1.
Administrative court
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An administrative court is a type of court specializing in administrative law, particularly disputes concerning the exercise of public power. Their role is to ascertain that official acts are consistent with the law, such courts are considered separate from general courts. The administrative acts are recognized from the hallmark that they become binding without the consent of the involved parties. The contracts between authorities and private persons fall usually to the jurisdiction of the court system. Accordingly, there is an administrative court of first instance, possibly an appeals court. The parallel system is found in countries like Egypt, Greece, Germany, France, Italy, some of the Nordic Countries, Portugal and others. In France, Greece, Portugal and Sweden, the system has three levels like the system, with local courts, appeals courts and a Supreme Administrative Court. In Finland, Italy and Poland, the system has two levels, where the court of first instance is a regional court, in Germany, the system is more complicated, and courts are more specialized. In Finland, legality of decisions of state agencies and municipal authorities can be appealed to the administrative courts. In accordance with the principle of the autonomy of municipalities, administrative courts can only review and rule on the formal legality of the decision. In the case of state agencies, administrative courts may rule on the content of the decision. In the United States, administrative courts are tribunals within administrative agencies, decisions of administrative courts can be appealed to a judicial court. Notably, in 1952, the Communist East German government abolished the administrative courts as bourgeois and this limited the citizens ability to contest official decisions. In 1989, re-establishment of the began in DDR
2.
Justiciability
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Justiciability concerns the limits upon legal issues over which a court can exercise its judicial authority. Justiciability is one of several criteria that the United States Supreme Court use to make a judgment granting writ of certiorari. For an issue to be justiciable by a United States federal court, all of the conditions must be met. A moot question is one for which the potential for an injury to occur has ceased to exist, or where the injury has been removed. However, if the issue is likely to reoccur, yet will continually become moot before any challenge can reach a court of competent jurisdiction, the suit must not be seeking judgment upon a political question. Political questions include such issues as whether the nation is at war with another country, if the case meets any one of these requirements, the court cannot hear it. The issue of non-justiciability has been recognized in Buttes Gas, where it was stated that this principle is not a matter of digression, the principle was further developed in Kuwait Airlines litigation
3.
Legitimate expectation
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It is based on the principles of natural justice and fairness, and seeks to prevent authorities from abusing power. The courts of the United Kingdom have recognized both procedural and substantive legitimate expectations, Procedural legitimate expectations have been recognized in a number of common law jurisdictions. In contrast, notwithstanding their acceptance and protection in the UK, for instance, they have been given effect in Singapore but not in Australia. Since its inception, the doctrine of legitimate expectation has been viewed as an offshoot of natural justice, the duty to act fairly is a core tenet of administrative law and a predominant feature in the application of the rules of natural justice. With each individuals entitlement to natural justice and fairness, legitimate expectation reinforces the duty of public bodies to act fairly and it is this protection of fairness that made way for the courts acknowledgement of legitimate expectations. The term legitimate expectation was first used in the case of Schmidt v. Secretary of State for Home Affairs, and R. v. North and East Devon Health Authority, ex parte Coughlan. Notwithstanding efforts of the courts, some ambiguity as to when legitimate expectations arise persisted, in response, Lord Justice of Appeal John Laws proposed the aspiration of good administration as a justification for the protection of legitimate expectations. Examples of procedural legitimate expectations include an expectation to be consulted, a substantive legitimate expectation is formed where a representation is made by an authority as to the final decision and outcome that the authority will make in a particular case. Instances in which it would be unlawful for the authority to frustrate such an expectation. The remedies that would be available to the party if it is found that the public authority had unlawfully frustrated a legitimate expectation. When determining if a legitimate expectation is present, the conditions are as follows, The representation must be clear, unambiguous. The expectation must be induced by the behaviour of the public authority, the representation must have been made by someone who had actual or apparent authority. The representation must be applicable to the aggrieved parties, courts take into account not only the reasonableness of the expectation but other considerations such as the nature of representation made. It is a question of law, and has to be decided on a basis with full reference to the facts of the case. It may be rebutted by countervailing public interests, a legitimate expectation does not arise when it is made ultra vires of the decision-makers statutory powers, that is, when the decision-maker lacked legal power to make the representation. Courts are reluctant to protect such an expectation that has been created, the rationale is undoubtedly clear and rests on the scope of the administrative authoritys powers. It prevents public authorities from expanding their powers simply by making ultra vires representations, secondly, allowing public authorities to be bound by their ultra vires representations may potentially prevent them from exercising their statutory powers or duties. Also, allowing a public authority to be bound could be unfair to third parties who are affected, however, courts may be obliged to protect legitimate expectations arising from representations by unauthorized officers of the public body
4.
Natural justice
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In English law, natural justice is technical terminology for the rule against bias and the right to a fair hearing. While the term natural justice is often retained as a general concept, the basis for the rule against bias is the need to maintain public confidence in the legal system. Bias can take the form of bias, imputed bias or apparent bias. Cases from different jurisdictions currently apply two tests for apparent bias, the suspicion of bias test and the real likelihood of bias test. One view that has taken is that the differences between these two tests are largely semantic and that they operate similarly. The mere fact that a decision affects rights or interests is sufficient to subject the decision to the procedures required by natural justice. In Europe, the right to a hearing is guaranteed by Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights. Natural justice is a term of art that denotes specific procedural rights in the English legal system and it is similar to the American concepts of fair procedure and procedural due process, the latter having roots that to some degree parallel the origins of natural justice. Natural justice is identified with the two constituents of a hearing, which are the rule against bias, and the right to a fair hearing. The requirements of justice or a duty to act fairly depend on the context. In Baker v. Earlier, in Knight v. Indian Head School Division No, furthermore, preliminary decisions will generally not trigger the duty to act fairly, but decisions of a more final nature may have such an effect. In addition, whether a duty to act fairly applies depends on the relationship between the authority and the individual. No duty exists where the relationship is one of master and servant, on the other hand, a duty to act fairly exists where the individual cannot be removed from office except for cause. Finally, a right to procedural fairness only exists when a decision is significant and has an important impact on the individual. A person is barred from deciding any case in which he or she may be, or may fairly be suspected to be, biased. This principle embodies the concept of impartiality, and applies to courts of law, tribunals, arbitrators. The basis on which impartiality operates is the need to maintain confidence in the legal system. The erosion of public confidence undermines the nobility of the legal system, Bias may be actual, imputed or apparent
5.
