1.
United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
2.
Soviet Navy
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The Soviet Navy was the naval arm of the Soviet Armed Forces. The influence of the Soviet Navy played a role in the Cold War. The Soviet Navy was divided into four major fleets, the Northern, Pacific, Black Sea, the Caspian Flotilla was a smaller force operating in the land-locked Caspian Sea. Main components of the Soviet Navy included Soviet Naval Aviation, Naval Infantry, most of the Soviet Navy was reformed into the Russian Navy after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, while some elements became the basis of the Ukrainian, Azerbaijani and Georgian navies. During the revolution, sailors deserted their ships at will and generally neglected their duties, the officers were dispersed and most of the sailors left their ships. Work stopped in the shipyards, where uncompleted ships deteriorated rapidly, the Black Sea Fleet fared no better than the Baltic. The Bolshevik revolution entirely disrupted its personnel, with murders of officers. At the end of April 1918, German troops entered Crimea, the more effective ships were moved from Sevastopol to Novorossiysk where, after an ultimatum from Germany, they were scuttled by Vladimir Lenins order. The ships remaining in Sevastopol were captured by the Germans and then, after November 1918, on 1 April 1919, when Red Army forces captured Crimea, the British squadron had to withdraw, but before leaving they damaged all the remaining battleships and sank thirteen new submarines. When the White Army captured Crimea in 1919, it rescued and reconditioned a few units, at the end of the civil war, Wrangels fleet, a White fleet, moved to Bizerta in French Tunisia, where it was interned. The first ship of the navy could be considered the rebellious Imperial Russian cruiser Aurora. Sailors of the Baltic fleet supplied the fighting force of the Bolsheviks during the October Revolution, some imperial vessels continued to serve after the revolution, albeit with different names. The Soviet Navy, established as the Workers and Peasants Red Fleet by a 1918 decree of the Soviet government, was less than service-ready during the interwar years, as the countrys attentions were largely directed internally, the Navy did not have much funding or training. The greater part of the old fleet was sold by the Soviet government to Germany for scrap, in the Baltic Sea there remained only three much-neglected battleships, two cruisers, some ten destroyers, and a few submarines. Despite this state of affairs, the Baltic Fleet remained a significant naval formation, there also existed some thirty minor-waterways combat flotillas. During the 1930s, as the industrialization of the Soviet Union proceeded, approved by the Labour and Defence Council in 1926, the Naval Shipbuilding Program included plans to construct twelve submarines, the first six were to become known as the Dekabrist class. Beginning 4 November 1926, Technical Bureau Nº4, under the leadership of B. M, malinin, managed the submarine construction works at the Baltic Shipyard. In subsequent years,133 submarines were built to designs developed during Malinins management, additional developments included the formation of the Pacific Fleet in 1932 and the Northern Fleet in 1933
3.
Republic of China Navy
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The Republic of China Navy is the maritime branch of the Republic of China Armed Forces. Operations include maritime patrols in the Taiwan Strait and surrounding waters, as well as counter-strike, the Republic of China Marine Corps functions as a branch of the Navy. The ship prefix for ROCN combatants is ROCS, a usage is CNS. The Navy CHQs is subordinate to the General Staff, the Minister of Defense, internal units, Personnel, Combat Readiness & Training, Logistics, Planning, Combat Systems, General Affairs, Comptroller, Inspector General, Political Warfare. 7th Hai Feng Shore Based Anti-ship Missile Squadron, Haulien, Eastern Taiwan, Aviation Command Naval Aviation, at Pingtung, will receive 12 P-3C 2013/2014. 1st ASW Aviation Group 133rd Squadron, S-2T, at Pingtung, 2nd ASW Aviation Group 701st Helicopter Squadron, S-70C-1, at Hualien. 702nd Helicopter Squadron, S-70C-2, at Tsoying, 501st Helicopter Squadron, 500MD ASW, at Tsoying. Sources, The precursor to the modern ROC Navy was established as the Ministry of the Navy in the Provisional Government of the Republic of China in 1911 following the overthrow of the Qing dynasty. During the period of warlordism that scarred China in the 1920s and 1930s the ROCN remained loyal to the Kuomintang government of Sun Yat-sen instead of the government in Beijing. During that time and throughout World War II, the ROCN concentrated mainly on riverine warfare as the poorly equipped ROCN was not a match to Imperial Japanese Navy over ocean or coast. Following World War II, a number of Japanese destroyers and decommissioned U. S. ships were transferred to the ROC Navy. During the Chinese Civil War, the ROCN was involved in the protection of supply convoys, the subsequent reorganization and reestablishment of the Navy after evacuation to Taiwan is referenced in the lyrics of the post 1949 ROC Navy Song The New Navy. Since the 1990s the Navy has grown in importance as the emphasis of the ROCs military doctrine moves towards countering a possible Peoples Republic of China blockade, as well as offshore engagement. The ROCN has been working hard to expand its capability in electronic and anti-submarine warfare, however local shipbuilder CSBC still lacks the technology to build modern submarines. Traditionally, most ROCN equipment is purchased from the United States, the ROCN has also purchased Lafayette-class frigates from France and Zwaardvis-class submarines from the Netherlands as well as four U. S. Kidd-class destroyers originally intended for Iran. Despite the ROCN refurbishing and extending the life of its vessels and equipment. It has only two useful submarines, the U. S. Furthermore, the Legislative Yuan did not approve the budget and thereby slowed the opportunity to procure the badly needed underwater defense capability. A contract was awarded to Lockheed Martin to refurbish the 12 P-3C Orion aircraft for the ROC on 13 March 2009, in 2008, the ROCN set out to acquire an improved anti-ship capability
4.
Dominican Navy
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The Navy of the Dominican Republic or Armada de Republica Dominicana, is one of the three branches of the Military of the Dominican Republic, together with the Army and the Air Force. After the Dominican Republic gained its independence from Haiti on February 27,1844, three schooners were commissioned for this, the Separación Dominicana, the María Chica and the Leonor. Even though, the three schooners had been in action since April 15 at the Battle of Tortuguero, where they were led by Adm. Juan Bautista Cambiaso and sank 6 Haitian ships. On the other side of the conflict, The Elite Navy Force Hombres Ranas under Commander Ramon Montes Arache, the other navy commanders were afraid of Hombres Ranas taking control over Las Calderas Naval Base. Base Naval de Las Calderas, located in Peravia Province, is the largest Naval Base, the Bahia Las Calderas Naval Shipyard is located here. This shipyard is responsible for the maintenance of naval units of the fleet, Military and civilian vessels, such as tugs, boats, barges, pilot boats have also been built at this site. Notes, The Dominican Navy has other vessels of less draft, in the Dominican Navy, the ranks are organized in Admirals Officers, Senior Officers, Junior Officers and Enlisted. The Dominican Naval Auxiliary Corps is a force that possesses its own resources to assist in search operations, rescue. This organization was created by the Executive by Decree 887-09 and it is composed of a group of business, the organization operates private boats, barges and aircraft made available to the Navy, in order to assist with non-military activities or public order and safety at sea. The Dominican Naval Auxiliary has a presence in the north, northeast, east, south, the Naval Commandos are the Special Operations component of the Dominican Navy and are only employed in emergency situations. The Naval Commandos are capable of undertaking unconventional warfare, hostage rescue, counter-terrorism, VBSS and are experts in handling explosives and they are also trained in parachuting, hand-to-hand combat, CQC and other key skills. The teams armament includes the M16 rifle with the M203 grenade launcher, the Colt M4A1, M14 rifle, Mossberg 500 shotgun, the team operates inflated zodiac boats, RHIBs, and night vision goggles, among other equipment. Some team members first saw action during Operation Iraqi Freedom, Dominican troops, comprising a battalion of special components of the Dominican Armed forces, were under constant mortar attacks but suffered no casualties. While in Iraq, the troops were serving in the Plus Ultra Brigade, raised in 2008 the MIC serves as the youngest arm of service in the Dominican Navy, which is tasked for amphibious and landing operations. One Marine Battalion is of service as of the present. It also the youngest Marine unit in all of Latin America, the Navy plans to build a ship called a Multipurpose Platform, which will be between 164 and 190 feet long. Its construction will be in Bahia de Las Calderas, at the Astilleros Navales Bahia de Las Calderas shipyard, there are also plans for the construction of a new building in Santo Domingo that will house the Chief of Staff. Military of the Dominican Republic Marina de Guerra Dominicana
5.
Republic of Korea Navy
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The ROK Navy includes the Republic of Korea Marine Corps, which is a quasi-autonomous organization. Established in 1945, the ROK Navy is the oldest branch of the South Korean armed forces, since the end of the Korean War, the South Korean navy has concentrated its efforts to building naval forces to counteract the North Korean navy, which has littoral naval capabilities. As South Koreas economy grew, the ROK Navy was able to build larger and better equipped fleets to deter aggression, to protect national maritime rights, as a part of its mission, the ROK Navy has engaged in several peacekeeping operations since the turn of the 21st century. As of 2016, the ROK Navy has about 70,000 regular personnel including 29,000 Republic of Korea Marines, the naval aviation force consists of about 70 fixed-wing and rotary-wing aircraft. The ROK Marine Corps has about 500 tracked vehicles including self-propelled artillery, the ROK Navy aims to become a blue-water navy by 2020. In the late 4th century during the Three Kingdoms Period, Goguryeo defeated Baekjae, in the 9th century, Commissioner Chang Bogo of Unified Silla established a maritime base called Cheonghaejin on an island to foster trading with China and Japan, and to cope with pirates. In 1389 and 1419, Korean naval forces invaded Tsushima Island to suppress Japanese piracy, in the early years of the Joseon Dynasty, the naval force reached its peak of 50,000 personnel, in order to combat the ongoing piracy issue. Admiral Yi is also credited with the creation of the Turtle Ship, by the end of 19th century, the Joseon Navy had no significant naval force other than coastal defense fortresses. Although there was an attempt to modernize the navy by establishing a naval school. In 1903, the government of the Korean Empire purchased its first modern war ship, Korean naval tradition was disrupted after Korea was annexed by the Empire of Japan in 1910. During the Japanese occupation period, the Imperial Japanese Navy built a naval base - Chinkai Guard District in southern Korea, the Association evolved into the Marine Defense Group on November 11,1945 and later became the Korean Coast Guard, which was formed in Jinhae. On April 15,1949, the Republic of Korea Marine Corps was founded in Jinhae, in October 1949, the ROK Navy purchased a 600-ton submarine chaser, the former USS PC-823 with funds raised among its personnel. She was renamed ROKS Baekdusan, and became the first significant warship of the independent nation. The Korean War started with the North Korean armys surprise attack on Sunday, at the outset of the conflict, the 6, 956-man ROKN, with naval vessels of various types, was outnumbered by the 13,700 men and 110 naval vessels of the North Korean navy. With its UN allies, dominated by U. S. forces, on July 27,1953, the three-year-long war was brought to an end when an armistice agreement was signed. The Commander-in-Chief Republic of Korea Fleet, the highest operational command, was established in September 1953, starting in the 1950s, the ROK Navy built up its surface fleet mainly with older warships transferred from the United States Navy. In May 1963, the ROK Navy acquired its first destroyer ROKS Chungmu, the former USS Erben, starting from 1972, nine former USN Allen M. Sumner class and Gearing class destroyers were transferred and added to the ROK Fleet inventory. During the Vietnam War, the ROK Navy dispatched a naval transport squadron called Baekgu, the Republic of Korea Marine Corps sent into a combat brigade called Cheongnyong to Vietnam
6.
