1.
Pre-Columbian era
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For this reason the alternative terms of Precontact Americas, Pre-Colonial Americas or Prehistoric Americas are also in use. In areas of Latin America the term used is Pre-Hispanic. Other civilizations were contemporary with the period and were described in European historical accounts of the time. A few, such as the Maya civilization, had their own written records, because many Christian Europeans of the time viewed such texts as heretical, men like Diego de Landa destroyed many texts in pyres, even while seeking to preserve native histories. Only a few documents have survived in their original languages, while others were transcribed or dictated into Spanish, giving modern historians glimpses of ancient culture. Indigenous American cultures continue to evolve after the pre-Columbian era, many of these peoples and their descendants continue traditional practices, while evolving and adapting new cultural practices and technologies into their lives. Now, the study of pre-Columbian cultures is most often based on scientific. Asian nomads are thought to have entered the Americas via the Bering Land Bridge, now the Bering Strait, genetic evidence found in Amerindians maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA supports the theory of multiple genetic populations migrating from Asia. Over the course of millennia, Paleo-Indians spread throughout North and South America, exactly when the first group of people migrated into the Americas is the subject of much debate. One of the earliest identifiable cultures was the Clovis culture, with sites dating from some 13,000 years ago, however, older sites dating back to 20,000 years ago have been claimed. Some genetic studies estimate the colonization of the Americas dates from between 40,000 and 13,000 years ago, the chronology of migration models is currently divided into two general approaches. The first is the short chronology theory with the first movement beyond Alaska into the New World occurring no earlier than 14, 000–17,000 years ago, followed by successive waves of immigrants. The second belief is the long chronology theory, which proposes that the first group of people entered the hemisphere at an earlier date, possibly 50. In that case, the Eskimo peoples would have arrived separately and at a later date, probably no more than 2,000 years ago. The North American climate was unstable as the ice age receded and it finally stabilized by about 10,000 years ago, climatic conditions were then very similar to todays. Within this timeframe, roughly pertaining to the Archaic Period, numerous archaeological cultures have been identified, the unstable climate led to widespread migration, with early Paleo-Indians soon spreading throughout the Americas, diversifying into many hundreds of culturally distinct tribes. The paleo-indians were hunter-gatherers, likely characterized by small, mobile bands consisting of approximately 20 to 50 members of an extended family and these groups moved from place to place as preferred resources were depleted and new supplies were sought. During much of the Paleo-Indian period, bands are thought to have subsisted primarily through hunting now-extinct giant land animals such as mastodon, Paleo-Indian groups carried a variety of tools
2.
Native Americans in the United States
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In the United States, Native Americans are people descended from the Pre-Columbian indigenous population of the land within the countrys modern boundaries. These peoples were composed of distinct tribes, bands, and ethnic groups. Most Native American groups had historically preserved their histories by oral traditions and artwork, at the time of first contact, the indigenous cultures were quite different from those of the proto-industrial and mostly Christian immigrants. Some of the Northeastern and Southwestern cultures in particular were matrilineal, the majority of Indigenous American tribes maintained their hunting grounds and agricultural lands for use of the entire tribe. Europeans at that time had patriarchal cultures and had developed concepts of property rights with respect to land that were extremely different. Assimilation became a consistent policy through American administrations, during the 19th century, the ideology of manifest destiny became integral to the American nationalist movement. Expansion of European-American populations to the west after the American Revolution resulted in increasing pressure on Native American lands and this resulted in the ethnic cleansing of many tribes, with the brutal, forced marches coming to be known as The Trail of Tears. As American expansion reached into the West, settler and miner migrants came into increasing conflict with the Great Basin, Great Plains and these were complex nomadic cultures based on horse culture and seasonal bison hunting. Over time, the United States forced a series of treaties and land cessions by the tribes, in 1924, Native Americans who were not already U. S. citizens were granted citizenship by Congress. Contemporary Native Americans have a relationship with the United States because they may be members of nations, tribes. The terms used to refer to Native Americans have at times been controversial, by comparison, the indigenous peoples of Canada are generally known as First Nations. It is not definitively known how or when the Native Americans first settled the Americas and these early inhabitants, called Paleoamericans, soon diversified into many hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes. The archaeological periods used are the classifications of archaeological periods and cultures established in Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips 1958 book Method and they divided the archaeological record in the Americas into five phases, see Archaeology of the Americas. The Clovis culture, a hunting culture, is primarily identified by use of fluted spear points. Artifacts from this culture were first excavated in 1932 near Clovis, the Clovis culture ranged over much of North America and also appeared in South America. The culture is identified by the distinctive Clovis point, a flaked flint spear-point with a notched flute, dating of Clovis materials has been by association with animal bones and by the use of carbon dating methods. Recent reexaminations of Clovis materials using improved carbon-dating methods produced results of 11,050 and 10,800 radiocarbon years B. P, other tribes have stories that recount migrations across long tracts of land and a great river, believed to be the Mississippi River. Genetic and linguistic data connect the people of this continent with ancient northeast Asians
3.
Woodland period
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The term Woodland Period was introduced in the 1930s as a generic term for prehistoric sites falling between the Archaic hunter-gatherers and the agriculturalist Mississippian cultures. The Eastern Woodlands cultural region covers what is now eastern Canada south of the Subarctic region and this period is variously considered a developmental stage, a time period, a suite of technological adaptations or traits, and a family tree of cultures related to earlier Archaic cultures. Many Woodland peoples used spears and atlatls until the end of the period, the most cited technological distinction of this period was the widespread use of pottery, and the diversification of pottery forms, decorations, and manufacturing practices. Intensive agriculture characterizes the Mississippian period from ca, 1000-1400 CE and may have continued up to European contact, around 500 years ago. Eastern Woodlands lived in wigwams and longhouses, clay for pottery was typically tempered with grit or limestone. Pots were usually made in a conoidal or conical jars with rounded shoulders, slightly constricted necks, pots were coiled and paddled entirely by hand without the use of fast rotation such as a pottery wheel. Some were slipped or brushed with red ochre, pottery, agriculture, and permanent settlements have often been thought of the three defining characteristics of the Woodland period. Nevertheless, these sites were typical Archaic settlements, differing only in the use of basic ceramic technology. Most of these are evident in the Southeastern United States by 1000 BCE, in some areas, like South Carolina and coastal Georgia, Deptford culture pottery manufacture ceased after ca.700 CE. In coastal regions, many settlements were near the coast, often near salt marshes, people tended to settle along rivers and lakes in both coastal and interior regions for maximum access to food resources. Most groups relied heavily on white-tailed deer, but a variety of small and large mammals were hunted also, including beaver, raccoon. Shellfish formed an important part of the diet, attested to by numerous shell middens along the coast, seasonal foraging also characterized the strategies of many interior populations, with groups moving strategically among dense resource areas. Recently evidence has accumulated of a reliance of woodland peoples on cultivation in this period, at least in some localities. This is especially true for the middle period and perhaps beyond. C. Margaret Scarry states in the Woodland periods, people diversified their use of plant foods, increased their consumption of starchy foods. They did so, however, by cultivating starchy seeds rather than by gathering more acorns, smith and Yarnell refer to an indigenous crop complex as early as 3800 B. P. in parts of the region. The beginning of the Middle Woodland saw a shift of settlement to the Interior, as the Woodland period progressed, local and inter-regional trade of exotic materials greatly increased to the point where a trade network covered most of the Eastern United States. Throughout the Southeast and north of the Ohio River, burial mounds of important people were very elaborate and contained a variety of mortuary gifts, the most archaeologically certifiable sites of burial during this time were in Illinois and Ohio
4.
Ohio
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Ohio /oʊˈhaɪ. oʊ/ is a Midwestern state in the Great Lakes region of the United States. Ohio is the 34th largest by area, the 7th most populous, the states capital and largest city is Columbus. The state takes its name from the Ohio River, the name originated from the Iroquois word ohi-yo’, meaning great river or large creek. Partitioned from the Northwest Territory, the state was admitted to the Union as the 17th state on March 1,1803, Ohio is historically known as the Buckeye State after its Ohio buckeye trees, and Ohioans are also known as Buckeyes. Ohio occupies 16 seats in the United States House of Representatives, Ohio is known for its status as both a swing state and a bellwether in national elections. Six Presidents of the United States have been elected who had Ohio as their home state, Ohios geographic location has proven to be an asset for economic growth and expansion. Because Ohio links the Northeast to the Midwest, much cargo, Ohio has the nations 10th largest highway network, and is within a one-day drive of 50% of North Americas population and 70% of North Americas manufacturing capacity. To the north, Lake Erie gives Ohio 312 miles of coastline, Ohios southern border is defined by the Ohio River, and much of the northern border is defined by Lake Erie. Ohios neighbors are Pennsylvania to the east, Michigan to the northwest, Ontario Canada, to the north, Indiana to the west, Kentucky on the south, Ohio is bounded by the Ohio River, but nearly all of the river itself belongs to Kentucky and West Virginia. Ohio has only that portion of the river between the rivers 1792 low-water mark and the present high-water mark, the border with Michigan has also changed, as a result of the Toledo War, to angle slightly northeast to the north shore of the mouth of the Maumee River. Much of Ohio features glaciated plains, with a flat area in the northwest being known as the Great Black Swamp. Most of Ohio is of low relief, but the unglaciated Allegheny Plateau features rugged hills, in 1965 the United States Congress passed the Appalachian Regional Development Act, at attempt to address the persistent poverty and growing economic despair of the Appalachian Region. This act defines 29 Ohio counties as part of Appalachia, the worst weather disaster in Ohio history occurred along the Great Miami River in 1913. Known as the Great Dayton Flood, the entire Miami River watershed flooded, as a result, the Miami Conservancy District was created as the first major flood plain engineering project in Ohio and the United States. Grand Lake St. Marys in the west central part of the state was constructed as a supply of water for canals in the era of 1820–1850. For many years this body of water, over 20 square miles, was the largest artificial lake in the world and it should be noted that Ohios canal-building projects were not the economic fiasco that similar efforts were in other states. Some cities, such as Dayton, owe their emergence to location on canals. Summers are typically hot and humid throughout the state, while winters generally range from cool to cold, precipitation in Ohio is moderate year-round
5.
Indiana
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Indiana /ɪndiˈænə/ is a U. S. state located in the midwestern and Great Lakes regions of North America. Indiana is the 38th largest by area and the 16th most populous of the 50 United States and its capital and largest city is Indianapolis. Indiana was admitted to the United States as the 19th U. S. state on December 11,1816, before becoming a territory, varying cultures of indigenous peoples and historic Native Americans inhabited Indiana for thousands of years. Indiana has an economy with a gross state product of $298 billion in 2012. Indiana has several areas with populations greater than 100,000. The states name means Land of the Indians, or simply Indian Land and it also stems from Indianas territorial history. On May 7,1800, the United States Congress passed legislation to divide the Northwest Territory into two areas and named the section the Indiana Territory. In 1816, when Congress passed an Enabling Act to begin the process of establishing statehood for Indiana, a resident of Indiana is officially known as a Hoosier. The first inhabitants in what is now Indiana were the Paleo-Indians, divided into small groups, the Paleo-Indians were nomads who hunted large game such as mastodons. They created stone tools made out of chert by chipping, knapping and flaking, the Archaic period, which began between 5000 and 4000 BC, covered the next phase of indigenous culture. The people developed new tools as well as techniques to cook food, such new tools included different types of spear points and knives, with various forms of notches. They made ground-stone tools such as axes, woodworking tools. During the latter part of the period, they built mounds and middens. The Archaic period ended at about 1500 BC, although some Archaic people lived until 700 BC, afterward, the Woodland period took place in Indiana, where various new cultural attributes appeared. During this period, the people created ceramics and pottery, an early Woodland period group named the Adena people had elegant burial rituals, featuring log tombs beneath earth mounds. In the middle portion of the Woodland period, the Hopewell people began developing long-range trade of goods, nearing the end of the stage, the people developed highly productive cultivation and adaptation of agriculture, growing such crops as corn and squash. The Woodland period ended around 1000 AD, the Mississippian culture emerged, lasting from 1000 until the 15th century, shortly before the arrival of Europeans. During this stage, the people created large urban settlements designed according to their cosmology, with mounds and plazas defining ceremonial
6.
