, Christiane Rochefort, Christine Delphy, through actions the women were able to get few equal rights for example right to education, right to work, and right to vote. One of the most important issues that The Women’s Liberation movement faced was the banning of abortion and contraception, the women saw this banning as a violation of women’s rights and were determined to fight it. Thus, the made a declaration known as Le Manifests de 343 which held signatures from 343 women admitting to having had an illegal abortion. The declaration got published in Le Nouvel Observateur and Le Monde, the group gained support upon the publication. Women received the right to abort with the passing of the Veil Law in 1975. It has also led to employment for women at more equitable wages. In rural areas of selected developing countries performed a average of 20% more work than men, or 120% of mens total work. In the OECD countries surveyed, on average women performed 5% more work than men, however, men did up to 19 minutes more work per day than women in five out of the eighteen OECD countries surveyed, Canada, Denmark, Hungary, Israel, and The Netherlands
5.
Social change
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Social change refers to an alteration in the social order of a society. Social change may include changes in nature, social institutions, social behaviours, Social change may refer to the notion of social progress or sociocultural evolution, the philosophical idea that society moves forward by dialectical or evolutionary means. It may refer to a change in the socio-economic structure, for instance a shift away from feudalism. Accordingly, it may refer to social revolution, such as the Socialist revolution presented in Marxism, or to other social movements. Social change may be driven by cultural, religious, economic, scientific or technological forces, Developmental psychology can play a role in social change. Social change comes about with tangible/intangible resource inputs as social investment. One source is random or unique factors such as climate, weather, for example, successful development has the same general requirements, such as a stable and flexible government, enough free and available resources, and a diverse social organization of society. On the whole, social change is usually a combination of systematic factors along with some random or unique factors, there are many theories of social change. Generally, a theory of change should include elements such as aspects of change, processes and mechanisms of social change. Hegelian, The classic Hegelian dialectic model of change is based on the interaction of opposing forces, starting from a point of momentary stasis, Thesis countered by Antithesis first yields conflict, then it subsequently results in a new Synthesis. Marxist, Marxism presents a dialectical and materialist concept of history, Heraclitan, The Greek philosopher Heraclitus used the metaphor of a river to speak of change thus, On those stepping into rivers staying the same other and other waters flow. What Heraclitus seems to be suggesting here, later interpretations notwithstanding, is that, in order for the river to remain the river, change must constantly be taking place. Thus one may think of the Heraclitan model as parallel to that of a living organism, a contemporary application of this approach is shown in the social change theory SEED-SCALE which builds off of the complexity theory subfield of Emergence. Daoist, The Chinese philosophical work Dao De Jing, I.8, water, although soft and yielding, will eventually wear away stone. Change in this model is to be natural, harmonious and steady, one of the most obvious changes currently occurring is the change in the relative global population distribution between countries. China and India continue to be the largest countries, followed by the US as a distant third, however, population growth throughout the world is slowing. Population growth among developed countries has been slowing since the 1950s, population growth among the less developed countries excluding the least developed has also been slowing, since 1960, and is now at 1. 3% annual growth. Population growth among the least developed countries has slowed relatively little, in much of the developed world, changes from distinct mens and womens work to more gender equal patterns have been economically important since the mid 20th century. Both men and women are to be considered to be contributors to social change world wide
6.
Political campaign
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A political campaign is an organized effort which seeks to influence the decision making process within a specific group. In democracies, political campaigns often refer to campaigns, by which representatives are chosen or referendums are decided. In modern politics, the most high-profile political campaigns are focused on elections and candidates for head of state or head of government. The message of the campaign contains the ideas that the wants to share with the voters. It is to get those who agree with their ideas to them when running for a political position. The message often consists of talking points about policy issues. The points summarize the ideas of the campaign and are repeated frequently in order to create a lasting impression with the voters. In many elections, the party will try to get the candidate off message by bringing up policy or personal questions that are not related to the talking points. Most campaigns prefer to keep the message broad in order to attract the most potential voters, a message that is too narrow can alienate voters or slow the candidate down with explaining details. Barack Obama ran on a consistent, simple message of change throughout his campaign, however, even if the message is crafted carefully, it does not assure the candidate a victory at the polls. For a winning candidate, the message is refined and then becomes his or her in office, in a modern political campaign, the campaign organization will have a coherent structure of personnel in the same manner as any business of similar size. Successful campaigns usually require a campaign manager to coordinate the campaigns operations, apart from a candidate, they are often a campaigns most visible leader. Political consultants advise campaigns on all of their activities, from research to field strategy. Consultants conduct candidate research, voter research, and opposition research for their clients, activists are the foot soldiers loyal to the cause, the true believers who will carry the run by volunteer activists. Such volunteers and interns may take part in such as canvassing door-to-door. Modern political campaigns have set new standards for how successful campaigns are conducted day-to-day. The daily schedule of a campaign is hyperextended, and often has no definite beginning or end, only a series of tasks to be completed by certain benchmark times, or, most often. COB for political campaigns is generally defined as the time at night at which your supervisor is required to report his/her numbers, only a very small fraction of campaign workers do the bulk of their work during traditional business hours
7.
Economics
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Economics is a social science concerned chiefly with description and analysis of the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services according to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Economics focuses on the behaviour and interactions of economic agents and how economies work, consistent with this focus, textbooks often distinguish between microeconomics and macroeconomics. Microeconomics examines the behaviour of elements in the economy, including individual agents and markets, their interactions. Individual agents may include, for example, households, firms, buyers, macroeconomics analyzes the entire economy and issues affecting it, including unemployment of resources, inflation, economic growth, and the public policies that address these issues. Economic analysis can be applied throughout society, as in business, finance, health care, Economic analyses may also be applied to such diverse subjects as crime, education, the family, law, politics, religion, social institutions, war, science, and the environment. At the turn of the 21st century, the domain of economics in the social sciences has been described as economic imperialism. The ultimate goal of economics is to improve the conditions of people in their everyday life. There are a variety of definitions of economics. Some of the differences may reflect evolving views of the subject or different views among economists, to supply the state or commonwealth with a revenue for the publick services. Say, distinguishing the subject from its uses, defines it as the science of production, distribution. On the satirical side, Thomas Carlyle coined the dismal science as an epithet for classical economics, in this context and it enquires how he gets his income and how he uses it. Thus, it is on the one side, the study of wealth and on the other and more important side, a part of the study of man. He affirmed that previous economists have usually centred their studies on the analysis of wealth, how wealth is created, distributed, and consumed, but he said that economics can be used to study other things, such as war, that are outside its usual focus. This is because war has as the goal winning it, generates both cost and benefits, and, resources are used to attain the goal. If the war is not winnable or if the costs outweigh the benefits. Some subsequent comments criticized the definition as overly broad in failing to limit its subject matter to analysis of markets, there are other criticisms as well, such as in scarcity not accounting for the macroeconomics of high unemployment. The same source reviews a range of included in principles of economics textbooks. Among economists more generally, it argues that a particular definition presented may reflect the direction toward which the author believes economics is evolving, microeconomics examines how entities, forming a market structure, interact within a market to create a market system
8.
Natural environment
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The natural environment encompasses all living and non-living things occurring naturally. The term is most often applied to the Earth or some part of Earth and this environment encompasses the interaction of all living species, climate, weather, and natural resources that affect human survival and economic activity. Even acts which seem less extreme, such as building a mud hut or a system in the desert. Though many animals build things to provide an environment for themselves, they are not human, hence beaver dams. People seldom find absolutely natural environments on Earth, and naturalness usually varies in a continuum, more precisely, we can consider the different aspects or components of an environment, and see that their degree of naturalness is not uniform. If, for instance, in a field, the mineralogic composition and the structure of its soil are similar to those of an undisturbed forest soil. Natural environment is used as a synonym for habitat. For instance, when we say that the environment of giraffes is the savanna. Earth science generally recognizes 4 spheres, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, and the biosphere as correspondent to rocks, water, air, and life respectively. Some scientists include, as part of the spheres of the Earth, Earth science, is an all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth. There are four major disciplines in sciences, namely geography, geology, geophysics. These major disciplines use physics, chemistry, biology, chronology, the Earths crust, or lithosphere, is the outermost solid surface of the planet and is chemically and mechanically different from underlying mantle. It has been generated greatly by igneous processes in which magma cools, beneath the lithosphere lies the mantle which is heated by the decay of radioactive elements. The mantle though solid is in a state of rheic convection and this convection process causes the lithospheric plates to move, albeit slowly. The resulting process is known as plate tectonics, volcanoes result primarily from the melting of subducted crust material or of rising mantle at mid-ocean ridges and mantle plumes. An ocean is a body of saline water, and a component of the hydrosphere. Approximately 71% of the Earths surface is covered by ocean, a body of water that is customarily divided into several principal oceans. More than half of area is over 3,000 meters deep
9.
