1.
The Aerospace Corporation
–
The Aerospace Corporation is a California nonprofit corporation that operates a Federally Funded Research and Development Center headquartered in El Segundo, California. The corporation provides technical guidance and advice on all aspects of missions to military, civil. Although SMC and NRO are the customers, Aerospace also performs work for civil agencies as well as international organizations. On July 1,1954, the Western Development Division of the United States Air Force was established, WDD was responsible for the development of the intercontinental ballistic missile. The Ramo-Wooldridge Corporation was identified as the organization responsible for systems engineering for the ICBM program. Their Space Technology Laboratories was responsible for all missile tasks, despite early successes, there was criticism from both government and industry on the role RW played as systems engineer, in particular that RW held a privileged position with the Air Force. In 1958 RW merged with Thompson Products to become TRW and the Space Technology Laboratories became an independent subsidiary of TRW, in September 1959, United States Congress issued House Report 1121 which recommended that STL be converted into a non-profit institution. On June 3,1960 Aerospace was established under the laws of the State of California as a nonprofit corporation, among the earliest projects it supported were the Dyna-Soar orbital spaceplane, Project Mercury, and the man-rating of the Atlas intercontinental ballistic missile. The Aerospace Corporation provided general engineering and technical direction for the Titan II missile, first tested in 1962. During the 1970s, Aerospace began performing advance space program analysis and program studies for NASAs development of the Space Transportation System, Aerospace also began tests on airborne UHF terminals for the Air Force Satellite Communications System, AFSATCOM. In the mid-70s Aerospace assumed general systems engineering and integration responsibility for the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program, beginning in 1973, a program office was established to assist the Air Force in the creation of the Global Positioning System. In recognition of their GPS collaboration, Aerospace shared the 1992 Robert J, throughout the 1980s, Aerospace supported the Inertial Upper Stage, the Strategic Defense Initiative, the Milstar and DSCS satellite communication systems, and antisatellite programs. They provided planning, design, and evaluation for the Air Force Satellite Control Network, during this same time period, the company also provided systems engineering and integration for launch vehicles, including the Atlas, Titan II, Titan IV, and Delta II. In the 1990s, Aerospace participated in the planning and development of requirements for the Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle program. They continued to launch vehicle systems engineering for the Atlas II, Delta III. Satellite program support included Wideband Gapfiller, Space Based Laser, the Ultrahigh-Frequency Follow-On program, Aerospace has been involved in the analysis of concept designs for the Space Tracking and Surveillance System. Aerospace plays an role in the development of the Advanced Extremely High Frequency program that will replace the Milstar system. Another system that Aerospace was supporting is the Transformational Satellite Communications System MILSATCOM architecture to link military, however, it was cancelled per the recommendations of Defense Secretary Robert M. Gates due to DoD budgetary constraints
The Aerospace Corporation
2.
Atmosphere
–
An atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding a planet or other material body, that is held in place by the gravity of that body. An atmosphere is likely to be retained if the gravity it is subject to is high. The atmosphere of Earth is mostly composed of nitrogen, oxygen, argon with carbon dioxide, the atmosphere helps protect living organisms from genetic damage by solar ultraviolet radiation, solar wind and cosmic rays. Its current composition is the product of billions of years of modification of the paleoatmosphere by living organisms. The term stellar atmosphere describes the region of a star. Stars with sufficiently low temperatures may form compound molecules in their outer atmosphere, Atmospheric pressure is the force per unit area that is applied perpendicularly to a surface by the surrounding gas. It is determined by a gravitational force in combination with the total mass of a column of gas above a location. On Earth, units of air pressure are based on the recognized standard atmosphere. It is measured with a barometer, the pressure of an atmospheric gas decreases with altitude due to the diminishing mass of gas above. The height at which the pressure from an atmosphere declines by a factor of e is called the height and is denoted by H. For such an atmosphere, the pressure declines exponentially with increasing altitude. However, atmospheres are not uniform in temperature, so the determination of the atmospheric pressure at any particular altitude is more complex. Surface gravity, the force that holds down an atmosphere, differs significantly among the planets, for example, the large gravitational force of the giant planet Jupiter is able to retain light gases such as hydrogen and helium that escape from objects with lower gravity. Thus, the distant and cold Titan, Triton, and Pluto are able to retain their atmospheres despite their relatively low gravities, rogue planets, theoretically, may also retain thick atmospheres. Since a collection of gas molecules may be moving at a range of velocities. Lighter molecules move faster than ones with the same thermal kinetic energy. It is thought that Venus and Mars may have lost much of their water when, after being photo dissociated into hydrogen and oxygen by solar ultraviolet, Earths magnetic field helps to prevent this, as, normally, the solar wind would greatly enhance the escape of hydrogen. However, over the past 3 billion years Earth may have lost gases through the polar regions due to auroral activity
Atmosphere
–
Mars's thin atmosphere
Atmosphere
–
Earth's atmospheric
gases scatter blue light more than other wavelengths, giving the
Earth a blue halo when seen from
space.
