1.
Order of Prince Henry
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Minor reforms of the constitution of the Order occurred in 1962 and 1980. It is an order, whose titles are awarded for relevant services to Portugal and for services in the expansion of the Portuguese culture, its history. The number of members in each grade is restricted by its constitution, the order includes several classes, in decreasing order of seniority, these are, Grand Collar Grand Cross Grand Officer Commander Officer Knight / Dame There is also a Silver Medal and a Gold Medal. The special distinction of Grand Collar can be awarded only to heads of state, ribbons and medals are characterized by equal stripes of blue, white and black and a ruby-enameled golden cross pattée. The stars of Grand Officer and Grand Cross bear the inscription Talant de bien faire, membership to the Order is conferred by the President, either on his own initiative, upon the recommendation of his Ministers or following nomination by the Council of the Order. Honorific orders of Portugal List of the Grand Collar of the Order of Infante D. Henrique
2.
Portugal
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Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic, is a country on the Iberian Peninsula in Southwestern Europe. It is the westernmost country of mainland Europe, to the west and south it is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean and to the east and north by Spain. The Portugal–Spain border is 1,214 kilometres long and considered the longest uninterrupted border within the European Union, the republic also includes the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira, both autonomous regions with their own regional governments. The territory of modern Portugal has been settled, invaded. The Pre-Celts, Celts, Carthaginians and the Romans were followed by the invasions of the Visigothic, in 711 the Iberian Peninsula was invaded by the Moors, making Portugal part of Muslim Al Andalus. Portugal was born as result of the Christian Reconquista, and in 1139, Afonso Henriques was proclaimed King of Portugal, in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal established the first global empire, becoming one of the worlds major economic, political and military powers. Portugal monopolized the trade during this time, and the Portuguese Empire expanded with military campaigns led in Asia. After the 1910 revolution deposed the monarchy, the democratic but unstable Portuguese First Republic was established, democracy was restored after the Portuguese Colonial War and the Carnation Revolution in 1974. Shortly after, independence was granted to almost all its overseas territories, Portugal has left a profound cultural and architectural influence across the globe and a legacy of over 250 million Portuguese speakers today. Portugal is a country with a high-income advanced economy and a high living standard. It is the 5th most peaceful country in the world, maintaining a unitary semi-presidential republican form of government and it has the 18th highest Social Progress in the world, putting it ahead of other Western European countries like France, Spain and Italy. Portugal is a pioneer when it comes to drug decriminalization, as the nation decriminalized the possession of all drugs for use in 2001. The early history of Portugal is shared with the rest of the Iberian Peninsula located in South Western Europe, the name of Portugal derives from the joined Romano-Celtic name Portus Cale. Other influences include some 5th-century vestiges of Alan settlements, which were found in Alenquer, Coimbra, the region of present-day Portugal was inhabited by Neanderthals and then by Homo sapiens, who roamed the border-less region of the northern Iberian peninsula. These were subsistence societies that, although they did not establish prosperous settlements, neolithic Portugal experimented with domestication of herding animals, the raising of some cereal crops and fluvial or marine fishing. Chief among these tribes were the Calaicians or Gallaeci of Northern Portugal, the Lusitanians of central Portugal, the Celtici of Alentejo, a few small, semi-permanent, commercial coastal settlements were also founded in the Algarve region by Phoenicians-Carthaginians. Romans first invaded the Iberian Peninsula in 219 BC, during the last days of Julius Caesar, almost the entire peninsula had been annexed to the Roman Republic. The Carthaginians, Romes adversary in the Punic Wars, were expelled from their coastal colonies and it suffered a severe setback in 150 BC, when a rebellion began in the north
3.
Camarate
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Camarate is a former civil parish in the municipality of Loures, Lisbon District, Portugal. In 2013, the merged into the new parish Camarate. With a population of 23,000 inhabitants in 2001, the parish of Camarate extends into an area of 5.52 km², the probable origin of the local place name came from the historical cultivation of vineyards with a caste of grape called Camarate. A Matriz Church was founded by the Bishop of Lisbon, Agapito Colona, in the 14th century, and later amplified and expanded. While there, the founded and consecrated a chapel to Nossa Senhora do Socorro, which he later offered, along with the estate, to the Carmelites. Much later, under Nuno Álvares Pereira stewardship, Camarate would be integrated into the patrimony of the House of Braganza, the parish of Camarate separated from the administration of Sacavém across a foral issued by King Manuel I of Portugal, dated 1 May 1511. After the 17th century, the became a place of leisure sought after by the Lisboeta nobility. The region was famous for its agricultural, characterized by estates that supported the production of the parish until the 20th century. It was part of Lisbon, then Santa Maria dos Olivais, later, it was re-annexed to Lisbon between 1886 and 1895, before being integrated into the municipality of Loures. On 4 June 1996, the community was elevated to the status of vila by decree of the Assembly of the Republic. After the 20th century, and owing to development in the neighbouring parishes. A few hours before the elections, the aircraft was en route to Porto. Situated in north of Lisbon, Camarate is a parish located in the eastern part of the municipality of Loure. Part of this means that a portion of the International Airport of Lisbon lies within the borders of the parish. It was well known for its wine, produced in the fertile farms that characterized the parish until the mid-twentieth century. Over time the building deteriorated to the point that, in 1511, a similar reconstruction/remodelling occurred at the beginning of the 17th century
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Portuguese people
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Portuguese people are an ethnic group indigenous to the country of Portugal, in the west of the Iberian Peninsula in Southwestern Europe. Their language is Portuguese, and their predominant religion is Christianity, Portuguese people were a key factor to the Age of Exploration, discovering several lands unknown to the Europeans in the Americas, Africa, Asia and Oceania, helping to pave the way for Globalization. There are around 10 million native Portuguese in Portugal, out of a population of 10.34 million. A small minority of about 15,000 speak the Mirandese language, in the municipalities of Miranda do Douro, Vimioso, all of the speakers are bilingual with Portuguese. An even smaller minority of no more than 2,000 people speak Barranquenho, some people from the former colonies have been migrating to Portugal since the 1900s. More recently, a number of Slavs, especially Ukrainians, Moldovans, Romanians and Russians. There is also a Chinese minority, in addition, there is a small minority Gypsies of about 40,000 people, Muslims about 34,000 people and an even smaller minority of Jews of about 5,000 people. Between 1886 and 1966, Portugal lost to more than any West European country except Ireland. From the middle of the 19th century to the late 1950s, about 40 million Brazilians have relatively recent Portuguese background, due to massive immigration in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. About 1.2 million Brazilian citizens are native Portuguese, significant verified Portuguese minorities exist in several countries. Portuguese Sephardic Jews are also in Israel, the Netherlands, the United States, France, Venezuela, Brazil, in Brazil many of the colonists were also originally Sephardic Jews, who, converted, were known as New Christians. In the United States, there are Portuguese communities in New Jersey, the New England states, in the Pacific, Hawaii has a sizable Portuguese element that goes back 150 years, Australia and New Zealand also have Portuguese communities. Canada, particularly Ontario, Quebec and British Columbia, has developed a significant Portuguese community since 1940, argentina and Uruguay had Portuguese immigration in the early 20th century. So has Chile where an estimated 50,000 descendants live, an estimated 800,000 Portuguese returned to Portugal as the countrys African possessions gained independence in 1975, after the Carnation Revolution, while others moved to Brazil and South Africa. Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Equatorial Guinea, in 1989 some 4,000,000 Portuguese were living abroad, mainly in France, Germany, Brazil, the United Kingdom, South Africa, Canada, Venezuela, and the United States. Portuguese constitute 13% of the population of Luxembourg, in areas such as Thetford and the crown dependencies of Jersey and Guernsey, the Portuguese form the largest ethnic minority groups at 30% of the population, 20% and 3% respectively. The British capital London is home to the largest number of Portuguese people in the UK, with the majority being found in the boroughs of Kensington and Chelsea, Lambeth and Westminster. The Portuguese diaspora communities still are very attached to their language, their culture and their national dishes, in colonial times, over 700,000 Portuguese settled in Brazil, and most of them went there during the gold rush of the 18th century
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Civil engineer
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The term civil engineer was established in 1750 to contrast engineers working on civil projects with the military engineers, who worked on armaments and defenses. Over time, various sub-disciplines of civil engineering have become recognized, other engineering practices became recognized as independent engineering disciplines, including chemical engineering, mechanical engineering, and electrical engineering. In some places, an engineer may perform land surveying, in others, surveying is limited to construction surveying. Civil engineers generally work in a variety of locations and conditions, many spend time outdoors at construction sites so that they can monitor operations or solve problems onsite. The job is typically a blend of in-office and on-location work, in many countries, civil engineers are subject to licensure. In some jurisdictions with mandatory licensing, people who do not obtain a license may not call themselves civil engineers, in Belgium, Civil Engineer is a legally protected title applicable to graduates of the five-year engineering course of one of the six universities and the Royal Military Academy. Their speciality can be all fields of engineering, civil, structural, electrical, mechanical, chemical, physics and this use of the title may cause confusion to the English speaker as the Belgian civil engineer can have a speciality other than civil engineering. In fact, Belgians use the adjective civil in the sense of civilian, traditionally, students were required to pass an entrance exam on mathematics to start civil engineering studies. This exam was abolished in 2004 for the Flemish Community, but is organised in the French Community. Today the degree spans over all fields within engineering, like engineering, mechanical engineering, computer science, electronics engineering. A civil engineer is the most well-known of the two, still, the area of expertise remains obfuscated for most of the public. A noteworthy difference is the courses in mathematics and physics, regardless of the equivalent masters degree. This is because the educational system is not fully adopted to the international standard graduation system. Today this is starting to change due to the Bologna process, a Scandinavian civilingenjör will in international contexts commonly call herself Master of Science in Engineering and will occasionally wear an engineering class ring. At the Norwegian Institute of Technology, the tradition with an NTH Ring goes back to 1914, in Norway, the title Sivilingeniør will no longer be issued after 2007, and has been replaced with Master i teknologi. In the English translation of the diploma, the title will be Master of Science, since Master of Technology is not a title in the English-speaking world. The extra overlapping year of studies have also been abolished with this change to make Norwegian degrees more equal to their international counterparts, in Spain, a civil engineering degree can be obtained after four years of study in the various branches of mathematics, physics, mechanics, etc. The earned degree is called Grado en Ingeniería Civil, further studies at a graduate school include masters and doctoral degrees
6.
Technical University of Lisbon
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The Technical University of Lisbon was a Portuguese public university. On July 25,2013, it merged with the older University of Lisbon and was incorporated in the new University of Lisbon. People who have been awarded a degree by the Technical University of Lisbon or otherwise have attended university, include, Alberto Romão Dias, Researcher. Álvaro Siza Vieira, Architect, university professor, Pritzker Prize 1992, antónio Borges, Vice President of Goldman Sachs International Amílcar Cabral, Guinea-Bissauan independentist, guerrilla, agronomist. António Câmara, Entrepreneur, university professor, civil engineer, aníbal Cavaco Silva, President of Republic, Prime Minister, university professor, economist. António Guterres, Prime Minister, politician, electrical engineer, bento de Jesus Caraça, Antifascist resistance, mathematician and economist. Carlos Carvalhas, Communist leader, politician, economist, carlos Queiroz, Portuguese national teams coach, football manager, physical educator. Dom Duarte, 24th Duke of Braganza, claimant to the throne of Portugal, eduardo Ferro Rodrigues, Socialist leader, politician, economist. Fernando Ulrich, financial manager, banking administrator, francisco Louçã, Left Bloc leader, politician, university professor, economist. Jaime Nogueira Pinto, writer and university professor, jesualdo Ferreira, football manager, physical educator. José Mourinho, football manager, physical educator, manuel Pinho, politician and economist Manuela Ferreira Leite right-wing leader, minister, politician, economist. Maria de Lurdes Pintasilgo, Prime Minister, politician, chemical engineer, mariano Gago, minister, politician, university professor, scientist, electrical engineer. Nelo Vingada, football manager, physical educator, nuno Crato, university professor, researcher, writer, mathematician and economist. Paulo Mendes Da Rocha, Architect, university professor, Pritzker Prize 2006, tim, musician, vocalist of Xutos & Pontapés, agronomist. Vitor Constâncio, Central Bank Governor, politician, economist, list of higher education institutions in Portugal Higher education in Portugal Universidade Técnica de Lisboa
7.
Odemira
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Odemira is a town and a municipality in Beja District in the Portuguese region of Alentejo. The population in 2011 was 26,066, in an area of 1720.60 km² and it is famous for its wild beaches and for being home to a significant Dutch and German community. The village of Zambujeira do Mar is home to the Festival do Sudoeste, the present Mayor is José Alberto Guerreiro, elected by the Socialist Party. The municipal holiday is 8 September, administratively, the municipality is divided into 13 civil parishes, Town Hall official website Photos from Odemira
8.