Ouster clause
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Ouster clauses prevent courts from carrying out this function, but may be justified on the ground that they preserve the powers of the executive and promote the finality of its acts and decisions. Ouster clauses may be divided into two species – total ouster clauses and partial ouster clauses, in the United Kingdom, the effectiveness of total ouster clauses is fairly limited. Subsequent cases held that Anisminic had abolished the distinction between jurisdictional and non-jurisdictional errors of law, the High Court of Australia has held that the Constitution of Australia restricts the ability of legislatures to insulate administrative tribunals from judicial review using privative clauses. Similarly, in India ouster clauses are almost always ineffective because judicial review is regarded as part of the structure of the Constitution that cannot be excluded. The position in Singapore is unclear, However, he emphasized that he was not expressing a concluded view on the matter. In general, under both constitutional and administrative law, the courts possess supervisory jurisdiction over the exercise of executive power, in jurisdictions which have a written constitution, the courts also assess the constitutionality of legislation, executive actions and governmental policy. Therefore, part of the role of the judiciary is to ensure that public authorities act lawfully and to serve as a check and balance on the governments power. However, the legislature may attempt to exclude the jurisdiction of the courts by the inclusion of ouster clauses in the statutes empowering public authorities to act and these ouster clauses may be total or partial. The following are examples of ouster clauses, Singapore. Section 47 of the Industrial Relations Act, Subject to the provisions of this Act, section 4 of the Foreign Compensation Act, The determination by the Commission of any application made to them under this Act shall not be called into question in any court of law. However, ouster clauses have traditionally been viewed with suspicion by the courts, according to the 19th-century laissez-faire theory championed by A. V. On the other end of the spectrum, there is the green-light approach derived from the school of thought associated with legal philosophers such as Jeremy Bentham. The green-light approach regards state involvement as an means to facilitate the delivery of communitarian goals. Hence, ouster clauses are regarded as useful devices to keep a conservatively inclined judiciary at bay, total ouster clauses, also known as finality clauses, seek to completely exclude the supervisory jurisdiction of the courts. In the United Kingdom, before the decision of Anisminic Ltd. v. In the former situation, an ouster clause precluded the courts from exercising their supervisory function. In R. v. Lord Justice of Appeal Alfred Denning stated that the words any decision of a claim or question, the word final is not enough. It does not mean without recourse to certiorari and it makes the decision final on the facts, but not final on the law
6.
Habeas corpus
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Habeas corpus is a recourse in law whereby a person can report an unlawful detention or imprisonment before a court, usually through a prison official. The writ of habeas corpus is known as the great and efficacious writ in all manner of illegal confinement, if the custodian is acting beyond his or her authority, then the prisoner must be released. Any prisoner, or another person acting on his or her behalf, may petition the court, or a judge, One reason for the writ to be sought by a person other than the prisoner is that the detainee might be held incommunicado. Most civil law jurisdictions provide a remedy for those unlawfully detained. For example, in some Spanish-speaking nations, the equivalent remedy for unlawful imprisonment is the amparo de libertad, though a writ of right, it is not a writ of course. So if an imposition such as internment without trial is permitted by the law, in some countries, the writ has been temporarily or permanently suspended under the pretext of war or state of emergency. The right to petition for a writ of habeas corpus has nonetheless long been celebrated as the most efficient safeguard of the liberty of the subject, the most common of the other such prerogative writs are quo warranto, prohibito, mandamus, procedendo, and certiorari. The due process for such petitions is not simply civil or criminal, the official who is the respondent must prove his authority to do or not do something. Failing this, the court must decide for the petitioner, who may be any person and this differs from a motion in a civil process in which the movant must have standing, and bears the burden of proof. From Latin habeas, 2nd person singular present subjunctive active of habere, to have, to hold, in reference to more than one person, habeas corpora. Literally, the means you may have the body. The complete phrase habeas corpus ad subjiciendum means you may have the person for the purpose of subjecting him/her to. These are the words of writs in 14th century Anglo-French documents requiring a person to be brought before a court or judge. The full name of the writ is often used to distinguish it from similar ancient writs, Habeas corpus ad prosequendum, a writ ordering return with a prisoner for the purpose of prosecuting him before the court. Habeas corpus ad respondendum, a writ ordering return to allow the prisoner to answer to new proceedings before the court, Habeas corpus ad testificandum, a writ ordering return with the body of a prisoner for the purposes of testifying. Habeas Corpus originally stems from the Assize of Clarendon, a re-issuance of rights during the reign of Henry II of England, in the 17th century the foundations for habeas corpus were wrongly thought to have originated in Magna Carta. William Blackstone cites the first recorded usage of habeas corpus ad subjiciendum in 1305, however, other writs were issued with the same effect as early as the reign of Henry II in the 12th century. The procedure for issuing a writ of habeas corpus was first codified by the Habeas Corpus Act 1679, a previous law had been passed forty years earlier to overturn a ruling that the command of the King was a sufficient answer to a petition of habeas corpus
7.
Ultra vires
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Ultra vires is a Latin phrase meaning beyond the powers. If an act requires legal authority and it is done with such authority, if it is done without such authority, it is ultra vires. Acts that are intra vires may equivalently be termed valid and those that are ultra vires invalid, acts attempted by a corporation that are beyond the scope of its charter are void or voidable. An ultra vires transaction cannot be ratified by shareholders, even if they wish it to be ratified, the doctrine of estoppel usually precluded reliance on the defense of ultra vires where the transaction was fully performed by one party. A fortiori, a transaction which was performed by both parties could not be attacked. If the contract was fully executory, the defense of ultra vires might be raised by either party, if an agent of the corporation committed a tort within the scope of his or her employment, the corporation could not defend on the ground the act was ultra vires. Several modern developments relating to corporate formation have limited the probability that ultra vires acts will occur, except in the case of non-profit corporations, this legal doctrine is obsolescent, within recent years, almost all business corporations are chartered to allow them to transact any lawful business. The Model Business Corporation Act of the United States states that, the doctrine still has some life among non-profit corporations or state-created corporate bodies established for a specific public purpose, such as universities or charities. Under constitutional law, particularly in Canada and the United States, according to Article 15.2 of the Irish constitution, the Oireachtas is the sole lawmaking body in the Republic of Ireland. In UK constitutional law, ultra vires describes patents, ordinances, almost unheard of in modern times, ultra vires acts by the Crown or its servants were previously a major threat to the rule of law. Boddington v British Transport Police is an example of an appeal heard by House of Lords that contested that a bylaw was beyond the powers conferred to it under section 67 of the Transport Act 1962. In administrative law, an act may be judicially reviewable for ultra vires in a narrow or broad sense, narrow ultra vires applies if an administrator did not have the substantive power to make a decision or it was wrought with procedural defects. Broad ultra vires applies if there is an abuse of power or a failure to exercise an administrative discretion or application of powers in irrational. Either doctrine may entitle a claimant to various prerogative writs, equitable remedies or statutory orders if they are satisfied, in the seminal case of Anisminic v Foreign Compensation Commission, Lord Reid is accredited with formulating the doctrine of ultra vires. However, ultra vires, together with unreasonableness, was mentioned earlier by Lord Russell in the well known case, Kruse v Johnson, regarding challenging by-laws. Anisminic is better known for not depriving courts of their jurisdiction to declare a decision a nullity, further cases such as Bromley LBC v Greater London Council and Council of Civil Service Unions v Minister for the Civil Service have sought to refine the doctrine. The Law of Corporation 4th Edition,1996 West Group
8.