3.
Aeronautics
–
Aeronautics is the science or art involved with the study, design, and manufacturing of air flight capable machines, and the techniques of operating aircraft and rockets within the atmosphere. The British Royal Aeronautical Society identifies the aspects of aeronautical Art, Science and Engineering and the profession of Aeronautics. A significant part of science is a branch of dynamics called aerodynamics, which deals with the motion of air. Attempts to fly without any real aeronautical understanding have been made from the earliest times, typically by constructing wings, wiser investigators sought to gain some rational understanding through the study of bird flight. An early example appears in ancient Egyptian texts, later medieval Islamic scientists also made such studies. The founders of modern aeronautics, Leonardo da Vinci in the Renaissance and Cayley in 1799, man-carrying kites are believed to have been used extensively in ancient China. In 1282 the European explorer Marco Polo described the Chinese techniques then current, the Chinese also constructed small hot air balloons, or lanterns, and rotary-wing toys. The lifting medium for his balloon would be an aether whose composition he did not know, although his designs were rational, they were not based on particularly good science. Many of his designs, such as a four-person screw-type helicopter, have severe flaws and he did at least understand that An object offers as much resistance to the air as the air does to the object. His analysis led to the realisation that manpower alone was not sufficient for sustained flight, da Vincis work was lost after his death and did not reappear until it had been overtaken by the work of George Cayley. The modern era of lighter-than-air flight began early in the 17th century with Galileos experiments in which he showed that air has weight and these would be lighter than the displaced air and able to lift an airship. His proposed methods of controlling height are still in use today, by carrying ballast which may be dropped overboard to gain height, in practice de Terzis spheres would have collapsed under air pressure, and further developments had to wait for more practicable lifting gases. From the mid-18th century the Montgolfier brothers in France began experimenting with balloons and their balloons were made of paper, and early experiments using steam as the lifting gas were short-lived due to its effect on the paper as it condensed. Meanwhile, the discovery of hydrogen led Joseph Black in c.1780 to propose its use as a lifting gas, on hearing of the Montgolfier Brothers invitation, the French Academy member Jacques Charles offered a similar demonstration of a hydrogen balloon. Charles and two craftsmen, the Robert brothers, developed a material of rubberised silk for the envelope. The hydrogen gas was to be generated by chemical reaction during the filling process, the Montgolfier designs had several shortcomings, not least the need for dry weather and a tendency for sparks from the fire to set light to the paper balloon. The manned design had a gallery around the base of the rather than the hanging basket of the first, unmanned design. On their free flight, De Rozier and dArlandes took buckets of water, on the other hand, the manned design of Charles was essentially modern
Aeronautics
–
Space Shuttle Atlantis on a
Shuttle Carrier Aircraft.
Aeronautics
–
Designs for flying machines by Leonardo da Vinci, circa 1490
Aeronautics
–
The
Eurofighter Typhoon.
Aeronautics
–
Antonov An-225 Mriya, the largest aeroplane ever built.
4.