Lisbon
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Lisbon is the capital and the largest city of Portugal, with a population of 552,700 within its administrative limits in an area of 100.05 km². Its urban area extends beyond the administrative limits with a population of around 2.7 million people. About 2.8 million people live in the Lisbon Metropolitan Area and it is continental Europes westernmost capital city and the only one along the Atlantic coast. Lisbon lies in the western Iberian Peninsula on the Atlantic Ocean, the westernmost areas of its metro area is the westernmost point of Continental Europe. Lisbon is recognised as a city because of its importance in finance, commerce, media, entertainment, arts, international trade, education. It is one of the economic centres on the continent, with a growing financial sector. Humberto Delgado Airport serves over 20 million passengers annually, as of 2015, and the motorway network, the city is the 7th-most-visited city in Southern Europe, after Istanbul, Rome, Barcelona, Madrid, Athens and Milan, with 1,740,000 tourists in 2009. The Lisbon region contributes with a higher GDP PPP per capita than any region in Portugal. Its GDP amounts to 96.3 billion USD and thus $32,434 per capita, the city occupies 32nd place of highest gross earnings in the world. Most of the headquarters of multinationals in the country are located in the Lisbon area and it is also the political centre of the country, as its seat of Government and residence of the Head of State. Lisbon is one of the oldest cities in the world, julius Caesar made it a municipium called Felicitas Julia, adding to the name Olissipo. Ruled by a series of Germanic tribes from the 5th century, in 1147, the Crusaders under Afonso Henriques reconquered the city and since then it has been a major political, economic and cultural centre of Portugal. Unlike most capital cities, Lisbons status as the capital of Portugal has never been granted or confirmed officially – by statute or in written form. Its position as the capital has formed through constitutional convention, making its position as de facto capital a part of the Constitution of Portugal. It has one of the warmest winters of any metropolis in Europe, the typical summer season lasts about four months, from June to September, although also in April temperatures sometimes reach around 25 °C. Although modern archaeological excavations show a Phoenician presence at this location since 1200 BC, another conjecture based on ancient hydronymy suggests that the name of the settlement derived from the pre-Roman appellation for the Tagus, Lisso or Lucio. Lisbons name was written Ulyssippo in Latin by the geographer Pomponius Mela and it was later referred to as Olisippo by Pliny the Elder and by the Greeks as Olissipo or Olissipona. The Indo-European Celts invaded in the 1st millennium BC, mixing with the Pre-Indo-European population and this indigenous settlement maintained commercial relations with the Phoenicians, which would account for the recent findings of Phoenician pottery and other material objects
9.
University of Lisbon
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The University of Lisbon is a public research university in Lisbon, and the largest university in Portugal. It was founded in 2013, from the merger of two public universities located in Lisbon, the former University of Lisbon and the Technical University of Lisbon. The history of a university in Lisbon dates back to the 13th century, the merger process was initiated in 2011 and was made into law on December 31,2012. As stated on the decree-law No, 266-E/2012, the new University of Lisbon began its legal existence on the day the newly elected rector took office, on July 25,2013. According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities 2014 also known as Shanghai Ranking, in the discipline of Engineering/Technology and Computer Sciences, the university is ranked 76-100 worldwide. List of universities in Portugal Higher education in Portugal Official website
10.
Carnation Revolution
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The Carnation Revolution, also referred to as the 25th of April, was initially a military coup in Lisbon, Portugal, on 25 April 1974 which overthrew the regime of the Estado Novo. This movement would lead to the fall of the Estado Novo, in Portugal,25 April is a national holiday, known as Freedom Day, to celebrate the event. Portugal had been run by a dictatorship, which was considered by many to be fascist. Despite repeated appeals that the revolutionaries broadcast over the radio, asking the population to stay home, thousands of Portuguese descended on the streets and it started as a professional class protest of Portuguese Armed Forces captains against a decree law, the Dec Lei nº 353/73 of 1973. Portugals new regime pledged itself to end the wars and began negotiations with the African independence movements. By the end of 1974, Portuguese troops had withdrawn from Portuguese Guinea. This was followed by the independence of Cape Verde, Mozambique, São Tomé and Príncipe, the Carnation Revolution in Portugal also led to Portugals withdrawal from East Timor in Southeast Asia. These events prompted an exodus of Portuguese citizens from Portugals African territories. Although the regimes political police, PIDE, killed four people before surrendering, holding red carnations, many people joined revolutionary soldiers on the streets of Lisbon, in apparent joy and audible euphoria. Red is a color for socialism and communism, which were the main ideological tendencies of many anti-New State insurgents. It was the end of the Estado Novo, the authoritarian regime in Western Europe. East Timor was also offered independence, shortly before the Indonesian invasion of East Timor, after the 28 May 1926 coup détat, Portugal implemented an authoritarian regime of social-Catholic and Integralist inspiration. In 1933, the regime was recast and renamed Estado Novo, and Salazar was named as President of the Council of Ministers until 1968, when he suffered a stroke following a domestic accident. He was replaced in September by Marcello Caetano, who served as President of the Council of Ministers until he was deposed on 25 April 1974. In 1958, General Humberto Delgado—a former member of the regime—stood against the presidential candidate, Américo Tomás. Tomás won the election, but only amidst claims of electoral fraud that denied Delgado of his legitimate victory. Immediately after this election, Salazars government abandoned the practice of electing the president. During Caetanos time in office, his attempts at political reform were obstructed by the important Salazarist elements within the regime
11.
Diogo Freitas do Amaral
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Diogo Pinto de Freitas do Amaral, usually referred to as either Freitas do Amaral or informally Freitas or literarilly as D. Freitas do Amaral, is a Portuguese politician and law professor. He was Minister of Foreign Affairs from 12 March 2005 to 3 July 2006 and he also served briefly as Prime Minister in an interim capacity in the early 1980s. He is the third but first surviving son of Duarte de Freitas do Amaral and wife Maria Filomena de Campos Trocado, in 1974, some months after the Carnation Revolution, he was one of the Founders and President of then Democratic and Social Centre, a right-wing party. He led this party till 1985, and again from 1988 to 1991 and he served as a Deputy to the Assembly of the Republic from 1975 to 1982 or 1983, and again in 1992 and 1993. He was also a Member of the Portuguese Council of State between 1974 and 1982, after the death of Francisco Sá Carneiro, Freitas do Amaral was interim Prime Minister for a short period between 1980 and 1981. Between 1981 and 1982 he was also the President of the European Peoples Party and he was a candidate in 1985 for the presidency in the 1986 presidential election. He was President of the United Nations General Assembly in 1995, a European Federalist, he left the party he founded, disagreeing mainly with the Eurosceptic line followed by Manuel Monteiro and Paulo Portas. Always seen as a right-winger, Freitas do Amaral supported the Social Democratic Party in the election of 2002. He was subsequently nominated for Minister of State and Minister of Foreign Affairs of the XVII Constitutional Government and he resigned after a little over one year in office, citing health reasons and, as revealed to a newspaper, tiredness resulting from the many diplomatic trips taken. He was also a Juridical Consultant of many companies and he has authored a biography of King Afonso I and a play about Viriatus. He also published a study of the actuality and reform of the system in Portugal. Grand-Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic, Italy Grand-Cross of the Order of St. Afonso Henriques biografia, lisboa, Bertrand,2009 Camarate, um caso ainda em aberto, apelo de um cidadão
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Assembly of the Republic (Portugal)
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The Assembly of the Republic is the Portuguese parliament. According to the Portuguese Constitution, the unicameral Assembly is the assembly of all Portuguese citizens. The constitution names the assembly as one of the organs of supreme authority. It is located in a building in Lisbon, referred to as Palácio de São Bento. The Palácio de São Bento has been the seat of the Portuguese parliaments since 1834, the Assembly of the Republics powers derives from its power to dismiss a government through a vote of no confidence, to change the countrys laws, and to amend the constitution. The assembly also appoints members of important state institutions, such as ten of the thirteen members of the Constitutional Court. The constitution requires the assembly to review and approve an incoming governments program. Parliamentary rules allow the assembly to call for committees of inquiry to examine the governments actions, political opposition represented in the assembly has the power to review the cabinets actions, even though it is unlikely that the actions can be reversed. Party groups can also call for interpellations that require debates about specific government policies, the assembly consisted at first of 250 members, but the constitutional reforms of 1989 reduced its number to between 180 and 230. Constituencies vary greatly in size, from as large as the district of Lisbon, which returns 47 representatives, to as small as the district of Portalegre, according to the constitution, members of the assembly represent the entire country, not the constituency from which they are elected. This directive has been reinforced in practice by the role of political parties in regard to members of the assembly. Party leadership, for example, determines in which candidates are to run for office. Moreover, members of the assembly are expected to vote with their party, party discipline is strong, and insubordinate members can be coerced through a variety of means. A further obstacle to members independence is that their bills first have to be submitted to the parliamentary groups, the President of the Assembly is aided by four vice-presidents, nominated by the other parties represented in the parliament, and is usually the speaker. When he is not present, one of the vice-presidents takes the role of speaker, when the President of the Republic is, for any reason, unable to perform to job, the President of the Assembly of the Republic becomes his substitute. São Bento Palace ARtv Official website
13.