Mexican Navy
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The Mexican Navy is one of the two independent Armed Forces of Mexico. The actual naval forces are called the Armada de México, the Secretaría de Marina includes both the Armada itself and the attached ministerial and civil service. The commander of the Navy is the Secretary of the Navy, the Mexican Navys stated mission is to use the naval force of the federation for external defense, and to help with internal order. The Navy consists of about 56,000 men and women plus reserves, over 189 ships, the Navy attempts to maintain a constant modernization program in order to upgrade its response capability. Given Mexicos large area of water and extensive coastline, the Navys duties are of great importance, perhaps its most important on-going missions are the war on drugs and protecting PEMEXs oil wells in Campeche in the Gulf of Mexico. Another important task of the Mexican Navy is to people in hurricane relief operations. Starting with the term of President Enrique Peña Nieto, the prefix ARM started being used in all naval vessels in active service, the Mexican Navy has its origins in the creation of the Ministry of War in 1821. From that year until 1939 it existed jointly with the Army in the organic ministry, therefore, its priority was to purchase its first fleet from the U. S. in order to displace the last remaining Spanish forces from its coasts. The Mexican Navy has participated in naval battles to protect. Day-to-day control of the Navy lies with the Navy Secretary, Vidal Francisco Soberón Sanz, in Mexico there is no joint forces command structure with the army, so the Secretary reports directly to the President. The Navy has a General Headquarters and three naval forces, there are furthermore 8 regions,13 zones, and 14 naval sectors. The Naval Infantry are responsible for security, protection of the ten-kilometer coastal fringe. To provide such support, the Navy has ordered Coast Guard Defender class ships, other stations will be provided only with Defender class boats. On April 1,2014 SEMAR officially announced the creation of Port Protection Naval Units which will include a marine section, the main task of UNAPROPs is to ensure Maritime surveillance and inspection. Candidates can enter upon completing high school, upon completion of studies, graduates obtain the degree of Corbeta Lieutenant and the title of Naval Science Engineer. Naval Medical School This school Located in Mexico City, offers a career in medicine, officers are trained with skills for the prevention and health care of naval personnel. By adopting a professional examination, graduates can obtain the degree of Naval Military Lieutenant Corvette and this school offers career of Electronic Engineering and Naval Communications. It is located between the town of Mata Grape and Anton Lizardo,32 km from the port of Veracruz, Naval Nursing School Here the time to achieve a nursing degree lasts eight semesters
7.
Myanmar Navy
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The Myanmar Navy is the naval branch of the armed forces of Myanmar with 19,000 men and women. The Myanmar Navy currently operates more than 122 vessels, before 1988, the Myanmar Navy was small and its role in the many counterinsurgency operations was much less conspicuous than those of the army and air force. Yet the navy has always been, and remains, an important factor in Myanmars security, the naval arm of the Royal Armed Forces consisted mainly of shallow draft river boats. Its primary missions were to control the Irrawaddy River, and to protect the ships carrying the army to the front, the major war boats carried up to 30 musketeers and were armed with 6- or 12-pounder cannon. By the mid-18th century, the navy had acquired a few seafaring ships, manned by European and foreign sailors, the Arakanese and the Mon, from maritime regions, maintained more seaworthy flotillas than the inland riverborne navy of the Royal Burmese Army. The Arakanese in particular fielded a formidable seagoing navy that terrorised the coasts of Bay of Bengal during the 15th and 17th centuries. The Myanmar Navy was formed as the Navy of Burma in 1940 and, although very small, in December 1947, the Union of Burma Navy was formed with 700 men. The fleet initially consisted of a small but diverse collection of ships transferred from the Royal Navy under the arrangements made for Burmas independence in January 1948 and it included the UBS Mayu, an ex-Royal Navy River-class frigate, and four Landing Craft Gun. Armed with two 25-pounder guns and two 2-pounder guns, these craft were used as support gunboats. In 1950 and 1951, the United States provided 10 coast guard cutters under the Mutual Defense Assistance Program, the Myanmar Navy played an important part in the governments fight against the ethnic and ideological insurgent groups which threatened the Union Government in its early days. The Myanmar Navy performed both defensive and offensive roles, protecting convoys, carrying supplies, ferrying troops and giving much-needed fire support and it was instrumental in relieving the port city of Moulmein, which was captured by Karen insurgents in 1948, and the Irrawaddy Delta town of Bassein. In the late-1950s and early-1960s, the United States sold the Myanmar Navy six PGM type coastal patrol crafts, in the mid-1960s, the Myanmar Navy took delivery of ex-US Navy 640-long-ton PCE-827 class corvette and a 650-long-ton Admirable-class minesweeper, both of which were commissioned in the mid-1940s. In 1978, the United States provided the Myanmar Navy with six small patrol crafts. In 1958, Myanmars Navy took delivery of 10 Y-301-class river gunboats from Yugoslavia, efforts were made to produce locally made naval vessels with assistance from Yugoslavia. In 1960, the Myanmar Navy commissioned two 400-long-ton Nawarat-class corvettes and their armaments include 25-pounder field gun and 40 mm Bofors anti-aircraft gun. Myanmar shipyards also built a number of patrol craft and a number of landing craft. Landing craft and auxiliary ships are armed with Oerlikon 20 mm cannons,40 mm Bofors anti-aircraft guns. The Ospery and Swift-class boats have a range of 4,500 and 1,800 miles respectively and were armed with Oerlikon 20 mm cannons and 40 mm Bofors anti-aircraft guns
8.
Philippine Navy
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The Philippine Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the Armed Forces of the Philippines and one of the three uniformed services of the Philippines. It has a strength of 24,000 active service personnel. To organize, train, equip, maintain, develop and deploy forces for prompt and sustained naval, a flotilla of balangay was discovered in the late 1970s in Butuan City, Agusan del Norte. Philippine ships, such as the karakao or korkoa were of excellent quality and some of them were used by the Spaniards in expeditions against rebellious tribes and Dutch, some of the larger rowed vessels held up to a hundred rowers on each side besides a contingent of armed troops. Generally, the vessels held at least one lantaka at the front of the vessel or another one placed at the stern. Philippine sailing ships called praos had double sails that seemed to rise well over a hundred feet from the surface of the water, despite their large size, these ships had double outriggers. Some of the sailing ships, however, did not have outriggers. Antecedent to this raids, somethime between A. D, in A. D. However, the author observed that these reaiders spoke a different language and had an entirely different appearance. In the Battle of Manila in 1365 is an unspecified and disputed battle occurring somewhere in the vicinity of Manila between the forces of the Kingdoms in Luzon and the Empire of Majapahit, alternatively, Luzon may have been successfully invaded but was able to regain its independence later. The Republics need for a force was first provided for by Filipino revolutionaries when they included a provision in the Biák-na-Bató Constitution. This authorised the government to permit privateers to engage enemy vessels. On May 1,1898, the first ship handed by Admiral George Dewey to the Revolutionary Navy is a small pinnace from the Reina Cristina of Admiral Patricio Montojo, the ships were refitted with 9 centimeter guns. The 900-ton inter-island tobacco steamer further reinforced the fleet, Compania de Filipinas, steam launches purchased from China, after passing of the Malolos Constitution the Navy was transferred from the Ministry of Foreign Relations to the Department of War headed by Gen. Mariano Trías. As the tensions between Filipinos and Americans erupted in 1899 and a blockade on naval forces by the Americans. The Americans employed many Filipino sailors in this bureau and in the Bureaus of Customs and Immigration, Island and Inter-Island Transportation, Coast and Geodetic Survey, and Lighthouses. They also reopened the former Spanish colonial Escuela Nautica de Manila, which was renamed the Philippine Nautical School, adopting the methods of the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis. The U. S. Naval Academy accepted its first Filipino midshipman in 1919, in 1935, the Commonwealth Government passed the National Defense Act, which aimed to ensure the security of the country. This was criticized because it placed the burden of the defense of the Philippines on ground forces and it discounted the need for a Commonwealth air force and navy, and naval protection was provided by the United States Asiatic Fleet
9.
Republic of Vietnam Navy
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The Republic of Vietnam Navy was the naval branch of the South Vietnamese military, the official armed forces of the former Republic of Vietnam from 1955 to 1975. The early fleet consisted of boats from France, after 1955 and the transfer of the armed forces to Vietnamese control, the fleet was supplied from the United States. The origins of the Viet Nam Navy began in 1952 with the French Navy, by this time the Navy numbered about 2,000 personnel, with 22 vessels. The Vietnamese then received assistance in the development of the VNN from the United States Military Assistance Advisory Group, in 1956, the North Vietnamese began infiltrating men and arms into the Republic of Vietnams territory by sea. In response the VNN created the Coastal Junk Force of junks manned by Regional Irregular Forces and local fishermen recruited for the occasion, the force later came to be known as Coastal Groups, and patrolled the entire 1, 200-mile coastline. This force was under the control of the military zone commands rather than the Navy. In the late 1950s the Vietnam Navy was being modernized and developed, receiving ships, by 1961 the VNN had a force of 23 ships, the largest of which were LSMs,197 boats, and 5,000 men. The number of ships increased to 44 and number of personnel to 8,100, by the end of 1968 plans for the turnover of the majority of the United States Navy assets in Vietnam had been formulated. In early 1969, President Richard M. Nixon formally adopted the policy of Vietnamization, the naval part, called ACTOV, involved the phased transfer to Vietnam of the U. S. river and coastal fleet, as well as operational command over various operations. In mid-1969, the VNN took sole responsibility for river assault operations when the U. S, mobile Riverine Force stood down and transferred 64 riverine assault craft to the VNN. By the end of 1970, the U. S. Navy ceased all operations throughout South Vietnam, during 1970 and 1971 the United States also relinquished control of the coastal and high seas patrols to the VNN. The U. S. naval command also transferred four Coast Guard cutters, a destroyer radar picket ship, an LST, and various harbor control, mine craft. By August 1972, the VNN took responsibility for the coastal patrol effort when it took over the last 16 U. S. coastal radar installations. In addition to ships and vessels, the U. S. transferred support bases, the first change of command occurred in November 1969 at Mỹ Tho, and the last in April 1972 at Nhà Bè, Bình Thủy, Cam Ranh Bay, and Đà Nẵng. By 1973, the Vietnam Navy numbered 42,000 men and over 1,400 ships, in 1973 and 1974, as a result of the Paris Peace Accords, the United States drastically cut its financial support for the Vietnamese armed forces. The VNN was compelled to reduce its operations by half. To conserve supplies, over 600 river and harbor craft and 22 ships were laid up. On 19 January 1974, four VNN ships fought a battle with four ships of the Chinese People’s Liberation Army Navy over ownership of the Paracel Islands,200 nautical miles due east of Đà Nẵng
10.
Taiwan
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Taiwan, officially the Republic of China, is a state in East Asia. Neighbours include China to the west, Japan to the northeast, Taiwan is the most populous state that is not a member of the United Nations, and the one with the largest economy. The island of Taiwan, also known as Formosa, was inhabited by Taiwanese aborigines before the 17th century. After a brief rule by the Kingdom of Tungning, the island was annexed by the Qing dynasty, the Qing ceded Taiwan to Japan in 1895 after the Sino-Japanese War. While Taiwan was under Japanese rule, the Republic of China was established on the mainland in 1912 after the fall of the Qing dynasty, following the Japanese surrender to the Allies in 1945, the ROC took control of Taiwan. However, the resumption of the Chinese Civil War led to the ROCs loss of the mainland to the Communists, and the flight of the ROC government to Taiwan in 1949. As a founding member of the United Nations, the ROC continued to represent China at the United Nations until 1971, in the early 1960s, Taiwan entered a period of rapid economic growth and industrialization, creating a stable industrial economy. In the 1980s and early 1990s, it changed from a one-party military dictatorship dominated by the Kuomintang to a multi-party democracy with universal suffrage, Taiwan is the 22nd-largest economy in the world, and its high-tech industry plays a key role in the global economy. It is ranked highly in terms of freedom of the press, health care, public education, economic freedom, the PRC has consistently claimed sovereignty over Taiwan and asserted the ROC is no longer in legitimate existence. Under its One-China Policy the PRC refused diplomatic relations with any country that recognizes the ROC, the PRC has threatened the use of military force in response to any formal declaration of independence by Taiwan or if PRC leaders decide that peaceful unification is no longer possible. There are various names for the island of Taiwan in use today, the former name Formosa dates from 1542, when Portuguese sailors sighted the main island of Taiwan and named it Ilha Formosa, which means beautiful island. The name Formosa eventually replaced all others in European literature and was in use in English in the early 20th century. This name was adopted into the Chinese vernacular as the name of the sandbar. The modern word Taiwan is derived from this usage, which is seen in forms in Chinese historical records. Use of the current Chinese name was formalized as early as 1684 with the establishment of Taiwan Prefecture, through its rapid development, the entire Formosan mainland eventually became known as Taiwan. The official name of the state is the Republic of China and it was a member of the United Nations representing China until 1971, when it lost its seat to the Peoples Republic of China. Over subsequent decades, the Republic of China has become known as Taiwan. In some contexts, especially ones from the ROC government
11.