Outer space
–
Outer space or just space, is the void that exists between celestial bodies, including Earth. The baseline temperature, as set by the radiation from the Big Bang, is 2.7 kelvins. In most galaxies, observations provide evidence that 90% of the mass is in a form, called dark matter. Data indicates that the majority of the mass-energy in the universe is a poorly understood vacuum energy of space which astronomers label dark energy. Intergalactic space takes up most of the volume of the Universe, there is no firm boundary where outer space starts. However the Kármán line, at an altitude of 100 km above sea level, is used as the start of outer space in space treaties. The framework for international law was established by the Outer Space Treaty. This treaty precludes any claims of sovereignty and permits all states to freely explore outer space. Despite the drafting of UN resolutions for the uses of outer space. Humans began the exploration of space during the 20th century with the advent of high-altitude balloon flights. Earth orbit was first achieved by Yuri Gagarin of the Soviet Union in 1961, due to the high cost of getting into space, manned spaceflight has been limited to low Earth orbit and the Moon. Outer space represents an environment for human exploration because of the dual hazards of vacuum. Microgravity also has an effect on human physiology that causes both muscle atrophy and bone loss. In addition to health and environmental issues, the economic cost of putting objects, including humans. In 350 BCE, Greek philosopher Aristotle suggested that nature abhors a vacuum and this concept built upon a 5th-century BCE ontological argument by the Greek philosopher Parmenides, who denied the possible existence of a void in space. Based on this idea that a vacuum could not exist, in the West it was held for many centuries that space could not be empty. As late as the 17th century, the French philosopher René Descartes argued that the entirety of space must be filled, in ancient China, there were various schools of thought concerning the nature of the heavens, some of which bear a resemblance to the modern understanding. In the 2nd century, astronomer Zhang Heng became convinced that space must be infinite, extending well beyond the mechanism that supported the Sun, the surviving books of the Hsüan Yeh school said that the heavens were boundless, empty and void of substance
Outer space
–
The original
Magdeburg hemispheres (lower left) used to demonstrate Otto von Guericke's vacuum pump (right)
Outer space
–
The interface between the Earth's surface and outer space. The
Kármán line at a height of 100 km (62 mi) is shown. The layers of the atmosphere are drawn to scale. Objects within them, such as the International Space Station, are not.
Outer space
–
This is an artist's concept of the
metric expansion of space, where a volume of the Universe is represented at each time interval by the circular sections. At left is depicted the rapid
inflation from the initial state, followed thereafter by steady expansion to the present day, shown at right.
Outer space
–
Part of the
Hubble Ultra-Deep Field image showing a typical section of space containing galaxies interspersed by deep vacuum. Given the finite
speed of light, this view covers the last 13 billion years of the history of outer space.
5.
Astronautics
–
Astronautics is the theory and practice of navigation beyond Earths atmosphere. The term astronautics was coined in the 1920s by J. H. Rosny, president of the Goncourt academy, because there is a degree of technical overlap between the two fields, the term aerospace is often used to describe both at once. In 1930, Robert Esnault-Pelterie publishes the first book on the new research field, space launch vehicles must withstand titanic forces, while satellites can experience huge variations in temperature in very brief periods. Extreme constraints on mass cause astronautical engineers to face the constant need to save mass in the design in order to maximize the payload that reaches orbit. The early history of astronautics is theoretical, the mathematics of space travel was established by Isaac Newton in his 1687 treatise Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica. Other mathematicians, such as Swiss Leonhard Euler and Franco-Italian Joseph Louis Lagrange also made contributions in the 18th and 19th centuries. In spite of this, astronautics did not become a discipline until the mid-20th century. On the other hand, the question of spaceflight puzzled the literary imaginations of such figures as Jules Verne and H. G. Wells. Δ v = v e ln m 0 m 1 In fact this equation was derived earlier by William Moore, for more information on the mathematical basis of space travel, see Orbital mechanics. The Prix dAstronautique awarded by the Société astronomique de France, the French astronomical society, was the first prize on this subject, although many regard astronautics itself as a rather specialized subject, engineers and scientists working in this area must be knowledgeable in many distinct fields. Astrodynamics, the study of orbital motion and those specializing in this field examine topics such as spacecraft trajectories, ballistics and celestial mechanics. Spacecraft propulsion, how spacecraft change orbits, and how they are launched, most spacecraft have some variety of rocket engine, and thus most research efforts focus on some variety of rocket propulsion, such as chemical, nuclear or electric. Spacecraft design, a form of systems engineering that centers on combining all the necessary subsystems for a particular launch vehicle or satellite. Controls, keeping a satellite or rocket in its desired orbit and orientation
Astronautics
–
Hubble Space Telescope over Earth (during the
STS-109 mission)
6.