Wisconsin
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Wisconsin is a U. S. state located in the north-central United States, in the Midwest and Great Lakes regions. It is bordered by Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake Michigan to the east, Michigan to the northeast, Wisconsin is the 23rd largest state by total area and the 20th most populous. The state capital is Madison, and its largest city is Milwaukee, the state is divided into 72 counties. Wisconsin is second to Michigan in the length of its Great Lakes coastline, Wisconsin is known as Americas Dairyland because it is one of the nations leading dairy producers, particularly famous for its cheese. Manufacturing, especially paper products, information technology, and tourism are major contributors to the states economy. The word Wisconsin originates from the given to the Wisconsin River by one of the Algonquian-speaking Native American groups living in the region at the time of European contact. French explorer Jacques Marquette was the first European to reach the Wisconsin River, arriving in 1673, subsequent French writers changed the spelling from Meskousing to Ouisconsin, and over time this became the name for both the Wisconsin River and the surrounding lands. English speakers anglicized the spelling from Ouisconsin to Wisconsin when they began to arrive in numbers during the early 19th century. The legislature of Wisconsin Territory made the current spelling official in 1845, the Algonquin word for Wisconsin and its original meaning have both grown obscure. Interpretations vary, but most implicate the river and the red sandstone that lines its banks, other theories include claims that the name originated from one of a variety of Ojibwa words meaning red stone place, where the waters gather, or great rock. Wisconsin has been home to a variety of cultures over the past 12,000 years. The first people arrived around 10,000 BCE during the Wisconsin Glaciation and these early inhabitants, called Paleo-Indians, hunted now-extinct ice age animals such as the Boaz mastodon, a prehistoric mastodon skeleton unearthed along with spear points in southwest Wisconsin. After the ice age ended around 8000 BCE, people in the subsequent Archaic period lived by hunting, fishing, agricultural societies emerged gradually over the Woodland period between 1000 BCE to 1000 CE. Toward the end of period, Wisconsin was the heartland of the Effigy Mound culture. Later, between 1000 and 1500 CE, the Mississippian and Oneota cultures built substantial settlements including the village at Aztalan in southeast Wisconsin. The Oneota may be the ancestors of the modern Ioway and Ho-Chunk tribes who shared the Wisconsin region with the Menominee at the time of European contact, the first European to visit what became Wisconsin was probably the French explorer Jean Nicolet. He canoed west from Georgian Bay through the Great Lakes in 1634, pierre Radisson and Médard des Groseilliers visited Green Bay again in 1654–1666 and Chequamegon Bay in 1659–1660, where they traded for fur with local Native Americans. In 1673, Jacques Marquette and Louis Jolliet became the first to record a journey on the Fox-Wisconsin Waterway all the way to the Mississippi River near Prairie du Chien
7.
West Virginia
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West Virginia /ˌwɛst vərˈdʒɪnjə/ is a state located in the Appalachian region of the Southern United States. It is bordered by Virginia to the southeast, Kentucky to the southwest, Ohio to the northwest, Pennsylvania to the north, West Virginia is the 9th smallest by area, is ranked 38th in population, and has the second lowest household income of the 50 United States. The capital and largest city is Charleston, West Virginia was admitted to the Union on June 20,1863, and was a key Civil War border state. The Census Bureau and the Association of American Geographers classify West Virginia as part of the Southern United States, the unique position of West Virginia means that it is often included in several geographical regions, including the Mid-Atlantic, the Upland South, and the Southeastern United States. It is the state that is entirely within the area served by the Appalachian Regional Commission. The state is noted for its mountains and rolling hills, its historically significant logging and coal mining industries and it is one of the most densely karstic areas in the world, making it a choice area for recreational caving and scientific research. The karst lands contribute to much of the states cool trout waters and it is also known for a wide range of outdoor recreational opportunities, including skiing, whitewater rafting, fishing, hiking, backpacking, mountain biking, and hunting. Many ancient man-made earthen mounds from various mound builder cultures survive, especially in the areas of Moundsville, South Charleston. The artifacts uncovered in these give evidence of village societies and they had a tribal trade system culture that crafted cold-worked copper pieces. The Iroquois drove out other American Indian tribes from the region to reserve the upper Ohio Valley as a ground in the 1670s. Siouan language tribes such as the Moneton had also recorded in the area previously. West Virginia was originally part of the British Virginia Colony from 1607 to 1776, residents of the western and northern counties set up a separate government under Francis Pierpont in 1861, which they called the restored government. Most voted to separate from Virginia and the new state was admitted to the Union in 1863, in 1864 a state constitutional convention drafted a constitution, which was ratified by the legislature without putting it to popular vote. West Virginia abolished slavery and temporarily disfranchised men who had held Confederate office or fought for the Confederacy, West Virginias history has been profoundly affected by its mountainous terrain, numerous and vast river valleys, and rich natural resources. These were all factors driving its economy and the lifestyles of its residents, a 2010 analysis of a local stalagmite revealed that Native Americans were burning forests to clear land as early as 100 BC. Some regional late-prehistoric Eastern Woodland tribes were involved in hunting and fishing, practicing the slash. Another group progressed to the more time-consuming, advanced companion crop fields method of gardening, also continuing from ancient indigenous people of the state, field space and time was given to tobacco growing through to early historic. Maize did not make a contribution to the diet until after 1150 BP
8.
Kentucky
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Kentucky, officially the Commonwealth of Kentucky, is a state located in the east south-central region of the United States. Kentucky is one of four U. S. states constituted as a commonwealth, originally a part of Virginia, in 1792 Kentucky became the 15th state to join the Union. Kentucky is the 37th most extensive and the 26th most populous of the 50 United States, Kentucky is known as the Bluegrass State, a nickname based on the bluegrass found in many of its pastures due to the fertile soil. One of the regions in Kentucky is the Bluegrass Region in central Kentucky. In 1776, the counties of Virginia beyond the Appalachian Mountains became known as Kentucky County, the precise etymology of the name is uncertain, but likely based on an Iroquoian name meaning the meadow or the prairie. Kentucky is situated in the Upland South, a significant portion of eastern Kentucky is part of Appalachia. Kentucky borders seven states, from the Midwest and the Southeast, West Virginia lies to the east, Virginia to the southeast, Tennessee to the south, Missouri to the west, Illinois and Indiana to the northwest, and Ohio to the north and northeast. Only Missouri and Tennessee, both of which border eight states, touch more, Kentuckys northern border is formed by the Ohio River and its western border by the Mississippi River. The official state borders are based on the courses of the rivers as they existed when Kentucky became a state in 1792, for instance, northbound travelers on U. S.41 from Henderson, after crossing the Ohio River, will be in Kentucky for about two miles. Ellis Park, a racetrack, is located in this small piece of Kentucky. Waterworks Road is part of the land border between Indiana and Kentucky. Kentucky has a part known as Kentucky Bend, at the far west corner of the state. It exists as an exclave surrounded completely by Missouri and Tennessee, Road access to this small part of Kentucky on the Mississippi River requires a trip through Tennessee. The epicenter of the powerful 1811–12 New Madrid earthquakes was near this area, much of the outer Bluegrass is in the Eden Shale Hills area, made up of short, steep, and very narrow hills. The Jackson Purchase and western Pennyrile are home to several bald cypress/tupelo swamps, located within the southeastern interior portion of North America, Kentucky has a climate that can best be described as a humid subtropical climate. Temperatures in Kentucky usually range from daytime summer highs of 87 °F to the low of 23 °F. The average precipitation is 46 inches a year, Kentucky experiences four distinct seasons, with substantial variations in the severity of summer and winter. The highest recorded temperature was 114 °F at Greensburg on July 28,1930 while the lowest recorded temperature was −37 °F at Shelbyville on January 19,1994, due to its location, Kentucky has a moderate humid subtropical climate, with abundant rainfall
9.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
10.
Pennsylvania
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Pennsylvania /ˌpɛnsᵻlˈveɪnjə/, officially the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, is a state located in the northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The Appalachian Mountains run through its middle, Pennsylvania is the 33rd largest, the 5th most populous, and the 9th most densely populated of the 50 United States. The states five most populous cities are Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Allentown, Erie, the state capital, and its ninth-largest city, is Harrisburg. Pennsylvania has 140 miles of shoreline along Lake Erie and the Delaware Estuary. The state is one of the 13 original founding states of the United States, it came into being in 1681 as a result of a land grant to William Penn. Part of Pennsylvania, together with the present State of Delaware, had earlier been organized as the Colony of New Sweden and it was the second state to ratify the United States Constitution, on December 12,1787. Independence Hall, where the United States Declaration of Independence and United States Constitution were drafted, is located in the states largest city of Philadelphia, during the American Civil War, the Battle of Gettysburg, was fought in the south central region of the state. Valley Forge near Philadelphia was General Washingtons headquarters during the winter of 1777–78. Pennsylvania is 170 miles north to south and 283 miles east to west, of a total 46,055 square miles,44,817 square miles are land,490 square miles are inland waters, and 749 square miles are waters in Lake Erie. It is the 33rd largest state in the United States, Pennsylvania has 51 miles of coastline along Lake Erie and 57 miles of shoreline along the Delaware Estuary. Cities include Philadelphia, Reading, Lebanon and Lancaster in the southeast, Pittsburgh in the southwest, the tri-cities of Allentown, Bethlehem, the northeast includes the former anthracite coal mining communities of Scranton, Wilkes-Barre, Pittston City, and Hazleton. Erie is located in the northwest, the state has 5 regions, namely the Allegheny Plateau, Ridge and Valley, Atlantic Coastal Plain, Piedmont, and the Erie Plain. Straddling two major zones, the majority of the state, with the exception of the corner, has a humid continental climate. The largest city, Philadelphia, has characteristics of the humid subtropical climate that covers much of Delaware. Moving toward the interior of the state, the winter climate becomes colder, the number of cloudy days increase. Western areas of the state, particularly locations near Lake Erie, can receive over 100 inches of snowfall annually, the state may be subject to severe weather from spring through summer into fall. Tornadoes occur annually in the state, sometimes in large numbers, the Tuscarora Nation took up temporary residence in the central portion of Pennsylvania ca. Both the Dutch and the English claimed both sides of the Delaware River as part of their lands in America
11.