Chinese Maritime Customs Service
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From its foundation in 1854 until the collapse of the Qing dynasty in 1911, the agency was known as the Imperial Maritime Customs Service. Largely staffed at senior levels by foreigners, the Service was controlled by Chinese central government throughout its history and its responsibilities soon grew to include domestic customs administration, postal administration, harbour and waterway management, weather reporting, and anti-smuggling operations. It mapped, lit, and policed the China coast and the Yangtze and it conducted loan negotiations, currency reform, and financial and economic management. The Service published monthly Returns of Trade, a series of Aids to Navigation and reports on weather. It also represented China at over twenty world fairs and exhibition, ran some educational establishments, britons dominated the foreign staff of the Customs, but there were large numbers of German, U. S. French, and later Japanese staff amongst others. Promotion of Chinese nationals into senior positions started in 1929, after two decades of operation, the system collected about one third of the revenue available to the government in Beijing. In addition, foreign trade expanded rapidly because international trade was regulated, foreign governments benefitted because there was a mechanism to collect revenues to repay the loans that they had imposed on or granted to China. By 1900, there were 20,000 people working in forty main Customs Houses across China, Hart oversaw the development of the Service and its activities to its fullest form. Hart was succeeded by Sir Francis Aglen and then by his own nephew, Sir Frederick Maze and it was the only bureaucratic agency of the Chinese government to operate continuously as an integrated entity from 1854 to 1950. Amongst the many figures who worked for the Customs in China were Willard Straight, botanist Augustine Henry, Johan Wilhelm Normann Munthe, Norwegian. Worcester, River Inspector from 1914 to 1948, and author of seven published books on the Yangzi River, novelist and journalists Bertram Lenox Simpson, medical Officers attached to the Customs included John Dudgeon, in Peking, James Watson at Newchwang and Patrick Manson at Takow and Amoy. The Hong Kong Chinese businessman and political leader Robert Hotung served as a Customs clerk for two years, a number of early Sinologists emerged from the Service, including linguist Thomas Francis Wade, Edward Charles Bowra, and Charles Henry Brewitt-Taylor. Family travel costs were at the expense, so not all took punctually their due of foreign leave of two years on half pay after the first seven years, and subsequently every ten years. To some extent this was compensated by the strong esprit de corps, a network of friends was sustained across changes of post by letter-writing, quite frequently the duty of their wives. Records of individual senior and junior staff in the Chinese Maritime Customs are preserved in the School of Oriental and African Studies, archives and Special Collections General Administration of Customs Anglo-Chinese relations Category, Ships of the Chinese Maritime Customs Service Hans van de Ven. Breaking with the Past, The Maritime Customs Service and the Global Origins of Modernity in China, britains Imperial Cornerstone in China, The Chinese Maritime Customs Service, 1854-1949. Government, Imperialism and Nationalism in China, The Maritime Customs Service, new York, Routledge, Routledge Studies in the Modern History of Asia. Trade and Diplomacy on the China Coast, The Opening of the Treaty Ports, friends of Sir Robert Hart, Three Generations of Carrall Women in China
12.
Agile-class minesweeper
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The Agile-class minesweepers are a class of US-built ocean-going minesweepers. 58 ships were built for the United States Navy,35 ships were built for the allied NATO navies of Belgium, France, Italy,13 ships were later transferred to Belgium, Spain, Taiwan, the Philippines and Uruguay. There is some confusion on how to name this class, the class is often described as the Aggressive-class, as USS Aggressive was the first ship to be commissioned. Sometimes four ships are a Dash-class subclass, although all ships are of the same design, as a result of experiences during the Korean War, the United States Navy undertook a large scale construction of a new series of minesweepers. The ships were equipped with the UQS-1 mine-locating sonar and were capable of sweeping moored, bottom contact, although it was planned to modernize all U. S. Navy ship of this class, only 19 ships were modernized starting with Fiscal Year 1968. The modernization cost between 700,000 and 1,500,000 $ per ship and should enable them to operate for ten years. The ships received new aluminum block Waukesha diesel engines and the superstructure was enlarged aft, the UQS-1 sonar was replaced with SQQ-14. Two PAP-104 cable-guided undersea tools were added, also, two 40hp zodiacs were carried for the purpose of mooring the new sonar reflectors. Also, a team of clearance divers was added. Additional space on the focsle was needed for installation of the SQQ-14 cabling so the 40mm Bofors bow gun was replaced with a mount for a twin 20 mm Mk 68 gun, as of 2015, the four ships transferred to Taiwan are still in service. FAS - MSO-422 class GlobalSecurity - MSO-422 class
13.
Minesweeper
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A minesweeper is a small naval warship designed to engage in minesweeping. Using various mechanisms intended to counter the threat posed by naval mines, although naval warfare has a long history, the earliest known usage of the naval mine dates to the Ming dynasty. Dedicated minesweepers, however, only appear in the record several centuries later, to the Crimean War. In the Crimean War, minesweepers consisted of British rowboats trailing grapnels to snag the mines, despite the use of mines in the American Civil War, there are no records of effective minesweeping being used. Officials in the Union Army attempted to create the first minesweeper but were plagued by flawed designs, minesweeping technology picked up in the Russo-Japanese War, using aging torpedo boats as minesweepers. In Britain, naval leaders recognized before the outbreak of World War I that the development of sea mines was a threat to the nations shipping, sir Arthur Wilson noted the real threat of the time was blockade aided by mines and not invasion. A Trawler Section of the Royal Navy Reserve became the predecessor of the mine sweeping forces with specially designed ships and these reserve Trawler Section fishermen and their trawlers were activated, supplied with mine gear, rifles, uniforms and pay as the first minesweepers. The dedicated, purpose-built minesweeper first appeared during World War I with the Flower-class minesweeping sloop, by the end of the War, naval mine technology had grown beyond the ability of minesweepers to detect and remove. Minesweeping made significant advancements during World War II, combatant nations quickly adapted ships to the task of minesweeping, including Australias 35 civilian ships that became Auxiliary Minesweepers. Both Allied and Axis countries made heavy use of minesweepers throughout the war, historian Gordon Williamson wrote that Germanys minesweepers alone formed a massive proportion of its total strength, and are very much the unsung heroes of the Kriegsmarine. Naval mines remained a threat even after the war ended, after the Second World War, allied countries worked on new classes of minesweepers ranging from 120-ton designs for clearing estuaries to 735-ton oceangoing vessels. The United States Navy even used specialized Mechanized Landing Craft to sweep shallow harbors in, as of June 2012, the U. S. Navy had four minesweepers deployed to the Persian Gulf to address regional instabilities. Minesweepers are equipped with mechanical or electrical devices, known as sweeps, mechanical sweeps are devices designed to cut the anchoring cables of moored mines, and preferably attach a tag to help the subsequent localization and neutralization. They are towed behind the minesweeper, and use a body to maintain the sweep at the desired depth. Influence sweeps are equipment, often towed, that emulate a particular ship signature, the most common such sweeps are magnetic and acoustic generators. There are two modes of operating an influence sweep, MSM and TSM, MSM sweeping is founded on intelligence on a given type of mine, and produces the output required for detonation of this mine. If such intelligence is unavailable, the TSM sweeping instead reproduces the influence of the ship that is about to transit through the area. TSM sweeping thus clears mines directed at this ship without knowledge of the mines, however, mines directed at other ships might remain
14.
Knot (unit)
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The knot is a unit of speed equal to one nautical mile per hour, approximately 1.151 mph. The ISO Standard symbol for the knot is kn, the same symbol is preferred by the IEEE, kt is also common. The knot is a unit that is accepted for use with the SI. Etymologically, the term derives from counting the number of knots in the line that unspooled from the reel of a log in a specific time. 1 international knot =1 nautical mile per hour,1.852 kilometres per hour,0.514 metres per second,1.151 miles per hour,20.254 inches per second,1852 m is the length of the internationally agreed nautical mile. The US adopted the definition in 1954, having previously used the US nautical mile. The UK adopted the international nautical mile definition in 1970, having used the UK Admiralty nautical mile. The speeds of vessels relative to the fluids in which they travel are measured in knots, for consistency, the speeds of navigational fluids are also measured in knots. Thus, speed over the ground and rate of progress towards a distant point are given in knots. Until the mid-19th century, vessel speed at sea was measured using a chip log, the chip log was cast over the stern of the moving vessel and the line allowed to pay out. Knots placed at a distance of 8 fathoms -47 feet 3 inches from each other, passed through a sailors fingers, the knot count would be reported and used in the sailing masters dead reckoning and navigation. This method gives a value for the knot of 20.25 in/s, the difference from the modern definition is less than 0. 02%. On a chart of the North Atlantic, the scale varies by a factor of two from Florida to Greenland, a single graphic scale, of the sort on many maps, would therefore be useless on such a chart. Recent British Admiralty charts have a latitude scale down the middle to make this even easier, speed is sometimes incorrectly expressed as knots per hour, which is in fact a measure of acceleration. Prior to 1969, airworthiness standards for aircraft in the United States Federal Aviation Regulations specified that distances were to be in statute miles. In 1969, these standards were amended to specify that distances were to be in nautical miles. At 11000 m, an airspeed of 300 kn may correspond to a true airspeed of 500 kn in standard conditions. Beaufort scale Hull speed, which deals with theoretical estimates of maximum speed of displacement hulls Knot count Knotted cord Metre per second Orders of magnitude Rope Kemp
15.
3"/50 caliber gun
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For Army 3-inch gun see 3-inch M1918 gun The 3″/50 caliber gun in United States naval gun terminology indicates the gun fired a projectile 3 inches in diameter, and the barrel was 50 calibers long. Different guns of this caliber were used by the U. S. Navy and U. S. Coast Guard from 1890 through the 1990s on a variety of combatant and transport ship classes. The US Navys first 3″/50 caliber gun was a model with a projectile velocity of 2,100 feet per second. Low-angle mountings for this gun had a range of 7000 yards at the elevation of 15 degrees. The gun entered service around 1900 with the Bainbridge-class destroyers, and was fitted to Connecticut-class battleships. By World War II these guns were only on a few Coast Guard cutters. These guns fired the same 2,700 feet per second used by the following dual-purpose Marks. These were built-up guns with a tube, partial-length jacket, hoop, dual-purpose 3″/50 caliber guns first entered service in 1915 as a refit to USS Texas, and were subsequently mounted on many types of ships as the need for anti-aircraft protection was recognized. They also replaced the original low-angle 4/50 caliber guns on flush-deck Wickes and these dual-purpose guns were quick-firing, meaning that they used fixed ammunition, with powder case and projectile permanently attached, and handled as a single unit weighing 34 pounds. Maximum range was 14,600 yards at 45 degrees elevation, useful life expectancy was 4300 effective full charges per barrel. The 3/50 caliber gun Marks 17 and 18 was first used as a deck gun on R-class submarines launched in 1918-1919. At the time it was an improvement on the earlier 3/23 caliber gun, after using larger guns on many other submarines, the 3/50 caliber gun Mark 21 was specified as the standard deck gun on the Porpoise- through Gato-class submarines launched in 1935-1942. The small gun was chosen to remove the temptation to engage enemy vessels on the surface. The gun was mounted aft of the conning tower to reduce submerged drag. Wartime experience showed that larger guns were needed and this need was initially met by transferring 4/50 caliber guns from S-class submarines as they were shifted from combat to training roles from late 1942. Later, the 5/25 caliber gun, initially removed from battleships sunk or damaged in the attack on Pearl Harbor and later manufactured in a submarine version, post-war experimentation with an extended range variant was abandoned as shipboard surface-to-air missiles were developed. The United States Navy considered contemporary 5/38 caliber guns and 5″/54 caliber guns more effective against surface targets, the 3″/50 caliber gun was a semiautomatic anti-aircraft weapon with a power driven automatic loader. These monobloc 3″ guns were fitted to both single and twin mountings, the single was to be exchanged for a twin 40 mm antiaircraft gun mount and the twin for a quadruple 40 mm mount
16.