Aircraft
–
An aircraft is a machine that is able to fly by gaining support from the air. It counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or by using the lift of an airfoil. The human activity that surrounds aircraft is called aviation, crewed aircraft are flown by an onboard pilot, but unmanned aerial vehicles may be remotely controlled or self-controlled by onboard computers. Aircraft may be classified by different criteria, such as type, aircraft propulsion, usage. Each of the two World Wars led to technical advances. Consequently, the history of aircraft can be divided into five eras, Pioneers of flight, first World War,1914 to 1918. Aviation between the World Wars,1918 to 1939, Second World War,1939 to 1945. Postwar era, also called the jet age,1945 to the present day, aerostats use buoyancy to float in the air in much the same way that ships float on the water. They are characterized by one or more large gasbags or canopies, filled with a relatively low-density gas such as helium, hydrogen, or hot air, which is less dense than the surrounding air. When the weight of this is added to the weight of the aircraft structure, a balloon was originally any aerostat, while the term airship was used for large, powered aircraft designs – usually fixed-wing. In 1919 Frederick Handley Page was reported as referring to ships of the air, in the 1930s, large intercontinental flying boats were also sometimes referred to as ships of the air or flying-ships. – though none had yet been built, the advent of powered balloons, called dirigible balloons, and later of rigid hulls allowing a great increase in size, began to change the way these words were used. Huge powered aerostats, characterized by an outer framework and separate aerodynamic skin surrounding the gas bags, were produced. There were still no fixed-wing aircraft or non-rigid balloons large enough to be called airships, then several accidents, such as the Hindenburg disaster in 1937, led to the demise of these airships. Nowadays a balloon is an aerostat and an airship is a powered one. A powered, steerable aerostat is called a dirigible, sometimes this term is applied only to non-rigid balloons, and sometimes dirigible balloon is regarded as the definition of an airship. Non-rigid dirigibles are characterized by a moderately aerodynamic gasbag with stabilizing fins at the back and these soon became known as blimps. During the Second World War, this shape was adopted for tethered balloons, in windy weather
Aircraft
–
NASA test aircraft
Aircraft
–
The
Mil Mi-8 is the
most-produced helicopter in history
Aircraft
–
"Voodoo" a modified P 51 Mustang is the 2014 Reno Air Race Champion
Aircraft
–
A hot air
balloon in flight
7.
Spacecraft
–
A spacecraft is a vehicle, or machine designed to fly in outer space. Spacecraft are used for a variety of purposes, including communications, earth observation, meteorology, navigation, space colonization, planetary exploration, on a sub-orbital spaceflight, a spacecraft enters space and then returns to the surface, without having gone into an orbit. For orbital spaceflights, spacecraft enter closed orbits around the Earth or around other celestial bodies, robotic spacecraft used to support scientific research are space probes. Robotic spacecraft that remain in orbit around a body are artificial satellites. Only a handful of interstellar probes, such as Pioneer 10 and 11, Voyager 1 and 2, orbital spacecraft may be recoverable or not. By method of reentry to Earth they may be divided in non-winged space capsules, Sputnik 1 was the first artificial satellite. It was launched into an elliptical low Earth orbit by the Soviet Union on 4 October 1957, the launch ushered in new political, military, technological, and scientific developments, while the Sputnik launch was a single event, it marked the start of the Space Age. Apart from its value as a technological first, Sputnik 1 also helped to identify the upper atmospheric layers density and it also provided data on radio-signal distribution in the ionosphere. Pressurized nitrogen in the satellites false body provided the first opportunity for meteoroid detection, Sputnik 1 was launched during the International Geophysical Year from Site No. 1/5, at the 5th Tyuratam range, in Kazakh SSR. The satellite travelled at 29,000 kilometers per hour, taking 96.2 minutes to complete an orbit and this altitude is called the Kármán line. In particular, in the 1940s there were several test launches of the V-2 rocket, as of 2016, only three nations have flown manned spacecraft, USSR/Russia, USA, and China. The first manned spacecraft was Vostok 1, which carried Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin into space in 1961, there were five other manned missions which used a Vostok spacecraft. The second manned spacecraft was named Freedom 7, and it performed a sub-orbital spaceflight in 1961 carrying American astronaut Alan Shepard to an altitude of just over 187 kilometers, there were five other manned missions using Mercury spacecraft. Other Soviet manned spacecraft include the Voskhod, Soyuz, flown unmanned as Zond/L1, L3, TKS, China developed, but did not fly Shuguang, and is currently using Shenzhou. Except for the shuttle, all of the recoverable manned orbital spacecraft were space capsules. Manned space capsules The International Space Station, manned since November 2000, is a joint venture between Russia, the United States, Canada and several other countries, some reusable vehicles have been designed only for manned spaceflight, and these are often called spaceplanes. The first example of such was the North American X-15 spaceplane, the first reusable spacecraft, the X-15, was air-launched on a suborbital trajectory on July 19,1963. The first partially reusable spacecraft, a winged non-capsule, the Space Shuttle, was launched by the USA on the 20th anniversary of Yuri Gagarins flight
Spacecraft
–
More than 100 Russian
Soyuz manned spacecraft (TMA version shown) have flown since 1967, originally for a
Soviet manned lunar program, but currently supporting the
International Space Station.