Democratic Alliance (Portugal)
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The Democratic Alliance was a centre-right political alliance in Portugal existing between 1979 and 1983. The coalition was first formed in 1979 in order to run to the December 1979 legislative election, after the death of Sá Carneiro on 4 December 1980, the coalition was unable to find a leader with his charisma. Francisco Pinto Balsemão, the incoming PSD leader, became Prime Minister, after its defeat in the municipal elections of 1982, it was disbanded in 1983. Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa led an attempt to establish a new Democratic Alliance in 1998 and it contested the 2004 European elections as Força Portugal, but was subsequently dissolved. However, both the PSD and CDS–PP later agreed to contest the 2014 European elections under a joint list called the Portugal Alliance. Francisco Sá Carneiro,1979 -1980 Diogo Freitas do Amaral,1980 -1981 Francisco Pinto Balsemão,1981 -1983 Aliança Democrática - Comissão Nacional de Eleições
14.
Social Democratic Party (Portugal)
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The Social Democratic Party, is a liberal-conservative political party in Portugal. It is commonly known by its initials, PSD, on ballot papers, its initials appear as its official form PPD/PSD. The party was founded as the Democratic Populist Party in 1974, in 1979, it allied with centre-right parties to form the Democratic Alliance, and won that years election. After the 1983 election, the party formed a coalition with the Socialist Party, known as the Central Bloc. Cavaco Silva served as Prime Minister for ten years, instituting major economic liberalisation, after he stepped down, the PSD lost the 1995 election. The party was returned to power under José Manuel Durão Barroso in 2002, the current leader, Pedro Passos Coelho, was elected on 26 March 2010, and became Prime Minister about a year later. The party won a plurality in the 2015 legislative election, winning 107 seats in Assembly of the Republic in alliance with the Peoples Party, originally a party of social democracy, the PSD became over time the major party of the centre-right in Portugal. The PSD is a member of the European Peoples Party and the Centrist Democrat International, until 1996 the PSD belonged to the European Liberal Democrat and Reform Party and the Liberal International. The party publishes the weekly Povo Livre newspaper, on 15 May, the partys first headquarters were inaugurated in Largo do Rato, Lisbon. The Povo Livre publication was founded, its first issue being published on 13 July 1974, the PPDs first major meeting was held in the Pavilhão dos Desportos, Lisbon, on 25 October, and a month later the partys first official congress took place. On 17 January 1975,6300 signatures were sent to the Supreme Court so that the party could be approved as a political entity. In 1975, the PPD applied unsuccessfully to join the Socialist International, alberto João Jardim was the co-founder of the Madeiran branch of the PSD, and governed the autonomous archipelago for decades, running as a member of the party. The Social Democratic Party participated in a number of governments in Portugal between 1974 and 1976, following the Carnation Revolution. This is seen as a period in Portuguese politics, in which political institutions were built. In 1979, the PSD formed an alliance, known as the Democratic Alliance, with the Democratic and Social Centre. The AD won the parliamentary elections towards the end of 1979, the AD increased its parliamentary majority in new elections called for 1980, but was devastated by the death of Sá Caneiro in an air crash on 4 December 1980. The Democratic Alliance was dissolved in 1983, and in elections that year. Falling short of a majority, however, the Socialists formed a coalition, known as the Central Bloc
15.
People's Monarchist Party (Portugal)
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The Peoples Monarchist Party is a political party in Portugal. It was founded in 1974 by various groups opposing the Estado Novo, currently it is a small monarchist party with little political support. In 2009, under the leadership of Câmara Pereira, the party decided to run in the elections of that year on its own, gaining no seat. The party had not been elected on its own since the dissolution of the Democratic Alliance, of which it was a part, nevertheless, under the leadership of Gonçalo Ribeiro Telles, the party was a pioneer in introducing ecological concerns into Portuguese politics. The Peoples Monarchist Party is a member of the International Monarchist Conference
16.
Portuguese legislative election, 1980
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The Portuguese legislative election of 1980 took place on 5 October. In January 1980, the Democratic Alliance, which had won the election, on 2 December 1979. However, this election was an election, and so, in 1980. 1 Republican and Socialist Front results are compared to the totals of the Socialist Party in the 1979 election. Comissão Nacional de Eleições Centro de Estudos do Pensamento Político Politics of Portugal List of political parties in Portugal Elections in Portugal
17.