Bofors 40 mm gun
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The Bofors 40 mm gun, often referred to simply as the Bofors gun, is an anti-aircraft/multi-purpose autocannon designed in the 1930s by the Swedish arms manufacturer AB Bofors. It was one of the most popular medium-weight anti-aircraft systems during World War II, a small number of these weapons remain in service to this day, and saw action as late as the Gulf War. In the post-war era the original design was not suitable for action against jet powered aircraft, so Bofors introduced a new model of more power. In spite of sharing almost nothing with the design other than the calibre and the distinctive conical flash hider. Although not as popular as the original L/60 model, the L/70 remains in service to this day, especially as a weapon for light armored vehicles. Bofors itself has been part of BAE Systems AB since March 2005, the Swedish Navy purchased a number of 2 pounder Pom-Poms from Vickers as anti-aircraft guns in 1922. The Navy approached Bofors about the development of a capable replacement. Bofors signed a contract in late 1928, Bofors produced a gun that was a smaller version of a 57 mm semi-automatic gun developed as an anti-torpedo boat weapon in the late 19th century by Finspong. Their first test gun was a re-barreled Nordenfelt version of the Finspong gun, testing of this gun in 1929 demonstrated that a problem existed feeding the weapon in order to maintain a reasonable rate of fire. A mechanism that was enough to handle the stresses of moving the large round was too heavy to move quickly enough to fire rapidly. One attempt to solve this problem used zinc shell cases that burned up when fired and this proved to leave heavy zinc deposits in the barrel, and had to be abandoned. This seemed to be the solution they needed, improving firing rates to a level. During this period Krupp purchased a share of Bofors. Krupp engineers started the process of updating the Bofors factories to use equipment and metallurgy. The prototype was completed and fired in November 1931, and by the middle of the month it was firing strings of two and three rounds. Changes to the mechanism were all that remained, and by the end of the year it was operating at 130 rounds per minute. Continued development was needed to turn it into a suitable for production. Since acceptance trials had been passed the year before, this known as the 40 mm akan M/32
17.
Oerlikon 20 mm cannon
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The Oerlikon 20 mm cannon is a series of autocannons, based on an original German 20 mm Becker design that appeared very early in World War I. It was widely produced by Oerlikon Contraves and others, with various models employed by both Allied and Axis forces during World War II, and many still in use today. During World War I, the German Reinhold Becker developed a 20 mm caliber cannon and this used a 20x70 RB cartridge and had a cyclic rate of fire of 300 rpm. It was used on a scale as an aircraft gun on Luftstreitkräfte warplanes. Because the Treaty of Versailles banned further production of weapons in Germany. SEMAG continued development of the weapon, and in 1924 had produced the SEMAG L, the Oerlikon firm, named after the Zürich suburb where it was based, then acquired all rights to the weapon, plus the manufacturing equipment and the employees of SEMAG. In 1927 the Oerlikon S was added to the product line. This fired a larger cartridge to achieve a muzzle velocity of 830 m/s, at the cost of increased weight. The purpose of development was to improve the performance of the gun as an anti-tank and anti-aircraft weapon. An improved version known as the 1S followed in 1930, three sizes of gun with their different ammunition and barrel length, but very similar mechanisms, continued to be developed in parallel. In 1930 Oerlikon reconsidered the application of its gun in aircraft and introduced the AF and AL, designed to be used in flexible mounts, the 15-round box magazine used by earlier versions of the gun was replaced by drum magazine holding 15 or 30 rounds. In 1935 it made an important step by introducing a series of guns designed to be mounted in or on the wings of fighter aircraft, designated with FF for Flügelfest meaning wing-mounted, these weapons were again available in the three sizes, with designations FF, FFL and FFS. The FF fired a larger cartridge than the AF, 20x72RB. The FF weighed 24 kg and achieved a velocity of 550 to 600 m/s with a rate of fire of 520 rpm. The FFL of 30 kg fired a projectile at a velocity of 675 m/s with a rate of fire of 500 rpm. And the FFS, which weighed 39 kg, delivered a high velocity of 830 m/s at a rate of fire of 470 rpm. Apart from changes to the design of the guns for wing-mounting and remote control, for the FF series drum sizes of 45,60,75 and 100 rounds were available, but most users chose the 60-round drum. The 1930s were a period of global re-armament, and a number of foreign firms took licenses for the Oerlikon family of aircraft cannon
18.
Hedgehog (weapon)
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The Hedgehog was a forward-throwing anti-submarine weapon that was used during the Battle of the Atlantic in the Second World War. The device, which was developed by the Royal Navy, fired up to 24 spigot mortars ahead of a ship when attacking a U Boat and it was deployed on convoy escort warships such as destroyers and corvettes to supplement the depth charges. Statistics show that in the Second World War out of 5,174 British depth charge attacks there were 85.5 kills, in comparison, the Hedgehog made 268 attacks for 47 kills, a ratio of 5.7 to 1. Although a failure, the Fairlie was designed to fire depth charges ahead of a ship when attacking a submarine and this principle of forward-firing projectiles was considered viable. It was from this, secret research undertaken by the Directorate of Miscellaneous Weapons Development led to the development of the Hedgehog, the weapon was a multiple spigot mortar or spigot discharger, a type of weapon developed between the wars by Lieutenant Colonel Stewart Blacker, RA. The spigot mortar was based on early infantry trench mortars, the spigot design allowed a single device to fire warheads of varying size. The propelling charge was part of the weapon and worked against a rod set in the baseplate which fitted inside a tubular tail of the bomb. This principle was first used on the Blacker Bombard 29mm Spigot Mortar, the adaptation of the bombard for naval use was made in partnership with MIR under Major Millis Jefferis who had taken Blackers design and brought it into use with Army. The weapon fires a salvo of 24 bombs in an arc, the mounting initially was fixed but was later replaced by a gyro-stabilised one to allow for the rolling and pitching of the attacking ship. The system was developed to solve the problem of the target submarine disappearing from the attacking ships ASDIC when the ship came within the minimum range. Carrying a Torpex charge weighing 16 kg, each mortar had a diameter of 18 cm, the projectiles were angled so they would land in a circular shape with a diameter of 40 m about 180 m ahead of a stationary ship. The projectiles would then sink at about 7 m/s and they would reach a submerged U boat, for example at 200 ft in under 9 seconds. Sympathetic detonation of projectiles near those contacting hard surfaces was a possibility, the prototype launcher was tested aboard HMS Westcott in 1941, but there were no submarine kills until November 1942, after it had been installed aboard one hundred ships. Initial success rates - of about 5% - were only better than depth charges. Swells and spray frequently covered the launcher during heavy North Atlantic weather, the disappointment of a quiet miss discouraged crews who might otherwise assume depth charge explosions had damaged their target or at least frightened the enemy. The Royal Navy launched hedgehog so seldom in early 1943 a directive was issued ordering captains of ships equipped with hedgehog to report why they had NOT used hedgehog on an underwater contact, the results were blamed on crew inexperience and low confidence in the weapon. By the end of the war, statistics showed that on average, in response to this new deadly threat to its U Boats, the Kriegsmarine brought forward its programme of acoustic torpedoes in 1943, beginning with the Falke. These new homing torpedoes could be employed effectively even without the use of a periscope, providing submarines a better chance to remain undetected, in the Pacific Theater, USS England sank six Japanese submarines in a matter of days with Hedgehog in May 1944
19.
Depth charge
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A depth charge is an anti-submarine warfare weapon. It is intended to destroy a submarine by being dropped into the nearby and detonating, subjecting the target to a powerful. Most depth charges use high explosive charges and a set to detonate the charge. Depth charges can be dropped by ships, patrol aircraft, Depth charges were developed during World War I, and were one of the first effective methods of attacking a submarine underwater. They were widely used in World War I and World War II and they remained part of the anti-submarine arsenals of many navies during the Cold War. Depth charges have now largely replaced by anti-submarine homing torpedoes. A depth charge fitted with a warhead is known as a nuclear depth bomb. These were designed to be dropped from a plane or deployed by an anti-submarine missile from a surface ship, or another submarine. All nuclear anti-submarine weapons were withdrawn from service by the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Russia and they were replaced by conventional weapons whose accuracy and range had improved greatly as ASW technology improved. The first attempt to fire charges against submerged targets was with aircraft bombs attached to lanyards which triggered them, a similar idea was a 16 lb guncotton charge in a lanyarded can. Two of these together became known as the depth charge Type A. Problems with the lanyards tangling and failing to function led to the development of a chemical pellet trigger as the Type B and these were effective at a distance of around 20 ft. A1913 Royal Navy Torpedo School report described a device intended for countermining, at Admiral John Jellicoes request, the standard Mark II mine was fitted with a hydrostatic pistol preset for 45 ft firing, to be launched from a stern platform. Weighing 1,150 lb, and effective at 100 ft, the design work was carried out by Herbert Taylor at the RN Torpedo and Mine School, HMS Vernon. The first effective depth charge, the Type D, became available in January 1916 and it was a barrel-like casing containing a high explosive. There were initially two sizes—Type D, with a 300 lb charge for fast ships, and Type D* with a 120 lb charge for ships too slow to leave the area before the more powerful charge detonated. A hydrostatic pistol actuated by water pressure at a pre-selected depth detonated the charge, initial depth settings were 40 or 80 ft. Because production could not keep up with demand, anti-submarine vessels initially carried two depth charges, to be released from a chute at the stern of the ship
20.
Naval mine
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A naval mine is a self-contained explosive device placed in water to damage or destroy surface ships or submarines. Unlike depth charges, mines are deposited and left to wait until they are triggered by the approach of, or contact with, Naval mines can be used offensively—to hamper enemy shipping movements or lock vessels into a harbour, or defensively—to protect friendly vessels and create safe zones. Mines can be laid in many ways, by purpose-built minelayers, refitted ships, submarines and their flexibility and cost-effectiveness make mines attractive to the less powerful belligerent in asymmetric warfare. The cost of producing and laying a mine is usually anywhere from 0. 5% to 10% of the cost of removing it, parts of some World War II naval minefields still exist because they are too extensive and expensive to clear. It is possible for some of these 1940s-era mines to remain dangerous for many years to come, Mines have been employed as offensive or defensive weapons in rivers, lakes, estuaries, seas, and oceans, but they can also be used as tools of psychological warfare. Offensive mines are placed in enemy waters, outside harbours and across important shipping routes with the aim of sinking both merchant and military vessels. Defensive minefields safeguard key stretches of coast from enemy ships and submarines, forcing them into more easily defended areas, minefields designed for psychological effect are usually placed on trade routes and are used to stop shipping from reaching an enemy nation. They are often spread thinly, to create an impression of minefields existing across large areas, a single mine inserted strategically on a shipping route can stop maritime movements for days while the entire area is swept. International law requires nations to declare when they mine an area, the warnings do not have to be specific, for example, during World War II, Britain declared simply that it had mined the English Channel, North Sea, and French coast. Chinese records tell of naval explosives in the 16th century, used to fight against Japanese pirates and this kind of naval mine was loaded in a wooden box, sealed with putty. General Qi Jiguang made several timed, drifting explosives, to harass Japanese pirate ships, although this is the rotating steel wheellocks first use in naval mines, Jiao Yu had described their use for land mines back in the 14th century. The first plan for a sea mine in the West was by Ralph Rabbards, the Dutch inventor Cornelius Drebbel was employed in the Office of Ordnance by King Charles I of England to make weapons, including a floating petard which proved a failure. Weapons of this type were apparently tried by the English at the Siege of La Rochelle in 1627, American David Bushnell developed the first American naval mine for use against the British in the American War of Independence. It was a watertight keg filled with gunpowder that was floated toward the enemy and it was used on the Delaware River as a drift mine. In 1812 Russian engineer Pavel Shilling exploded a mine using an electrical circuit. Russian naval specialists set more than 1500 naval mines, or infernal machines, designed by Moritz von Jacobi and by Immanuel Nobel, the mining of Vulcan led to the worlds first minesweeping operation. During the next 72 hours,33 mines were swept, the Jacobi mine was designed by German born, Russian engineer Jacobi, in 1853. The mine was tied to the sea bottom by an anchor, a cable connected it to a cell which powered it from the shore
21.
Paravane (weapon)
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The paravane, a form of towed underwater glider, was developed from 1914–16 by Commander Usborne and Lieutenant C. Dennistoun Burney, funded by Sir George White, founder of the Bristol Aeroplane Company, initially developed to destroy naval mines, the paravane would be strung out and streamed alongside the towing ship, normally from the bow. The wings of the paravane would tend to force the body away from the towing ship, if the tow cable snagged the cable anchoring a mine then the anchoring cable would be cut, allowing the mine to float to the surface where it could be destroyed by gunfire. If the anchor cable would not part, the mine and the paravane would be brought together, the cable could then be retrieved and a replacement paravane fitted. Lieutenant Burney developed explosive paravanes as a weapon, a high speed sweep. It was a paravane, containing 80 pounds of TNT towed by an electric cable. The warhead was fired automatically as soon as the submarine touched the paravane or towing cable or by hand from the ships bridge and it could be quickly deployed into the water and towed up to 25 knots, and recovery if unsuccessful was reasonably simple. Oropesa Naval mine#Mine sweeping Paravane Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Paravane
22.