Maryland
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The states largest city is Baltimore, and its capital is Annapolis. Among its occasional nicknames are Old Line State, the Free State, the state is named after Henrietta Maria of France, the wife of Charles I of England. George Calvert was the first Lord of Baltimore and the first English proprietor of the colonial grant. Maryland was the state to ratify the United States Constitution. Maryland is one of the smallest U. S. states in terms of area, as well as one of the most densely populated, Maryland has an area of 12,406.68 square miles and is comparable in overall area with Belgium. It is the 42nd largest and 9th smallest state and is closest in size to the state of Hawaii, the next largest state, its neighbor West Virginia, is almost twice the size of Maryland. Maryland possesses a variety of topography within its borders, contributing to its nickname America in Miniature. The mid-portion of this border is interrupted by Washington, D. C. which sits on land that was part of Montgomery and Prince Georges counties and including the town of Georgetown. This land was ceded to the United States Federal Government in 1790 to form the District of Columbia, the Chesapeake Bay nearly bisects the state and the counties east of the bay are known collectively as the Eastern Shore. Close to the town of Hancock, in western Maryland, about two-thirds of the way across the state. This geographical curiosity makes Maryland the narrowest state, bordered by the Mason–Dixon line to the north, portions of Maryland are included in various official and unofficial geographic regions. Much of the Baltimore–Washington corridor lies just south of the Piedmont in the Coastal Plain, earthquakes in Maryland are infrequent and small due to the states distance from seismic/earthquake zones. The M5.8 Virginia earthquake in 2011 was felt moderately throughout Maryland, buildings in the state are not well-designed for earthquakes and can suffer damage easily. The lack of any glacial history accounts for the scarcity of Marylands natural lakes, laurel Oxbow Lake is an over one-hundred-year-old 55-acre natural lake two miles north of Maryland City and adjacent to Russett. Chews Lake is a natural lake two miles south-southeast of Upper Marlboro. There are numerous lakes, the largest of them being the Deep Creek Lake. Maryland has shale formations containing natural gas, where fracking is theoretically possible, as is typical of states on the East Coast, Marylands plant life is abundant and healthy. Middle Atlantic coastal forests, typical of the southeastern Atlantic coastal plain, grow around Chesapeake Bay, moving west, a mixture of Northeastern coastal forests and Southeastern mixed forests cover the central part of the state
12.
Chillicothe, Ohio
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Chillicothe is a city in and the county seat of Ross County, Ohio, United States. The population was 21,901 at the 2010 census and it is the only city in Ross County and the center of the Chillicothe Micropolitan Statistical Area. Chillicothe is a designated Tree City USA by the National Arbor Day Foundation, Chillicothe was the first and third capital of Ohio and is located in southern Ohio along the Scioto River. The towns name comes from the Shawnee Chala·ka·tha, named one of the five major divisions of the Shawnee people. The Shawnee and their ancestors inhabited the territory for thousands of years prior to European contact, at the time of European-American settlement, the community was plotted by General Nathaniel Massie on his land grant. Modern Chillicothe was the center of the ancient Hopewell tradition, which flourished from 200 BC until 500 AD and this Amerindian culture had trade routes extending to the Rocky Mountains. They built earthen mounds for ceremonial and burial purposes throughout the Scioto, later Native Americans who inhabited the area through the time of European contact included Shawnees. Present-day Chillicothe is the most recent of seven locations in Ohio that bore the name, according to historian Charles Augustus Hanna, a Shawnee village was founded at the site of modern-day Chillicothe in late 1758, following the destruction of Lower Shawneetown by floods. It was after the American Revolution that most European settlement came to this area, migrants from Virginia and Kentucky moved west along the Ohio River in search of land. Chillicothe served as the capital of Ohio from the beginning of statehood in 1803 until 1810 when Zanesville became the capital for two years, the capital was moved to Zanesville as part of a state legislative compromise to get a bill passed. In 1812 the legislature moved the back to Chillicothe. In 1816 the state voted to move the capital again, to Columbus to have it near the geographic center of the state. Migrants to Chillicothe included free blacks, who came to a place with fewer restrictions than in the slave states and they created a vibrant community and aided runaway slaves coming north. As tensions increased prior to the breakout of the American Civil War, slaves escaping from the South traveled across the Ohio River to freedom, and then up the Scioto River to get more distance from their former homes and slave hunters. White abolitionists aided the Underground Railroad as well, Chillicothe is located at 39°20′11″N 82°59′2″W. It lies within the ecoregion of the Western Allegheny Plateau and it lies between the Scioto River and Paint Creek near their confluence. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 10.60 square miles. The city is surrounded by farming communities, and Chillicothe residents describe the area as the foothills of the Appalachians, as of the census of 2010, there were 21,901 people,9,420 households, and 5,559 families residing in the city
13.
Hopewell tradition
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The Hopewell tradition was not a single culture or society, but a widely dispersed set of related populations. They were connected by a network of trade routes, known as the Hopewell exchange system. Within this area, societies participated in a degree of exchange with the highest amount of activity along waterways. The Hopewell exchange system received materials from all over what is now the United States, most of the items traded were exotic materials and were received by people living in the major trading and manufacturing areas. These people then converted the materials into products and exported them through local and regional exchange networks, the objects created by the Hopewell exchange system spread far and wide and have been seen in many burials outside the Midwest. Although the origins of the Hopewell are still under discussion, the Hopewell culture can also be considered a cultural climax, Hopewell populations originated in western New York and moved south into Ohio, where they built upon the local Adena mortuary tradition. Or, Hopewell was said to have originated in western Illinois, similarly, the Havana Hopewell tradition was thought to have spread up the Illinois River and into southwestern Michigan, spawning Goodall Hopewell. The name Hopewell was applied by Warren K. Moorehead after his explorations of the Hopewell Mound Group in Ross County, Ohio, the mound group itself was named for the family who owned the earthworks at the time. What any of the groups now defined as Hopewellian called themselves is unknown. The Hopewell inherited from their Adena forebears an incipient social stratification and this increased social stability and reinforced sedentism, social stratification, specialized use of resources, and probably population growth. Hopewell societies cremated most of their deceased and reserved burial for only the most important people, in some sites, hunters apparently received a higher status in the community because their graves were more elaborate and contained more status goods. The Hopewellian peoples had leaders, but they were not like powerful rulers who could command armies of slaves and these cultures likely accorded certain families a special place of privilege. Some scholars suggest that these societies were marked by the emergence of big-men and these leaders acquired their position because of their ability to persuade others to agree with them on important matters such as trade and religion. They also perhaps were able to influence by the creation of reciprocal obligations with other important members of the community. Today, the features of the Hopewell tradition era are mounds built for uncertain purposes. Great geometric earthworks are one of the most impressive Native American monuments throughout American prehistory, eastern Woodlands mounds have various geometric shapes and rise to impressive heights. The gigantic sculpted earthworks often took the shape of animals, birds, the function of the mounds is still under debate. Due to considerable evidence and surveys, plus the good condition of the largest mounds
14.
Earthworks (archaeology)
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In archaeology, earthworks are artificial changes in land level, typically made from piles of artificially placed or sculpted rocks and soil. Earthworks are often known as barrows in England, and mounds in North America, Earthworks can themselves be archaeological features, or they can show features beneath the surface. They are believed to have used as monuments for spiritual ritual ceremonies. Long barrows are oblong-shaped mounds that are used for burials, tumuli are mounds of earth created over a tomb, it has the same meaning as barrow. A cross dyke or cross-ridge dyke is a bank and ditch, found in Europe and often belonging to the later Bronze Age or Iron Age. Often marked on Ordnance Survey maps in the UK. Ridge and furrows are sets of parallel depressions, mottes are mound structures made of earth and stone that once held castles. A round barrow is a mound that is in a shape that was used during Neolithic times as a burial mound. Geoglyph, a design or motif Earthworks can vary in height from a few centimetres to the size of Silbury Hill at 40 metres. They can date from the Neolithic to the present, the structures can also stretch for many tens of kilometres. In area, they can cover many hectares, for example, Maiden Castle, shallow earthworks are often more visible as cropmarks or in aerial photographs if taken when the sun is low in the sky and shadows are more pronounced. Similarly, earthworks may be visible after a frost or a light dusting of snow. Earthworks can be detected and plotted using Light Detection and Ranging and this technique is particularly useful for mapping small variations in land height that would be difficult to detect by eye. It can be used to map features beneath forest canopy and for features hidden by other vegetation, LIDAR results can be input into a geographic information system to produce three-dimensional representations of the earthworks. An accurate survey of the earthworks can enable them to be interpreted without the need for excavation, for example, earthworks from deserted medieval villages can be used to determine the location, size, and layout of lost settlements. Often these earthworks can point to the purpose of such a settlement, Earthworks in North America include mounds built by Native Americans known as the Mound Builders. Ancient people who lived in the American Midwest commonly built effigy mounds, possibly the most famous of these effigy mounds is Serpent Mound. Located in the Ohio, this 411-meterlong earthen work is thought to memorialize alignments of the planets, cone-shaped or conical mounds are also numerous, with thousands of them scattered across the American Midwest, some over 80 feet tall. These conical mounds appear to be marking the graves of one person or even dozens of people
15.
Mound
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A mound is a heaped pile of earth, gravel, sand, rocks, or debris. Most commonly, mounds are earthen formations such as hills and mountains, a mound may be any rounded area of topographically higher elevation on any surface. Artificial mounds have been created for a variety of reasons throughout history, including ceremonial, burial, in the archaeology of the United States and Canada, a mound is a deliberately constructed elevated earthen structure or earthwork, intended for a range of potential uses. In European and Asian archaeology, the word tumulus may be used as a synonym for an artificial hill, while the term mound may be applied to historic constructions, most mounds in the United States are pre-Columbian earthworks, built by Native American peoples. Native Americans built a variety of mounds, including flat-topped pyramids or cones known as mounds, rounded cones. Some mounds took on unusual shapes, such as the outline of cosmologically significant animals and these are known as effigy mounds. Some mounds, such as a few in Wisconsin, have rock formations, or petroforms within them, on them, while these mounds are perhaps not as famous as burial mounds, like their European analogs, Native American mounds also have a variety of other uses. While some prehistoric cultures, like the Adena culture, used preferentially for burial, others used mounds for other ritual and sacred acts. The platform mounds of the Mississippian culture, for example, may have supported temples, the houses of chiefs, council houses, other mounds would have been part of defensive walls to protect a certain area. The Hopewell culture used mounds as markers of complex astronomical alignments related to ceremonies, mounds and related earthworks are the only significant monumental construction in pre-Columbian Eastern and Central North America. Mounds are given different names depending on which culture they strive from and they can be located all across the world in spots such as Asia, Europe and the Americas. Mound builders have more commonly associated with the mounds in the Americas. They all have different meanings and sometimes are constructed as animals, kankali Tila is a famous mound located at Mathura in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. A Jain stupa was excavated here in 1890-91 by Dr. Fuhrer, mound, as a technical term in archaeology, is not generally in favor in the rest of the world. More specific local terminology is preferred, and each of these terms has its own article
16.
Type site
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In archaeology a type site is a site that is considered the model of a particular archaeological culture. For example, the site of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A culture is Jericho. A type site is often the eponym. For example, the site of the pre-Celtic/Celtic Bronze Age Hallstatt culture is the lakeside village of Hallstatt. In geology the term is used similarly for a site considered to be typical of a rock formation etc. A type site contains artifacts, in an assemblage, that are typical of that culture, type sites are often the first or foundational site discovered about the culture they represent. The use of term is therefore similar to that of the specimen type in biology or locus typicus in geology. New Caledonia, of the Lapita culture
17.