Boycott
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The purpose of a boycott is to inflict some economic loss on the target, or to indicate a moral outrage, to try to compel the target to alter an objectionable behavior. Sometimes, a boycott can be a form of consumer activism, when a similar practice is legislated by a national government, it is known as a sanction. As harvests had been poor that year, Lord Erne offered his tenants a ten percent reduction in their rents, in September of that year, protesting tenants demanded a twenty five percent reduction, which Lord Erne refused. Boycott then attempted to evict eleven tenants from the land, while Parnells speech did not refer to land agents or landlords, the tactic was first applied to Boycott when the alarm was raised about the evictions. Despite the short-term economic hardship to those undertaking this action, Boycott soon found himself isolated – his workers stopped work in the fields and stables, local businessmen stopped trading with him, and the local postman refused to deliver mail. The concerted action taken against him meant that Boycott was unable to hire anyone to harvest the crops in his charge, eventually 50 Orangemen from Cavan and Monaghan volunteered to do the work. This protection ended up costing far more than the harvest was worth, after the harvest, the boycott was successfully continued. Within weeks Boycotts name was everywhere, the New York Tribune reporter, James Redpath, first wrote of the boycott in the international press. The Irish author, George Moore, reported, Like a comet the verb boycott appeared and it was used by The Times in November 1880 as a term for organized isolation. According to an account in the book The Fall of Feudalism in Ireland by Michael Davitt, john OMalley of County Mayo to signify ostracism applied to a landlord or agent like Boycott. The Times first reported on November 20,1880, The people of New Pallas have resolved to boycott them, the Daily News wrote on December 13,1880, Already the stoutest-hearted are yielding on every side to the dread of being Boycotted. By January of the year, the word was being used figuratively. She Boycotted London from Kew to Mile End, girlcott is a portmanteau of girl and boycott intended to focus on the rights or actions of women. The term was coined in 1968 by American track star Lacey ONeal during the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City, speaking for black women athletes, she advised that the group would not girlcott the Olympic Games, because female athletes were still focused on being recognized. It also appeared in Time magazine in 1970, and was used by retired tennis player Billie Jean King in reference to Wimbledon. The term girlcott was revived in 2005 by women in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania protesting what they said were sexist, during the 1973 oil crisis, the Arab countries enacted a crude oil embargo against the West. The first Olympic boycott was in the 1956 Summer Olympics with several countries boycotting the games for different reasons, iran also has an informal Olympic boycott against participating against Israel, and Iranian athletes typically bow out or claim injuries when pitted against Israelis. A boycott is typically a one-time affair intended to correct a single wrong. g
10.
Demonstration (protest)
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Actions such as blockades and sit-ins may also be referred to as demonstrations. Demonstrations can be nonviolent or violent, or can begin as nonviolent, sometimes riot police or other forms of law enforcement become involved. In some cases this may be in order to try to prevent the protest from taking place at all, in other cases it may be to prevent clashes between rival groups, or to prevent a demonstration from spreading and turning into a riot. Demonstrations are a form of activism, usually taking the form of a gathering of people in a rally or walking in a march. Thus, the opinion is demonstrated to be significant by gathering in a associated with that opinion. Demonstrations can be used to show a viewpoint regarding a public issue, a demonstration is usually considered more successful if more people participate. There are many types of demonstrations, including a variety of elements and these may include, Marches, in which a parade demonstrate while moving along a set route. Rallies, in which people gather to listen to speakers or musicians, picketing, in which people surround an area. Nudity, in which they protest naked - here the antagonist may give in before the demonstration happens to avoid embarrassment, Demonstrations are sometimes spontaneous gatherings, but are also utilized as a tactical choice by movements. They often form part of a campaign of nonviolent resistance. Demonstrations are usually physical gatherings, but virtual or online demonstrations are certainly possible, topics of demonstrations often deal with political, economic, and social issues. Clashes between demonstrators and counter-demonstrators may turn violent, government-organized demonstrations are demonstrations which are organized by a government. The Islamic Republic of Iran, the Peoples Republic of China, Republic of Cuba, sometimes the date or location chosen for the demonstration is of historical or cultural significance, such as the anniversary of some event that is relevant to the topic of the demonstration. Locations are also chosen because of some relevance to the issue at hand. Protest marches and demonstrations are a nonviolent tactic. They are thus one tactic available to proponents of strategic nonviolence, some demonstrations and protests can turn, at least partially, into riots or mob violence against objects such as automobiles and businesses, bystanders and the police. Police and military authorities often use force or less-lethal weapons, such as tasers, rubber bullets, pepper spray. Sometimes violent situations are caused by the preemptive or offensive use of weapons which can provoke, destabilize
11.
Strike action
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Strike action, also called labor strike, labour strike, or simply strike, is a work stoppage caused by the mass refusal of employees to work. A strike usually takes place in response to employee grievances, Strikes became common during the Industrial Revolution, when mass labor became important in factories and mines. In most countries, strike actions were made illegal, as factory owners had far more power than workers. Most Western countries partially legalized striking in the late 19th or early 20th centuries, Strikes are sometimes used to pressure governments to change policies. Notable examples are the 1980 Gdańsk Shipyard or 1981 Warning Strike, official publications have typically used the more neutral words work stoppage or industrial dispute. The first historically certain account of action was towards the end of the 20th dynasty. The artisans of the Royal Necropolis at Deir el-Medina walked off their jobs because they had not been paid, the Egyptian authorities raised the wages. An early predecessor of the strike may have been the secessio plebis in ancient Rome. In the Outline Of History, H. G. Wells characterized this event as the strike of the plebeians, the plebeians seem to have invented the strike. The strike action became a feature of the political landscape with the onset of the Industrial Revolution. For the first time in history, large numbers of people were members of the working class, they lived in cities. By the 1830s, when the Chartist movement was at its peak, in 1842 the demands for fairer wages and conditions across many different industries finally exploded into the first modern general strike. Instead of being a spontaneous uprising of the masses, the strike was politically motivated and was driven by an agenda to win concessions. Probably as much as half of the industrial work force were on strike at its peak – over 500,000 men. The local leadership marshalled a growing working class tradition to organize their followers to mount an articulate challenge to the capitalist. Friedrich Engels, an observer in London at the time, wrote, by its numbers, this class has become the most powerful in England, the English proletarian is only just becoming aware of his power, and the fruits of this awareness were the disturbances of last summer. Karl Marx has condemned the theory of Proudhon criminalizing strike action in his work The Poverty of Philosophy, in 1937 there were 4,740 strikes in the United States. This was the greatest strike wave in American labor history, the number of major strikes and lockouts in the U. S. fell by 97% from 381 in 1970 to 187 in 1980 to only 11 in 2010
12.
Sit-in
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A sit-in or sit-down is a form of direct action that involves one or more people occupying an area for a protest, often to promote political, social, or economic change. The Fellowship of Reconciliation and the Congress of Racial Equality conducted sit-ins as early as the 1940s, ernest Calloway refers to Bernice Fisher as Godmother of the restaurant sit-in technique. In August 1939, African-American attorney Samuel Wilbert Tucker organized a sit-in at the then-segregated Alexandria, Virginia, Congress of Industrial Organizations labor delegates had a brief, spontaneous lunch counter sit-in during their 1947 Columbus, Ohio, convention. Other patrons were unable to find seats, each seating area in the diner was taken by groups that included at least one black person. The peaceful patrons, several from the campus of the nearby University of Chicago, then tried to order, the police were called, but when they arrived they told the management that no laws were being broken, so no arrests were made. The diner closed for the night but thereafter, according to periodic checks made by CORE activists, with the encouragement of Melvin B. Tolson and Farmer, students from Wiley and Bishop Colleges organized the first sit-in in Texas in the rotunda of the Harrison County Courthouse in Marshall. One of the earliest lunch counter sit-ins of the Civil Rights Movement was started by a group of Morgan State College students and their goal was to desegregate Reads drug stores. The peaceful impromptu sit-in lasted less than one half an hour and they left voluntarily and no one was arrested. As a result,37 Baltimore-area lunch counters became desegregated. At another early sit-in, the Royal Seven, a group of three women and four men from Durham, North Carolina, sat in at the Royal Ice Cream Parlor on June 23,1957, the activists were arrested and charged with trespassing. Their efforts are now recognized via historical markers in Durham and they went to court three times, each case ended in their being found guilty. This sit-in for the purpose of integrating segregated establishments began on July 19,1958, in Wichita, Kansas, at Dockum Drugs, in early August, the drugstore became integrated. A few weeks later on August 19,1958, in Oklahoma City, the group quickly desegregated the Katz Drug Store lunch counters. It took several years, but she and the students, using the tactic. Today, in downtown Wichita, Kansas, a statue depicting a waitress at a counter serving people honors this pioneering sit-in, following the Oklahoma City sit-ins, the tactic of non-violent student sit-ins spread. Within weeks, sit-in campaigns had begun in nearly a dozen cities, primarily targeting Woolworths and S. H. Kress, the largest and best-organized of these campaigns were the Nashville sit-ins, whose groundwork was already underway. They involved hundreds of participants, and led to the desegregation of Nashville lunch counters
13.