Anti-submarine warfare
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Anti-submarine warfare is a branch of underwater warfare that uses surface warships, aircraft, or other submarines to find, track and deter, damage or destroy enemy submarines. Successful anti-submarine warfare depends on a mix of sensor and weapon technology, training, sophisticated sonar equipment for first detecting, then classifying, locating and tracking the target submarine is a key element of ASW. To destroy submarines both the torpedo and mine are used, launched from air, surface and underwater platforms, other means of destruction have been used in the past but are now obsolete. ASW also involves protecting friendly ships, the first self-propelled torpedo was invented in 1863 and launched from surface craft. The first submarine with a torpedo was Nordenfelt I built in 1884-1885, in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-5, the submarine was a significant threat. By the start of the First World War nearly 300 submarines were in service, some warships were fitted with an armoured belt as protection against torpedoes. There were, however, no means to detect submerged U-boats, the Royal Navy torpedo establishment, HMS Vernon, studied explosive grapnel sweeps, these sank four or five U-boats in the First World War. A similar approach featured a string of 70 lb charges on a cable, fired electrically. Also tried were dropping 18.5 lb hand-thrown guncotton bombs, the Lance Bomb was developed, also, this featured a 35–40 lb cone-shaped steel drum on a 5 ft shaft, intended to be thrown at a submarine. Firing Lyddite shells, or using trench mortars, was tried, use of nets to ensnare U-boats was also examined, as was a destroyer, HMS Starfish, fitted with a spar torpedo. Problems with the lanyards tangling and failing to function led to the development of a chemical pellet trigger as the Type B and these were effective at a distance of around 20 ft. The best concept arose in a 1913 RN Torpedo School report, describing a device intended for countermining, at Admiral John Jellicoes request, the standard Mark II mine was fitted with a hydrostatic pistol preset for 45 ft firing, to be launched from a stern platform. Weighing 1,150 lb, and effective at 100 ft, the mine was a potential hazard to the dropping ship. During the First World War, submarines were a major menace and they operated in the Baltic, North Sea, Black Sea and Mediterranean as well as the North Atlantic. Previously they had limited to relatively calm and protected waters. The vessels used to them were a range of small, fast surface ships using guns. They mainly relied on the fact a submarine of the day was often on the surface for a range of reasons, the first approach to protect warships was chainlink nets strung from the sides of battleships, as defense against torpedoes. Nets were also deployed across the mouth of a harbour or naval base to stop submarines entering or to stop torpedoes of the Whitehead type fired against ships, British warships were fitted with a ram with which to sink submarines, and U-15 was thus sunk in August 1914
23.
Mortar (weapon)
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A mortar is a device that fires projectiles at low velocities and short ranges. The mortar has traditionally used as a weapon to propel explosive mortar bombs in high-arcing ballistic trajectories. The weapon is typically muzzle-loading with a short, often smooth-bore barrel, Modern mortars are light and easily portable. They can be used for fire support with a variety of ammunition. Mortars have been used for hundreds of years, originally in siege warfare, many historians consider the first mortars to have been used at the 1453 siege of Constantinople by Mehmed the Conqueror. A European account of the 1456 siege of Belgrade by Giovanni da Tagliacozzo said that the Ottoman Turks used seven mortars that fired stone shots one Italian mile high. The time of flight of these was long enough that casualties could be avoided by posting observers to give warning of their trajectories. However, earlier mortars were used in Korea in a 1413 naval battle when Korean gunsmiths developed the Wangu, the earliest version of the Wangu dates back to 1407. Choe Hae-san, the son of Choe Mu-seon, is credited with inventing the first Wangu. Early mortars, such as the Pumhart von Steyr, were large and heavy. Simply made, these weapons were no more than iron bowls reminiscent of the kitchen, an early transportable mortar was invented by Baron Menno van Coehoorn. This mortar fired a shell, which had a fuse lit by the hot gases when fired. This innovation was taken up, necessitating a new form of naval ship. Mortars played a significant role in the Venetian conquest of Morea, an early use of these more mobile mortars as field weapons was by British forces in the suppression of the 1719 Jacobite rising at the Battle of Glen Shiel. High angle trajectory mortars held an advantage over standard field guns in the rough terrain of the West Highlands of Scotland. Coehorn-type mortars of approximately 180 pounds weight were used by both sides during the American Civil War and these answered as coehorns, and shells were successfully thrown from them into the trenches of the enemy. The mortar had fallen out of use by the Napoleonic era. The German Army studied the Siege of Port Arthur, where heavy artillery had been unable to destroy defensive structures like barbed wire, the solution they developed was a short-barrelled rifled muzzle-loading mortar called the Minenwerfer, and was built in three sizes
24.
Korean War
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The Korean War began when North Korea invaded South Korea. The United Nations, with the United States as the principal force, China came to the aid of North Korea, and the Soviet Union gave some assistance. Korea was ruled by Japan from 1910 until the days of World War II. In August 1945, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan, as a result of an agreement with the United States, U. S. forces subsequently moved into the south. By 1948, as a product of the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, Korea was split into two regions, with separate governments, both governments claimed to be the legitimate government of all of Korea, and neither side accepted the border as permanent. The conflict escalated into open warfare when North Korean forces—supported by the Soviet Union, on that day, the United Nations Security Council recognized this North Korean act as invasion and called for an immediate ceasefire. On 27 June, the Security Council adopted S/RES/83, Complaint of aggression upon the Republic of Korea and decided the formation, twenty-one countries of the United Nations eventually contributed to the UN force, with the United States providing 88% of the UNs military personnel. After the first two months of war, South Korean forces were on the point of defeat, forced back to the Pusan Perimeter, in September 1950, an amphibious UN counter-offensive was launched at Inchon, and cut off many North Korean troops. Those who escaped envelopment and capture were rapidly forced back north all the way to the border with China at the Yalu River, at this point, in October 1950, Chinese forces crossed the Yalu and entered the war. Chinese intervention triggered a retreat of UN forces which continued until mid-1951, after these reversals of fortune, which saw Seoul change hands four times, the last two years of fighting became a war of attrition, with the front line close to the 38th parallel. The war in the air, however, was never a stalemate, North Korea was subject to a massive bombing campaign. Jet fighters confronted each other in combat for the first time in history. The fighting ended on 27 July 1953, when an armistice was signed, the agreement created the Korean Demilitarized Zone to separate North and South Korea, and allowed the return of prisoners. However, no treaty has been signed, and the two Koreas are technically still at war. Periodic clashes, many of which are deadly, continue to the present, in the U. S. the war was initially described by President Harry S. Truman as a police action as it was an undeclared military action, conducted under the auspices of the United Nations. In South Korea, the war is referred to as 625 or the 6–2–5 Upheaval. In North Korea, the war is referred to as the Fatherland Liberation War or alternatively the Chosǒn War. In China, the war is called the War to Resist U. S
25.
Patrol boat
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A patrol boat is a relatively small naval vessel generally designed for coastal defence duties. There have been designs for patrol boats. They may be operated by a navy, coast guard, police force or customs. They are commonly engaged in various border protection roles, including anti-smuggling, anti-piracy, fisheries patrols. They are also called upon to participate in rescue operations. Vessels of this include the original yacht, a light, fast-sailing vessel used by the Dutch navy to pursue pirates and other transgressors around. They may be classified as inshore patrol vessels and offshore patrol vessels. They are warships typically smaller in size than a corvette and can include fast attack craft, torpedo boats and missile boats, the offshore patrol vessels are usually the smallest ship in a navys fleet that are large and seaworthy enough to patrol off-shore in the open ocean. In larger militaries, such as in the United States military, offshore patrol vessels usually serve in the coast guard, some modern patrol vessels are still based on fishing and leisure boats. Depending on role, vessels in this class may also have more sophisticated sensors and fire control systems that would enable them to carry torpedoes, anti-ship, most modern designs are powered by gas turbine arrangements such as CODAG, and speeds are generally in the 25–30 knots range. They are primarily used for patrol in a countrys Exclusive Economic Zone, common tasks are fisheries inspection, anti-smuggling duties, illegal immigration patrols, anti-piracy patrols and search and rescue. The largest OPVs might also have a deck and helicopter embarked. In times of crisis or war, these vessels are expected to support the vessels in the navy. Their small size and relatively low cost make them one of the most common type of warship in the world, almost all navies operate at least a few offshore patrol vessels, especially those with only green water capabilities. They are useful in smaller seas such as the North Sea as well as in open oceans, similar vessels for exclusively military duties include torpedo boats and missile boats. The United States Navy operated the Pegasus class of armed hydrofoils for years, the River Patrol Boat is a U. S. design of small patrol boat type designed to patrol waters of large rivers. 4 units built under license by ASMAR, OPV-81 Piloto Pardo OPV-82 Comandante Toro OPV-83 Marinero Fuentealba and this unit has reinforced hull for Antarctic operations. OPV-84 Cabo Odger with characteristics similar to the previous ship 06 MICALVI Class Patrol vessels built in ASMAR,18 Protector Class Patrol crafts built under license by ASMAR
26.
Convoy
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A convoy is a group of vehicles, typically motor vehicles or ships, traveling together for mutual support and protection. Often, a convoy is organized with armed defensive support and it may also be used in a non-military sense, for example when driving through remote areas. Arriving at the scene of an emergency with a well-ordered unit. Naval convoys have been in use for centuries, with examples of merchant ships traveling under naval protection dating to the 12th century, the use of organized naval convoys dates from when ships began to be separated into specialist classes and national navies were established. By the French Revolutionary Wars of the late 18th century, effective naval tactics had been developed to ward off pirates. Some convoys contained several hundred merchant ships, the most enduring system of convoys were the Spanish treasure fleets, that sailed from the 1520s until 1790. When merchant ships sailed independently, a privateer could cruise a shipping lane, ships sailing in convoy presented a much smaller target, a convoy was as hard to find as a single ship. As a result of the convoy systems effectiveness, wartime insurance premiums were consistently lower for ships that sailed in convoys, losses of ships travelling out of convoy however were so high that no merchant ship was allowed to sail unescorted. In the early 20th century, the changed the balance of power in convoy battles. Steaming faster than merchant ships and firing at long ranges, a battleship could destroy many ships in a convoy before the others could scatter over the horizon. To protect a convoy against a ship required providing it with an escort of another capital ship. Battleships were the reason that the British Admiralty did not adopt convoy tactics at the start of the first Battle of the Atlantic in World War I. But the German capital ships had been bottled up in the North Sea, the Admiralty took a long time to respond to this change in the tactical position, and in April 1917 convoy was trialled, before being officially introduced in the Atlantic in September 1917. Other arguments against convoy were raised, further, large convoys were thought to overload port resources. Actual analysis of shipping losses in World War I disproved all these arguments, at least so far as they applied to transatlantic, ships sailing in convoys were far less likely to be sunk, even when not provided with any escort at all. The loss of productivity due to delays was small compared with the loss of productivity due to ships being sunk. Ports could deal more easily with convoys because they tended to arrive on schedule, Convoy duty also exposes the escorting warships to the sometimes hazardous conditions of the North Atlantic, with only rare occurrences of visible achievement. The British adopted a system, initially voluntary and later compulsory for almost all merchant ships
27.
Project Hula
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Based at Cold Bay in the Territory of Alaska, the project was active during the spring and summer of 1945. It was the largest and most ambitious program of World War II. But after 1939 the two turned their attention elsewhere – Japan to focus on the Second Sino-Japanese War in China. Eventually, the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact was signed on 13 April 1941, as part of MILEPOST, the Chief of the Soviet Main Naval Staff, Admiral V. A. Alafusov, and the deputy commander of the U. S. Military Mission in Moscow, Rear Admiral Clarence E. Olsen, agreed on 20 December 1944 to a list of a types of ships. Among the ships were various types of vessels, landing craft. On 18 January 1945, the U. S, military Mission in Moscow of the choice of Cold Bay. During a meeting with King at the Yalta Conference on 8 February 1945, Kuznetsov stated that Dutch Harbor was the Soviet Unions first choice, King informed him that the United States had chosen Cold Bay. Kuznetsov was not familiar with Cold Bay but, upon finding it on a map, an early issue to resolve was the matter of how to transport the Soviet Navy personnel to Cold Bay. The day after the conference, the Deputy Chairman of the Soviet Government Purchasing Commission, west Coast directly to the Soviet Far East, without calling at Cold Bay, reducing the demand on shipping by Soviet personnel requiring transportation to Cold Bay. The Soviets finally decided to transport their personnel to Cold Bay in their own merchant ships while the ships were making their regular voyages to carry Lend-Lease materials from the U. S. West Coast to the Soviet Far East, with each carrying about 600 men at a time. After their commissioning into the Soviet Navy, which would place at Cold Bay simultaneously with their transfer. The Soviets planned for the first Soviet personnel to arrive at Cold Bay aboard five merchant ships in late March or early April 1945, depending on ice conditions in the Soviet Far East. The first ship would carry a staff of 23 headed by a rear admiral, the U. S. Navy created Naval Detachment No.3294 specifically for Project Hula, it was to be responsible for all training and transfer activities at Cold Bay. On 7 March 1945 it assigned Commander William S. Maxwell, then in Washington and he then left for Cold Bay. Arriving at Cold Bay on 19 March 1945 and newly promoted to captain and he found that an advance party under his second-in-command, U. S. Coast Guard Lieutenant Commander John J. Hutson, had already established Detachment 3294s Antisubmarine Warfare Department. The first Soviets to arrive at Cold Bay were members of the Soviet Purchasing Commission and they worked for a week on a training program that both sides could agree on, and achieved a successful compromise before the first trainees arrived
28.