1980 Camarate air crash
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Initial investigations concluded the incident was an accident, but later parliamentary investigations found evidence of a bomb beneath the cockpit. After the 15-year statute of limitations took effect, several people came forward confessing involvement, following the 1974 Carnation Revolution, Francisco de Sá Carneiro had been elected Prime Minister on 3 January 1980, and Adelino Amaro da Costa became the first civilian Defense Minister. They were on their way to an election rally three days before the Portuguese presidential election,1981, da Costa had chartered a Cessna for the trip, Sá Carneiro had intended to travel by other means, and joined the trip at the last minute. The Cessna 421A Golden Eagle, a private aircraft chartered by da Costa, witnesses saw the aircraft trailing debris before hitting high-voltage power lines and crashing in a fireball. The incident was subject to many investigations, the initial investigation by the aviation authority concluded the crash was an accident caused by a lack of fuel in one of the tanks. The final police report in 1981 ruled out criminal actions, in 1983 the Attorney General suspended the investigation. Parliamentary investigations in 1990 and 1991 did not lead to a re-opening of the case, but after the parliamentary inquiry in 1995. After interviewing José Esteves, who said he had manufactured a device for the attack. In 1998 a district judge in the L. R. private prosecution reaffirmed that the incident had been an accident. An attempt to re-open the case against L. R. in 2001 on grounds of new evidence was judged time-barred. The Court concluded in 2011 that the substance of their right of access to a court had not been impaired by any negligence or failure to act on the part of the competent authorities,2001 also saw the release of Camarate, acidente ou atentado. A film on the subject by Luis Filipe Rocha, in 2004 the 8th parliamentary inquiry into the affair, headed by Nuno Melo concluded in its unanimous final report that the incident had been caused by an explosive device on the aircraft. In 2006 former security agent José Esteves confessed to manufacturing an explosive device intended for an attack on da Costas plane. He said the intention had been for the device to cause a fire prior to take-off, permitting the occupants to evacuate safely, Esteves said his device had been a firebomb using potassium chlorate, sugar and sulfuric acid. In 2013 Esteves told the parliamentary X Commission that in planning the operation he had told that the newly elected Democratic Alliance government was causing problems with weapons sales. In 2010 Diogo de Freitas do Amaral, who became interim Prime Minister after the crash. Farinha Simões said he had been tasked by the US Central Intelligence Agency with the operation, at a cost of $750,000 and he said that of this $200,000 had been passed on to José Esteves for his bomb-making services. Camarate, um caso ainda em aberto, apelo de um cidadão, ISBN9789722522434 Sá Fernandes, Ricardo,2001
18.
Porto
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Porto is the second largest city in Portugal after Lisbon and one of the major urban areas of the Iberian Peninsula. The urban area of Porto, which extends beyond the limits of the city, has a population of 2.1 million in an area of 389 km2. It is recognized as a global city by the Globalization and World Cities Study Group. Located along the Douro river estuary in Northern Portugal, Porto is one of the oldest European centres, the western part of its urban area extends to the coastline of the Atlantic Ocean. Its settlement dates back centuries, when it was an outpost of the Roman Empire. Its combined Celtic-Latin name, Portus Cale, has referred to as the origin of the name Portugal, based on transliteration. In Portuguese, the name of the city is spelled with a definite article, consequently, its English name evolved from a misinterpretation of the oral pronunciation and referred to as Oporto in modern literature and by many speakers. In 2014 and 2017, Porto was elected The Best European Destination by the Best European Destinations Agency, the history of Porto dates back to around 300 BC with Proto-Celtic and Celtic people being the first known inhabitants. Ruins of that period have been discovered in several areas, during the Roman occupation of the Iberian Peninsula the city developed as an important commercial port, primarily in the trade between Olissipona and Bracara Augusta. Porto fell under the control of the Moors during the invasion of the Iberian Peninsula in 711. In 868, Vímara Peres, a warlord from Gallaecia, and this included the area from the Minho to the Douro River, the settlement of Portus Cale and the area that is known as Vila Nova de Gaia. Portus Cale, later referred to as Portucale, was the origin for the name of Portugal. In 868, Count Vímara Peres established the County of Portugal, or, in 1387, Porto was the site of the marriage of John I of Portugal and Philippa of Lancaster, daughter of John of Gaunt, this symbolized a long-standing military alliance between Portugal and England. The Portuguese-English alliance, is the worlds oldest recorded military alliance, in the 14th and the 15th centuries, Portos shipyards contributed to the development of Portuguese shipbuilding. It was also from the port of Porto that, in 1415, Prince Henry the Navigator embarked on the conquest of the Moorish port of Ceuta, wine, produced in the Douro valley, was already in the 13th century transported to Porto in barcos rabelos. In 1703, the Methuen Treaty established the relations between Portugal and England. In 1717, a first English trading post was established in Porto, the production of port wine then gradually passed into the hands of a few English firms. To counter this English dominance, Prime Minister Marquis of Pombal established a Portuguese firm receiving the monopoly of the wines from the Douro valley
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Portuguese presidential election, 1980
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The Portuguese presidential election of 1980 was held on 7 December. The Communist Party of the Portuguese Workers also gave support to Eanes, whose picture became a feature on numerous walls around the country, painted by Communist Party activists. One of the players in the democratic revolution of 1974, Otelo Saraiva de Carvalho, was also a candidate, for the second time. The newly founded Workers Party of Socialist Unity presented its own candidate and his main opponent, General Soares Carneiro, was known for his right-wing views and was branded by opponents as a hardliner, with links to the dictatotial regime overthrown only six years before. He was supported by the Democratic Alliance, a coalition comprising the Social Democratic Party the Democratic Social Center. Any Portuguese citizen over 35 years old has the opportunity to run for president, in order to do so it is necessary to gather between 7500 and 15000 signatures and submit them to the Portuguese Constitutional Court. According to the Portuguese Constitution, to be elected, a candidate needs a majority of votes, if no candidate gets this majority there will take place a second round between the two most voted candidates. Centro de Estudos do Pensamento Político
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Grand Cross
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Grand Cross is the highest class in many orders, and manifested in its insignia. Exceptionally, the highest class may be referred to as Grand Cordon or equivalent, in other cases, the rank of Grand Cross may come after another even higher rank, e. g. In rare cases, solely the actual insignia is referred to as the grand cross, in international relations, in many times the class of Grand Cross is typically reserved for royalty, heads of state and equivalent. Sometimes a holder of the highest class or grade are referred to as Commander Grand Cross and this stands in contrast to the typical practice in other countries where knighthood is conferred at the initial, lowest rank of the order, typically Knight
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Loures