Greenup County, Kentucky
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Greenup County is a county located in the U. S. state of Kentucky. As of the 2010 census, the population was 36,910, the county was founded in 1803 and named in honor of Christopher Greenup. Greenup County is part of the Huntington-Ashland, WV-KY-OH Metropolitan Statistical Area, as well as the Charleston-Huntington-Ashland, as of the 2010 census, the MSA had a population of 287,702. New definitions from February 28,2013 placed the population at 363,000, Greenup County was formed by an act of the General Assembly of Kentucky on December 12,1803 from Mason County which covered the majority of eastern Kentucky at the time. Three courthouses have served Greenup County, the first courthouse, built of logs, was replaced by a brick structure in 1811. The current officials of Greenup County are, County Judge/Executive, Robert W, the officials in the 20th Judicial Circuit are, Circuit Court, Division 1, Robert B. Conley Circuit Court, Division 2, Jeffrey L. Preston Commonwealths Attorney, leonhart The judge in the 20th Judicial District is, District Court, Brian C. McCloud Misdemeanor criminal cases brought in District Court are prosecuted by the County Attorneys office, according to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 354 square miles, of which 344 square miles is land and 10 square miles is water. Like most eastern Kentucky counties, Greenup County is predominantly made up of rolling hills, the land in the Ohio River valley is generally flat and mostly populated by industry, commerce and residential development. Beyond this the land gives way to a series of hills, among these hills, popular fishing spots can be found among the Little Sandy River, Greenbo Lake, and Tygarts Creek. Greenup Countys land is predominantly covered by forest with minimal clear cutting of the old forests. Greenup Countys soil has long been supportive of a healthy agriculture, U. S. Highway 23 is the primary route for travel through Greenup County. It enters Greenup County at the southeastern most point and follows the Ohio River north along the border passing through Russell, Flatwoods, Raceland, Wurtland, Greenup. It then exits just west of South Shore crossing the Ohio River via the U. S. Grant Bridge into Portsmouth, Ohio and continuing north towards Columbus, Ohio. The AA Highway begins at U. S. Highway 23, the AA Highway runs west intersecting Route 7 and eventually exiting west into Lewis County. Since its completion in 1995, the AA Highway has allowed Northeastern Kentucky residents to easily travel to Maysville, Kentucky as well as Northern Kentucky and Cincinnati. The northern terminus of the Industrial Parkway ends at U. S. Highway 23 at Wurtland and this highway serves to connect Wurtland and the surrounding towns of Greenup, Flatwoods and the unincorporated area of Argillite to the EastPark industrial park and Interstate 64 in Carter County. Boyd County Carter County Lewis County Scioto County, Ohio Lawrence County, Ohio As of the census of 2000, there were 36,891 people,14,536 households, the population density was 107 per square mile
18.
Portsmouth Earthworks
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The Portsmouth Earthworks are a large prehistoric mound complex constructed by the Ohio Hopewell culture mound builder indigenous peoples of eastern North America. The site was one of the largest earthwork ceremonial centers constructed by the Hopewell and is located at the confluence of the Scioto and Ohio Rivers, the majority of the mound complex site is now covered by the city of Portsmouth in Scioto County, Ohio. Several individual sections of the complex have included on the National Register of Historic Places. Originally, the Portsmouth Earthworks consisted of three sections extending over twenty miles of the Ohio River valley, crossing from Ohio to Kentucky in several places. It was surveyed and mapped by E. G. Squier in 1847 for inclusion in the archaeological and anthrolopological work Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley. The northern most section was made up of a number of circular enclosures, one set of walled roads extends across the Ohio River into South Portsmouth, Kentucky to the southwest to Portsmouth Earthworks, Group A. Another set of walled roads lead to the southeast where it crossed the Ohio River and lead to Portsmouth Earthworks. The third set of walled roads lead to the northwest for an undetermined distance, the City of Portsmouth maintains a public park which includes one of the remaining horseshoe-shaped enclosures, known as Mound Park, it is the only publicly accessible part of the complex. Under the name Horseshoe Mound it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1974, also known as the Old Fort Earthworks it is a series of rectangular enclosures near South Portsmouth in Greenup County, Kentucky. Group A is a square enclosure with two series of parallel walls extending from the northeast and southwest corners. The Old Fort Earthworks consist of several sites, including the Old Fort Earthworks, Mays Mound, Hicks Mound, Stephenson Mound, and several other unnamed mounds and enclosures. This section of the earthworks is located in Greenup County, Kentucky several miles to the east of South Shore, but connected to Group B by a causeway
19.
Ohio River
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The Ohio River, which streams westward from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, to Cairo, Illinois, is the largest tributary, by volume, of the Mississippi River in the United States. The 981-mile river flows through or along the border of six states, through its largest tributary, the Tennessee River, the basin includes many of the states of the southeastern U. S. It is the source of drinking water for three million people and it is named in Iroquoian or Seneca, Ohi, yó, lit. Good River or Shawnee, Pelewathiipi and Spelewathiipi, the river had great significance in the history of the Native Americans, as numerous civilizations formed along its valley. For thousands of years, Native Americans used the river as a major transportation, in 1669, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle led a French expedition to the Ohio River, becoming the first Europeans to see it. After European-American settlement, the served as a border between present-day Kentucky and Indian Territories. It was a transportation route for pioneers during the westward expansion of the early U. S. In his Notes on the State of Virginia published in 1781–82, Thomas Jefferson stated and its current gentle, waters clear, and bosom smooth and unbroken by rocks and rapids, a single instance only excepted. During the 19th century, the river was the boundary of the Northwest Territory. Where the river was narrow, it was the way to freedom for thousands of slaves escaping to the North, many helped by free blacks and whites of the Underground Railroad resistance movement. The Ohio River is a transition area, as its water runs along the periphery of the humid subtropical. It is inhabited by fauna and flora of both climates, in winter, it regularly freezes over at Pittsburgh but rarely further south toward Cincinnati and Louisville. At Paducah, Kentucky, in the south, near the Ohios confluence with the Mississippi, Paducah was founded there because it is the northernmost ice-free reach of the Ohio. The Ohio River is formed by the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers at Point State Park in Pittsburgh, from there, it flows northwest through Allegheny and Beaver counties, before making an abrupt turn to the south-southwest at the West Virginia–Ohio–Pennsylvania triple-state line. From there, it forms the border between West Virginia and Ohio, upstream of Wheeling, West Virginia, the river then follows a roughly southwest and then west-northwest course until Cincinnati, before bending to a west-southwest course for most of its length. The course forms the borders of West Virginia and Kentucky. The Ohio drains parts of 15 states in four regions, northeast New York, a small area of the southern border along the headwaters of the Allegheny. Pennsylvania, a corridor from the corner to north central border
20.
Portsmouth, Ohio
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Portsmouth is a city in and the county seat of Scioto County, Ohio, United States. It lies in far southern Ohio, just east of the mouth of the Scioto River at the Ohio River, the population was 20,226 at the 2010 census. According to historian Charles Augustus Hanna, a Shawnee village was founded at the site of modern-day Portsmouth in late 1758, Portsmouths European-American roots date to the 1790s, when the small town of Alexandria was founded west of Portsmouths site. Alexandria was flooded numerous times by the Ohio and the Scioto rivers, in 1803, Henry Massie spotted a place to move the town away from the flood plains. He began to plot the new city by mapping the streets, Portsmouth was founded in 1803 and was established as a city in 1815. Portsmouth growth continued with the completion of the Ohio and Erie Canal, the construction of the N&W railyards and the B&O junction at the city also stimulated growth, with railroads soon carrying more freight than the canal. By the end of the 19th century, Portsmouth became one of the most important cities on the Ohio River between Pittsburgh and Cincinnati, wheeling-Pittsburgh Steel employed over one thousand people. There were 100 other manufacturing companies producing goods from furniture to engines, industrial and shipping growth greatly benefited Boneyfiddle, where grand buildings were constructed with the wealth from the commerce. As time passed, much of the commerce began to move towards Chillicothe Street, while Boneyfiddle is receiving new life, it is a shadow of its former self. Another notable part of Portsmouths history in the 19th century was its importance on the Underground Railroad, fugitive slaves used this route to continue north to Detroit and into Canada to gain freedom. The population peaked at just over 42,000 in 1930, and by the 1950 census, foreign competition and industrial restructuring resulted in most of the industrial jobs on which Portsmouths economy was based moving out of the area. Following these declines, in 1980 when Empire-Detroit Steel-Portsmouth Works suspended local operations after the sale of the plant to Armco Steel. Armco Steel closed the plant because they did not want to replace the obsolete Open Hearth Furnaces with the more efficient basic oxygen steel furnaces, the plant also needed a continuous caster to replace the obsolete soaking pits and blooming mill in 1995. When the steel mill was closed,1,300 steelworkers were laid off, as of 2010, the city has a population of approximately 20,000. It has shared in the loss of jobs due to unskilled labor outsourcing, since the late 1990s and problems of unemployment, an epidemic of prescription drug abuse has swept the town and surrounding areas. It has caused an increase in Hepatitis C cases in the county, drug-related deaths, robberies, murder. The most prevalent drug is OxyContin, a synthetic opiate originally developed as a drug, known colloquially as oxys. The crisis is blamed on the proliferation of cash-only pain clinics, according to authorities, there are eight such clinics in Scioto County alone, the largest concentration of such operations per capita in any of Ohios counties
21.
Criel Mound
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The Criel Mound is a Native American burial mound located in South Charleston, West Virginia, USA. The mound was built by the Adena culture, probably around 250–150 BC and it was originally 33 feet high and 173 feet in diameter at the base, making it the second-largest such burial mound in the state of West Virginia. The Criel Mound is located at 38°22′8. 0″N 81°41′48. 2″W and this archaeological site is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The mound was originally conical in shape, residents of the area leveled the top in 1840 to erect a judges stand, as they ran horse races around the base of the mound at the time. The Criel Mound was excavated in 1883–84 under the auspices of the US Bureau of Ethnology, the excavation was performed by Professor Cyrus Thomas of the Smithsonian Institution. Inside the mound, Professor Thomas found thirteen skeletons, two near the top of the mound, and eleven at the base. The skeletons at the base consisted of a very large but badly decayed skeleton at the center. This skeleton was surrounded by ten other skeletons arranged in a spoke-like pattern, the skeletons at the base had been wrapped in elm bark and were lying on a floor of white ash and bark. Several artifacts were found buried with the skeletons, including arrowheads, lanceheads, the central skeleton was accompanied by a fish-dart, a lance-head, and a sheet of hammered native copper near the head. Holes found at the base of the mound suggest that the bodies at the base had been enclosed in a wooden vault, the Criel Mound is part of the second-largest known concentration of Adena mounds and circular enclosures. This area extends for eight miles along the terraces of the Kanawha River floodplain, in the vicinity of present-day Charleston. In 1894, Cyrus Thomas reported 50 mounds in this area, ranging from 3’ to 35’ in height and he also reported finding eight to ten circular earthworks, enclosing from 1 to 30 acres. Stone mounds dotted the bluffs above the floodplain, while many of the original Adena mounds were destroyed during later development of the area, a few remain. The Wilson Mound is in a cemetery in South Charleston. The Shawnee Reservation Mound still exists in Institute, West Virginia, today, the Criel Mound is the centerpiece of Staunton Park, a small municipal park maintained by the city of South Charleston. It is a place for community activities, such as arts and crafts fairs, revivals, memorial services, sunrise services. Adena culture Mound builders Prehistory of West Virginia South Charleston, West Virginia Dragoo, the Carnegie Museum of Natural History,1963. Thomas, Cyrus “Report on Mound Explorations of the Bureau of Ethnology”, In, Powell, twelfth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1890–’91, Washington, Government Printing Office, pp 416–417
22.