Cold Bay, Alaska
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Cold Bay is a city in Aleutians East Borough, Alaska, United States. As of the 2010 census, the population was 108, Cold Bay is one of the main commercial centers of the Alaska Peninsula, and is home to Cold Bay Airport. There is evidence of occupation by Aleuts and later Russian encampments. Cold Bays American history began with the Japanese invasion of the Aleutians in World War II. General Simon Bolivar Buckner, Jr. ordered the creation of Fort Randall and it served as a base for the 11th Air Force to provide protection to the only deep water port in the Aleutians at the time, Dutch Harbor. This protection was necessary when during Yamamotos Midway Campaign a diversionary attack was launched against Dutch Harbor, the initial attack was repulsed by the surprise presence of P-40s stationed here. A second larger attack with its own fighter escort the next day caused minor damage, later, with the victory in the Pacific, the forces grew to 20,000 troops. The quonset huts used to house this massive encampment still stand around the community and it also was a base of operations for the US Navy with the seaplane tender USS Casco among the ships based in Cold Bay. A Distant Early Warning Line station established nearby was eventually decommissioned, during the 1980s, deregulation of the airline industry under President Ronald Reagan caused many of the compelling interests supporting the need for the community to evaporate. Today, Cold Bay is still used for emergency or precautionary landings of commercial flights. Cold Bay is located at 55°12′33″N 162°42′51″W. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the city has an area of 70.9 square miles. Cold Bay holds the record for most overcast community in America, Cold Bay is considered the cloudiest place in the United States, with an average of 304 days of heavy overcast. Cold Bay is a transient community, lacking the generational attachment characteristic of the surrounding native villages. Residents, drawn to the area largely by the Wildlife Refuge, Weather Service, or air traffic jobs, at the 2000 census, there were 88 people,36 households and 18 families residing in the city. The population density was 1.6 per square mile, there were 98 housing units at an average density of 1.8 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 72% White, 3% Black or African American, 17% Native American, 5% Asian, 2% Pacific Islander, 2% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 36% of all households were made up of individuals and none had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2 and the average family size was 3
29.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
30.
Pacific War
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The Pacific War, sometimes called the Asia-Pacific War, was the theater of World War II that was fought in the Pacific and East Asia. It was fought over a vast area that included the Pacific Ocean and islands, the South West Pacific, South-East Asia, and in China. The Pacific War saw the Allied powers pitted against the Empire of Japan, the formal and official surrender of Japan took place aboard the battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay on 2 September 1945. In Allied countries during the war, The Pacific War was not usually distinguished from World War II in general, or was known simply as the War against Japan. Japan used the name Greater East Asia War, as chosen by a decision on 10 December 1941. Japanese officials integrated what they called the Japan–China Incident into the Greater East Asia War, in Japan, the Fifteen Years War is also used, referring to the period from the Mukden Incident of 1931 through 1945. The Phayap Army sent troops to invade and occupy northeastern Burma, also involved were the Japanese puppet states of Manchukuo and Mengjiang, and the collaborationist Wang Jingwei regime. The official policy of the U. S. Government is that Thailand was not an ally of the Axis, Japan conscripted many soldiers from its colonies of Korea and Formosa. To a small extent, some Vichy French, Indian National Army, Germany and Italy both had limited involvement in the Pacific War. The German and the Italian navies operated submarines and raiding ships in the Indian, the Italians had access to concession territory naval bases in China, while the Germans did not. After Japans attack on Pearl Harbor and the subsequent declarations of war, mexico, Free France and many other countries also took part, especially forces from other British colonies. Between 1942 and 1945, there were four main areas of conflict in the Pacific War, China, the Central Pacific, South East Asia, U. S. sources refer to two theaters within the Pacific War, the Pacific theater and the China Burma India Theater. However these were not operational commands, in the Pacific, the Allies divided operational control of their forces between two supreme commands, known as Pacific Ocean Areas and Southwest Pacific Area. In 1945, for a period just before the Japanese surrender. By 1937, Japan controlled Manchuria and was ready to move deeper into China, the Marco Polo Bridge Incident on 7 July 1937 provoked full-scale war between China and Japan. In August 1937, Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek deployed his best army to fight about 300,000 Japanese troops in Shanghai, the Japanese continued to push the Chinese forces back, capturing the capital Nanking in December 1937 and committed which was known as Nanking Massacre. In March 1938, Nationalist forces won their first victory at Taierzhuang, but then the city of Xuzhou was taken by Japanese in May. In June 1938, Japan deployed about 350,000 troops to invade Wuhan, the Japanese achieved major military victories, but world opinion—in particular in the United States—condemned Japan, especially after the Panay incident
31.
USS Hazard (AM-240)
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USS Hazard was an Admirable-class minesweeper that served in the United States Navy during World War II. Hazard was launched on 1 October 1944 and was commissioned on 30 December 1944, the vessel was built by the Winslow Marine Railway and Shipbuilding Company of Winslow, Washington. Hazard was fitted for both wire and acoustic sweeping and could double as an anti-submarine warfare platform, the Admirable class of minesweepers were also used for patrol and escort duties. Hazard first served in capacity, escorting a convoy from San Francisco to Pearl Harbor. At the wars end the ship cleared the seas off Korea, returning to the United States in 1946, Hazard was decommissioned and joined the reserve fleet. Stricken from the Navy Register in 1971, Hazard was purchased by a group of Omaha, Nebraska, businessmen and she also bears the camouflage paint she had during World War II. Hazard earned three stars for her World War II service. Hazard is a National Historic Landmark, the only Admirable-class minesweeper left in the United States and her sister ship, the USS Inaugural was a museum ship in St. Louis until she was destroyed in the Great Flood of 1993. List of Admirable class minesweepers Butowsky, Harry A, National Register of Historic Places Inventory—Nomination Form / USS Hazard
32.
Museum ship
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A museum ship, also called a memorial ship, is a ship that has been preserved and converted into a museum open to the public for educational or memorial purposes. Some are also used for training and recruitment purposes, mostly for the number of museum ships that are still operational. Many, if not most, museum ships are also associated with a maritime museum, only a few survive, sometimes because of historical significance, but more often due to luck and circumstance. The restoration and maintenance of museum ships presents problems for historians who are asked for advice, for instance, the rigging of sailing ships has almost never survived, and so the rigging plan must be reconstructed from various sources. Studying the ships also allows historians to analyze how life on and operation of the ships took place, numerous scientific papers have been written on ship restoration and maintenance, and international conferences are held discussing the latest developments. Another consideration is the distinction between a museum ship, and a ship replica. As repairs accumulate over time, less and less of the ship is of the materials. Visitors without historical background are often unable to distinguish between a historical museum ship and a ship replica, which may serve solely as a tourist attraction. Typically the visitor enters via gangplank, wanders around on the deck, then goes below, usually using the original stairways, giving a sense of how the crew got around. The interior features restored but inactivated equipment, enhanced with mementos including old photographs, explanatory displays, pages from the logs, menus. Some add recorded sound effects, audio tours or video displays to enhance the experience, in some cases, the ships radio room has been brought back into use, with volunteers operating amateur radio equipment. Often, the callsign assigned is a variation on the identification of the ship. For example, the submarine USS Cobia, which had the call NBQV, is now on the air as NB9QV. The World War II submarine USS Pampanito, berthed at the San Francisco Maritime National Historical Park, had the wartime call NJVT and is now on the air as NJ6VT, in other cases, such as the USS Missouri, a distinctive call is used. This radio work not only helps restore part of the vessel, a number of the larger museum ships have begun to offer hosting for weddings, meetings, other events, and sleepovers, and on a few ships still seaworthy, cruises. In the United States, this includes the USS Constitutions annual turnaround, a place on the deck is by invitation or lottery only, and highly prized. Many consider the appeal of an interesting old vessel on the city waterfront strong enough that any port city should showcase one or more museum ships. This may even include building a ship at great expense
33.
Omaha, Nebraska
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Omaha is the largest city in the state of Nebraska and the county seat of Douglas County. Omaha is located in the Midwestern United States on the Missouri River, Omaha is the anchor of the Omaha-Council Bluffs metropolitan area, which includes Council Bluffs, Iowa, across the Missouri River from Omaha. According to the 2010 census, Omahas population was 408,958, according to the 2014 Population Estimates, Omahas population was 446,599. Including its suburbs, Omaha formed the 60th-largest metropolitan area in the United States in 2013, the Omaha-Council Bluffs-Fremont, Nebraska-IA Combined Statistical Area is 931,667, according to the U. S. Census Bureaus 2013 estimate. There are nearly 1.3 million residents within the Greater Omaha area, comprising a 50-mile radius of Downtown Omaha, Omahas pioneer period began in 1854, when the city was founded by speculators from neighboring Council Bluffs, Iowa. The city was founded along the Missouri River, and a crossing called Lone Tree Ferry earned the city its nickname, Omaha introduced this new West to the world in 1898, when it played host to the Worlds Fair, dubbed the Trans-Mississippi Exposition. During the 19th century, Omahas central location in the United States spurred the city to become an important national transportation hub, throughout the rest of the 19th century, the transportation and jobbing sectors were important in the city, along with its railroads and breweries. In the 20th century, the Omaha Stockyards, once the worlds largest, Omaha is also the home to five Fortune 1000 headquarters, Green Plains Renewable Energy, TD Ameritrade, Valmont Industries, Werner Enterprises, and West Corporation. And Leo A Daly, the Gallup Organization, of Gallup Poll fame, Enron began in Omaha as Northern Natural Gas in 1930, before taking over a smaller Houston company in 1985 to form InterNorth, which Kenneth Lay moved permanently to Houston, in 1987. The modern economy of Omaha is diverse and built on skilled knowledge jobs, in 2009, Forbes identified Omaha as the nations number one Best Bang-For-The Buck City and ranked it number one on Americas Fastest-Recovering Cities list. Also, Omaha hosted the U. S. Olympic swim trials in 2008,2012 and 2016, the word Omaha means Dwellers on the bluff. In 1804 the Lewis and Clark Expedition passed by the riverbanks where the city of Omaha would be built, there was fierce competition among fur traders until John Jacob Astor created the monopoly of the American Fur Company. The Mormons built a town called Cutlers Park in the area in 1846, while it was temporary, the settlement provided the basis for further development in the future. Through 26 separate treaties with the United States federal government, Native American tribes in Nebraska gradually ceded the lands comprising the state. The treaty and cession involving the Omaha area occurred in 1854 when the Omaha Tribe ceded most of east-central Nebraska, Logan Fontenelle, an interpreter for the Omaha and signatory to the 1854 treaty, played an essential role in those proceedings. Before it was legal to claim land in Indian Country, William D. Brown was operating the Lone Tree Ferry to bring settlers from Council Bluffs, Brown is generally credited as having the first vision for a city where Omaha now sits. The passage of the Kansas–Nebraska Act in 1854 was presaged by the out of claims around the area to become Omaha by residents from neighboring Council Bluffs. On July 4,1854, the city was established at a picnic on Capital Hill
34.