Spacecraft
–
The US
Space Shuttle flew 135 times from 1981 to 2011, supporting Spacelab, Mir, and ISS. (Columbia's first launch shown)
Spacecraft
–
The first artificial satellite, Sputnik
Spacecraft
–
The first manned spacecraft,
Vostok 1
8.
Government
–
A government is the system by which a state or community is controlled. In the case of this broad definition, government normally consists of legislators, administrators. Government is the means by which state policy is enforced, as well as the mechanism for determining the policy of the state. Forms of government, or forms of governance, refers to the set of political systems. Governments control the economy, social freedoms, and political systems and this usage is analogous to what is called an administration in American English. Finally, government is sometimes used in English as a synonym for governance. In addition to the political meanings, in grammar and theoretical linguistics
Government
–
presidential republics
9.
NASA
–
President Dwight D. Eisenhower established NASA in 1958 with a distinctly civilian orientation encouraging peaceful applications in space science. The National Aeronautics and Space Act was passed on July 29,1958, disestablishing NASAs predecessor, the new agency became operational on October 1,1958. Since that time, most US space exploration efforts have led by NASA, including the Apollo Moon landing missions, the Skylab space station. Currently, NASA is supporting the International Space Station and is overseeing the development of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle, the agency is also responsible for the Launch Services Program which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches. NASA shares data with various national and international such as from the Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite. Since 2011, NASA has been criticized for low cost efficiency, from 1946, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics had been experimenting with rocket planes such as the supersonic Bell X-1. In the early 1950s, there was challenge to launch a satellite for the International Geophysical Year. An effort for this was the American Project Vanguard, after the Soviet launch of the worlds first artificial satellite on October 4,1957, the attention of the United States turned toward its own fledgling space efforts. This led to an agreement that a new federal agency based on NACA was needed to conduct all non-military activity in space. The Advanced Research Projects Agency was created in February 1958 to develop technology for military application. On July 29,1958, Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act, a NASA seal was approved by President Eisenhower in 1959. Elements of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency and the United States Naval Research Laboratory were incorporated into NASA, earlier research efforts within the US Air Force and many of ARPAs early space programs were also transferred to NASA. In December 1958, NASA gained control of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, NASA has conducted many manned and unmanned spaceflight programs throughout its history. Some missions include both manned and unmanned aspects, such as the Galileo probe, which was deployed by astronauts in Earth orbit before being sent unmanned to Jupiter, the experimental rocket-powered aircraft programs started by NACA were extended by NASA as support for manned spaceflight. This was followed by a space capsule program, and in turn by a two-man capsule program. This goal was met in 1969 by the Apollo program, however, reduction of the perceived threat and changing political priorities almost immediately caused the termination of most of these plans. NASA turned its attention to an Apollo-derived temporary space laboratory, to date, NASA has launched a total of 166 manned space missions on rockets, and thirteen X-15 rocket flights above the USAF definition of spaceflight altitude,260,000 feet. The X-15 was an NACA experimental rocket-powered hypersonic research aircraft, developed in conjunction with the US Air Force, the design featured a slender fuselage with fairings along the side containing fuel and early computerized control systems
NASA
–
1963 photo showing Dr. William H. Pickering, (center) JPL Director, President John F. Kennedy, (right). NASA Administrator James Webb in background. They are discussing the
Mariner program, with a model presented.