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Loures is a city and a municipality in the central Portuguese Grande Lisboa Subregion. It is situated to the north of Lisbon and it was created on 26 July 1886 by a royal decree. The population in 2011 was 199,494, in an area of 167.24 km² and it borders the municipalities of Odivelas, Sintra, Mafra, Arruda dos Vinhos, Vila Franca de Xira and Lisbon. The city itself had a population of 15,967 in 2001, the municipality is basically divided in three areas, the rustic one, to the north, the urban one, to the south and the urban-industrial, to the east. In this eastern area, the ten local parishes claim to be independent from Loures and this struggle dates from the beginnings of the Portuguese Republic, and has a very strong support among the local population. Loures was a Roman settlement back at the beginning of the 1st millennium, after the Romans, the Visigoths began occupying the territory, followed by the Moors. The parish of Loures was first mentioned in 1118, and again in 1191, along with the parishes of Unhose, at the time the region was mainly agricultural, and involved in small export trade, that included the cultivation of lettuce. The first written document appeared in 1170, written by Afonso Henriques, in 1178, King Sancho I of Portugal having discovered that the Moors of Lisbon were allied to groups in Loures, and came to the territory with a Templar force to confront those peoples. Following the defeat of the Moors, the King transferred the region to the Knights Templar, the extinction of Templars in 1311, opened the way for the expropriation of lands and property by the Pope. King Denis of Portugal, on the hand, proposed the creation in Portugal of a new Order to replace the Templars that would be the recipient of these assets. In addition to the settlement, the village of Montemor. The Chapel of Nossa Senhora da Saúde was built during this era, in 1598, the Plague devastated the capital, fleeing the contagion, many of urban residents escaped into the country to the elevated villages, which they assumed protected them from the disease. A myth developed for successive generations of the influence of the patron. By the 19th century, between 1832 and 1834, cholera spread throughout the region, and the people of Loures, once again, owing to their fears, the image of the saint was removed from Montemor, and paraded through Loures in procession. It remained in the altar of the Church of Loures until the threat had passed, Loures was elevated to the status of town on 26 October 1926, under decree 12/543, and later city on 9 August 1990, under decree 35/90. In 1997 Odivelas and six parishes were separated to form Odivelas Municipality
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Conspiracy theory
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Conspiracy theories often produce hypotheses that contradict the prevailing understanding of history or simple facts. The term is a derogatory one, people formulate conspiracy theories to explain, for example, power relations in social groups and the perceived existence of evil forces. Conspiracy theories have chiefly psychological or socio-political origins, some people prefer socio-political explanations over the insecurity of encountering random, unpredictable, or otherwise inexplicable events. Some philosophers have argued that belief in conspiracy theories can be rational, the Oxford English Dictionary defines conspiracy theory as the theory that an event or phenomenon occurs as a result of a conspiracy between interested parties, spec. A belief that some covert but influential agency is responsible for an unexplained event, as a neutral term, conspiracy is derived from Latin con- and spirare. In many respects, they have a right to be angry, the phrase conspiracy theory is not neutral. It is value-laden and carries with it condemnation, ridicule, and it is a lot like the word cult, which we use to describe religions we do not like. Clare Birchall at Kings College London describes conspiracy theory as a form of knowledge or interpretation. By acquiring the knowledge, conspiracy theory is considered alongside more legitimate modes of knowing. The relationship between legitimate and illegitimate knowledge, Birchall claims, is far closer than common dismissals of conspiracy theory would have us believe, other popular knowledge might include alien abduction narratives, gossip, some new age philosophies, religious beliefs, and astrology. Harry G. West discusses conspiracy theories as a part of American popular culture, comparing them to hypernationalism, some theories have dealt with censorship and excoriation from the law such as the Holocaust denial. Currently, conspiracy theories are present on the Web in the form of blogs and YouTube videos. Whether the Web has increased the prevalence of conspiracy theories or not is a research question. By contrast, the term Watergate conspiracy theory is used to refer to a variety of hypotheses in which those convicted in the conspiracy were in fact the victims of a deeper conspiracy. In criminal law, a conspiracy is an agreement between two or more persons to commit a crime at some time in the future, as one basic American police academy text defines it, When a crime requires a large number of people, a conspiracy is formed. Conspiracy theory examines the actions of secretive coalitions of individuals. S, sociologist Türkay Salim Nefes underlines the political nature of conspiracy theories. He suggests that one of the most important characteristics of these accounts is their attempt to unveil the real, according to Barkun, the appeal of conspiracism is threefold, First, conspiracy theories claim to explain what institutional analysis cannot. They appear to sense out of a world that is otherwise confusing
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Cabal
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The use of this term usually carries strong connotations of shadowy corners, back rooms and insidious influence. The term is used in conspiracy theories, some Masonic theories describe Freemasonry as an internationalist secret cabal. The term cabal derives from Cabala, the Jewish mystical interpretation of the Hebrew scripture, in Hebrew it means reception or tradition, denoting the sod level of Jewish exegesis. In European culture it became associated with occult doctrine or a secret, nor did Buckingham and Ashley get on very well with each other. The computer game company Valve Corporation uses Cabal Rooms when working on specific areas of projects, the Conficker Cabal is a team of specialists working to defeat the Conficker computer worm, including several notable computer security specialists. In Haskell programming language there is a manager called cabal, used to download. Adolescent cliques Clique Club Collusion Cronyism Cult Gang Group narcissism Nepotism Elitism Mobbing Social group The Establishment
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Deception
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Deception, beguilement, deceit, bluff, mystification, ruse, and subterfuge is the act of propagating beliefs in things that are not true, or not the whole truth. Deception can involve dissimulation, propaganda, and sleight of hand, as well as distraction, camouflage, there is also self-deception, as in bad faith. Deception is a relational transgression that often leads to feelings of betrayal. Deception violates relational rules and is considered to be a violation of expectations. Most people expect friends, relational partners, and even strangers to be truthful most of the time, if people expected most conversations to be untruthful, talking and communicating with others would require distraction and misdirection to acquire reliable information. A significant amount of deception occurs between romantic and relational partners, Deceit and dishonesty can also form grounds for civil litigation in tort, or contract law, or give rise to criminal prosecution for fraud. It also forms a part of psychological warfare in Denial. Deception includes several types of communications or omissions that serve to distort or omit the complete truth, examples of deception range from false statements to misleading claims in which relevant information is omitted, leading the receiver to infer false conclusions. Deception itself is intentionally managing verbal and/or nonverbal messages so that the receiver will believe in a way that the message sender knows is false. Intent is critical with regard to deception, intent differentiates between deception and an honest mistake. The Interpersonal Deception Theory explores the interrelation between communicative context and sender and receiver cognitions and behaviors in deceptive exchanges, some forms of deception include, Lies, making up information or giving information that is the opposite or very different from the truth. Equivocations, making an indirect, ambiguous, or contradictory statement, concealments, omitting information that is important or relevant to the given context, or engaging in behavior that helps hide relevant information. Exaggerations, overstatement or stretching the truth to a degree, understatements, minimization or downplaying aspects of the truth. Many people believe that they are good at deception, though this confidence is often misplaced, while it is difficult to deceive a partner over a long period of time, deception often occurs in day-to-day conversations between relational partners. Detecting deception is difficult because there are no completely reliable indicators of deception. Deception, however, places a significant cognitive load on the deceiver and he or she must recall previous statements so that his or her story remains consistent and believable. As a result, deceivers often leak important information both verbally and nonverbally, Deception and its detection is a complex, fluid, and cognitive process that is based on the context of the message exchange. A deceivers actions are interrelated to the message receivers actions and it is during this exchange that the deceiver will reveal verbal and nonverbal information about deceit
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Espionage