Common law
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Common law is the body of law developed from the thirteenth century to the present day, as case law or precedent, by judges, courts, and tribunals. In cases where the parties disagree on what the law is, if a similar dispute has been resolved in the past, the court is usually bound to follow the reasoning used in the prior decision. Resolution of the issue in one case becomes precedent that binds future courts, stare decisis, the principle that cases should be decided according to consistent principled rules so that similar facts will yield similar results, lies at the heart of all common law systems. A common law system is a system that gives great precedential weight to common law. Common law systems originated during the Middle Ages in England, today, one third of the worlds population live in common law jurisdictions or in systems mixed with civil law. The term common law has many connotations, the first three set out here are the most-common usages within the legal community. Other connotations from past centuries are seen, and are sometimes heard in everyday speech. Blacks Law Dictionary, 10th Ed. gives as definition 1,1, the body of law derived from judicial decisions, rather than from statutes or constitutions, CASELAW, STATUTORY LAW. In this connotation, common law distinguishes the authority that promulgated a law. e, examples include most criminal law and procedural law before the 20th century, and even today, most contract law and the law of torts. Interstitial common law decisions that analyze, interpret and determine the fine boundaries. Publication of decisions, and indexing, is essential to the development of common law, while all decisions in common law jurisdictions are precedent, some become leading cases or landmark decisions that are cited especially often. Blacks 10th Ed. definition 2, differentiates common law jurisdictions, by contrast, in civil law jurisdictions, courts lack authority to act if there is no statute. Judicial precedent is given less weight, which means that a judge deciding a given case has more freedom to interpret the text of a statute independently. For example, the Napoleonic code expressly forbade French judges to pronounce general principles of law. As a rule of thumb, common law systems trace their history to England, blacks 10th Ed. definition 4, differentiates common law from equity. This split propagated to many of the colonies, including the United States, for most purposes, most jurisdictions, including the U. S. federal system and most states, have merged the two courts. Additionally, even before the courts were merged, most courts were permitted to apply both law and equity, though under potentially different procedural law. In the United States, determining whether the Seventh Amendments right to a jury trial applies or whether the issue will be decided by a judge, the standard of review and degree of deference given by an appellate tribunal to the decision of the lower tribunal under review
9.
Administrative law in Singapore
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Administrative law in Singapore is a branch of public law that is concerned with the control of governmental powers as exercised through its various administrative agencies. Administrative law requires administrators – ministers, civil servants and public authorities – to act fairly, reasonably, Singapore administrative law is largely based on English administrative law, which the nation inherited at independence in 1965. Claims for judicial review of action may generally be brought under three well-established broad headings, illegality, irrationality, and procedural impropriety. Irrationality has been equated with Wednesbury unreasonableness, which is named after the UK case Associated Provincial Picture Houses v. Wednesbury Corporation, according to Council of Civil Service Unions v. The twin elements of natural justice are the rule against bias, Administrative law in Singapore is a branch of public law that is concerned with the control of governmental powers as exercised through its various administrative agencies. It enjoins administrators – ministers, civil servants or public authorities – to act fairly, reasonably, Administrative law arose as a response to the advent of the administrative state. It is a 20th-century product of English administrative law, which Singapore inherited at independence, like the English system, Singapore does not have a separate system of specialist administrative courts as is the case in most civil law jurisdictions. The judiciary thus exists as an independent check on executive power, both are designed to address different types of wrongs that an administrative decision-maker may commit. If a right of appeal exists, it is favourable for a person to take advantage of it as the appellate court may substitute its decision for that of the original authority. An appeal may also involve a reconsideration of the merits of the case and not merely its legality, a red-light perspective of administrative law embodies deep-rooted suspicion of governmental power and a desire to minimize the encroachment of the state on the rights of individuals. This envisions the courts being locked in an adversarial or combative relationship with the Executive, Thus, the red-light perspective is more conservative and control-oriented, while the green-light perspective is more liberal or socialist in orientation and facilitative in nature. Given the Singapore governments focus on efficiency, the country has said to emphasize a largely green-light approach towards administrative law. In this approach, recourse to the judiciary is not the first line of defence against administrative abuses of powers, instead, it is perceived that control can and should come internally from Parliament and the executive itself in upholding high standards of public administration and policy. In other words, instead of redressing bad government through the courts, good government should be sought through the political process, Courts play a supporting role by articulating clear rules and principles by which the Singapore government may abide and conform to the rule of law. In general, judicial review of action is limited to cases involving errors of law. The courts are concerned with the legality of decisions. The first reason for this is based on the doctrine of separation of powers and this was articulated in Puhlhofer v. The second reason is that the courts may not have the expertise to assess the factual situation
10.