Hunger strike
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Most hunger strikers will take liquids but not solid food. In cases where an entity has or is able to obtain custody of the hunger striker, fasting was used as a method of protesting injustice in pre-Christian Ireland, where it was known as Troscadh or Cealachan. It was detailed in the contemporary civic codes, and had rules by which it could be used. The fast was often carried out on the doorstep of the home of the offender, scholars speculate this was due to the high importance the culture placed on hospitality. Allowing a person to die at ones doorstep, for a wrong of which one was accused, was considered a great dishonor, others say that the practice was to fast for one whole night, as there is no evidence of people fasting to death in pre-Christian Ireland. The fasts were primarily undertaken to recover debts or get justice for a perceived wrong, there are legends of St. Patrick, the patron saint of Ireland, using the hunger strike as well. This Indian practice is ancient, going back to around 400 to 750 BC and this can be known since it appears in the Ramayana, which was composed around that time. The actual mention appears in the Ayodhya kanda, in Sarga 103, bharata has gone to ask the exiled Rama to come back and rule the kingdom. Bharata tries many arguments, none of which work, at which point he decides to do a hunger strike and he announces his intention to fast, calls for his charioteer Sumantra to bring him some sacred Kusha grass, and lies down upon the grass in front of Rama. Rama, however, is able to persuade him to abandon the attempt. Rama mentions it as a practice of the brahmanas, in the first three days, the body is still using energy from glucose. After that, the liver starts processing body fat, in a process called ketosis, after depleting fat, the body enters a starvation mode. At this point the body mines the muscles and vital organs for energy, there are examples of hunger strikers dying after 46 to 73 days of strike. In the early 20th century suffragettes frequently endured hunger strikes in British prisons, marion Dunlop was the first in 1909. She was released, as the authorities did not want her to become a martyr, other suffragettes in prison also undertook hunger strikes. The prison authorities subjected them to force-feeding, which the suffragettes categorized as a form of torture, in 1913 the Prisoners Temporary Discharge of Ill Health Act changed policy. Hunger strikes were tolerated but prisoners were released when they became sick, when they had recovered, the suffragettes were taken back to prison to finish their sentences. Like their British counterparts, American suffragettes also used this method of political protest, Hunger strikes have deep roots in Irish society and in the Irish psyche
14.
Artivism
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Artivism is a portmanteau word combining art and activism. Artivism developed in recent years while the antiwar and anti-globalization protests emerged and proliferated, in many cases artivists attempt to push political agendas by the means of art, but a focus on raising social, environmental and technical awareness is also common. This passion has all the ingredients of activism, but is charged with the creations of art. Artivism — where edges are pushed, imagination is freed, can, through courageous creative expression, experience the unifying power of love when courage harnesses itself to the task of art + social responsibility. By 2008 the term made its way into academic writing, with Chela Sandoval and Guisela Latorre published a piece on Chicano/a artivism, there is a chapter on artivism in the book Its Bigger Than Hip Hop by M. K. Asante. Asante writes of the artivist, The artivist uses her talents to fight and struggle against injustice. The artivist merges commitment to freedom and justice with the pen, the lens, the brush, the voice, the body, the artivist knows that to make an observation is to have an obligation. Artivist Film Festival Crass Da. collective The Yes Men Invisible theater Social center Whirl-Mart
15.
Exploitation of labour
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Exploitation refers to social relations where an actor or character of actors uses others for their own end because of a fundamentally asymmetric power relationship between them. When speaking about exploitation there is an affiliation with consumption in social theory. Traditionally, this would label exploitation as unfairly taking advantage of another person because of his or her inferior position, karl Marx, who is considered the most classical and influential theorist of exploitation, did not share the same traditional account of exploitation. Marxs theory explicitly rejects the moral framing characteristic of the notion of exploitation, in analyzing exploitation, many political economists are often stuck between the explanation of the exploitation of labour given by Marx and Adam Smith. Marxs exploitation theory is one of the major elements analyzed in Marxian economics, Marx credited the Scottish Enlightenment writers for originally propounding a materialist interpretation of history. Exploitation is when these two principles are not met, when the agents are not receiving according to their work or needs and this labour performed by a population over a certain time period is equal to the labour embodied to the goods that make up the net national product. The NNP is then parceled out to the members of the population in some way, the exploiters are the agents able to command goods, with revenue from their wages, that are embodied with more labour than the exploiters themselves have put forth. These agents often have class status and ownership of assets that aid the optimization of exploitation. The exploiters would typically be the bourgeoisie, meanwhile, the exploited are those who receive less than the average product he or she produces. If workers receive an amount equivalent to their product, there is no revenue left over. Thus, these workers cannot enjoy the fruits of their own labours, exploiters appropriate anothers surplus labour, which is the amount of labour exceeding what is necessary for the reproduction of a workers labour power and basic living conditions. In other terms, this entails the worker being able to maintain living conditions sufficient to be able to continue work. This comes from Marxs labour theory of value which claims that value is intrinsic in a product according to the amount of labour that has spent on producing the product. In a capitalist economy, workers are paid according to value and value is the source of all wealth. Value is determined by a goods particular utility for an actor, if the results from human activity it must be understood as a product of concrete labour. Capitalists are able to purchase power from the workers, who can only bring their own labour power in the market. Once capitalists are able to pay the worker less than the produced by their labour, surplus labour forms. This is what Marx meant by surplus value, which he saw as an expression for the degree of exploitation of labor-power by capital
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Social media
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Social media are computer-mediated technologies that facilitate the creation and sharing of information, ideas, career interests and other forms of expression via virtual communities and networks. User-generated content, such as posts or comments, digital photos or videos. Users create service-specific profiles for the website or app that are designed and maintained by the media organization. Social media facilitate the development of social networks by connecting a users profile with those of other individuals or groups. They introduce substantial and pervasive changes to communication between businesses, organizations, communities and individuals, Social media changes the way individuals and large organizations communicate. These changes are the focus of the field of technoself studies. In America, a reported that 84 percent of adolescents in America have a Facebook account. Over 60% of 13 to 17-year-olds have at least one profile on social media, according to Nielsen, Internet users continue to spend more time on social media sites than on any other type of site. For content contributors, the benefits of participating in social media have gone beyond simply social sharing to building a reputation and bringing in career opportunities and monetary income. Social media differ from paper-based or traditional media such as TV broadcasting in many ways, including quality, reach, frequency, usability, immediacy. Social media operate in a Dialogic transmission system and this is in contrast to traditional media which operates under a monologic transmission model, such as a paper newspaper which is delivered to many subscribers. Some of the most popular social media websites are Baidu Tieba, Facebook, Gab, Google+, Instagram, LinkedIn, Pinterest, Reddit, Snapchat, Tumblr, Twitter, Viber, WeChat, Weibo, WhatsApp, and YouTube. These social media websites have more than 100,000,000 registered users, observers have noted a range of positive and negative impacts of social media use. At the same time, concerns have been raised about possible links between social media use and depression, and even the issues of cyberbullying, online harassment. Currently, about half of adults have been cyberbullied and of those,20 percent said that they have been cyberbullied on a regular basis. Another survey was carried out among 7th grade students in America which is known as the Precaution Process Adoption Model, according to this study,69 percent of 7th grade students claim to have experienced cyberbullying and they also said that it is worse than face to face bullying. The variety and evolving stand-alone and built-in social media services introduces a challenge of definition, the terminology is unclear, with some referring to social media as social networks. A2015 paper reviewed the prominent literature in the area and identified four commonalities unique to then-current social media services, in 2016, Merriam-Webster defined social media as Forms of electronic communication through which people create online communities to share information, ideas, personal messages, etc
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Online Etymology Dictionary
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The Online Etymology Dictionary is a free online dictionary that describes the origins of English-language words. Douglas Harper compiled the etymology dictionary to record the history and evolution of more than 30,000 words, including slang, the core body of its etymology information stems from Ernest Weekleys An Etymological Dictionary of Modern English. Other sources include the Middle English Dictionary and the Barnhart Dictionary of Etymology, in producing his large dictionary, Douglas Harper says that he is essentially and for the most part a compiler, an evaluator of etymology reports which others have made. Harper works as a Copy editor/Page designer for LNP Media Group, as of June 2015, there were nearly 50,000 entries in the dictionary. It is cited in articles as a source for explaining the history
18.
Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.
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Arthur Meier Schlesinger Jr. was an American historian, social critic, and public intellectual. The son of the influential historian Arthur M. Schlesinger Sr. in particular, his work focused on leaders such as Harry S. Truman, Franklin D. Roosevelt, John F. Kennedy, and Robert F. Kennedy. In the 1952 and 1956 presidential campaigns, he was a speechwriter and adviser to the Democratic presidential nominee both times, Adlai Stevenson II. Schlesinger served as assistant and court historian to President Kennedy from 1961 to 1963. In 1968, Schlesinger actively supported the campaign of Senator Robert F. Kennedy. Schlesinger wrote a biography, Robert Kennedy and His Times. He later popularized the term imperial presidency during the Nixon administration book of the same name, Schlesinger was born in Columbus, Ohio, the son of Elizabeth Harriet and Arthur M. Schlesinger, who was an influential social historian at Ohio State University and Harvard University. His paternal grandfather was a Prussian Jew who converted to Protestantism and his mother, a Mayflower descendant, was of German and New England ancestry, as well as a relative of historian George Bancroft, according to family tradition. Schlesinger attended the Phillips Exeter Academy, New Hampshire, and received his first degree at the age of 20 from Harvard College, where he graduated summa cum laude in 1938. After spending the 1938–1939 academic year at Peterhouse, Cambridge as a Henry Fellow, at the time, Fellows were not allowed to pursue advanced degrees, a requirement intended to keep them off the standard academic treadmill, as such, Schlesinger would never earn a doctorate. His fellowship was interrupted by the United States entering World War II, after failing his military medical examination, Schlesinger joined the Office of War Information. From 1943 to 1945, he served as an intelligence analyst in the Office of Strategic Services, Schlesingers service in the OSS allowed him time to complete his first Pulitzer Prize-winning book, The Age of Jackson, in 1945. From 1946 to 1954, he was a professor at Harvard. Schlesinger acted as the ADAs national chairman from 1953 to 1954, in the 1956 election, Schlesinger, along with 30-year-old Robert F. Kennedy, again worked on Stevensons campaign staff. Schlesinger had known John F. Kennedy since attending Harvard and increasingly socialized with Kennedy, during the 1960 campaign, Schlesinger supported Kennedy, causing much consternation to Stevenson loyalists. At the time, however, Kennedy was a candidate while Stevenson refused to run unless he was drafted at the convention. After Kennedy won the nomination, Schlesinger helped the campaign as a speechwriter, speaker, and member of the ADA. He also wrote the book Kennedy or Nixon, Does It Make Any Difference. in which he lauded Kennedys abilities and scorned Vice President Richard M. Nixon as having no ideas, only methods
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Historian
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A historian is a person who researches, studies, and writes about the past, and is regarded as an authority on it. Historians are concerned with the continuous, methodical narrative and research of past events as relating to the human race, if the individual is concerned with events preceding written history, the individual is an historian of prehistory. Although historian can be used to describe amateur and professional historians alike, some historians, though, are recognized by publications or training and experience. Historian became an occupation in the late nineteenth century as research universities were emerging in Germany. Modern historical analysis usually draws upon other social sciences, including economics, sociology, politics, psychology, anthropology, philosophy, while ancient writers do not normally share modern historical practices, their work remains valuable for its insights within the cultural context of the times. Understanding the past appears to be a human need. What constitutes history is a philosophical question, the earliest chronologies date back to Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt, though no historical writers in these early civilizations were known by name. Systematic historical thought emerged in ancient Greece, a development that became an important influence on the writing of history elsewhere around the Mediterranean region, the earliest known critical historical works were The Histories, composed by Herodotus of Halicarnassus who later became known as the father of history. Herodotus attempted to distinguish between more and less reliable accounts, and personally conducted research by travelling extensively, giving accounts of various Mediterranean cultures. Although Herodotus overall emphasis lay on the actions and characters of men and he was also the first to distinguish between cause and immediate origins of an event, while his successor Xenophon introduced autobiographical elements and character studies in his Anabasis. The Romans adopted the Greek tradition, while early Roman works were still written in Greek, the Origines, composed by the Roman statesman Cato the Elder, was written in Latin, in a conscious effort to counteract Greek cultural influence. Strabo was an important exponent of the Greco-Roman tradition of combining geography with history, livy records the rise of Rome from city-state to empire. His speculation about what would have happened if Alexander the Great had marched against Rome represents the first known instance of alternate history, in Chinese historiography, the Classic of History is one of the Five Classics of Chinese classic texts and one of the earliest narratives of China. Sima Qian was the first in China to lay the groundwork for professional historical writing and his written work was the Shiji, a monumental lifelong achievement in literature. Christian historiography began early, perhaps as early as Luke-Acts, which is the source for the Apostolic Age. Writing history was popular among Christian monks and clergy in the Middle Ages and they wrote about the history of Jesus Christ, that of the Church and that of their patrons, the dynastic history of the local rulers. In the Early Middle Ages historical writing often took the form of annals or chronicles recording events year by year, muslim historical writings first began to develop in the 7th century, with the reconstruction of the Prophet Muhammads life in the centuries following his death. With numerous conflicting narratives regarding Muhammad and his companions from various sources, to evaluate these sources, they developed various methodologies, such as the science of biography, science of hadith and Isnad
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Intellectual
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Socially, intellectuals constitute the intelligentsia, a status class organised either by ideology, or by nationality. Man of Letters The English term Man of Letters derives from the French term belletrist, the term Man of Letters distinguished the literate man from the illiterate man, in a time when literacy was a rare form of cultural capital. In late 19th century, the term became common usage to denote the defenders of the falsely accused artillery officer Alfred Dreyfus. Likewise, in Tsarist Russia, there arose the intelligentsia, who were the class of white-collar workers. As such, politically radical thinkers already had participated in the French Revolution, Robert Darnton said that they were not societal outsiders, but respectable, domesticated, moreover, some intellectuals were anti-academic, despite universities being synonymous with intellectualism. Habermas Structural Transformation of Public Sphere made significant contribution to the notion of public intellectual by historically and conceptually delineating the idea of private, such civil servants earned academic degrees by means of imperial examination, and also were skilled calligraphers, and knew Confucian philosophy. Historian Wing-Tsit Chan concludes that, Generally speaking, the record of these scholar-gentlemen has been a worthy one and it was good enough to be praised and imitated in 18th century Europe. Nevertheless, it has given China a tremendous handicap in their transition from government by men to government by law, and personal considerations in Chinese government have been a curse. In Joseon Korea, the intellectuals were the literati, who knew how to read and write, socially, they constituted the petite bourgeoisie, composed of scholar-bureaucrats who administered the dynastic rule of the Joseon dynasty. The Italian Communist theoretician Antonio Gramsci developed Karl Marx’s conception of the intelligentsia to include political leadership in the public sphere and that, because all knowledge is existentially-based, the intellectuals, who create and preserve knowledge, are spokesmen for different social groups, and articulate particular social interests. That intellectuals occur in social class and throughout the right wing, the centre. That, as a class, the intellectuals view themselves as autonomous from the ruling class of their society. Therefore, the leadership of intellectuals is required for effecting and realizing social change, because, in the formal codification of Leninism, the Hungarian Marxist philosopher, György Lukács identified the intelligentsia as the privileged social class who provide revolutionary leadership. By means of intelligible and accessible interpretation, the intellectuals explain to the workers, the How. and the Why. of the social, economic, and political status quo—the ideological totality of society—and its practical, revolutionary application to the transformation of their society. The term public intellectual describes the intellectual participating in the discourse of society. In Representations of the Intellectual, Edward Saïd said that the … true intellectual is, therefore, always an outsider, living in self-imposed exile, and on the margins of society. An intellectual usually is associated with an ideology or with a philosophy and that intellectuals be mindful of the social and cultural ties created with their words, insights, and ideas, and should be heard as social critics of politics and power. In journalism, the term usually connotes a university academic of the humanities—especially a philosopher—who addresses important social and political matters of the day
21.