USS Inaugural (AM-242)
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USS Inaugural was an Admirable-class fleet minesweeper. The Admirable class was the largest and one of the most successful classes of U. S. minesweepers ordered during World War II, Inaugural was launched on 1 October 1944 and commissioned less than three months later. After seeing combat in the Pacific Theater, she was decommissioned in 1946, in 1968, she was set up as a museum ship in St. Louis, Missouri. In the flood of 1993, Inaugural was ripped from her mooring, as of December 2014, the hulk was still sitting on the Missouri side of the river. Inaugural was built and launched by the Winslow Marine Railway and Shipbuilding Company of Winslow and she was commissioned on 30 December 1944, with Lieutenant John H. Pace USNR in command. Following shakedown off the California coast, Inaugural sailed on 14 March 1945 for Pearl Harbor, for the next two months, the minesweeper performed patrol and escort duties between Hawaii and the islands of the western Pacific. She was at Saipan on 22 May and departed that day with a bound for Okinawa. After a voyage enlivened by several attacks on suspected submarines, the convoy reached Okinawa on 30 May, except for 19-24 July, when the ship put to sea to ride out the great typhoon, Inaugural remained in the dangerous waters around Okinawa until 30 August 1945. With the war over, she steamed to the waters around Japan and she swept the approaches to Jinsen, Korea, in September, and later cleared mines in waters off Nagasaki and Sasebo, Japan. Inaugural proceeded to Okinawa where she received needed equipment from 14–24 October, the minesweeper sailed on 24 December for the United States, via Saipan and Pearl Harbor, and arrived at San Pedro, California, on 7 February 1946. Sailing again on 11 March, she proceeded to Galveston, Texas and she was reclassified MSF-242 on 7 February 1955. Inaugural entered the Atlantic Reserve Fleet, Texas Group, where she remained until struck from the Navy List on 1 March 1967, overall, Inaugural cleared 82 mines and was awarded two battle stars for service during World War II. In 1968, Inaugural was towed to St. Louis and established as a floating museum, the vessel was designated as a National Historic Landmark on 14 January 1986, as one of two surviving Admirable-class minesweepers used in the Pacific during World War II. On 1 August 1993, during flooding of the Mississippi River, the ship suffered a breach in her hull, took on water, and rolled on her port side. She sank on the Missouri side of the river, half a mile south of the Poplar Street Bridge and she has since remained in that position, partially submerged. Plans to salvage the wreck in one piece and restore it were deemed unfeasible, the ship was determined a total loss. Inaugurals Landmark designation was withdrawn on 7 August 2001, because she had ceased to meet the criteria, as of December 2014, she is still sitting where she came to rest and can be seen when the river is at or below average level. In January 2013, the river dropped so low that one may walk up to the ship, scrapping work was set to begin in January, but river levels rose again
35.
Mississippi River
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The Mississippi River is the chief river of the largest drainage system on the North American continent. Flowing entirely in the United States, it rises in northern Minnesota, with its many tributaries, the Mississippis watershed drains all or parts of 31 U. S. states and 2 Canadian provinces between the Rocky and Appalachian Mountains. The Mississippi ranks as the fourth longest and fifteenth largest river in the world by discharge, the river either borders or passes through the states of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Louisiana. Native Americans long lived along the Mississippi River and its tributaries, most were hunter-gatherers, but some, such as the Mound Builders, formed prolific agricultural societies. The arrival of Europeans in the 16th century changed the way of life as first explorers, then settlers. The river served first as a barrier, forming borders for New Spain, New France, and the early United States, and then as a vital transportation artery and communications link. Formed from thick layers of the silt deposits, the Mississippi embayment is one of the most fertile agricultural regions of the country. In recent years, the river has shown a shift towards the Atchafalaya River channel in the Delta. The word itself comes from Messipi, the French rendering of the Anishinaabe name for the river, see below in the History section for additional information. In addition to historical traditions shown by names, there are at least two measures of a rivers identity, one being the largest branch, and the other being the longest branch. Using the largest-branch criterion, the Ohio would be the branch of the Lower Mississippi. Using the longest-branch criterion, the Middle Mississippi-Missouri-Jefferson-Beaverhead-Red Rock-Hellroaring Creek River would be the main branch and its length of at least 3,745 mi is exceeded only by the Nile, the Amazon, and perhaps the Yangtze River among the longest rivers in the world. The source of this waterway is at Browers Spring,8,800 feet above sea level in southwestern Montana and this is exemplified by the Gateway Arch in St. Louis and the phrase Trans-Mississippi as used in the name of the Trans-Mississippi Exposition. It is common to qualify a regionally superlative landmark in relation to it, the New Madrid Seismic Zone along the river is also noteworthy. These various basic geographical aspects of the river in turn underlie its human history and present uses of the waterway, the Upper Mississippi runs from its headwaters to its confluence with the Missouri River at St. Louis, Missouri. The source of the Upper Mississippi branch is traditionally accepted as Lake Itasca,1,475 feet above sea level in Itasca State Park in Clearwater County, however, the lake is in turn fed by a number of smaller streams. From its origin at Lake Itasca to St. Louis, Missouri, fourteen of these dams are located above Minneapolis in the headwaters region and serve multiple purposes, including power generation and recreation. The remaining 29 dams, beginning in downtown Minneapolis, all locks and were constructed to improve commercial navigation of the upper river
36.
St. Louis
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St. Louis is an independent city and major U. S. port in the state of Missouri, built along the western bank of the Mississippi River, on the border with Illinois. Prior to European settlement, the area was a regional center of Native American Mississippian culture. The city of St. Louis was founded in 1764 by French fur traders Pierre Laclède and Auguste Chouteau, in 1764, following Frances defeat in the Seven Years War, the area was ceded to Spain and retroceded back to France in 1800. In 1803, the United States acquired the territory as part of the Louisiana Purchase, during the 19th century, St. Louis developed as a major port on the Mississippi River. In the 1870 Census, St. Louis was ranked as the 4th-largest city in the United States and it separated from St. Louis County in 1877, becoming an independent city and limiting its own political boundaries. In 1904, it hosted the Louisiana Purchase Exposition and the Summer Olympics, the economy of metro St. Louis relies on service, manufacturing, trade, transportation of goods, and tourism. This city has become known for its growing medical, pharmaceutical. St. Louis has 2 professional sports teams, the St. Louis Cardinals of Major League Baseball, the city is commonly identified with the 630-foot tall Gateway Arch in Downtown St. Louis. The area that would become St. Louis was a center of the Native American Mississippian culture and their major regional center was at Cahokia Mounds, active from 900 AD to 1500 AD. Due to numerous major earthworks within St. Louis boundaries, the city was nicknamed as the Mound City and these mounds were mostly demolished during the citys development. Historic Native American tribes in the area included the Siouan-speaking Osage people, whose territory extended west, European exploration of the area was first recorded in 1673, when French explorers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette traveled through the Mississippi River valley. Five years later, La Salle claimed the region for France as part of La Louisiane. The earliest European settlements in the area were built in Illinois Country on the east side of the Mississippi River during the 1690s and early 1700s at Cahokia, Kaskaskia, migrants from the French villages on the opposite side of the Mississippi River founded Ste. In early 1764, after France lost the 7 Years War, Pierre Laclède, the early French families built the citys economy on the fur trade with the Osage, as well as with more distant tribes along the Missouri River. The Chouteau brothers gained a monopoly from Spain on the fur trade with Santa Fe, French colonists used African slaves as domestic servants and workers in the city. In 1780 during the American Revolutionary War, St. Louis was attacked by British forces, mostly Native American allies, the founding of St. Louis began in 1763. Pierre Laclede led an expedition to set up a fur-trading post farther up the Mississippi River, before then, Laclede had been a very successful merchant. For this reason, he and his trading partner Gilbert Antoine de St. Maxent were offered monopolies for six years of the fur trading in that area
37.
Great Flood of 1993
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The Great Mississippi and Missouri Rivers Flood of 1993 occurred in the American Midwest, along the Mississippi and Missouri rivers and their tributaries, from April to October 1993. The flood was among the most costly and devastating to ever occur in the United States, the hydrographic basin affected cover around 745 miles in length and 435 miles in width, totaling about 320,000 square miles. In some categories, the 1993 flood even surpassed the 1927 flood and this weather pattern persisted throughout the following autumn. During the winter of 1992–93, the region experienced heavy snowfall and these conditions were followed by persistent spring weather patterns that produced storms over the same locations. Soils across much of the area were saturated by June 1, with additional rainfall all running off into streams and rivers. These wet-weather conditions contrasted sharply with the droughts and heat waves experienced in the southeastern United States, storms, persistent and repetitive in nature during the late spring and summer, bombarded the Upper Midwest with voluminous rainfall. Portions of east-central Iowa received as much as 48 inches of rain between April 1 and August 31,1993, and many areas across the plains had precipitation 400–750% above normal. In the St. Louis National Weather Service forecast area encompassing eastern Missouri and southwest Illinois,36 forecast points rose above flood stage, the 1993 flood broke record river levels set during the 1973 Mississippi and the 1951 Missouri River floods. Civil Air Patrol crews from 21 states served more than 5,000 meals to victims and volunteers. Over 1,000 flood warnings and statements, five times the normal, were issued to notify the public, in such places as St. Louis, river levels were nearly 20 feet above flood stage, the highest ever recorded there in 228 years. The 52-foot -high St. Louis Floodwall, built to handle the volume of the 1844 flood, was able to keep the 1993 flood out with just over two feet to spare. This floodwall was built in the 1960s, to great controversy, had it been breached, the whole of downtown St. Louis would have been submerged. Emergency officials estimated that all of the 700 privately built agricultural levees were overtopped or destroyed along the Missouri River. Navigation on the Mississippi and Missouri River had been closed since early July resulting in a loss of $2 million per day in commerce. In an attempt to strand his wife on the side of the river so he could continue partying. The breach flooded 14,000 acres of farmland, destroyed buildings, the Redwood River in Minnesota began experiencing severe flooding in May. On May 22, Sioux Falls, South Dakota, received 7.5 inches of rain in a three-hour period, from May through July, Sioux Falls, South Dakota received 22.55 inches of rain, the wettest three-month period in its history. As noted above, rains in South Dakota contributed to flooding downstream, in June, flooding occurred along the Black River in Wisconsin, with flooding also starting to occur along the Mississippi, Missouri, and Kansas rivers
38.
Cozumel
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Cozumel is an island in the Caribbean Sea off the eastern coast of Mexicos Yucatán Peninsula, opposite Playa del Carmen, and close to the Yucatán Channel. The economy of Cozumel is based on tourism, there are a number of visitors to the islands balnearios, scuba diving, and snorkeling. The main town on the island is San Miguel de Cozumel, the islands belongs to Cozumel Municipality of the state of Quintana Roo, Mexico. The name Cozumel was derived from the Mayan Cuzamil or Ah Cuzamil Peten in full, the island is located in the Caribbean Sea along the eastern side of the Yucatan Peninsula about 82 km south of Cancún and 19 km from the mainland. The island is about 48 km long and 16 km wide, with a total area of 477.961 km2, it is Mexicos largest Caribbean island, largest permanently inhabited island, and Mexicos third-largest island, following Tiburón Island and Isla Ángel de la Guarda. The majority of the population lives in the town of San Miguel. The municipality, which two small areas on the mainland enclaved within the Municipality of Solidaridad with a land area of 10.423 km2, has a total land area of 647.33 km2. The island is covered with mangrove forest which has many animal species. Cozumel is an island based on limestone, resulting in a karst topography. The highest natural point on the island is less than 15 m above sea level, the cenotes are deep water filled sinkholes formed by water percolating through the soft limestone soil during thousands of years. Cozumels cenotes are restricted to qualified cave divers with appropriate credentials, the dry season is short, from February to April, but even in these months precipitation is observed, averaging about 45 millimetres of rain per month. The wet season is lengthy, covering most of the months, with September and October being the wettest months, thunderstorms can occasionally occur during the wet season. Temperatures tend to remain stable with little variation from month to month though the temperatures are cooler from December to February with the coolest month averaging 22.9 °C, owing to its proximity to the sea, the island is fairly humid, with an average humidity of 83%. The wettest recorded month was October 1980 with 792 millimetres of precipitation, extremes range from 9.2 °C on January 18,1977 to 39.2 °C. The Maya are believed to have first settled Cozumel by the part of the 1st millennium AD. The island was sacred to Ix Chel, the Maya Moon Goddess, there are a number of ruins on the island, most from the Post-Classic period. The largest Maya ruins on the island were near the area and have now been destroyed. Today, the largest remaining ruins are at San Gervasio, located approximately at the center of the island, the first Spanish expedition to visit Cozumel was led by Juan de Grijalva in 1518
39.