Civil law (legal system)
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Conceptually, civil law proceeds from abstractions, formulates general principles, and distinguishes substantive rules from procedural rules. It holds case law to be secondary and subordinate to statutory law, when discussing civil law, one should keep in mind the conceptual difference between a statute and a codal article. The marked feature of civilian systems is that they use codes with brief text that tend to avoid factually specific scenarios, Code articles deal in generalities and thus stand at odds with statutory schemes which are often very long and very detailed. The purpose of codification is to all citizens with manners and written collection of the laws which apply to them. Law codes are simply laws enacted by a legislature, even if they are in much longer than other laws. Other major legal systems in the world include common law, Halakha, canon law, the Scandinavian systems are of a hybrid character since their background law is a mix of civil law and Scandinavian customary law and have been partially codified. Likewise, the laws of the Channel Islands are hybrids which mix Norman customary law, a prominent example of a civil-law code would be the Napoleonic Code, named after French emperor Napoleon. The Code comprises three components, the law of persons, property law, and commercial law, rather than a compendium of statutes or catalog of caselaw, the Code sets out general principles as rules of law. Unlike common law systems, civil law jurisdictions deal with case law apart from any precedent value, Civil law courts generally decide cases using codal provisions on a case-by-case basis, without reference to other judicial decisions. In actual practice, a degree of precedent is creeping into civil law jurisprudence. A line of similar case decisions, while not precedent per se, while civil law jurisdictions place little reliance on court decisions, they tend to generate a phenomenal number of reported legal opinions. However, this tends to be uncontrolled, since there is no requirement that any case be reported or published in a law report, except for the councils of state. Except for the highest courts, all publication of legal opinions are unofficial or commercial, Civil law is sometimes referred to as neo-Roman law, Romano-Germanic law or Continental law. The civil law takes as its major inspiration classical Roman law, and in particular Justinian law, the Justinian Codes doctrines provided a sophisticated model for contracts, rules of procedure, family law, wills, and a strong monarchical constitutional system. Roman law was received differently in different countries, in some it went into force wholesale by legislative act, i. e. it became positive law, whereas in others it was diffused into society by increasingly influential legal experts and scholars. Roman law continued without interruption in the Byzantine Empire until its fall in the 15th century. However, subject as it was to multiple incursions and occupations by Western European powers in the medieval period. It was first received into the Holy Roman Empire partly because it was considered imperial law and it became the basis of Scots law, though partly rivaled by received feudal Norman law
11.
Administrative law in Mongolia
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Administrative law in Mongolia is the body of law that governs the activities of administrative agencies of the Mongolian government. These activities include rulemaking, adjudication, or the enforcement of a regulatory agenda. Administrative law in Mongolia developed as the country transited from the Soviet-era to a democratic state, the development can be divided into two main stages. During the Soviet-era, Three central agencies of state administration were formed, the Mongolian People’s Government became the highest agency of state power, with the powers to implement reforms in law, ministries and judiciary. Substantial reduction of the President’s power in deference to Parliament, the Cabinet, greater autonomy for local administration on the principle of ‘self-government and central guidance’. Executive power circumscribed by the Constitution, which in turn is enforced by a newly established Constitutional Tsets, the Constitution is the supreme source of law in Mongolia. Influenced by the Romano-Germanic civil law system, Mongolia recognizes written law as the source of law. The Constitution in 1992 abolished Marxism-Leninist ideology and laid out the principles of the separation of state powers. Statutes are a source of law. There is a distinction between normative acts and non-normative acts. The hierarchy of agencies is a factor that determines which agency will govern which act. Only the legislative branch of the government has the right to make laws, Mongolia’s nomadic past and unique living habits has elevated the importance of customs as a source of law. Throughout generations, customs that complement existing legal norms have prevailed, however, as there is lack of substantial evidence in literature, it is uncertain if Mongolian courts will recognize customs in the absence of legislation. The position of law as a source of law in Mongolia was elevated following the 1992 Constitution of Mongolia. According to Art 10 of the Constitution, international treaties to which Mongolia is a party eventually becomes domestic law, Mongolia is divided administratively into 21 aimags according to Article 57 of the Constitution. The Constitution vests the governor and parliament of the provinces with self-administrative powers, the Government of Mongolia is vested with the executive power of Mongolia and is composed of Ministries under the direction of the Cabinet and the Prime Minister. The roles, duties and responsibilities of these government agencies are defined by codified statutes. For instance, the administrative body of an aimag has a duty to monitor compliance with respect to environmental reclamation, health
12.
Constitutional law
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Constitutional law is the body of law which defines the relationship of different entities within a state, namely, the executive, the legislature, and the judiciary. Not all nation states have codified constitutions, though all such states have a jus commune, or law of the land and these may include customary law, conventions, statutory law, judge-made law, or international rules and norms. Constitutional law deals with the principles by which the government exercises its authority. In some instances, these principles grant specific powers to the government, such as the power to tax, other times, constitutional principles act to place limits on what the government can do, such as prohibiting the arrest of an individual without sufficient cause. In most nations, including the United States, constitutional law is based on the text of a document ratified at the time the nation came into being, Constitutional laws may often be considered second order rule making or rules about making rules to exercise power. It governs the relationships between the judiciary, the legislature and the executive with the bodies under its authority, one of the key tasks of constitutions within this context is to indicate hierarchies and relationships of power. Human rights or civil liberties form a part of a countrys constitution. Most jurisdictions, like the United States and France, have a codified constitution, a recent example is the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union which was intended to be included in the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe, that failed to be ratified. Perhaps the most important example is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights under the UN Charter and these are intended to ensure basic political, social and economic standards that a nation state, or intergovernmental body is obliged to provide to its citizens but many do include its governments. Some countries like the United Kingdom have no entrenched document setting out fundamental rights, in those jurisdictions the constitution is composed of statute, case law, a case named Entick v. Carrington is a constitutional principle deriving from the common law. John Enticks house was searched and ransacked by Sherriff Carrington, Carrington argued that a warrant from a Government minister, the Earl of Halifax was valid authority, even though there was no statutory provision or court order for it. The court, led by Lord Camden stated that, The great end and that right is preserved sacred and incommunicable in all instances, where it has not been taken away or abridged by some public law for the good of the whole. By the laws of England, every invasion of private property, if no excuse can be found or produced, the silence of the books is an authority against the defendant, and the plaintiff must have judgment. The commonwealth and the civil law jurisdictions do not share the same constitutional law underpinnings, another main function of constitutions may be to describe the procedure by which parliaments may legislate. For instance, special majorities may be required to alter the constitution, in bicameral legislatures, there may be a process laid out for second or third readings of bills before a new law can enter into force. Alternatively, there may further be requirements for maximum terms that a government can keep power before holding an election, Constitutional law is a major focus of legal studies and research. The doctrine of the rule of law dictates that government must be conducted according to law and this was first established by British legal theorist A. V. Dicey. Dicey’s rule of law formula consists of three classic tenets, the first is that the regular law is supreme over arbitrary and discretionary powers
13.