South Charleston, West Virginia
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South Charleston is a city in Kanawha County, West Virginia, United States The population was 13,450 at the 2010 census. South Charleston was established in 1906, but not incorporated until 1919 by special charter enacted by the West Virginia Legislature. Its name is based on the city being located primarily on the side of the Kanawha River, although it is actually northwest, not south. The city is serviced by Interstate 64, U. S. Route 60, U. S. Route 119, West Virginia Route 601 and West Virginia Route 214, the city is serviced by the Kanawha Valley Regional Transportation Authority bus system. South Charleston serves as the headquarters to the West Virginia State Police, South Charleston is located at 38°21′9″N 81°42′43″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 8.51 square miles. The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers, according to the Köppen Climate Classification system, South Charleston has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated Cfa on climate maps. The median income for a household in the city was $37,905, males had a median income of $39,036 versus $25,978 for females. The per capita income for the city was $24,928, about 9. 7% of families and 12. 1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 19. 4% of those under age 18 and 9. 8% of those age 65 or over. As of the census of 2010, there were 13,450 people,6,283 households, the population density was 1,767.4 inhabitants per square mile. There were 6,819 housing units at a density of 896.1 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 86. 9% White,8. 4% African American,0. 3% Native American,1. 1% Asian,0. 3% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 0% of the population. 36. 0% of all households were made up of individuals and 13. 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.14 and the average family size was 2.77. The median age in the city was 42.3 years. 20. 9% of residents were under the age of 18,6. 5% were between the ages of 18 and 24,25. 7% were from 25 to 44,29. 5% were from 45 to 64, and 17. 6% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 45. 7% male and 54. 3% female, there are six elementary schools in South Charleston, Montrose Elementary, Ruthlawn Elementary, Richmond Elementary, Alum Creek Elementary, Bridgeview Elementary, and Weberwood Elementary. The main middle school is South Charleston Middle School, which is located on 3rd Ave. SCMS houses grades 6-8, South Charleston High School is one of eight high schools in Kanawha County. SCHS is located on Eagle Way and houses grades 9-12, there are also two colleges located in the city
23.
Smithsonian Institution
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The Smithsonian Institution, established in 1846 for the increase and diffusion of knowledge, is a group of museums and research centers administered by the Government of the United States. Originally organized as the United States National Museum, that ceased to exist as an administrative entity in 1967. Additional facilities are located in Arizona, Maryland, Massachusetts, New York City, Texas, Virginia, more than 200 institutions and museums in 45 states, Puerto Rico, and Panama are Smithsonian Affiliates. The Institutions thirty million annual visitors are admitted without charge and its annual budget is around $1.2 billion with 2/3 coming from annual federal appropriations. Other funding comes from the Institutions endowment, private and corporate contributions, membership dues, and earned retail, concession, Institution publications include Smithsonian and Air & Space magazines. The British scientist James Smithson left most of his wealth to his nephew Henry James Hungerford, Congress officially accepted the legacy bequeathed to the nation, and pledged the faith of the United States to the charitable trust on July 1,1836. The American diplomat Richard Rush was dispatched to England by President Andrew Jackson to collect the bequest, Rush returned in August 1838 with 105 sacks containing 104,960 gold sovereigns. Once the money was in hand, eight years of Congressional haggling ensued over how to interpret Smithsons rather vague mandate for the increase, unfortunately, the money was invested by the US Treasury in bonds issued by the state of Arkansas which soon defaulted. The United States Exploring Expedition by the U. S. Navy circumnavigated the globe between 1838 and 1842, in 1846, the regents developed a plan for weather observation, in 1847, money was appropriated for meteorological research. The Institution became a magnet for young scientists from 1857 to 1866, the Smithsonian played a critical role as the U. S. partner institution in early bilateral scientific exchanges with the Academy of Sciences of Cuba. The Smithsonian Institution Building began construction in 1849, designed by architect James Renwick Jr. its interiors were completed by general contract Gilbert Cameron and the building opened in 1855. The Smithsonians first expansion came with construction of the Arts and Industries Building in 1881, Congress had promised to build a new structure for the museum if the 1876 Philadelphia Centennial Exposition generated enough income. It did, and the building was designed by architects Adolf Cluss and Paul Schulze, meigs of the United States Army Corps of Engineers. The National Zoological Park opened in 1889 to accommodate the Smithsonians Department of Living Animals and this structure was designed by the D. C. architectural firm of Hornblower & Marshall. More than 40 years would pass before the museum, the Museum of History. It was designed by the firm of McKim, Mead & White. That same year, the Smithsonian signed an agreement to take over the Cooper Union Museum for the Arts of Decoration, the National Portrait Gallery and the Smithsonian American Art Museum opened in the Old Patent Office Building on October 7,1968. The first new building to open since the National Museum of Natural History was the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden
24.
Cone
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A cone is a three-dimensional geometric shape that tapers smoothly from a flat base to a point called the apex or vertex. A cone is formed by a set of segments, half-lines, or lines connecting a common point. If the enclosed points are included in the base, the cone is a solid object, otherwise it is a two-dimensional object in three-dimensional space. In the case of an object, the boundary formed by these lines or partial lines is called the lateral surface, if the lateral surface is unbounded. In the case of line segments, the cone does not extend beyond the base, while in the case of half-lines, in the case of lines, the cone extends infinitely far in both directions from the apex, in which case it is sometimes called a double cone. Either half of a cone on one side of the apex is called a nappe. The axis of a cone is the line, passing through the apex. If the base is right circular the intersection of a plane with this surface is a conic section, in general, however, the base may be any shape and the apex may lie anywhere. Contrasted with right cones are oblique cones, in which the axis passes through the centre of the base non-perpendicularly, a cone with a polygonal base is called a pyramid. Depending on the context, cone may also mean specifically a convex cone or a projective cone, cones can also be generalized to higher dimensions. The perimeter of the base of a cone is called the directrix, the base radius of a circular cone is the radius of its base, often this is simply called the radius of the cone. The aperture of a circular cone is the maximum angle between two generatrix lines, if the generatrix makes an angle θ to the axis, the aperture is 2θ. A cone with a region including its apex cut off by a plane is called a cone, if the truncation plane is parallel to the cones base. An elliptical cone is a cone with an elliptical base, a generalized cone is the surface created by the set of lines passing through a vertex and every point on a boundary. The slant height of a circular cone is the distance from any point on the circle to the apex of the cone. It is given by r 2 + h 2, where r is the radius of the cirf the cone and this application is primarily useful in determining the slant height of a cone when given other information regarding the radius or height. The volume V of any conic solid is one third of the product of the area of the base A B and the height h V =13 A B h. In modern mathematics, this formula can easily be computed using calculus – it is, up to scaling, the integral ∫ x 2 d x =13 x 3
25.
Burial mound
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A tumulus is a mound of earth and stones raised over a grave or graves. Tumuli are also known as barrows, burial mounds or kurgans, a cairn, which is a mound of stones built for various purposes, may also originally have been a tumulus. Tumuli are often categorised according to their external apparent shape, in this respect, a long barrow is a long tumulus, usually constructed on top of several burials, such as passage graves. A round barrow is a tumulus, also commonly constructed on top of burials. The internal structure and architecture of both long and round barrows has a range, the categorization only refers to the external apparent shape. The method of inhumation may involve a dolmen, a cist, a mortuary enclosure, examples of barrows include Duggleby Howe and Maeshowe. The funeral of Patroclus is described in book 23 of the Iliad, Patroclus is burned on a pyre, and his bones are collected into a golden urn in two layers of fat. The barrow is built on the location of the pyre, achilles then sponsors funeral games, consisting of a chariot race, boxing, wrestling, running, a duel between two champions to the first blood, discus throwing, archery and spear throwing. Beowulfs body is taken to Hronesness, where it is burned on a funeral pyre, during cremation, the Geats lament the death of their lord, a widows lament being mentioned in particular, singing dirges as they circumambulate the barrow. Afterwards, a mound is built on top of a hill, overlooking the sea, a band of twelve of the best warriors ride around the barrow, singing dirges in praise of their lord. Parallels have also drawn to the account of Attilas burial in Jordanes Getica. Jordanes tells that as Attilas body was lying in state, the best horsemen of the Huns circled it, as in circus games. An Old Irish Life of Columcille reports that every funeral procession halted at a mound called Eala, whereupon the corpse was laid, archaeologists often classify tumuli according to their location, form, and date of construction. Some British types are listed below, Bank barrow Bell barrow Bowl barrow D-shaped barrow - round barrow with a flat edge at one side often defined by stone slabs. Disc barrow Fancy barrow - generic term for any Bronze Age barrows more elaborate than a hemispherical shape. Long barrow Oval barrow - a Neolithic long barrow consisting of an elliptical, platform barrow - The least common of the recognised types of round barrow, consisting of a flat, wide circular mound that may be surrounded by a ditch. They occur widely across southern England with a concentration in East and West Sussex. Pond barrow - a barrow consisting of a circular depression, surrounded by a bank running around the rim of the depression
26.
Grave Creek Mound
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At 62 feet high and 240 feet in diameter, the Grave Creek Mound in the Ohio River Valley in West Virginia is one of the largest conical-type burial mounds in the United States. The builders of the site, members of the Adena culture, the earthwork mound is located in present-day Moundsville near the banks of the Ohio River. The first recorded excavation of the mound took place in 1838, the largest surviving mound among those built by the Adena, it has been designated a National Historic Landmark. In 1978 the state opened the Delf Norona Museum at the site and it displays numerous artifacts and interprets the ancient Adena Culture. In 2010, under an agreement with the state, the US Army Corps of Engineers gave nearly 450,000 artifacts to the museum for archival and these were recovered in archeological excavations at the site of the Marmet Lock, and represent 10,000 years of indigenous habitation. Grave Creek Mound is the largest conical type of any of the mound builder structures, construction of the mound took place in successive stages from about 250–150 B. C. as indicated by the multiple burials at different levels within the structures. In 1838, road engineers measured its height at 69 feet, originally a moat of about 40 feet in width and five feet in depth, with one causeway across it, encircled the mound. Grave Creek mound was created during the Woodland time period, the people who lived in West Virginia during this time are among those groups classified as Mound Builders. This particular tumulus or burial mound was built in stages over a period of a hundred years. The Grave Creek Mound was believed first seen by a European American in 1770, Joseph discovered the mound accidentally while hunting. Two years later, he built a cabin 300 feet from the mound for his family, about 1830, Tomlinsons descendant, Jesse Tomlinson, and his partner Thomas Briggs made tunnels through the mound and found two rooms. One was a chamber in the center of the mound. The tunnels they made destroyed valuable evidence that could have used by researchers to compare with data from other mounds. The rooms contained skeletons adorned with jewelry, some of the jewelry found were 1700 ivory beads,500 sea shells, and five copper bracelets. Once the mound was excavated, Tomlinson opened up a museum inside the mound. In 1843, Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, an early ethnologist of Native Americans, in 1908 the mound was saved from demolition for development by local women of the Wheeling Chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution, who raised funds to acquire an option on the property. In 1909 the state of West Virginia purchased the site for preservation and it was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1964. Further archeological investigation led to the discovery that the appearance of the mound is quite different underneath the surface compared to the land around it, although it is the same dirt used, the remains of dead bodies from fire changed the color of some dirt to blue
27.
Moundsville, West Virginia
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Moundsville is a city in Marshall County, West Virginia, along the Ohio River. It is part of the Wheeling, WV-OH Metropolitan Statistical Area, the population was 9,318 at the 2010 census. It is the county seat of Marshall County, the city was named for the nearby Grave Creek Mound. Moundsville was settled in 1771 by Samuel & James Tomlinson, fostoria Glass Company was headquartered in Moundsville from 1891 to 1986. The retired West Virginia State Penitentiary operated in Moundsville from 1867 to 1995, Moundsville is located at 39°55′17″N 80°44′22″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 3.36 square miles. As of the census of 2010, there were 9,318 people,4,016 households, the population density was 3,202.1 inhabitants per square mile. There were 4,458 housing units at a density of 1,532.0 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 97. 5% White,0. 8% African American,0. 2% Native American,0. 4% Asian,0. 2% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 1% of the population. 33. 7% of all households were made up of individuals and 16. 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.21 and the average family size was 2.79. The median age in the city was 45.2 years. 19. 4% of residents were under the age of 18,7. 1% were between the ages of 18 and 24,23. 2% were from 25 to 44,30. 1% were from 45 to 64, and 20. 1% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47. 9% male and 52. 1% female, as of the census of 2000, there were 9,998 people,4,122 households, and 2,662 families residing in the city. The population density was 3,399.0 people per square mile, there were 4,461 housing units at an average density of 1,516.6 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 98. 13% White,0. 73% African American,0. 13% Native American,0. 30% Asian,0. 01% Pacific Islander,0. 10% from other races, and 0. 60% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 16% of the population,31. 4% of all households were made up of individuals and 17. 0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.28 and the family size was 2.84. In the city the population was out with 20. 4% under the age of 18,7. 8% from 18 to 24,26. 8% from 25 to 44,24. 9% from 45 to 64
28.