Scuba diving
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Scuba diving is a mode of underwater diving in which the scuba diver uses a self-contained underwater breathing apparatus which is completely independent of surface supply, to breathe underwater. They may include additional cylinders for decompression gas or emergency breathing gas, closed-circuit or semi-closed circuit rebreather scuba systems allow recycling of exhaled gases. The volume of gas used is reduced compared to that of open circuit, therefore, scuba divers engaged in armed forces covert operations may be referred to as frogmen, combat divers or attack swimmers. A scuba diver primarily moves underwater by using fins attached to the feet, scuba divers are trained in the procedures and skills appropriate to their level of certification by instructors affiliated to the diver certification organisations which issue these certifications. A minimum level of fitness and health is required by most training organisations, the closed-circuit rebreathers were first developed for escape and rescue purposes, and were modified for military use, due to their stealth advantages, as they produce very few bubbles. The first commercially successful closed-circuit scuba was designed and built by English diving engineer, Henry Fleuss in 1878, while working for Siebe Gorman in London. Sir Robert Davis, head of Siebe Gorman, improved the oxygen rebreather in 1910 with his invention of the Davis Submerged Escape Apparatus, rebreathers have been increasingly used by civilians for recreation, especially since the end of the Cold War. This reduced the risk of attack by Communist Bloc forces. After that, the armed forces had less reason to requisition civilian rebreather patents. The single hose two stage scuba regulators trace their origins to Australia, where Ted Eldred developed the first example of type of regulator. This was developed because patents protected the Aqualungs twin hose design, the single hose regulator separates the demand valve from the cylinder, giving the diver air at the ambient pressure at the mouth, rather than ambient pressure at the cylinder valve. The term SCUBA originally referred to United States combat frogmens oxygen rebreathers, SCUBA was originally an acronym, but is now generally used as a common noun or adjective, scuba. It has become acceptable to refer to equipment or scuba apparatus—examples of the linguistic RAS syndrome. Scuba diving may be performed for a number of reasons, both personal and professional, recreational diving is done purely for enjoyment and has a number of technical disciplines to increase interest underwater, such as cave diving, wreck diving, ice diving and deep diving. Divers may be employed professionally to perform tasks underwater, some of these tasks are suitable for scuba. There are divers who work, full or part-time, in the diving community as instructors, assistant instructors, divemasters. Other specialist areas of diving include military diving, with a long history of military frogmen in various roles. Their roles include direct combat, infiltration behind enemy lines, placing mines or using a manned torpedo, in some cases diver rescue teams may also be part of a fire department, paramedical service or lifeguard unit, and may be classed as public service diving
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Rear admiral
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Rear admiral is a naval commissioned officer rank above that of a commodore and captain, and below that of a vice admiral. It is generally regarded as the lowest of the admiral ranks, in many navies it is referred to as a two-star rank. It originated from the days of naval sailing squadrons and can trace its origins to the Royal Navy, each naval squadron would be assigned an admiral as its head, who would command from the centre vessel and direct the activities of the squadron. The admiral would in turn be assisted by a vice admiral and this has survived into the modern age, with the rank of rear admiral the most-junior of the admiralty ranks of many navies. In some European navies, and in the Canadian Forces French rank translations, in the German Navy the rank is known as Konteradmiral, superior to the flotilla admiral. In the Royal Netherlands Navy, this rank is known as schout-bij-nacht, denoting the role junior to the squadron admiral, the Royal Australian Navy maintains a rank of rear admiral, refer to Australian Defence Force ranks and insignia. Since the mid-1990s, the insignia of a Royal Australian Navy rear admiral is the Crown of St. Edward above a crossed sword and baton, like the Royal Navy version, the sword is a traditional naval cutlass. The stars have eight points, unlike the four pointed Order of the Bath stars used by the army, prior to 1995, the RAN shoulder board was identical to the Royal Navy shoulder board. The Royal Navy shoulder board changed again in 2001 and the Australian, rear Admiral Robyn Walker AM, RAN became the first female admiral in the Royal Australian Navy when she was appointed Surgeon-General of the Australian Defence Force on 16 December 2011. In the Royal Canadian Navy, the rank of rear-admiral is the Navy rank equivalent to major-general of the Army, a rear-admiral is a flag officer, the naval equivalent of a general officer. A rear-admiral is senior to a commodore and brigadier-general, and junior to a vice-admiral and lieutenant-general, the service dress features a wide strip of gold braid around the cuff and, since June 2010, above it a narrower strip of gold braid embellished with the executive curl. On the visor of the cap are two rows of gold oak leaves. Konteradmiral is an OF-7 two-star rank equivalent to the Generalmajor in the German Army, see also The Guyana Defence Force Coast Guard is the naval component of the Military of Guyana. As such, the ranks of the Coast Guard are naval ranks similar to the practice in the respective Coast Guards of Jamaica and Trinidad, the rank of rear admiral was first awarded to chief of staff commodore Gary Best on August 19,2013. The rank insignia consists of two silver pips with green highlights, beneath a crossed sword and baton, all surmounted by the gold-colored Caciques crown with red, the Indian Navy also maintains a rear admiral rank senior to commodore and captain ranks and junior to vice admiral ranks. The rank insignia for a rear-admiral is two stars beneath crossed sword and baton, all surmounted by Emblem of India, worn on shoulder boards, before Islamic Revolution The Iranian Imperial Navy. After Islamic Revolution The Islamic Republic of Iran Navy, also known as the Iranian Navy, a rear admiral in the Pakistani Navy is a senior and two-star rank naval officer, appointed in higher naval commands. Like most Commonwealth navies, the rear admiral rank is superior to commodore, however, the rank is junior to the three-star rank vice-admiral and four-star rank admiral, who is generally a Chief of Naval Staff of the Navy
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Auk-class minesweeper
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The Auk class were Allied minesweepers serving with the United States Navy and the British Royal Navy during the Second World War. In total, there were 95 Auks built, the Auk class displaced 890 tons on average, and had an approximate length of 220-225 feet. They could reach a speed of about 18.1 knots. Auks were equipped with a single 3 inch gun, two 40 mm Bofors guns, and eight 20 mm Oerlikon guns. Thirty-two minesweepers were ordered by the US, intending them to be supplied to the Royal Navy under Lend-lease,12 were retained for USN use and given names and those transferred to the RN were named as the Catherine class receiving J pennant number prefixes. Eleven minesweepers of the Auk class were lost in World War II, six to direct action including USS Skill. HMS Catherine - transferred to Turkey in March 1947 and renamed Erdemli, HMS Cato Sunk 6 July 1944 by German Neger human torpedo. HMS Chamois Damaged by mine,21 July 1944, HMS Chance To Turkey, March 1947. HMS Combatant Returned to US,1946, HMS Cynthia Returned to US,1947. HMS Elfreda To Turkey, March 1947, HMS Fairy Returned to US,1946. HMS Florizel Returned to US,1946, HMS Foam Returned to US,1946. HMS Frolic To Turkey, March 1947, HMS Gazelle Returned to US,1946. HMS Gorgon Returned to US,1946, HMS Grecian To Turkey March 1947. HMS Jasper Returned to US,1946, HMS Magic Sunk 6 July 1944 by German Neger human torpedo. HMS Pique To Turkey March 1947, stricken 1973 HMS Pylades Sunk 8 July 1944 by German Biber human torpedo HMS Steadfast Returned to United States in 1946. HMS Strenuous Returned to United States 1946, but laid up until 1956 in the UK, HMS Tattoo To Turkey, March 1947. HMS Tourmaline To Turkey, March 1947
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Naval History and Heritage Command
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When the British invaded Washington in 1814 this collection, containing the finest works on naval history from America and abroad, was rushed to safety outside the Federal City. Thereafter the library had many locations, including a specially designed space in the State, War and he also began to collect and preserve naval records, particularly those of the American Civil War. Congress initially recognized his efforts by authorizing funds for staff and combining the library and records sections into the Office of Library. In 1915 the appropriations for publications, the library, and naval war records were combined, once America entered World War I, emphasis shifted to gathering documents on current naval operations. To handle World War I records in Washington, a Historical Section was established in the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations and housed in the new Navy Department Building on Constitution Avenue. When the war ended, Admiral Sims London collection, as well as photographs, the library, by now holding more than 50,000 volumes, remained in the State, War, and Navy Building. In 1921, a member of Admiral Sims wartime staff, Captain Dudley W. Knox, was named head of the Office of Naval Records and Library. For the next years he was the driving force behind the Navys historical program, earning for the office an international reputation in the field of naval archives. The Historical Section was absorbed into Naval Records and Library in 1927, knoxs additional appointment as the Curator for the Navy envisioned a display of our nations sea heritage in a naval museum in Washington. In 1961, Admiral Arleigh Burke, Chief of Naval Operations, at President Franklin D. Roosevelts suggestion, Knox began several documentary series. Seven volumes pertaining to the Quasi War with France and seven volumes relating to the war with the Barbary Powers were ultimately published, World War II halted plans for similar publications on the American Revolution, the War of 1812, the Mexican–American War, and World War I. During World War II, Knox turned his attention to collecting documents generated by operations in the global conflict. Knox served as Deputy Director of Naval History under the Director, in 1952 it was renamed the Naval History Division. The eventual home for the Navys historians was the Washington Navy Yard in Southeast Washington, the first component of the Naval History Division located in the yard was the Navy Museum, established in 1961. In 1963, the Operational Archives moved to the Navy Yard, the other sections of the Naval History Division followed in 1970, occupying several scattered buildings. An organizational change in 1971 shifted the Naval History Division from an establishment to a field activity called the Naval Historical Center, under the Chief of Naval Operations. In 1986, the Navy Art Collection and Gallery and the Naval Aviation History and Publication Division,2008 was a year of change for the Navys history program. First, the command was streamlined into four components, Histories and Archives, Museums and Collections, Integration and Outreach
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
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USS Admirable (AM-136)
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USS Admirable was the lead ship of her class of minesweeper built for the United States Navy during World War II. In commission from 1943 to 1945, she was transferred to the Soviet Navy in 1945, originally classified as a coastal minesweeper, AMc-113, Admirable was reclassified as a minesweeper, AM-136, on 21 February 1942. She was laid down on 8 April 1942 at Tampa, Florida, Admirable departed Tampa on 23 April 1943 and conducted shakedown training in the Gulf of Mexico before heading for Hampton Roads, Virginia, on 23 June 1943. Admirable operated out of Naval Amphibious Base Little Creek, Virginia, for five months of training in antisubmarine warfare, minelaying, and minesweeping techniques. After upkeep and fitting out, she departed Naval Station Norfolk, Virginia, transiting the Panama Canal on 8 December 1943, Admirable continued on to San Diego, California, where she moored on 18 December 1943. In January 1944, following tests at the West Coast Sound School, she received orders to proceed independently to Adak, during the voyage, she encountered heavy seas which damaged her sonar gear. Following her arrival in Kuluk Bay, Adak Island, on 6 February 1944, on 13 February 1944, Admirable was assigned to Task Group 91.2. She operated out of Adak, escorting merchant and troopships to such ports in Alaska and the Aleutian Islands as Kodiak, Dutch Harbor, Amchitka, Kiska, Cold Bay, in July 1944, Admirable began to clear the minefield in Chiniak Bay off Kodiak Island. The minesweepers then established patrols outside the harbor to await the arrival of President Franklin D. Roosevelt aboard the heavy cruiser USS Baltimore. Baltimore pulled out of St. Pauls Harbor the same day, Admirable then resumed escort duty and continued that work into March 1945. The minesweeper then returned to her escort duties, because of the continual beating of the heavy seas,12 feet of the forward end of each of her bilge keels as well as her sonar gear were replaced. On 18 June 1945, a Soviet crew reported on board to train for one month in gunnery, engineering, following the completion of training for her Soviet crew, Admirable was decommissioned on 19 July 1945 at Cold Bay and transferred to the Soviet Union under Lend-Lease immediately. Also commissioned into the Soviet Navy immediately, she was designated as a tralshik and she soon departed Cold Bay bound for Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky in the Soviet Union, where she served in the Soviet Far East. In February 1946, the United States began negotiations for the return of ships loaned to the Soviet Union for use during World War II, and on 8 May 1947, United States Secretary of the Navy James V. The Soviet Union never returned Admirable to the United States, although the U. S. Navy reclassified her as a fleet minesweeper, T-331 was stricken in 1958. and apparently was sold for scrap in the Soviet Union. Unaware of this, the U. S. Navy retained Admirable on its Naval Vessel Register until finally striking her name on 1 January 1983 and this article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. The entry can be found here, navsource. org, USS Admirable hazegray. org, USS Admirable
Media related to Admirable-class minesweeper at Wikimedia Commons
United States Navy
Soviet Navy