Fortune (magazine)
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Fortune is a multinational business magazine, published and owned by Time Inc. and headquartered in New York City. The publication was founded by Henry Luce in 1929, the magazine competes with Forbes and Bloomberg Businessweek in the national business magazine category and distinguishes itself with long, in-depth feature articles. The magazine is best known for the Fortune 500, a ranking of companies by revenue that it has published annually since 1955, in late October 1929, the Wall Street Crash of 1929 occurred, marking the onset of the Great Depression. In a memo to the Time Inc. board in November 1929, Luce wrote and we will recognize that this business slump may last as long as an entire year. The publication made its debut in February 1930. Its editor was Luce, managing editor Parker Lloyd-Smith, and art director Thomas Maitland Cleland, single copies of the first issue costed US$1. In fact, there were 30,000 subscribers who had signed up to receive that initial 184-page issue. By 1937, the number of subscribers had grown to 460,000, Fortune was also noted for its photography, featuring the work of Margaret Bourke-White, Ansel Adams, and others. Walker Evans served as its editor from 1945 to 1965. The magazine became an important leg of Luces media empire, after the launch of Time in 1923 and Fortune in 1930, Luce went on to launch Life in 1936. From its launch in 1930 to 1978, Fortune was published monthly, in January 1978, it began publishing biweekly. In October 2009, citing declining advertising revenue and circulation, Fortune began publishing every three weeks, marshall Loeb was named managing editor in 1986. During the years when Time Warner owned Time Inc, Fortune articles were hosted at CNNMoney. com. In June 2014, after Time Inc. spun off from its corporate parent, in the human resources field, for example, it publishes a list of the Best Companies to Work For. Lists include companies ranked in order of gross revenue and business profile, following the elimination of the editor-in-chief role at Time Inc. in October 2013, the top editors title was changed from managing editor to editor in 2014. In JSTOR Official website Fortune India Fortune China Fortune Turkey List of 100 Best Companies to Work For Fortune Data Store, complete downloadable list of Fortune 500/1000 Companies – 1955–2008
22.
Cooperative movement
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The history of the cooperative movement concerns the origins and history of cooperatives. The industrial revolution and the mechanism of the economy transformed society. The concurrent labour and social movements and the issues they attempted to describe the climate at the time. In the decades that followed, several cooperatives or cooperative societies formed including Lennoxtown Friendly Victualling Society, by 1830, there were several hundred co-operatives. Some were initially successful, but most cooperatives founded in the early 19th century had failed by 1840, however, Lockhurst Lane Industrial Co-operative Society, and Galashiels and Hawick Co-operative Societies still trade today. Financially, credit unions were invented in Germany in the century, first by Franz Hermann Schulze-Delitzsch. While Schulze-Delitzsch is chronologically earlier, Raiffeisen has proven more influential over time – see history of credit unions, in Britain, the friendly society, building society, and mutual savings bank were earlier forms of similar institutions. Robert Owen is considered as the father of the cooperative movement, a Welshman who made his fortune in the cotton trade, Owen believed in putting his workers in a good environment with access to education for themselves and their children. These ideas were put into effect successfully in the mills of New Lanark. It was here that the first co-operative store was opened and he tried to form such communities in Orbiston in Scotland and in New Harmony, Indiana in the United States of America, but both communities failed. Although Owen inspired the movement, others – such as Dr. William King – took his ideas and made them more workable. King believed in starting small, and realized that the classes would need to set up co-operatives for themselves. He founded a periodical called The Co-operator, the first edition of which appeared on 1 May 1828. This gave a mixture of co-operative philosophy and practical advice about running a shop using cooperative principles and he proposed sensible rules, such as having a weekly account audit, having 3 trustees, and not having meetings in pubs. The Rochdale Society of Equitable Pioneers was a group of 10 weavers and 20 others in Rochdale, England, on December 21,1844, they opened their store with a very meagre selection of butter, sugar, flour, oatmeal and a few candles. Within three months, they expanded their selection to include tea and tobacco, and they were known for providing high quality. The Co-operative Group formed gradually over 140 years from the merger of many independent retail societies, in 1863, twenty years after the Rochdale Pioneers opened their co-operative, the North of England Co-operative Society was launched by 300 individual co-ops across Yorkshire and Lancashire. By 1872, it had known as the Co-operative Wholesale Society
23.
Environmentalism
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While environmentalism focuses more on the environmental and nature-related aspects of green ideology and politics, ecologism combines the ideology of social ecology and environmentalism. ‘Ecologism’ is more used in continental European languages while ‘environmentalism’ is more commonly used in English. For this reason, concepts such as an ethic, environmental ethics, biodiversity, ecology. The exact measures and outcomes of this balance is controversial and there are different ways for environmental concerns to be expressed in practice. Environmentalism and environmental concerns are represented by the color green. Environmentalism denotes a movement that seeks to influence the political process by lobbying, activism. The word was first coined in 1922, an environmentalist is a person who may speak out about our natural environment and the sustainable management of its resources through changes in public policy or individual behavior. In various ways, environmentalists and environmental organizations seek to give the world a stronger voice in human affairs. In general terms, environmentalists advocate the sustainable management of resources, in its recognition of humanity as a participant in ecosystems, the movement is centered around ecology, health, and human rights. A concern for environmental protection has recurred in diverse forms, in different parts of the world, for example, in Europe, King Edward I of England banned the burning of sea-coal by proclamation in London in 1272, after its smoke had become a problem. The fuel was so common in England that this earliest of names for it was acquired because it could be carted away from some shores by the wheelbarrow. Earlier in the Middle East, the Caliph Abu Bakr in the 630s commanded his army to Bring no harm to the trees, nor burn them with fire, at the advent of steam and electricity the muse of history holds her nose and shuts her eyes. The origins of the movement lay in the response to increasing levels of smoke pollution in the atmosphere during the Industrial Revolution. An Alkali inspector and four sub-inspectors were appointed to curb this pollution, typically the highest priority went to water and air pollution. The Coal Smoke Abatement Society was formed in 1898 making it one of the oldest environmental NGOs and it was founded by artist Sir William Blake Richmond, frustrated with the pall cast by coal smoke. Although there were pieces of legislation, the Public Health Act 1875 required all furnaces and fireplaces to consume their own smoke. It also provided for sanctions against factories that emitted large amounts of black smoke, financial incentives were offered to householders to replace open coal fires with alternatives, or for those who preferred, to burn coke instead which produces minimal smoke. Smoke control areas were introduced in some towns and cities in which only smokeless fuels could be burnt, the act formed an important impetus to modern environmentalism, and caused a rethinking of the dangers of environmental degradation to peoples quality of life
24.