Miamisburg, Ohio
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Miamisburg is a city in Montgomery County, Ohio, United States. The population was 20,181 at the 2010 census and it is part of the Dayton Metropolitan Statistical Area. Miamisburg borders Miami Township, Springboro, and West Carrollton, the sister city of Miamisburg is Owen Sound, Ontario. Settlers came west primarily from Pennsylvania, by 1822, the unincorporated community had become a village, it achieved city status in the 1920s. By 1827, the Miami and Erie Canal was under construction through the community, the formal opening took place in January 1829, when the Governor Brown was the first packet boat to go through the settlement. Also that year the first boats from Cincinnati had arrived and passed through Miamisburg to get to Dayton, by 1834 the canal had been extended to Piqua, and many businesses along the river grew. The 1840s and the 1850s were brought the best of times to the canals, george Kinder, a local resident, shipped bags of food to Ireland during its Great Famine, these also contained his address, with ads saying that he was hiring immigrant workers. Some Irish immigrants did come to Miamisburg and surrounding cities in search of work, by the early 20th century, however, the canal was abandoned. Later, highways carried most of the local traffic, Miamisburg was the site of one of the first post-war U. S Atomic Energy Commission facilities, beginning in 1947. The Dayton area had supported numerous secret operations for the War Department during World War II, as the war ended, the majority of these operations were moved to the Miamisburg Mound Laboratory, which was operated by the Monsanto Chemical Company. The Mound Labs were to all aspects of the US nuclear defense stockpile. The Mound Plant, built in 1947, was situated on a 306-acre site in the city 10 miles south of Dayton, the workers, who numbered more than 2,000 at the height of the production, made plutonium detonators for nuclear weapons. The plant had an army of security guards and was ringed by chain-link fencing. When the Cold War ended, the plant discontinued the detonator work, in May 1993 U. S Department of Energy decided to end all production at the Mound. This move affected 2,100 employees in the local area, by 1996 cleanup of radioactive and hazardous waste was the main activity at the Plant. In December 2010, the Dayton Police Department became the 17th law enforcement agency, along with 11 fire departments and they demolished a house at the Pearl Street crossing and killed three of its five occupants. As a result of an investigation by the Miamisburg Police Department and the National Transportation Safety Board. Eight years later, on July 8,1986, another train derailed on the CSX Transportation line on the west bank of the river, igniting yellow phosphorus contained in a tanker car
29.
Wolf Plains
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The Wolf Plains Group is a Late Adena culture group of 30 earthworks including 22 conical mounds and nine circular enclosures. The Plains, originally known as Wolfs Plains, located a few miles to the northwest of Athens, is a flat terrace in an area of hilly terrain in southeastern Ohio’s Hocking River valley. The terrace was formed by glacial outwash coming down the Hocking River, the Wolf Plains Group was featured in Ephraim George Squier and Edwin Hamilton Daviss landmark publication Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley. Their finished drawing was based on a sketch from 1836 by S. P. Hildreth, some of the clusters of mounds are rotated relative to their actual position, some are missing, and some are misplaced. In 2008 The Archaeological Conservancy purchased the site of one of the earthworks, the Dorr 2 Mound, using emergency POINT funds. The majority of the earthworks in the complex are privately owned and are threatened with destruction as The Plains community expands. The Wolf Plains Group was added to the National Register of Historic Places on May 31,1974, at that time,25 earthworks remained in good enough condition to qualify as contributing properties
30.
Athens, Ohio
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Athens is a city in and the county seat of Athens County, Ohio, United States. It is located along the Hocking River in the part of Ohio. A historic college town, Athens is home to Ohio University and is the city of the Athens. The official population of Athens in the 2010 U. S. Census was 23,832, Athens is a qualified Tree City USA as recognized by the National Arbor Day Foundation. By the middle of the century, the Shawnee, an Algonquian tribe, were the primary tribe of Native Americans living in what would become Athens County. According to a 1794 map by Thomas Kitchin, no settlement existed in the Athens area during the immediately prior to the founding of the city. The first permanent European settlers arrived in Athens in 1797, more than a decade after the United States victory in the American Revolutionary War, in 1800, the town site was first surveyed and plotted, but it was not incorporated as a village until 1811. In the meantime, Ohio had become a state in 1803, Ohio University was chartered in 1804, the first public institution of higher learning in the Northwest Territory. Previously part of Washington County, Ohio, Athens County was formed in 1805, named for the ancient center of learning, Athens, Ohio University in Athens was established with the first federal endowment of an educational institution in the United States. In July 1787, the Congress of the Confederation gave to the Ohio Company of Associates two townships of land for the support of a literary institution in the newly created Northwest Territory. The act was approved by Arthur St. Clair, Governor of the Northwest Territory on January 9,1802, however, no university with the name of American Western University would be established. Ohio became a state in 1803 and on February 18,1804, Athens received city status in 1912, following the 1910 census showing the population had passed 5,000 residents, the requirement for city status in Ohio. These lands were given to Ohio University by the Federal government and this was the first federal land grant for a university, pre-dating the Morrill Act by more than 70 years. At first, lands were leased out, but the failure of many lessors to pay their rents resulted in most of the land being sold. The sale of these lands funded the growth of Ohio University, today it is one of the largest institutions of higher learning in Ohio, with an enrollment of over 19,000 on the Athens campus and over 28,000 for all campuses. The earliest industry in the area was salt production, followed by iron production, today, the largest employer in the county is Ohio University. In 1843, the Hocking Canal opened, enabling shipping from the Ohio River up the Hocking River, which passes through Athens, to Nelsonville, Ohio, however, the canal was closed during cold winters when it froze over. The first railroad reached Athens in 1857, in the late 19th century, an interurban line opened between Athens and Nelsonville and operated for some years
31.
Shamanism
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The word shaman probably originates from the Tungusic Evenki language of North Asia. The term was introduced to the west after Russian forces conquered the shamanistic Khanate of Kazan in 1552, Mircea Eliade writes, A first definition of this complex phenomenon, and perhaps the least hazardous, will be, shamanism = technique of religious ecstasy. Shamanism encompasses the premise that shamans are intermediaries or messengers between the world and the spirit worlds. Shamans are said to treat ailments/illness by mending the soul, alleviating traumas affecting the soul/spirit restores the physical body of the individual to balance and wholeness. The shaman also enters supernatural realms or dimensions to obtain solutions to problems afflicting the community, Shamans may visit other worlds/dimensions to bring guidance to misguided souls and to ameliorate illnesses of the human soul caused by foreign elements. The shaman operates primarily within the world, which in turn affects the human world. The restoration of balance results in the elimination of the ailment, hundreds of books and academic papers on the subject have been produced, with a peer-reviewed academic journal being devoted to the study of shamanism. The word shaman probably originates from the Evenki word šamán, most likely from the dialect spoken by the Sym Evenki peoples. The Tungusic term was adopted by Russians interacting with the indigenous peoples in Siberia. It is found in the memoirs of the exiled Russian churchman Avvakum, adam Brand, a merchant from Lübeck, published in 1698 his account of a Russian embassy to China, a translation of his book, published the same year, introduced the word shaman to English speakers. The etymology of the Evenki word is sometimes connected to a Tungus root ša- to know, other scholars assert that the word comes directly from the Manchu language, and as such would be the only commonly used English word that is a loan from this language. This proposal has been thoroughly critiqued since 1917, ethnolinguist Juha Janhunen regards it as an anachronism and an impossibility that is nothing more than a far-fetched etymology. Ethnolinguists did not develop as a discipline nor achieve contact with these communities until the late 19th century, there is no single agreed-upon definition for the word shamanism among anthropologists. The English historian Ronald Hutton noted that by the dawn of the 21st century, the first of these uses the term to refer to anybody who contacts a spirit world while in an altered state of consciousness. The second definition limits the term to refer to those who contact a spirit world while in a state of consciousness at the behest of others. Problematically, scholars advocating the third view have failed to agree on what the defining technique should be, the fourth definition identified by Hutton uses shamanism to refer to the indigenous religions of Siberia and neighboring parts of Asia. According to the Golomt Center for Shamanic Studies, a Mongolian organisation of shamans, Shamans are normally called by dreams or signs which require lengthy training. However, shamanic powers may be inherited, turner and colleagues mention a phenomenon called shamanistic initiatory crisis, a rite of passage for shamans-to-be, commonly involving physical illness and/or psychological crisis
32.
Nicotiana rustica
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It is a very potent variety of tobacco. The high concentration of nicotine in its leaves makes it useful for producing pesticides, Nicotiana rustica is often used for entheogenic purposes by South American shamans. It contains up to nine times more nicotine than common species of Nicotiana such as Nicotiana tabacum, other reasons for its shamanic use are the comparatively high levels of beta-carbolines, including the harmala alkaloids harman and norharman. In the southeast part of Turkey, people use this herb and they use this by putting the mixture under their lips like Swedish snus or Afghan naswar. It is also an admixture of Ayahuasca in some parts of the Amazon. In Russia, N. rustica is called makhorka. It was smoked rather by the classes for such reasons, N. rustica is hardy plant and able to grow on all territory of Russia, it was more available at a price. This was maintained until the ordinary tobacco became widely available, during Soviet times, rustic tobacco was an important industrial crop of agriculture. In those times dozens of varieties were bred, some of them equal by quality to normal tobacco, in modern times, makhorka is still sometimes smoked by peasants and farmers due to its high availability and being almost for free for them. Nicotiana rustica leaves have a content as high as 9%. In Vietnam, it is most commonly smoked after a meal on a full stomach to aid in digestion, a hít of thuốc lào is followed by a flood of nicotine to the bloodstream inducing strong dizziness that lasts several seconds. It should be said however that even heavy cigarette smokers have had trouble with the volume of smoke, the high nicotine content. The main difference between smoking thuoc lao and the use of other tobaccos is in the method of consumption, the smoker is presented with either a bamboo pipe called a điếu cày or a ceramic hookah called a điếu bát. It may also occasionally be smoked in a more uncommon pipe known as a điếu ống, the pipe is filled with an appropriate amount of water and a small amount of thuoc lao is pressed into the bowl. One then ignites the tobacco and inhales to create a body of smoke inside the pipe, before exhaling the smoke, the smoker then sharply inhales, usually tilting the pipe upwards to an almost horizontal position. Typically, on the streets of Vietnams capital of Hanoi, a bag containing enough tobacco for 5 to 8 hít retails at 2500 Vietnamese đồng. Larger packs cost up to 20000 đồng and would be about $1.25 US Dollars, the use of thuoc lao is usually out of the bamboo pipe—the điếu cày—which can range from 10000 đồng to upwards of 50000 đồng for items with extravagant carvings and other designs. Maraş otu is chewing variant of Nicotiana rustica, commonly used by people who live in Maraş
33.