Law
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Law is a system of rules that are created and enforced through social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior. Law as a system helps regulate and ensure that a community show respect, private individuals can create legally binding contracts, including arbitration agreements that may elect to accept alternative arbitration to the normal court process. The formation of laws themselves may be influenced by a constitution, written or tacit, the law shapes politics, economics, history and society in various ways and serves as a mediator of relations between people. Islamic Sharia law is the worlds most widely used religious law, the adjudication of the law is generally divided into two main areas referred to as Criminal law and Civil law. Criminal law deals with conduct that is considered harmful to social order, Civil law deals with the resolution of lawsuits between individuals or organizations. Law provides a source of scholarly inquiry into legal history, philosophy, economic analysis. Law also raises important and complex issues concerning equality, fairness, there is an old saying that all are equal before the law, although Jonathan Swift argued that Laws are like cobwebs, which may catch small flies, but let wasps and hornets break through. In 1894, the author Anatole France said sarcastically, In its majestic equality, the law forbids rich and poor alike to sleep under bridges, beg in the streets, and steal loaves of bread. Writing in 350 BC, the Greek philosopher Aristotle declared, The rule of law is better than the rule of any individual, mikhail Bakunin said, All law has for its object to confirm and exalt into a system the exploitation of the workers by a ruling class. Cicero said more law, less justice, marxist doctrine asserts that law will not be required once the state has withered away. Regardless of ones view of the law, it today a completely central institution. Numerous definitions of law have been put forward over the centuries, at the same time, it plays only one part in the congeries of rules which influence behavior, for social and moral rules of a less institutionalized kind are also of great importance. There have been attempts to produce a universally acceptable definition of law. In 1972, one indicated that no such definition could be produced. McCoubrey and White said that the question what is law, glanville Williams said that the meaning of the word law depends on the context in which that word is used. He said that, for example, early customary law and municipal law were contexts where the law had two different and irreconcilable meanings. Thurman Arnold said that it is obvious that it is impossible to define the word law and it is possible to take the view that there is no need to define the word law. The history of law links closely to the development of civilization, Ancient Egyptian law, dating as far back as 3000 BC, contained a civil code that was probably broken into twelve books
14.
Government
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A government is the system by which a state or community is controlled. In the Commonwealth of Nations, the government is also used more narrowly to refer to the collective group of people that exercises executive authority in a state. This usage is analogous to what is called an administration in American English, finally, government is also sometimes used in English as a synonym for governance. In the case of its broad definition, government normally consists of legislators, administrators. Government is the means by which state policy is enforced, as well as the mechanism for determining the policy of the state. A form of government, or form of governance, refers to the set of political systems. Government of any kind currently affects every human activity in many important ways, in political science, it has long been a goal to create a typology or taxonomy of polities. as typologies of political systems are not obvious. It is especially important in the science fields of comparative politics. On the surface, identifying a form of government appears to be simple, the United States is a constitutional republic, while the former Soviet Union was a socialist republic. However self-identification is not objective, and as Kopstein and Lichbach argue, for example, elections are a defining characteristic of an electoral democracy, but in practice elections in the former Soviet Union were not free and fair and took place in a one-party state. Voltaire argued that the Holy Roman Empire is neither Holy, nor Roman, many governments that officially call themselves a democratic republic are not democratic, nor a republic, they are usually a dictatorship de facto. Communist dictatorships have been prone to use this term. For example, the name of North Vietnam was The Democratic Republic of Vietnam. China uses a variant, The Peoples Republic of China, thus in many practical classifications it would not be considered democratic. Experience with those movements in power, and the ties they may have to particular forms of government. For example, The meaning of conservatism in the United States has little in common with the way the words definition is used elsewhere, as Ribuffo notes, what Americans now call conservatism much of the world calls liberalism or neoliberalism. Since the 1950s conservatism in the United States has been associated with the Republican Party. However, during the era of segregation many Southern Democrats were conservatives, values are sorted from 1–100 based on level of democracy and political accountability
15.
Tribunal
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A tribunal, generally, is any person or institution with authority to judge, adjudicate on, or determine claims or disputes—whether or not it is called a tribunal in its title. For example, an advocate who appears before a court with a judge could describe that judge as their tribunal. Many governmental bodies that are titled tribunals are so described to emphasize that they are not courts of normal jurisdiction, private judicial bodies are also often styled tribunals. However, he word tribunal is not conclusive of a bodys function–for example, in Great Britain, the term is derived from the tribunes, magistrates of the Classical Roman Republic. Tribunal originally referred to the office of the tribunes, and the term is sometimes used in this sense in historical writings. In the Republic of Ireland, tribunal refers to a public inquiry established under the Tribunals of Inquiry Act 1921. The main difference between a Parliamentary Inquiry and a Tribunal of Inquiry in Ireland is that non-statutory inquiries are not vested with the powers, privileges, Tribunals are established by resolution of the Houses of the Oireachtas to enquire into matters of urgent public importance. It is not a function of Tribunals to administer justice, their work is solely inquisitorial, Tribunals are obliged to report their findings to the Oireachtas. They have the power to enforce the attendance and examination of witnesses, Tribunals can consist of one or more people. A layperson, or non-lawyer, may be the Sole member of a tribunal, the tribunal system of the United Kingdom is part of the national system of administrative justice. Such a tribunal was called a Vierschaar, so called for the dimensions of the sitting judges. Most towns had the Vierschaar privilege to hear their own disputes, the Vierschaar was usually located in the town hall, and many historic town halls still have such a room, usually decorated with scenes from the Judgment of Solomon. The following tribunals exist within the Judiciary of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the Peoples Republic of China, Lands, Small Claims, Labour, for public inquiries, commissions are set up instead, under the Commissions of Inquiry Ordinance. In many cases, the rules of evidence which apply in courts do not apply in tribunals. Appeal from a tribunal is to a court, in the context of sport, tribunal frequently refers to the AFL Tribunal, the disciplinary body of the Australian Football League. Tribunal is used in the U. S. generally to refer to courts or judicial bodies, in Bangladesh, tribunal refers to a court that serves some special purpose—of which Bangladesh have several. These have been set up to ensure speedy trial and reduce congestion in the normal courts. Beside this, Article 117 of the Constitution Of The Peoples Republic of Bangladesh empowers the parliament to set up one or more administrative tribunals, no court can entertain any proceeding or make any order in respect of any matter within the jurisdiction of such tribunal
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Board of directors