Global Witness
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Global Witness is an international NGO established in 1993 that works to break the links between natural resource exploitation, conflict, poverty, corruption, and human rights abuses worldwide. The organisation has offices in London and Washington, D. C, Global Witness states that it does not have any political affiliation. Gillian Caldwell joined the organisation as Executive Director in July 2015, investigation by Global Witness in April 2014 revealed there were nearly three times as many environmental defenders killed in 2012 than 10 years previously. Global Witness documented 147 deaths in 2012, compared to 51 in 2002, in Brazil 448 activists defending natural resources were killed between 2002 and 2013, in Honduras 109, Peru 58, Philippines 67 and Thailand 16. Others have been killed for protests over hydroelectric dams, pollution, the organisation explores how diamonds and other natural resources can fund conflict or fuel corruption. Global Witness’ methodology combines investigative research, publishing reports and conducting advocacy campaigns, reports are disseminated to governments, intergovernmental organizations, civil society and the media. Global Witness has worked on diamonds, oil, timber, cocoa, gas, gold and it has undertaken investigations and case studies in Cambodia, Angola, Liberia, DR Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Kazakhstan, Burma, Indonesia, Zimbabwe, Turkmenistan and Ivory Coast. It has also helped to set up international initiatives such as the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative, the Kimberley Process, the organizations first campaign involved work against the trade of illegal timber between Cambodia and Thailand which was funding the Khmer Rouge guerrillas. Global Witness argues that resources can be, and have been, exploited to fund armies and militias who murder, rape. It says that resources can potentially be used to negotiate and maintain peace. Global Witness’s first campaign was in Cambodia in the 1990s where the Khmer Rouge was smuggling timber into Thailand, the Observer newspaper attributed the cessation to Global Witnesss detailed and accurate reporting. In 2009, Global Witness released Country for Sale, a report on corruption in the allocation of Cambodias natural resource licenses, in 2010 the report, Shifting Sand, was published. It examined sand dredging for export to Singapore, the report claimed that the trade was monopolised by two prominent Cambodian senators with close ties to Prime Minister Hun Sen. As part of its campaign against conflict diamonds, Global Witness helped establish the Kimberley Process Certification Scheme, the international governmental certification scheme was set up to stop to trade in blood diamonds, requiring governments to certify that shipments of rough diamonds are conflict-free. Like many other Sub-Saharan African countries, Sierra Leone is endowed with oil and mineral resources amid social inequality, high prevalence of poverty, under rebel movements headed by Charles Taylor, who dominated the diamond industry, diamonds were being traded for guns with the Revolutionary United Front. This rebel group alone earned as much as US$125 m, in 1998, Global Witness stated that diamonds were spurring those conflicts. Backed by investigation done by the UN in 2000, it was verified that the gems were being smuggled out of eastern Sierra Leone through Liberia. Sanctions were later imposed by the UN on Liberian diamonds in March 2001, on July 19,2000, the World Diamond Congress adopted at Antwerp a resolution to reinforce the diamond industrys ability to block sales of conflict diamonds
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Online social movement
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Online communities build off social movements, enabling the connection of persons worldwide to develop a base and gain awareness to the cause. The impact of online movements has been substantial since the introduction of the internet, with the ever-growing medium of social media, internet activism has reached the forefront of the internet. Through the use of social networking sites as Facebook and content-sharing sites as YouTube, nowadays the importance of giving voice to priorities such as public health, political unrest, disaster relief, and climate change have introduced internet as a source for social change. Several social media movements have raised money for the cause, such as the ALS Ice Bucket challenge raising $100million in 30 days. The younger generations of the world spend much of their time online, awareness and education are some of the benefits of online movements. Some experts believe there are potential weaknesses and long-term repercussions that can be identified with online movements and it is easier, less costly and time consuming to link collective behaviour as real time communication can occur vastly and simultaneously via social media. However, there are some clear directions where they could lead towards. Vanessa DiMauro believes the biggest trend concerning online communities in the future is private online communities. While these large networks that we encounter and use on a day-to-day basis have provided us with a productive and collaborative experience they have increased to unmanageable sizes. To become a learning environment these groups need to be much smaller and this is where the idea and trend of private online communities could potentially be the future of online communities. Shaun King DeRay Mckesson Slacktivism Internet activism
26.
Anonymous (group)
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Anonymous is a loosely associated international network of activist and hacktivist entities. A website nominally associated with the group describes it as an Internet gathering with a very loose, the group became known for a series of well-publicized publicity stunts and distributed denial-of-service attacks on government, religious, and corporate websites. Anonymous originated in 2003 on the imageboard 4chan, representing the concept of online and offline community users simultaneously existing as an anarchic. Anonymous members can be distinguished in public by the wearing of Guy Fawkes masks in the style portrayed in the graphic novel, later targets of Anonymous hacktivism included government agencies of the U. S. Anons have publicly supported WikiLeaks and the Occupy movement. Some actions by members of the group have described as being anti-Zionist. It has threatened to cyber-attack Israel and engaged in the #OpIsrael cyber-attacks of Israeli websites on Yom HaShoah in 2013. Dozens of people have been arrested for involvement in Anonymous cyberattacks, in including the U. S. UK, Australia. Evaluations of the actions and effectiveness vary widely. Supporters have called the freedom fighters and digital Robin Hoods while critics have described them as a cyber lynch-mob or cyber terrorists. In 2012, Time called Anonymous one of the 100 most influential people in the world, Anonymous has no strictly defined philosophy, and internal dissent is a regular feature of the group. A website associated with the group describes it as an Internet gathering with a very loose, among those that do, opinions vary considerably. Broadly speaking, Anons oppose Internet censorship and control, and the majority of their actions target governments, organizations, Anons were early supporters of the global Occupy movement and the Arab Spring. Since 2008, a frequent subject of disagreement within Anonymous is whether members should focus on pranking, because Anonymous has no leadership, no action can be attributed to the membership as a whole. Some members protest using legal means, while others employ illegal measures such as DDoS attacks, olson, who formerly described Anonymous as a brand, stated in 2012 that she now characterized it as a movement rather than a group, anyone can be part of it. It is a crowd of people, a crowd of people, working together. The groups few rules include not disclosing ones identity, not talking about the group, members commonly use the tagline We are Anonymous. Journalists have commented that Anonymous secrecy, fabrications, and media awareness pose a challenge for reporting on the groups actions and motivations. Quinn Norton of Wired writes that Anons lie when they have no reason to lie and they weave vast fabrications as a form of performance
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Internet
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The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that use the Internet protocol suite to link devices worldwide. The origins of the Internet date back to research commissioned by the United States federal government in the 1960s to build robust, the primary precursor network, the ARPANET, initially served as a backbone for interconnection of regional academic and military networks in the 1980s. Although the Internet was widely used by academia since the 1980s, Internet use grew rapidly in the West from the mid-1990s and from the late 1990s in the developing world. In the two decades since then, Internet use has grown 100-times, measured for the period of one year, newspaper, book, and other print publishing are adapting to website technology, or are reshaped into blogging, web feeds and online news aggregators. The entertainment industry was initially the fastest growing segment on the Internet, the Internet has enabled and accelerated new forms of personal interactions through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect supply chains across entire industries, the Internet has no centralized governance in either technological implementation or policies for access and usage, each constituent network sets its own policies. The term Internet, when used to refer to the global system of interconnected Internet Protocol networks, is a proper noun. In common use and the media, it is not capitalized. Some guides specify that the word should be capitalized when used as a noun, the Internet is also often referred to as the Net, as a short form of network. Historically, as early as 1849, the word internetted was used uncapitalized as an adjective, the designers of early computer networks used internet both as a noun and as a verb in shorthand form of internetwork or internetworking, meaning interconnecting computer networks. The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used interchangeably in everyday speech, however, the World Wide Web or the Web is only one of a large number of Internet services. The Web is a collection of interconnected documents and other web resources, linked by hyperlinks, the term Interweb is a portmanteau of Internet and World Wide Web typically used sarcastically to parody a technically unsavvy user. The ARPANET project led to the development of protocols for internetworking, the third site was the Culler-Fried Interactive Mathematics Center at the University of California, Santa Barbara, followed by the University of Utah Graphics Department. In an early sign of growth, fifteen sites were connected to the young ARPANET by the end of 1971. These early years were documented in the 1972 film Computer Networks, early international collaborations on the ARPANET were rare. European developers were concerned with developing the X.25 networks, in December 1974, RFC675, by Vinton Cerf, Yogen Dalal, and Carl Sunshine, used the term internet as a shorthand for internetworking and later RFCs repeated this use. Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation funded the Computer Science Network, in 1982, the Internet Protocol Suite was standardized, which permitted worldwide proliferation of interconnected networks.5 Mbit/s and 45 Mbit/s. Commercial Internet service providers emerged in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990
28.