Tattoo
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A tattoo is a form of body modification, where a design is made by inserting ink, dyes and pigments, either indelible or temporary, into the dermis layer of the skin to change the pigment. The word tattoo, or tattow in the 18th century, is a loanword from the Polynesian word tatau, the Oxford English Dictionary gives the etymology of tattoo as In 18th c. tattaow, tattow. Before the importation of the Polynesian word, the practice of tattooing had been described in the West as painting, scarring and this is not to be confused with the origins of the word for the military drumbeat or performance — see military tattoo. In this case, the English word tattoo is derived from the Dutch word taptoe, the word tattoo was brought to Europe by the explorer James Cook, when he returned in 1769 from his first voyage to Tahiti and New Zealand. In his narrative of the voyage, he refers to an operation called tattaw, mainstream art galleries hold exhibitions of both conventional and custom tattoo designs such as Beyond Skin, at the Museum of Croydon. Copyrighted tattoo designs that are mass-produced and sent to tattoo artists are known as flash, flash sheets are prominently displayed in many tattoo parlors for the purpose of providing both inspiration and ready-made tattoo images to customers. The most common used for traditional Japanese tattoo designs is Horimono. Japanese may use the word tattoo to mean non-Japanese styles of tattooing, anthropologist Ling Roth in 1900 described four methods of skin marking and suggested they be differentiated under the names tatu, moko, cicatrix, and keloid. According to George Orwell, coal miners could develop characteristic tattoos owing to coal dust getting into wounds and this can also occur with substances like gunpowder. Similarly, a traumatic tattoo occurs when a substance such as asphalt is rubbed into a wound as the result of some kind of accident or trauma. These are particularly difficult to remove as they tend to be spread across several layers of skin, the symbolism and impact of tattoos varies in different places and cultures. Tattoos may show how a person feels about a relative or about an unrelated person, some Māori still choose to wear intricate moko on their faces. In Cambodia, Laos, and Thailand, the tattoo is used for protection against evil. Text-based tattoos including quotes, lyrics, personal mottos or scripture are popular in western culture, as an example some Christians might have a Psalm or verse from the Bible tattooed on their body. Popular verses include John 3,16, Philippians 4,13, in the Philippines certain tribal groups believe tattoos have magical qualities, and help to protect their bearers. Most traditional tattooing in the Philippines is related to the accomplishments in life or rank in the tribe. Extensive decorative tattooing is common among members of traditional freak shows, people have also been forcibly tattooed. During registration, the Nazis would pierce the outlines of the serial-number digits onto the prisoners arms, only Auschwitz put tattoos on inmates, of all the Nazi concentration camps
34.
Ceramics of indigenous peoples of the Americas
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Native American pottery is an art form with at least a 7500-year history in the Americas. Pottery is fired ceramics with clay as a component, due to their resilience, ceramics have been key to learning more about Precolumbian indigenous cultures. The clay body is a component of pottery. Clay must be mined and purified in a laborious process. Different tribes have different processes for processing clay, which can include drying in the sun, soaking in water for days, in preparing the clay, potters spend hours wedging it to remove air pockets and humidity that could easily cause it to explode during firing. The clay then needs to cure over time, coiling is the most common means of shaping ceramics in the Americas. In coiling, the clay is rolled into a long, thin strands that are coiled upon each other to build up the shape of the pottery, potters wheels were not used prior to European contact and are only used today by a limited number of Native American artists. Pinch pots and other small objects could be formed directly by hand. In precontact South America, ceramics were mass-produced using molds, slip is a liquid clay suspension of mineral pigments applied to the ceramics before firing. Slips are typically red, buff, white, and black, however and they also used a hand-rotated turntable that allowed all sides of a ceramic piece to be painted with ease. These were first used in 500 BCE and continue to be used today, slips can be applied overall in washes, creating large color fields, often with cloth, or they can be painted in fine detail with brushes. Yucca leaves, chewed slightly to loosen fibers, make excellent brushes that are still in use today in the American Southwest, in the firing process the resists melts away, leaving the colored design. While still green, pottery can be incised with designs, cords, textiles, baskets, and corncobs have been rolled over wet clay, both as a decoration and to improve heat dispersion in cooking pots. Carved wood or ceramic stamping paddles are used throughout the Southeastern Woodlands to create repeating designs, clay can also be added to the main ceramic structure to build up designs. Before firing, ceramics can be burnished or polished to a sheen with a smooth instrument. Glazes are seldom used by indigenous American ceramic artists, grease can be rubbed onto the pot as well. Prior to contact, pottery was usually open-air fired or pit fired, precontact Indigenous peoples of Mexico, today many Native American ceramic artists use kilns. Finally, the surface is often polished with smooth stones
35.
Pumpkin
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A pumpkin is a cultivar of a squash plant, most commonly of Cucurbita pepo, that is round, with smooth, slightly ribbed skin, and deep yellow to orange coloration. The thick shell contains the seeds and pulp, some exceptionally large cultivars of squash with similar appearance have also been derived from Cucurbita maxima. Specific cultivars of winter squash derived from other species, including C. argyrosperma, in New Zealand and Australian English, the term pumpkin generally refers to the broader category called winter squash elsewhere. Native to North America, pumpkins are grown for commercial use and are used both in food and recreation. Pumpkins, like squash, are thought to have originated in North America. The oldest evidence, pumpkin-related seeds dating between 7000 and 5500 BC, was found in Mexico, since some squash share the same botanical classifications as pumpkins, the names are frequently used interchangeably. Pumpkin fruits are a type of botanical berry known as a pepo, traditional C. pepo pumpkins generally weigh between 6 and 18 pounds, though the largest cultivars regularly reach weights of over 75 pounds. The color of pumpkins derives from orange carotenoid pigments, including beta-cryptoxanthin, alpha and beta carotene, the word pumpkin originates from the word pepon, which is Greek for large melon, something round and large. The French adapted this word to pompon, which the British changed to pumpion and later American colonists changed that to the word that is used today, pumpkin. The term pumpkin has no agreed upon botanical or scientific meaning, all pumpkins are winter squash, mature fruit of certain species in the genus Cucurbita. Characteristics commonly used to define pumpkin include smooth and slightly ribbed skin, circa 2005, white pumpkins had become increasingly popular in the United States. Other colors, including green, also exist. Pumpkins are grown all around the world for a variety of reasons ranging from agricultural purposes to commercial and ornamental sales. Of the seven continents, only Antarctica is unable to produce pumpkins, the biggest international producers of pumpkins include the United States, Canada, Mexico, India, the traditional American pumpkin used for jack-o-lanterns is the Connecticut Field variety. As one of the most popular crops in the United States,1.5 billion pounds of pumpkins are produced each year, the top pumpkin-producing states include Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and California. According to the Illinois Department of Agriculture, 95% of the U. S. crop intended for processing is grown in Illinois, Nestlé, operating under the brand name Libbys, produces 85% of the processed pumpkin in the United States, at their plant in Morton, Illinois. In the fall of 2009, rain in Illinois devastated the Nestlé crop, Pumpkins are a warm-weather crop that is usually planted in early July. The specific conditions necessary for growing pumpkins require that soil temperatures three inches deep are at least 60 °F and soil that holds water well
36.
Cucurbita
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Cucurbita is a genus of herbaceous vines in the gourd family, Cucurbitaceae, also known as cucurbits, native to the Andes and Mesoamerica. Five species are grown worldwide for their fruit, variously known as squash, pumpkin, or gourd depending on species, variety, and local parlance. Other kinds of gourd, also called bottle-gourds, are native to Africa and belong to the genus Lagenaria and these other gourds are used as utensils or vessels, and their young fruits are eaten much like those of Cucurbita species. Most Cucurbita species are vines that grow several meters in length and have tendrils. The yellow or orange flowers on a Cucurbita plant are of two types, female and male, the female flowers produce the fruit and the male flowers produce pollen. Many North and Central American species are visited by specialist bee pollinators, the fruits of the genus Cucurbita are good sources of nutrients, such as vitamin A and vitamin C, among other nutrients according to species. The plants also contain phytochemicals, such as cucurbitin, cucurmosin. There is debate about the taxonomy of the genus, as the number of accepted species varies from 13 to 30, the five domesticated species are Cucurbita argyrosperma, C. ficifolia, C. maxima, C. moschata, and C. pepo. All of these can be treated as winter squash because the fruits can be stored for months, however. Cucurbita fruits have played a role in culture for at least 2,000 years. They are often represented in Moche ceramics from Peru, after Christopher Columbuss arrival in the New World, paintings of squashes started to appear in Europe early in the sixteenth century. The fruits have culinary uses including pumpkin pie, biscuits, bread, desserts, puddings, beverages. Pumpkins and other Cucurbita fruits are celebrated in festivals and in flower, Cucurbita species fall into two main groups. The first group are annual or short-lived perennial vines and are mesophytic, the second group are perennials growing in arid zones and so are xerophytic, tolerating dry conditions. Cultivated Cucurbita species were derived from the first group, growing 5 to 15 meters in height or length, the plant stem produces tendrils to help it climb adjacent plants and structures or extend along the ground. Most species do not readily root from the nodes, an exception is C. ficifolia. The vine of the perennial Cucurbita can become semiwoody if left to grow, there is wide variation in size, shape, and color among Cucurbita fruits, and even within a single species. C. ficifolia is an exception, being uniform in appearance
37.
Sunflower
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Helianthus or sunflowers L. /ˌhiːliˈænθəs/ is a genus of plants comprising about 70 species in the family Asteraceae. The genus is one of many in the Asteraceae that are known as sunflowers, except for three species in South America, all Helianthus species are native to North America. The common name, sunflower, typically refers to the annual species Helianthus annuus, or the common sunflower. This and other species, notably Jerusalem artichoke, are cultivated in regions as food crops. The largest sunflower field is located in Tuscany, Italy, the domesticated sunflower, H. annuus, is the most familiar species. Perennial sunflower species are not as popular for gardens due to their tendency to spread rapidly and become invasive. Whorled sunflowers, H. verticillatus, were listed as a species in 2014 when the U. S. Fish. The primary threats are industrial forestry and pine plantations in Alabama, Georgia and they grow to 1.8 m and are primarily found in woodlands, adjacent to creeks and moist, prairie-like areas. Sunflowers are usually annual or perennial plants that grow to a height of 300 centimetres or more. They bear one or more wide, terminal capitula, with yellow ray florets at the outside. Several ornamental cultivars of Helianthus annuus have red-colored ray florets, all of them stem from a single original mutant, during growth, sunflowers tilt during the day to face the sun, but stop once they begin blooming. This tracking of the sun in young sunflower heads is called heliotropism, by the time they are mature, sunflowers generally face east. The rough and hairy stem is branched in the part in wild plants but is usually unbranched in domesticated cultivars. The petiolate leaves are dentate and often sticky, the lower leaves are opposite, ovate or often heart-shaped. They are distinguished technically by the fact that the ray florets are sterile, some species also have additional shorter scales in the pappus, and there is one species that lacks a pappus entirely. Another technical feature that distinguishes the genus more reliably, but requires a microscope to see, is the presence of a prominent, sunflowers are especially well known for their symmetry based on Fibonacci numbers and the Golden angle. There is quite a bit of variability among the species that make up the bulk of the species in the genus. Some have most or all of the leaves in a rosette at the base of the plant
38.