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A board of directors is a body of elected or appointed members who jointly oversee the activities of a corporation or organization, which can include a non-profit organization or a government agency. A board of directors activities are determined by the powers, duties and responsibilities conferred on it by an authority outside itself and these matters are typically detailed in regulations or in the organizations constitution and bylaws. These authorities may specify the number of members of the board, how they are to be chosen, and how often they are to meet. In an organization with voting members, the board is accountable to, and might be subordinate to, the full membership. In a stock corporation, non-executive directors are voted for by the shareholders, the board of directors appoints the chief executive officer of the corporation and sets out the overall strategic direction. In corporations with dispersed ownership, the identification and nomination of directors are often done by the board itself, in a non-stock corporation with no general voting membership, the board is the supreme governing body of the institution, its members are sometimes chosen by the board itself. Other names include Board of directors and advisors, board of governors, board of managers, board of regents, board of trustees and it may also be called the executive board and is often simply referred to as the board. For companies with publicly trading stock, these responsibilities are typically much more rigorous, typically, the board chooses one of its members to be the chairman, who holds whatever title is specified in the bylaws or articles of association. However, in organizations, the members elect the president of the organization. The directors of an organization are the persons who are members of its board, several specific terms categorize directors by the presence or absence of their other relationships to the organization. An inside director is a director who is also an employee, officer, chief executive, major shareholder, inside directors represent the interests of the entitys stakeholders, and often have special knowledge of its inner workings, its financial or market position, and so on. Executive directors often have an area of responsibility in the organization, such as finance, marketing, human resources. An outside director is a member of the board who is not otherwise employed by or engaged with the organization, a typical example is a director who is president of a firm in a different industry. Outside directors are not employees of the company or affiliated with it in any other way, outside directors bring outside experience and perspectives to the board. One of the arguments for having outside directors is that they can keep a eye on the inside directors. Outside directors are unlikely to tolerate insider dealing between insider directors, as outside directors do not benefit from the company or organization, outside directors are often useful in handling disputes between inside directors, or between shareholders and the board. They are thought to be advantageous because they can be objective, director - a person appointed to serve on the board of an organization, such as an institution or business. This practice results in an interlocking directorate, where a small number of individuals have significant influence over a large number of important entities
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Administrative law
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Administrative law is the body of law that governs the activities of administrative agencies of government. Government agency action can include rulemaking, adjudication, or the enforcement of a regulatory agenda. Administrative law is considered a branch of public law, civil law countries often have specialized courts, administrative courts, that review these decisions. In Brazil, unlike most Civil-law jurisdictions, there is no specialized court or section to deal with administrative cases, in 1998, a constitutional reform, led by the government of the President Fernando Henrique Cardoso, introduced regulatory agencies as a part of the executive branch. The President of the Republic exercises the function, in collaboration with several Ministries or other authorities with ministerial rank. Each Ministry has one or more under-secretary that performs through public services the actual satisfaction of public needs, there is not a single specialized court to deal with actions against the Administrative entities, but instead there are several specialized courts and procedures of review. Administrative law in the Peoples Republic of China was virtually non-existent before the reform era initiated by Deng Xiaoping. In 1990, the Administrative Supervision Regulations and the Administrative Reconsideration Regulations were passed, the three regulations have been amended and upgraded into laws. In 1994, the State Compensation Law was passed, followed by the Administrative Penalties Law in 1996, Administrative Compulsory Law was enforced in 2012. Adiministrative Litigation Law was amended in 2014. The General Administrative Procedure Law is under way, the main administrative courts are the tribunaux administratifs and appeal courts are the cours administratives dappel. Special administrative courts include the National Court of Asylum Right as well as military, the French body of administrative law is called droit administratif. It is a part of the law, which deals with the organization, the tasks. Administrative law in Germany follows three basic principles, principle of the legality of the authority, which means that there is no acting against the law and no acting without a law. The general administration law is ruled in the Administrative Procedures Law. Other legal sources are the Rules of the Administrative Courts, the security code. The Verwaltungsverfahrensgesetz, which was enacted in 1977, regulates the main administrative procedures of the federal government and it serves the purpose to ensure a treatment in accordance with the rule of law by the public authority. Furthermore, it contains the regulations for mass processes and expands the legal protection against the authorities, the VwVfG basically applies for the entire public administrative activities of federal agencies as well as federal state authorities, in case of making federal law. One of the clause is §35 VwVfG
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International trade
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International trade is the exchange of capital, goods, and services across international borders or territories. It is the exchange of goods and services among nations of the world, in most countries, such trade represents a significant share of gross domestic product. While international trade has existed throughout history, its economic, social, trading globally gives consumers and countries the opportunity to be exposed to new markets and products. Almost every kind of product can be found on the market, food, clothes, spare parts, oil, jewellery, wine, stocks, currencies. Services are also traded, tourism, banking, consulting and transportation, a product that is sold to the global market is an export, and a product that is bought from the global market is an import. Imports and exports are accounted for in a current account in the balance of payments. Industrialization, advanced technology, including transportation, globalization, multinational corporations, increasing international trade is crucial to the continuance of globalization. Without international trade, nations would be limited to the goods, the main difference is that international trade is typically more costly than domestic trade. Another difference between domestic and international trade is that factors of such as capital and labor are typically more mobile within a country than across countries. Thus international trade is restricted to trade in goods and services. Trade in goods and services can serve as a substitute for trade in factors of production, instead of importing a factor of production, a country can import goods that make intensive use of that factor of production and thus embody it. An example is the import of goods by the United States from China. Instead of importing Chinese labor, the United States imports goods that were produced with Chinese labor, International trade is also a branch of economics, which, together with international finance, forms the larger branch called international economics. The history of international trade chronicles notable events that have affected the trade between various economies, there are several models which seek to explain the factors behind international trade, the welfare consequences of trade and the pattern of trade. </ref></ref>==Largest countries by total international trade== Source, International Trade Centre President George W. Bush observed World Trade Week on May 18,2001, mcKenzie, Lionel W. Specialization and Efficiency in World Production. A Ricardo-Sraffa Paradigm Comparing the Gains from Trade in Inputs and Finished Goods, the definitions and methodological concepts applied for the various statistical collections on international trade often differ in terms of definition and coverage. Metadata providing information on definitions and methods are published along with the data. Ptas. mcgill. ca Historical documents on international trade available on FRASER