MoveOn.org
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MoveOn. org is an American progressive public policy advocacy group and political action committee. It also runs a petition Website similar to Change. org, MoveOn comprises two legal entities, organized under different sections of U. S. tax and election laws. MoveOn. org Civic Action is a 501 nonprofit corporation, and was formerly called MoveOn. org and it focuses on education and advocacy on national issues. MoveOn. org Political Action is a political action committee. It contributes to the campaigns of candidates across the country. Anna Galland is the director of MoveOn. org Civic Action. The president of MoveOns board is former director, Justin Ruben. Co-founder Joan Blades is also on the board, past board members include co-founder Wes Boyd, former executive director Eli Pariser, and former Chief Operating Officer Carrie Olson. MoveOn. orgs structure also incorporates a groups of councils across the country, MoveOn. org now has over 250 local councils and one in every state. MoveOn started in 1998 as a group, MoveOn. org, created by software entrepreneurs Joan Blades and Wes Boyd. They started by passing around a petition asking Congress to censure President Clinton and move on, the petition, passed around by word of mouth, gathered half a million signatures but did not dissuade Congress from impeaching the President. The couple went on to similar campaigns calling for arms inspections rather than an invasion of Iraq. Since 1998, MoveOn has raised millions of dollars for many Democratic candidates, in November 2007, a drive spearheaded by MoveOn caused Facebook to change its controversial new Beacon program, which notified Facebook users about purchases by people on their friends list. Since the 2000 election cycle, the MoveOn PAC has endorsed and supported the campaigns of candidates, in 2007, MoveOn was a co-founder of Avaaz, a similar organization with an international focus. Senator Bernie Sanders for President of the United States after holding elections in which 340,665 members reportedly cast their ballot. MoveOn. org has advertised in new and traditional media formats, with publicity strategies including billboards, bus signs, MoveOn has collaborated with groups in organizing street demonstrations, bake sales, house parties, and other opportunities. Changes in federal laws have impacted groups like MoveOn. In preparation for the 2006 midterm elections, MoveOn created a new system for soliciting potential voters named Call for Change, as part of the Call for Change effort, MoveOn reported that it placed over seven million phone calls to registered voters
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Seattle
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Seattle is a seaport city on the west coast of the United States and the seat of King County, Washington. With an estimated 684,451 residents as of 2015, Seattle is the largest city in both the state of Washington and the Pacific Northwest region of North America. In July 2013, it was the major city in the United States. The city is situated on an isthmus between Puget Sound and Lake Washington, about 100 miles south of the Canada–United States border, a major gateway for trade with Asia, Seattle is the fourth-largest port in North America in terms of container handling as of 2015. The Seattle area was inhabited by Native Americans for at least 4,000 years before the first permanent European settlers. Arthur A. Denny and his group of travelers, subsequently known as the Denny Party, arrived from Illinois via Portland, the settlement was moved to the eastern shore of Elliott Bay and named Seattle in 1852, after Chief Siahl of the local Duwamish and Suquamish tribes. Logging was Seattles first major industry, but by the late-19th century, growth after World War II was partially due to the local Boeing company, which established Seattle as a center for aircraft manufacturing. The Seattle area developed as a technology center beginning in the 1980s, in 1994, Internet retailer Amazon was founded in Seattle. The stream of new software, biotechnology, and Internet companies led to an economic revival, Seattle has a noteworthy musical history. From 1918 to 1951, nearly two dozen jazz nightclubs existed along Jackson Street, from the current Chinatown/International District, to the Central District, the jazz scene developed the early careers of Ray Charles, Quincy Jones, Ernestine Anderson, and others. Seattle is also the birthplace of rock musician Jimi Hendrix and the alternative rock subgenre grunge, archaeological excavations suggest that Native Americans have inhabited the Seattle area for at least 4,000 years. By the time the first European settlers arrived, the people occupied at least seventeen villages in the areas around Elliott Bay, the first European to visit the Seattle area was George Vancouver, in May 1792 during his 1791–95 expedition to chart the Pacific Northwest. In 1851, a party led by Luther Collins made a location on land at the mouth of the Duwamish River. Thirteen days later, members of the Collins Party on the way to their claim passed three scouts of the Denny Party, members of the Denny Party claimed land on Alki Point on September 28,1851. The rest of the Denny Party set sail from Portland, Oregon, after a difficult winter, most of the Denny Party relocated across Elliott Bay and claimed land a second time at the site of present-day Pioneer Square, naming this new settlement Duwamps. For the next few years, New York Alki and Duwamps competed for dominance, david Swinson Doc Maynard, one of the founders of Duwamps, was the primary advocate to name the settlement after Chief Sealth of the Duwamish and Suquamish tribes. The name Seattle appears on official Washington Territory papers dated May 23,1853, in 1855, nominal land settlements were established. On January 14,1865, the Legislature of Territorial Washington incorporated the Town of Seattle with a board of managing the city
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Protest
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A protest is an expression of bearing witness on behalf of an express cause by words or actions with regard to particular events, policies or situations. Protests can take different forms, from individual statements to mass demonstrations. Various forms of self-expression and protest are sometimes restricted by policy, economic circumstances, religious orthodoxy, social structures. One state reaction to protests is the use of riot police, observers have noted an increased militarization of protest policing, with police deploying armored vehicles and snipers against the protesters. A protest can itself sometimes be the subject of a counter-protest, in such a case, counter-protesters demonstrate their support for the person, policy, action, etc. that is the subject of the original protest. In some cases, these protesters can violently clash, unaddressed protests may grow and widen into civil resistance, dissent, activism, riots, insurgency, revolts, and political and/or social revolution. 2013 through Feb.2014 Black Lives Matter 2016 South Korean protests 2017 Jallikattu protests Dakota Access Pipeline protests A protest can take many forms, the Dynamics of Collective Action project and the Global Nonviolent Action Database are two of the leading data collection efforts attempting to capture protest events. Reference to speeches, speakers, singing, preaching, often verified by indication of sound equipment of PA, ordinarily will include worship services, speeches, briefings. March, Reference to moving from one location to another, to be distinguished from rotating or walking in a circle with picket signs which by definition, but also no reference to sound systems or to marches, it may well be a vigil. Most vigils have banners, placards, or leaflets so that people passing by, despite silence from participants, picket, The modal activity is picketing, there may be references to picket line, to informational picketing, holding signs, carrying signs and walking around in a circle). Symbolic display, e. g. Menorah, Creche Scene, graffiti, cross burnings, signs, standing displays Attack by instigators Ethnic group victim of physical attack, boundary motivating attack is other groups identity, as in gay-bashing, lynching. Can also include verbal attack and/or threats, too, Riot, melee, mob violence, Large-scale, use of violence by instigators against persons, property, police, or buildings separately or in combination, lasting several hours. Strike, slow down and sick-ins employee work protest of any kind, Regular air strike through failure of negotiations, boycott, Organized refusal to buy or use a product or service, rent strikes. Press conference, If specifically named as such in report, could involve disclosure of information to educate the public or influence various decision-makers. Organization formation announcement or meeting announcement, meeting or press conference to announce the formation of a new organization, conflict, attack or clash, no instigator, This includes any boundary conflict in which no instigator can be identified, i. e. black/white conflicts, abortion/anti-abortion conflicts. Lawsuit, legal maneuver by social movement organization or group The Global Nonviolent Action database uses Gene Sharps classification of 198 methods of nonviolent action, there is considerable overlap with the Dynamics of Collective Action repertoire, although the GNA repertoire includes more specific tactics. Together, the two projects help define tactics available to protesters and document instances of their use, thomas Ratliff and Lori Hall have devised a typology of six broad activity categories of the protest activities described in the Dynamics of Collective Action project. Literal, symbolic, aesthetic and sensory - Artistic, dramaturgical, use of images, objects, graphic arts, musical performances, or vocal/auditory exhibitions
31.
Arab Spring
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Sustained street demonstrations took place in Morocco, Bahrain, Algeria, Iran, Lebanon, Jordan, Kuwait, Oman and Sudan. Minor protests occurred in Djibouti, Mauritania, the Palestinian territories, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, a major slogan of the demonstrators in the Arab world is Ash-shab yurid isqat an-nizam. These attacks were answered with violence from protestors in some cases, large-scale conflicts resulted—the Syrian Civil War, Iraqi insurgency and the following civil war, the Egyptian Crisis and coup, the Libyan Crisis, and the Crisis in Yemen. A power struggle continued after the response to the Arab Spring. While leadership changed and regimes were held accountable, power went up for grabs across the Arab world, ultimately it came down to a contentious battle between a consolidation of power by religious elites and the growing support for democracy in many Muslim-majority states. Some have referred to the succeeding and still ongoing conflicts as the Arab Winter, as of July 2016, only the uprising in Tunisia resulted in a transition to constitutional democratic governance. The term Arab Spring is an allusion to the Revolutions of 1848, which is referred to as the Springtime of Nations. In the aftermath of the Iraq War it was used by commentators and bloggers who anticipated a major Arab movement towards democratization. The first specific use of the term Arab Spring as used to denote these events may have started with the American political journal Foreign Policy. Marc Lynch, referring to his article in Foreign Policy, writes Arab Spring—a term I may have unintentionally coined in a January 6,2011 article. Joseph Massad on Al Jazeera said the term was part of a US strategy of controlling aims and goals, due to the electoral success of Islamist parties following the protests in many Arab countries, the events have also come to be known as Islamist Spring or Islamist Winter. Other sources confirm the US governments support of the uprisings, funded largely by the National Endowment for Democracy, other analysts pointed to the fourth stage Toppling the Regimes of the Al Qaeda strategy for world domination, described in Fouad Husseins book published in 2005. Some protesters looked to the Turkish model as an ideal, other analysts blamed the rise in food prices on commodity traders and the conversion of crops to ethanol. Yet others have claimed that the context of high rates of unemployment, the influence of social media on political activism during the Arab Spring has, however, been much debated. Protests took place both in states with a high level of Internet usage and in states with one of the lowest Internet penetration. The use of media platforms more than doubled in Arab countries during the protests. As of 5 April 2011, the amount of Facebook users in the Arab world surpassed 27.7 million people, Facebook, Twitter and other major social media played a key role in the movement of Egyptian and Tunisian activists in particular. Nine out of ten Egyptians and Tunisians responded to a poll that they used Facebook to organize protests and this large population of young Egyptian men referred to themselves as the Facebook generation, exemplifying their escape from their non-modernized past
32.