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Espionage is the obtaining of information considered secret or confidential without the permission of the holder of the information. Espionage can be committed by an individual or a spy ring, in the service of a government or a company, the practice is inherently clandestine, as it is by definition unwelcome and in many cases illegal and punishable by law. Espionage is a subset of intelligence gathering, which includes espionage as well as information gathering from public sources, Espionage is often part of an institutional effort by a government or commercial concern. However, the term is associated with state spying on potential or actual enemies primarily for military purposes. Spying involving corporations is known as industrial espionage, one of the most effective ways to gather data and information about the enemy is by infiltrating the enemys ranks. This is the job of the spy, Spies can bring back all sorts of information concerning the size and strength of enemy forces. They can also find dissidents within the forces and influence them to defect. In times of crisis, spies can also be used to steal technology, counterintelligence operatives can feed false information to enemy spies, protecting important domestic secrets, and preventing attempts at subversion. Nearly every country has strict laws concerning espionage, and the penalty for being caught is often severe. However, the benefits that can be gained through espionage are generally great enough that most governments, events involving espionage are well documented throughout history. The Old Testament of the Christian Bible, which is based primarily on the Hebrew Bible, speaks about Joshua and Caleb, the ancient writings of Chinese and Indian military strategists such as Sun-Tzu and Chanakya contain information on deception and subversion. Chanakyas student Chandragupta Maurya, founder of the Maurya Empire in India, made use of assassinations, spies and secret agents, the ancient Egyptians had a thoroughly developed system for the acquisition of intelligence, and the Hebrews used spies as well, as in the story of Rahab. Spies were also prevalent in the Greek and Roman empires, during the 13th and 14th centuries, the Mongols relied heavily on espionage in their conquests in Asia and Europe. Feudal Japan often used ninjas to gather intelligence, aztecs used Pochtecas, people in charge of commerce, as spies and diplomats, and had diplomatic immunity. Many modern espionage methods were established by Francis Walsingham in Elizabethan England, in 1585, Mary, Queen of Scots was placed in the custody of Sir Amias Paulet, who was instructed to open and read all of Marys clandestine correspondence. In a successful attempt to expose her, Walsingham arranged a single exception, Mary was misled into thinking these secret letters were secure, while in reality they were deciphered and read by Walsinghams agents. He succeeded in intercepting letters that indicated a conspiracy to displace Elizabeth I with Mary, in foreign intelligence, Walsinghams extensive network of intelligencers, who passed on general news as well as secrets, spanned Europe and the Mediterranean. While foreign intelligence was a part of the principal secretarys activities, Walsingham brought to it flair and ambition
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Secrecy
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Secrecy is the practice of hiding information from certain individuals or groups who do not have the need to know, perhaps while sharing it with other individuals. That which is hidden is known as the secret. Secrecy is often controversial, depending on the content or nature of the secret, the group or people keeping the secret, and it is often contrasted with social transparency. Animals conceal the location of their den or nest from predators, squirrels bury nuts, hiding them, and they try to remember their locations later. Humans attempt to conceal aspects of themselves from others due to shame, or from fear of violence, rejection, harassment, loss of acceptance. Humans may also attempt to conceal aspects of their own self which they are not capable of incorporating psychologically into their conscious being, families sometimes maintain family secrets, obliging family members never to discuss disagreeable issues concerning the family with outsiders or sometimes even within the family. Many family secrets are maintained by using a mutually agreed-upon construct when speaking with outside members, agreement to maintain the secret is often coerced through shaming and reference to family honor. The information may even be something as trivial as a recipe, Secrets are sometimes kept to provide the pleasure of surprise. This includes keeping secret about a party, not telling spoilers of a story. Keeping ones strategy secret is important in aspects of game theory. In anthropology secret sharing is one way for men and women to establish relations with other men and women. A commonly used narrative that describes this kind of behavior is Joseph Conrads short story The Secret Sharer, governments often attempt to conceal information from other governments and the public. These state secrets can include weapon designs, military plans, diplomatic negotiation tactics, most nations have some form of Official Secrets Act and classify material according to the level of protection needed. An individual needs a security clearance for access and other protection methods, few people dispute the desirability of keeping Critical Nuclear Weapon Design Information secret, but many believe government secrecy to be excessive and too often employed for political purposes. Many countries have laws that attempt to limit government secrecy, such as the U. S, freedom of Information Act and sunshine laws. Government officials sometimes leak information they are supposed to keep secret, Secrecy in elections is a growing issue, particularly secrecy of vote counts on computerized vote counting machines. While voting, citizens are acting in a sovereign or owner capacity in selecting their government servants. It is argued that secrecy is impermissible as against the public in the area of elections where the government gets all of its power, in any event, permissible secrecy varies significantly with the context involved
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Secret society
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A secret society is a club or an organization whose activities, events, and inner functioning are concealed from non-members. The society may or may not attempt to conceal its existence, the term usually excludes covert groups, such as intelligence agencies or guerrilla insurgencies, that hide their activities and memberships but maintain a public presence. Anthropologically and historically, secret societies are deeply interlinked with the concept of the Männerbund, a purported family tree of secret societies has been proposed, although it may not be comprehensive. Alan Axelrod, author of the International Encyclopedia of Secret Societies and Fraternal Orders, defines a secret society as an organization that, shows a strong inclination to favor its own. David V. Barrett, author of Secret Societies, From the Ancient and Arcane to the Modern and Clandestine, uses slightly different terms to define what does and does not qualify as a secret society. Barrett goes on to say that a characteristic common to most of them is the practice of rituals which non-members are not permitted to observe. Because some secret societies have political aims, they are illegal in several countries, poland, for example, has included a ban on secret political parties and political organizations in its constitution. Many student societies established on university campuses in the United States have been considered secret societies, perhaps one of the most famous secret collegiate societies is Skull and Bones at Yale University. One of the best known British secret societies is the Cambridge Apostles, founded as an essay, in France, Vandermonde is the secret society of the Conservatoire National des Arts et Métiers. Notable examples in Canada include Episkopon at the University of Torontos Trinity College, Secret societies are disallowed in a few colleges. The goals of the society remain unknown, but it is believed that they are involved in cryptography, the International Encyclopedia of Secret Societies and Fraternal Orders. Secret Societies in America, The North American Review, Vol.164, conspiracy Theories and Secret Societies For Dummies. Geheimgesellschaften, Kulturhistorische Sozialstudien, Secret Societies, Comparative Studies in Culture, Society, the Mythology of the Secret Societies. Pledged, The Secret Life of Sororities, New York, Hamilton Printing & Publishing Company. Secret Places, Hidden Sanctuaries, Uncovering Mysterious Sights, Symbols, a comprehensive, though dated, review of the subject. Useful histories of Secret Societies in Australia and of Rise and Fall of English Freemasonry on non-commercial site <www. fraternalsecrets. org>
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Urban legend