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Manufacturing
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Manufacturing is the value added to production of merchandise for use or sale using labour and machines, tools, chemical and biological processing, or formulation. Manufacturing engineering or manufacturing process are the steps through which raw materials are transformed into a final product, the manufacturing process begins with the product design, and materials specification from which the product is made. These materials are modified through manufacturing processes to become the required part. Manufacturing takes turns under all types of economic systems, in a free market economy, manufacturing is usually directed toward the mass production of products for sale to consumers at a profit. In a collectivist economy, manufacturing is more directed by the state to supply a centrally planned economy. In mixed market economies, manufacturing occurs under some degree of government regulation, modern manufacturing includes all intermediate processes required the production and integration of a products components. Some industries, such as semiconductor and steel manufacturers use the term fabrication instead, the manufacturing sector is closely connected with engineering and industrial design. Examples of major manufacturers in North America include General Motors Corporation, General Electric, Procter & Gamble, General Dynamics, Boeing, Pfizer, examples in Europe include Volkswagen Group, Siemens, and Michelin. Examples in Asia include Sony, Huawei, Lenovo, Toyota, Samsung, in its earliest form, manufacturing was usually carried out by a single skilled artisan with assistants. In much of the world, the guild system protected the privileges. Before the Industrial Revolution, most manufacturing occurred in rural areas, entrepreneurs organized a number of manufacturing households into a single enterprise through the putting-out system. Toll manufacturing is an arrangement whereby a first firm with specialized equipment processes raw materials or semi-finished goods for a second firm, manufacturing provides important material support for national infrastructure and for national defense. On the other hand, most manufacturing may involve significant social and environmental costs, the clean-up costs of hazardous waste, for example, may outweigh the benefits of a product that creates it. Hazardous materials may expose workers to health risks and these costs are now well known and there is effort to address them by improving efficiency, reducing waste, using industrial symbiosis, and eliminating harmful chemicals. The negative costs of manufacturing can also be addressed legally, developed countries regulate manufacturing activity with labor laws and environmental laws. Across the globe, manufacturers can be subject to regulations and pollution taxes to offset the costs of manufacturing activities. Labor unions and craft guilds have played a role in the negotiation of worker rights. Environment laws and labor protections that are available in developed nations may not be available in the third world, tort law and product liability impose additional costs on manufacturing
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Environment (biophysical)
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The biophysical environment can vary in scale from microscopic to global in extent. It can also be subdivided according to its attributes, examples include the marine environment, the atmospheric environment and the terrestrial environment. The number of environments is countless, given that each living organism has its own environment. The term environment is used as a short form for the biophysical environment. The expression the environment often refers to a global environment in relation to humanity. All life that has survived must have adapted to conditions of its environment, temperature, light, humidity, soil nutrients, etc. all influence any species, within any environment. However life in turn modifies, in forms, its conditions. Some long term modifications along the history of our planet have been significant and this process consisted in the breakdown of carbon dioxide by anaerobic microorganisms that used the carbon in their metabolism and released the oxygen to the atmosphere. This led to the existence of oxygen-based plant and animal life, other interactions are more immediate and simple, such as the smoothing effect that forests have on the temperature cycle, compared to neighboring unforested areas. Environmental science is the study of the interactions within the biophysical environment, part of this scientific discipline is the investigation of the effect of human activity on the environment. Ecology, a sub-discipline of biology and a part of environmental sciences, is mistaken as a study of human induced effects on the environment. Environmental studies is an academic discipline that is the systematic study of interaction of humans with their environment. It is a field of study that includes the natural environment, built environments. Environmentalism is a social and philosophical movement that, in a large part, seeks to minimise. The issues of concern for environmentalists usually relate to the environment with the more important ones being climate change, species extinction, pollution. One of the studies related include employing Geographic Information Science to study the biophysical environment, biophysics subject to the context List of conservation topics List of environmental issues Lists of environmental topics Miller, G. Tyler. McCallum, Malcolm L. Gwendolynn W. Bury, google search patterns suggest declining interest in the environment
21.
Tax
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A tax is a financial charge or other levy imposed upon a taxpayer by a state or the functional equivalent of a state to fund various public expenditures. A failure to pay, or evasion of or resistance to taxation, is punishable by law. Taxes consist of direct or indirect taxes and may be paid in money or as its labour equivalent, the legal definition and the economic definition of taxes differ in that economists do not regard many transfers to governments as taxes. For example, some transfers to the sector are comparable to prices. Examples include tuition at public universities and fees for utilities provided by local governments, governments also obtain resources by creating money and coins, through voluntary gifts, by imposing penalties, by borrowing, and by confiscating wealth. In modern taxation systems, governments levy taxes in money, but in-kind and corvée taxation are characteristic of traditional or pre-capitalist states, the method of taxation and the government expenditure of taxes raised is often highly debated in politics and economics. Tax collection is performed by a government agency such as the Canada Revenue Agency, when taxes are not fully paid, the state may impose civil penalties or criminal penalties on the non-paying entity or individual. The levying of taxes aims to raise revenue to fund governing and/or to alter prices in order to affect demand, States and their functional equivalents throughout history have used money provided by taxation to carry out many functions. A governments ability to raise taxes is called its fiscal capacity, when expenditures exceed tax revenue, a government accumulates debt. A portion of taxes may be used to service past debts, governments also use taxes to fund welfare and public services. These services can include education systems, pensions for the elderly, unemployment benefits, energy, water and waste management systems are also common public utilities. A tax effectively changes relative prices of products and they have therefore sought to identify the kind of tax system that would minimize this distortion. Governments use different kinds of taxes and vary the tax rates, historically, taxes on the poor supported the nobility, modern social-security systems aim to support the poor, the disabled, or the retired by taxes on those who are still working. A states tax system often reflects its communal values and the values of those in current political power. To create a system of taxation, a state must make choices regarding the distribution of the tax burden—who will pay taxes and how much they will pay—and how the taxes collected will be spent. In democratic nations where the public elects those in charge of establishing or administering the tax system, in countries where the public does not have a significant amount of influence over the system of taxation, that system may reflect more closely the values of those in power. All large businesses incur administrative costs in the process of delivering revenue collected from customers to the suppliers of the goods or services being purchased. Taxation is no different, the resource collected from the public through taxation is always greater than the amount which can be used by the government, the difference is called the compliance cost and includes the labour cost and other expenses incurred in complying with tax laws and rules