Tor (anonymity network)
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Tor is free software for enabling anonymous communication. The name is derived from an acronym for the software project name The Onion Router. Using Tor makes it difficult for Internet activity to be traced back to the user, this includes visits to Web sites, online posts, instant messages. Tors use is intended to protect the privacy of users, as well as their freedom. Onion routing is implemented by encryption in the layer of a communication protocol stack. Tor encrypts the data, including the next node destination IP address, multiple times and sends it through a circuit comprising successive. Each relay decrypts a layer of encryption to reveal only the relay in the circuit in order to pass the remaining encrypted data on to it. The final relay decrypts the innermost layer of encryption and sends the data to its destination without revealing, or even knowing. An adversary might try to de-anonymize the user by some means, one way this may be achieved is by exploiting vulnerable software on the users computer. Attacks against Tor are an area of academic research, and are welcomed by the Tor Project itself. Onion routing was developed by DARPA in 1997. The alpha version of Tor, developed by Syverson and computer scientists Roger Dingledine and Nick Mathewson and then called The Onion Routing project, or TOR project, the first public release occurred a year later. On 13 August 2004, Syverson, Dingledine and Mathewson presented Tor, in 2004, the Naval Research Laboratory released the code for Tor under a free license, and the Electronic Frontier Foundation began funding Dingledine and Mathewson to continue its development. In December 2006, Dingledine, Mathewson and five others founded The Tor Project, from this period onwards, the majority of funding sources came from the U. S. government. In November 2014 there was speculation in the aftermath of Operation Onymous that a Tor weakness has been exploited, a representative of Europol was secretive about the method used, saying, This is something we want to keep for ourselves. The way we do this, we share with the whole world. This possibility was downplayed by Andrew Lewman, a representative of the not-for-profit Tor project, however, in November 2015 court documents on the matter generated serious ethical security research as well as Fourth Amendment concerns. In December 2015, The Tor Project announced that it had hired Shari Steele as its new executive director, Steele had previously led the Electronic Frontier Foundation for 15 years, and in 2004 spearheaded EFFs decision to fund Tors early development
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Transition town
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The Transition Network, founded in 2006, inspired the creation of many of the projects. A number of the groups have officially registered with the organisation, the first initiative to use the name was Transition Town Totnes, located in the United Kingdom. Transition initiatives have started in locations around the world, with many located in the United Kingdom, Europe, North America. The term, transition town was coined by Louise Rooney and Catherine Dunne, the transition model can be applied to different types of places where people live, such as villages, regions, islands and towns. The generic term is transition initiative, which includes transition neighborhoods, communities, in 2004, permaculture designer Rob Hopkins set his students at Kinsale Further Education College the task of applying permaculture principles to the concept of peak oil. The output of this student project was the ‘Kinsale Energy Descent Action Plan and this looked at across-the-board creative adaptations in the realms of energy production, health, education, economy and agriculture as a road map to a sustainable future for the town. Two of his students, Louise Rooney and Catherine Dunne, developed the Transition towns concept and they then presented their ideas to Kinsale Town Council. The councilors decided to adopt the plan and work towards energy independence, Hopkins moved to his hometown of Totnes, England, where he and Naresh Giangrande developed these concepts into the transition model. In 2006 Transition Town Totnes become the first Transition initiative, between late 2006 and early 2007 the Transition Network was founded as a UK charity by British permaculture educator Rob Hopkins. It trains and supports people involved with Transition initiatives and it disseminates the concepts of transition towns. In 2008 the number of involved in the project had increased with many localities in the process of becoming official Transition towns. The term transition initiatives become common to reflect the range and type of communities involved - e. g. villages, neighbourhoods of cities, through council districts to cities, by September 2013, there were 1130 initiatives registered in 43 countries. Each Transition town or initiative has a level of autonomy. However, to be called an official initiative certain criteria must be met, additionally, there is nothing to stop an unofficial initiative using ideas inspired by Transition towns. Further, there are various hubs to co-ordinate work at a regional level, the Transition Network is a UK charity founded between late 2006 and early 2007. It was set up to disseminate the concept of the Transition towns and it has published books and films, trained people and facilitated networking. The networks website contains a listing of the initiatives that have registered there, some of the material has been translated and adapted to other languages/cultures, including Portuguese, Danish, German, Dutch, Spanish, French, Hungarian, Italian, Japanese and Irish. In the United States, Transition initiatives have started in many communities
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Nonprofit organization
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A nonprofit organization is an organization whose purpose is something other than making a profit. A nonprofit organization is dedicated to furthering a particular social cause or advocating for a particular point of view. This is known as the non-distribution constraint, the decision to adopt a nonprofit legal structure is one that will often have taxation implications, particularly where the nonprofit seeks income tax exemption, charitable status and so on. The terms nonprofit and not-for-profit are not consistently differentiated across jurisdictions, in laymans terms they are usually equivalent in concept, although in various jurisdictions there are accounting and legal differences. The nonprofit landscape is varied, although many people have come to associate NPOs with charitable organizations. Although charities do make up an often high-profile or visible aspect of the sector, overall, they tend to be either member-serving or community-serving. e. It could be argued many nonprofits sit across both camps, at least in terms of the impact they make. For example, the support group that provides a lifeline to those with a particular condition or disease could be deemed to be serving its members. Many NPOs use the model of a bottom line in that furthering their cause is more important than making a profit. Although NPOs are permitted to generate revenues, they must be retained by the organization for its self-preservation, expansion. NPOs have controlling members or a board of directors, many have paid staff including management, whereas others employ unpaid volunteers and executives who work with or without compensation. In some countries, where there is a fee, in general. The extent to which an NPO can generate surplus revenues may be constrained or use of surplus revenues may be restricted. Some NPOs may also be a charity or service organization, they may be organized as a corporation or as a trust. Their goal is not to be successful in terms of wealth, NPOs have a wide diversity of structures and purposes. Some of the above must be expressed in the charter of establishment or constitution. Others may be provided by the authority at each particular jurisdiction. While affiliations will not affect a legal status, they may be taken into consideration by legal proceedings as an indication of purpose, most countries have laws that regulate the establishment and management of NPOs and that require compliance with corporate governance regimes
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Non-governmental organization
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A non-governmental organization is a not-for-profit organization that is independent from states and international governmental organizations. They are usually funded by donations but some avoid formal funding altogether and are run primarily by volunteers, NGOs are highly diverse groups of organizations engaged in a wide range of activities, and take different forms in different parts of the world. Some may have charitable status, while others may be registered for tax exemption based on recognition of social purposes, others may be fronts for political, religious, or other interests. The number of NGOs worldwide is estimated to be 3.7 million, India is estimated to have had around 2 million NGOs in 2009, just over one NGO per 600 Indians, and many times the number of primary schools and primary health centres in India. China is estimated to have approximately 440,000 officially registered NGOs, NGOs are difficult to define, and the term NGO is not always used consistently. In some countries the term NGO is applied to an organization that in another country would be called an NPO, there are many different classifications of NGO in use. The most common focus is on orientation and level of operation, an NGOs orientation refers to the type of activities it takes on. These activities might include human rights, environmental, improving health, an NGOs level of operation indicates the scale at which an organization works, such as local, regional, national, or international. The term non-governmental organization was first coined in 1945, when the United Nations was created, later the term became used more widely. One characteristic these diverse organizations share is that their non-profit status means they are not hindered by short-term financial objectives. Accordingly, they are able to devote themselves to issues which occur across longer time horizons, such as change, malaria prevention. Public surveys reveal that NGOs often enjoy a degree of public trust. NGO/GRO types can be understood by their orientation and level of how they operate, charitable orientation often involves a top-down paternalistic effort with little participation by the beneficiaries. It includes NGOs with activities directed toward meeting the needs of the poor people, in the classical community development project, participation begins with the need definition and continues into the planning and implementation stages. There is maximum involvement of the beneficiaries with NGOs acting as facilitators, community-based organizations arise out of peoples own initiatives. They can be responsible for raising the consciousness of the poor, helping them to understand their rights in accessing needed services. City-wide organizations include organizations such as chambers of commerce and industry, coalitions of business, ethnic or educational groups, national NGOs include national organizations such as the YMCAs/YWCAs, professional associations and similar groups. Some have state and city branches and assist local NGOs and they can be responsible for funding local NGOs, institutions and projects and implementing projects
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