Chenopodium
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Chenopodium is a genus of numerous species of perennial or annual herbaceous flowering plants known as the goosefoots, which occur almost anywhere in the world. However, among the Amaranthaceae, the genus Chenopodium is the member of the subfamily Chenopodioideae. In Australia, the larger Chenopodium species are among the plants called bluebushes, chualar in California is named after a Native American term for a goosefoot abundant in the region, probably the California goosefoot. The species of Chenopodium are annual or perennial herbs, shrubs or small trees and they are nonaromatic, but sometimes foetid. The young stems and leaves are densely covered by vesicular globose hairs. Characteristically, these trichomes persist, collapsing later and becoming cup-shaped, the branched stems grow erect, ascending, prostrate or scrambling. The alternate or opposite leaves are petiolate and their thin or slightly fleshy leaf blade is linear, rhombic or triangular-hastate, with entire or dentate or lobed margins. Inflorescences are standing terminal and lateral and they consist of spicately or paniculately arranged glomerules of flowers. In monoecious plants flowers are dimorphic, bisexual or pistillate, flowers consist of 5 perianth segments connate. Basally or close to the middle, usually membranous margined and with a roundish to keeled back, almost always 5 stamens, in fruit, perianth segments become sometimes coloured, but mostly keep unchanged, somewhat closing over or spreading from the fruit. Pericarp membranous or sometimes succulent, adherent to or loosely covering the seed, the horizontally oriented seeds are depressed-globular to lenticular, with rounded to subacute margin. The black seed coat is almost smooth to striate, rugulose or pitted. These include white goosefoot, kañiwa and quinoa, on the Greek island of Crete, tender shoots and leaves of a species called krouvida or psarovlito are eaten by the locals, boiled or steamed. The Proto-Indo-Europeans of the eastern Yamna culture also harvested white goosefoot as an apparent cereal substitute to round out an otherwise mostly meat, there is increased interest in particular in goosefoot seeds today, which are suitable as part of a gluten-free diet. Quinoa oil, extracted from the seeds of C. quinoa, has similar properties, oil of chenopodium is extracted from the seeds of epazote, which is not in this genus anymore. Shagreen leather was produced in the past using the small, hard goosefoot seeds, C. album was one of the main model organisms for the molecular biological study of chlorophyllase. Goosefoot pollen, in particular of the widespread and usually abundant C. album, is an allergen to many people, the same species, as well as some others, have seeds which are able to persist for years in the soil seed bank. Many goosefoot species are significant weeds, and some have become invasive species
39.
Gorget
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A gorget /ˈɡɔːrdʒᵻt/, from the French gorge meaning throat, was originally a band of linen wrapped around a womans neck and head in the medieval period, or the lower part of a simple chaperon hood. In the High Middle Ages, when mail was the form of metal body armor used in Western Europe. During the 14th century as plate armor appeared to supplement mail. A separate mail collar called a pisan or standard was sometimes worn under the aventail as additional protection. One solution was a collar plate worn over the aventail and separate from the helmet. Through the early 15th century, gorget plates were integrated into the helmet itself to form the great bascinet, during this time, the mail standard was still used. At the beginning of the 16th century, the gorget became fully developed as a component of plate armor in its own right. The gorget served as a point for the Pauldrons, which either had holes to slide over pins projecting from the gorget, or fastened to the gorget by straps. The neck was protected by a collar of articulated lames. Some helmets had additional neck lames which overlapped the gorget, while others fitted tightly to the top of the gorget so that there would be no gap between them. By the 17th century there appeared a form of gorget with a low, unarticulated collar and larger front and back plates which covered more of the upper chest and back. These were not worn with a breastplate as part of a full harness, some gorgets of this period were parade pieces that were beautifully etched, gilded, engraved, chased, embossed, or enamelled at great expense. The Japanese form of the gorget, called a nodowa, was fastened by itself around the neck. It consisted of several lames made of lacquered leather or iron, the lames were articulated vertically, overlapping bottom to top, by another set of silk laces. As early as 1688, regulations provided for the wearing of gorgets by Swedish army officers, for those of captains rank the gorget was gilt with the kings monogram under a crown in blue enamel, while more junior officers wore silver-plated gorgets with the initials in gold. These last survivals of armour were much smaller than their Medieval predecessors and were suspended by chains or ribbons, in the British service they carried the Royal coat of arms until 1796 and thereafter the Royal cypher. Gorgets ceased to be worn by British army officers in 1830 and they were still worn to a limited extent in the Imperial German Army until 1914, as a special distinction by officers of the Prussian Gardes du Corps and the 2nd Cuirassiers Queen. Officers of the Spanish infantry continued to wear gorgets with the cypher of King Alfonso XIII in full dress until the overthrow of the Monarchy in 1931, mexican Federal army officers also wore the gorget with the badge of their branch as part of their parade uniform
40.
Conch
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Conch is a common name that is applied to a number of different medium to large-sized sea snails or their shells. The term generally applies to large snails whose shell has a high spire, in North America, a conch is often identified as a queen conch, found off the coast of Florida. Queen conches are valued for fish bait, and are known as seafood. The group of conchs that are referred to as true conchs are marine gastropod molluscs in the family Strombidae, specifically in the genus Strombus. For example, see Lobatus gigas, the conch, and Laevistrombus canarium. Many other species are often called conch, but are not at all closely related to the family Strombidae, including Melongena species. Species commonly referred to as conchs also include the sacred chank or more correctly shankha shell, the English word conch is attested in Middle English, coming from Latin concha, which in turn comes from Greek konchē ultimately from PIE root *konkho-, cognate with Sanskrit śaṅkha. The meat of conchs is eaten raw in salads, or cooked, as in burgers, chowders, fritters, all parts of the conch meat are edible. In The Bahamas, conch is served in fritter form, or as a raw. In the West Indies, local people eat conch in soups, stews, restaurants all over the islands serve this particular meat. In the Dominican Republic, Grenada, and Haiti, conch is commonly eaten in curries or in a spicy soup and it is locally referred to as lambi. In The Turks and Caicos Islands, the Annual Conch Festival is held in November each year, local restaurateurs compete for the best and most original conch dishes, that are then judged by international chefs. Free sampling of the dishes follows the judging, along with those festivities, other competitions, events, and music performances occur well into the evening. In Puerto Rico, conch is served as a ceviche, often called ensalada de carrucho, consisting of raw conch marinated in lime juice, olive oil, vinegar, garlic, green peppers and it is also used to fill empanadas. In East Asian cuisines, this seafood is often cut into thin slices, Conch shells can be used as wind instruments. They are prepared by cutting a hole in the spire of the shell near the apex, sometimes a mouthpiece is used, but some shell trumpets are blown without one. Many different kinds of mollusks can produce pearls, pearls from the queen conch, L. gigas, are rare and have been collectors items since Victorian times. In some gemological texts, non-nacreous gastropod pearls used to be referred to as calcareous concretions because they were porcellaneous, rather than nacreous, although non-nacreous, the surface of fine conch pearls has a unique and attractive appearance of its own
41.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
42.
University of Georgia Press
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The University of Georgia Press or UGA Press is a scholarly publishing house for the University System of Georgia. It is the oldest and largest publishing house in Georgia and a member of the Association of American University Presses, founded in 1938, the UGA Press is a publishing division of the University of Georgia and is located on the North Campus in Athens, Georgia, United States. It is the oldest and largest publishing house in the state of Georgia, UGA Press has been one of 130 full members of the prestigious Association of American University Presses since 1940. The University of Georgia and Mercer University are the only member presses in the state of Georgia, the Press employs 24 full-time publishing professionals, the Press currently publishes 80-85 new books a year and has more than 1500 titles in print. The Press is the scholarly publisher within the University System of Georgia serving all 31 institutions of higher education in the state. In 2008 the Press received the Governor’s Award in the Humanities, the UGA Press publishes 70-80 titles each year of scholarly and academic, regional, and literary works with a focus on American and Southern studies. It is also a publisher of African-American studies, civil rights history. The Flannery OConnor Award for Short Fiction was established by Charles East, then the editor-in-chief of the UGA Press, the publishing program has been nationally recognized, and in recent years a number of books published by the Press have won major awards. In conjunction with the Georgia Humanities Council and GALILEO, the UGA Press created the New Georgia Encyclopedia, eugene Genovese, Rebecca Solnit, David Carkeet, and Catherine Clinton. The Press has been the subject of several scandals, as a result of the critical coverage from Foetry. com and elsewhere, Ramke resigned from the editorship of the series. The University of Georgia Press now discloses the names of its poetry judges, on October 27,2005, the University of Georgia Press rescinded author Brad Vices Flannery OConnor Award for Short Fiction and recalled copies of his collection The Bear Bryant Funeral Train. Vice was alleged to have plagiarized sections of one story from Carl Carmers book Stars Fell on Alabama
43.
Mound Builders
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Since the 19th century, the prevailing scholarly consensus has been that the mounds were constructed by indigenous peoples of the Americas. Sixteenth-century Spanish explorers made contact with living in a number of later Mississippian cities, described their cultures. By the time of United States westward expansion two hundred years later, Native Americans were generally not knowledgeable about the civilizations that produced the mounds, research and study of these cultures and peoples has been based mostly on archaeology and anthropology. At one time, the mound builder was applied to the people believed to have constructed these earthworks. In the 16th through 19th centuries, Europeans and Americans generally thought that an other than one related to the historic Native Americans had built the mounds. The namesake cultural trait of the Mound Builders was the building of mounds and these burial and ceremonial structures were typically flat-topped pyramids or platform mounds, flat-topped or rounded cones, elongated ridges, and sometimes a variety of other forms. They were generally built as part of villages that arose from more dense populations, with a specialization of skills. The early earthworks built in Louisiana c.3500 BCE are the ones known to be built by a hunter-gatherer culture. The best-known flat-topped pyramidal structure, which at over 100 feet tall is the largest pre-Columbian earthwork north of Mexico, is Monks Mound at Cahokia in present-day Collinsville, Illinois. At its peak about 1150 CE, Cahokia was a settlement with 20, 000-30,000 people. Some effigy mounds were constructed in the shapes or outlines of culturally significant animals, the most famous effigy mound, Serpent Mound in southern Ohio, ranges from 1 to just over 3 feet tall. 20 feet wide, over 1,330 feet long, many different tribal groups and chiefdoms, involving an array of beliefs and unique cultures over thousands of years, built mounds as expressions of their cultures. The general term, mound builder, covered their shared architectural practice of earthwork mound construction and this practice, believed to be associated with a cosmology that had a cross-cultural appeal, may indicate common cultural antecedents. The first mound building was a marker of political and social complexity among the cultures in the Eastern United States. Watson Brake in Louisiana, constructed about 3500 BCE during the Middle Archaic period, is the oldest dated mound complex in North America and it is one of eleven mound complexes from this period found in the Lower Mississippi Valley. We can conclude that these mound builders were very organized people, hundreds or even thousands of workers had to dig up tons of earth with the hand tools available. Then the dirt had to be moved long distances. The most complete reference for these earthworks is Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley, written by Ephraim G. Squier and it was published in 1848 by the Smithsonian
44.
Arledge Mounds I and II
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The Arledge Mounds are a pair of Native American mounds in the south central part of the U. S. state of Ohio. Located near Circleville in Pickaway County, the two lie in the middle of a farm field, far from any roads. These two mounds are disparate in size, while the mounds height is 5 feet, the others is 20 feet. Although these mounds have not been excavated, archaeologists have proposed that they were built by the Adena culture, as undisturbed works of the Adena or some other mound building culture, the Arledge Mounds are potentially a valuable archaeological site. In recognition of this fact, they were listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1974, in 2006 the site was privately donated to The Archaeological Conservancy and renamed the Adams Archaeological Preserve. List of burial mounds in the United States
45.
W.C. Clemmons Mound
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Clemmons Mound is a Native American mound in the south central portion of the U. S. state of Ohio. Located near the community of Fox, it lies in the middle of a farm field near a creek. A cone measuring approximately 22 feet high and 144 feet in diameter, the mound is significant as a potential archaeological site. Because the mound has never been excavated, it is well preserved. In 1974, the Clemmons mound was listed on the National Register of Historic Places, due to its archaeological value