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Broadcasting
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Broadcasting began with AM radio, which came into popular use around 1920 with the spread of vacuum tube radio transmitters and receivers. Before this, all forms of communication were one-to-one, with the message intended for a single recipient. Over the air broadcasting is usually associated with radio and television, the receiving parties may include the general public or a relatively small subset, the point is that anyone with the appropriate receiving technology and equipment can receive the signal. The field of broadcasting includes both government-managed services such as radio, community radio and public television, and private commercial radio. The U. S. Code of Federal Regulations, title 47, part 97 defines broadcasting as transmissions intended for reception by the general public, private or two-way telecommunications transmissions do not qualify under this definition. For example, amateur and citizens band radio operators are not allowed to broadcast, as defined, transmitting and broadcasting are not the same. Transmissions using a wire or cable, like television, are also considered broadcasts. In the 2000s, transmissions of television and radio programs via streaming digital technology have increasingly been referred to as broadcasting as well, the earliest broadcasting consisted of sending telegraph signals over the airwaves, using Morse code, a system developed in the 1830s by Samuel F. B. Morse, physicist Joseph Henry and Alfred Vail and they developed an electrical telegraph system which sent pulses of electric current along wires which controlled an electromagnet that was located at the receiving end of the telegraph system. A code was needed to transmit natural language using only these pulses, Morse therefore developed the forerunner to modern International Morse code. Audio broadcasting began experimentally in the first decade of the 20th century, by the early 1920s radio broadcasting became a household medium, at first on the AM band and later on FM. Television broadcasting started experimentally in the 1920s and became widespread after World War II, satellite broadcasting was initiated in the 1960s and moved into general industry usage in the 1970s, with DBS emerging in the 1980s. Originally all broadcasting was composed of signals using analog transmission techniques but in the 2000s. In general usage, broadcasting most frequently refers to the transmission of information, Analog audio vs. HD Radio Analog television vs.9 zettabytes. This is the equivalent of 55 newspapers per person per day in 1986. Historically, there have been several methods used for broadcasting electronic media audio and/or video to the public, Telephone broadcasting. Telephone broadcasting also grew to include telephone services for news and entertainment programming which were introduced in the 1890s. These telephone-based subscription services were the first examples of electrical/electronic broadcasting, Radio broadcasting, audio signals sent through the air as radio waves from a transmitter, picked up by an antenna and sent to a receiver
23.
Immigration
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As for economic effects, research suggests that migration is beneficial both to the receiving and sending countries. Studies show that the elimination of barriers to migration would have effects on world GDP. Development economists argue that reducing barriers to labor mobility between developing countries and developed countries would be one of the most efficient tools of poverty reduction. Research shows that country of origin matters for speed and depth of immigrant assimilation, many animals have migrated across evolutionary history, including pre-humans. Human migration started with the out of Africa into the Middle East, and then to Asia, Australia, Europe, Russia. This is discussed in the article pre-modern human migration, recent history is discussed in the articles history of human migration and human migration. When people cross national borders during their migration, they are called migrants or immigrants from the perspective of the country which they enter, from the perspective of the country which they leave, they are called emigrant or outmigrant. Sociology designates immigration usually as migration, as of 2015, the number of international migrants has reached 244 million worldwide, which reflects a 41% increase since 2000. One third of the worlds international migrants are living in just 20 countries, the largest number of international migrants live in the United States, with 19% of the worlds total. Germany and Russia host 12 million migrants each, taking the second, Saudi Arabia hosts 10 million migrants, followed by the United Kingdom and the United Arab Emirates. Between 2000 and 2015, Asia added more international migrants than any major area in the world. Europe added the second largest with about 20 million, in most parts of the world, migration occurs between countries that are located within the same major area. In 2015, the number of international migrants below the age of 20 reached 37 million, while 177 million are between the ages of 20 and 64. International migrants living in Africa were the youngest, with an age of 29, followed by Asia, and Latin America/Caribbean, while migrants were older in Northern America, Europe. Nearly half of all international migrants originate in Asia, and Europe was the birthplace of the second largest number of migrants, india has the largest diaspora in the world, followed by Mexico and Russia. The other top desired destination countries were Canada, France, Saudi Arabia, Australia, Germany, one theory of immigration distinguishes between push and pull factors. Push factors refer primarily to the motive for immigration from the country of origin, in the case of economic migration, differentials in wage rates are common. If the value of wages in the new country surpasses the value of wages in ones country, he or she may choose to migrate
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Transport
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Transport or transportation is the movement of people, animals and goods from one location to another. Modes of transport include air, rail, road, water, cable, pipeline, the field can be divided into infrastructure, vehicles and operations. Transport is important because it enables trade between people, which is essential for the development of civilizations, terminals may be used both for interchange of passengers and cargo and for maintenance. Vehicles traveling on these networks may include automobiles, bicycles, buses, trains, trucks, people, helicopters, operations deal with the way the vehicles are operated, and the procedures set for this purpose including financing, legalities and policies. In the transport industry, operations and ownership of infrastructure can be public or private, depending on the country. Passenger transport may be public, where operators provide scheduled services, freight transport has become focused on containerization, although bulk transport is used for large volumes of durable items. Transport plays an important part in growth and globalization, but most types cause air pollution. While it is subsidized by governments, good planning of transport is essential to make traffic flow. A mode of transport is a solution that makes use of a type of vehicle, infrastructure. The transport of a person or of cargo may involve one mode or several of the modes, each mode has its own advantages and disadvantages, and will be chosen for a trip on the basis of cost, capability, and route. Human powered transport, a form of transportation, is the transport of people and/or goods using human muscle-power. Modern technology has allowed machines to enhance human power, human-powered vehicles have also been developed for difficult environments, such as snow and water, by watercraft rowing and skiing, even the air can be entered with human-powered aircraft. Animal-powered transport is the use of working animals for the movement of people, humans may ride some of the animals directly, use them as pack animals for carrying goods, or harness them, alone or in teams, to pull sleds or wheeled vehicles. A fixed-wing aircraft, commonly called airplane, is a craft where movement of the air in relation to the wings is used to generate lift. The term is used to distinguish this from rotary-wing aircraft, where the movement of the lift surfaces relative to the air generates lift, a gyroplane is both fixed-wing and rotary-wing. Fixed-wing aircraft range from small trainers and recreational aircraft to large airliners, two things necessary for aircraft are air flow over the wings for lift and an area for landing. The majority of aircraft also need an airport with the infrastructure to receive maintenance, restocking, refueling and for the loading and unloading of crew, cargo and passengers. While the vast majority of land and take off on land, some are capable of take off and landing on ice, snow
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