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These legends can be used for entertainment purposes, as well as for semi-serious explanations for random events such as disappearances and strange objects. Despite its name, an urban legend does not necessarily originate in an urban area, rather, the term is used to differentiate modern legend from traditional folklore of pre-industrial times. For this reason, sociologists and folklorists prefer the contemporary legend. Because people frequently allege that such tales happened to a friend of a friend, Urban legends are spread by any media, including newspapers, e-mail and social media. In America in 1938 a radio dramatization of The War of the Worlds supposedly caused mass panic, in 2005, a widespread legend claimed that a large percentage of people have a biological father who is not their assumed father. Some urban legends have passed through the years only minor changes to suit regional variations. More recent legends tend to reflect modern circumstances, like the story of people ambushed and anesthetized, who awaken minus one kidney, the term urban legend, as used by folklorists, has appeared in print since at least 1968. Jan Harold Brunvand, professor of English at the University of Utah, many urban legends are framed as complete stories with plot and characters. The compelling appeal of an urban legend is its elements of mystery, horror. Often they serve as cautionary tales, some urban legends are morality tales that depict someone, usually a child, acting in a disagreeable manner, only to wind up in trouble, hurt, or dead. As Jan Brunvand points out antecedent legends including some of the motifs, themes, the teller of an urban legend may claim it happened to a friend, which serves to personalize, authenticate and enhance the power of the narrative while distancing the teller. Many urban legends depict horrific crimes, contaminated foods, or other situations which would affect many people. Anyone believing such stories might feel compelled to warn loved ones, not seldom, news organizations, school officials and even police departments have issued warnings concerning the latest threat. A fax received at the Nassau County, Florida fire department was forwarded to police, even the Minister of Defence for Canada was taken in by the same legend, he forwarded an urgent security warning to all Ontario Members of Parliament. Many urban legends are essentially extended jokes, told as if they were true events, persistent urban legends often maintain a degree of plausibility, for instance a serial killer deliberately hiding in the back seat of a car. One such example since the 1970s has been the rumor that the Procter & Gamble Company was associated with Satan-worshippers because of details within its nineteenth-century trademark. The legend interrupted the companys business to the point that it stopped using the trademark, the coinage leads in turn to the terms FOAFlore and FOAFtale. Here the authors make a connection between urban legends and popular folklore, such as Grimms Fairy Tales where similar themes and motifs arise
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Cognitive dissonance
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In other words, the term refers to the perception of incompatibility of two simultaneous cognitions, which can impact on their attitudes. Leon Festingers 1957 theory of cognitive dissonance focuses on how human beings strive for internal consistency, to function in modern society, humans continually adjust the correspondence of their attitudes and actions, which adjustments result in one of three relationships among cognitions and actions. Ratio of cognitions, The proportion of dissonant-to-consonant elements, the psychological pressure to reduce cognitive dissonance is a function of the magnitude of the dissonance. Cognitive Dissonance Theory is founded upon the presumption that people seek psychological consistency between their expectations and the reality of life and this is integral to categorize a scheme of stereotypes about each category of person. These include prejudices—generalized negative beliefs, ideals, and values held about the category of a person causing the cognitive dissonance—in a given social interaction. At the determined place and time, the assembled, they believed that only they would survive planetary destruction. The disconfirmed prophecy caused them acute cognitive-dissonance, Had they been victims of a hoax, had they vainly donated away their material possessions. Moreover, upon overcoming the disconfirmed belief by changing to global environmentalism, the tasks were designed to induce a strong, negative, mental attitude in the subjects. One group of subjects were paid twenty dollars, a group were paid one dollar. The researchers, Festinger and Carlsmith, proposed that the subjects experienced dissonance, and I actually found it boring. Moreover, the subjects paid one-dollar were induced to comply, compelled to internalize the interesting task mental attitude, in the experiment, children were left in a room with a variety of toys, including a greatly desirable steam shovel, the forbidden toy. All of the children refrained from playing with the forbidden toy, the children threatened with mild punishment had to justify, to themselves, why they did not play with the forbidden toy. Without music in the background, the group of four-year-old children were told to avoid playing with a forbidden toy. In that group, the children did not later devalue the forbidden toy, the researchers, Nobuo Masataka and Leonid Perlovsky, concluded that music might inhibit cognitions that reduce cognitive dissonance. In an experiment conducted by Jack Brehm,225 female students rated a series of common, domestic appliances, a second round of ratings indicated that the participants increased their ratings of the domestic appliance they chose, and lowered their ratings of the appliances they rejected. This can be explained in terms of cognitive dissonance, when making a difficult decision, there are always aspects of the rejected choice that one finds appealing and these features are dissonant with choosing something else. In other words, the cognition, I chose X is dissonant with the cognition, more recent research has found similar results in four-year-old children and capuchin monkeys. In addition to internal deliberations, the structuring of decisions among other individuals may play a role in how an individual acts, researchers in a 2013 study examined social preferences and norms as related, in a linear manner, to wage giving among three individuals
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Confirmation bias
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Confirmation bias, also called confirmatory bias or myside bias, is the tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms ones preexisting beliefs or hypotheses. It is a type of bias and a systematic error of inductive reasoning. People display this bias when they gather or remember information selectively, the effect is stronger for emotionally charged issues and for deeply entrenched beliefs. People also tend to interpret ambiguous evidence as supporting their existing position, biased search, interpretation and memory have been invoked to explain attitude polarization, belief perseverance, the irrational primacy effect and illusory correlation. A series of experiments in the 1960s suggested that people are biased toward confirming their existing beliefs, later work re-interpreted these results as a tendency to test ideas in a one-sided way, focusing on one possibility and ignoring alternatives. In certain situations, this tendency can bias peoples conclusions, explanations for the observed biases include wishful thinking and the limited human capacity to process information. Another explanation is that people show confirmation bias because they are weighing up the costs of being wrong, rather than investigating in a neutral, confirmation biases contribute to overconfidence in personal beliefs and can maintain or strengthen beliefs in the face of contrary evidence. Poor decisions due to these biases have been found in political and organizational contexts, confirmation biases are effects in information processing. Others apply the more broadly to the tendency to preserve ones existing beliefs when searching for evidence, interpreting it. Experiments have found repeatedly that people tend to test hypotheses in a one-sided way, rather than searching through all the relevant evidence, they phrase questions to receive an affirmative answer that supports their theory. They look for the consequences that they would expect if their hypothesis were true, for example, someone using yes/no questions to find a number he or she suspects to be the number 3 might ask, Is it an odd number. People prefer this type of question, called a positive test, would yield exactly the same information. However, this does not mean that people seek tests that guarantee a positive answer, in studies where subjects could select either such pseudo-tests or genuinely diagnostic ones, they favored the genuinely diagnostic. The preference for positive tests in itself is not a bias, however, in combination with other effects, this strategy can confirm existing beliefs or assumptions, independently of whether they are true. In real-world situations, evidence is often complex and mixed, for example, various contradictory ideas about someone could each be supported by concentrating on one aspect of his or her behavior. Thus any search for evidence in favor of a hypothesis is likely to succeed, one illustration of this is the way the phrasing of a question can significantly change the answer. For example, people who are asked, Are you happy with your social life, report greater satisfaction than those asked, Are you unhappy with your social life. Even a small change in a questions wording can affect how people search through available information and this was shown using a fictional child custody case