NASA
–
Seal of NASA
NASA
–
At launch control for the May 28, 1964,
Saturn I SA-6 launch.
Wernher von Braun is at center.
NASA
–
Mercury-Atlas 6 launch on February 20, 1962
10.
European Space Agency
–
The European Space Agency is an intergovernmental organisation of 22 member states, dedicated to the exploration of space. Established in 1975 and headquartered in Paris, France, ESA has a staff of about 2,000. The main European launch vehicle Ariane 5 is operated through Arianespace with ESA sharing in the costs of launching, after World War II, many European scientists left Western Europe in order to work with the United States. The meeting was attended by representatives from eight countries, including Harrie Massey. The Western European nations decided to have two different agencies, one concerned with developing a system, ELDO, and the precursor of the European Space Agency. The latter was established on 20 March 1964 by an agreement signed on 14 June 1962, from 1968 to 1972, ESRO launched seven research satellites. ESA in its current form was founded with the ESA Convention in 1975, ESA has 10 founding member states, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. These signed the ESA Convention in 1975 and deposited the instruments of ratification by 1980, during this interval the agency functioned in a de facto fashion. ESA launched its first major scientific mission in 1975, Cos-B, ESA joined NASA in the IUE, the worlds first high-orbit telescope, which was launched in 1978 and operated very successfully for 18 years. A number of successful Earth-orbit projects followed, and in 1986 ESA began Giotto, its first deep-space mission, to study the comets Halley and Grigg–Skjellerup. Hipparcos, a mission, was launched in 1989 and in the 1990s SOHO, Ulysses. Recent scientific missions in co-operation with NASA include the Cassini–Huygens space probe, as the successor of ELDO, ESA has also constructed rockets for scientific and commercial payloads. Ariane 1, launched in 1979, brought mostly commercial payloads into orbit from 1984 onward, the successor launch vehicle of Ariane 5, the Ariane 6 is already in the definition stage and is envisioned to enter service in the 2020s. The beginning of the new millennium saw ESA become, along with agencies like NASA, JAXA, ISRO, CSA and Roscosmos, one of the major participants in scientific space research. Although ESA had relied on co-operation with NASA in previous decades, especially the 1990s, changed circumstances led to decisions to rely more on itself, a 2011 press issue thus stated, Russia is ESAs first partner in its efforts to ensure long-term access to space. ESA maintains its scientific and research projects mainly for astronomy-space missions such as Corot, launched on 27 December 2006 and this is the reason space exploration is an integral part of overall space activities. It has always been so, and it will be more important in the future. ESA describes its work in two overlapping ways, For the general public the various fields of work are described as Activities, Member states participate to varying degrees in the mandatory and optional space programmes
European Space Agency
–
ESA Mission Control at
ESOC in
Darmstadt, Germany
European Space Agency
–
Acronym
European Space Agency
–
ESTEC buildings in
Noordwijk, Netherlands. ESTEC was the main technical centre of ESRO and remains so for the successor organization, ESA.
European Space Agency
–
Mock-up of the
Ariane 1
11.
Canadian Space Agency
–
The Canadian Space Agency was established by the Canadian Space Agency Act which received Royal Assent on May 10,1990. The agency reports to the federal Minister of Innovation, Science, the current president of the Canadian Space Agency is Sylvain Laporte, who took the position March 9,2015 following the announcement of his appointment on February 27,2015. The headquarters of the CSA is located at the John H. Chapman Space Centre in Longueuil, the agency also has offices in Ottawa, Ontario, at the David Florida Laboratory, and small liaison offices in Houston, Washington, D. C. and Paris. The origins of the Canadian upper atmosphere and space program can be traced back to the end of the Second World War and this work would soon lead to the development of Canadas first satellite known as Alouette 1. With the launch of Alouette 1 in September 1962 Canada became the country to put an artificial satellite into space. This undertaking was designated an International Milestone of Electrical Engineering by IEEE in 1993, the launch of Anik A-1 in 1972 made Canada the first country in the world to establish its own domestic geostationary communication satellite network. These and other related activities in the 1980s compelled the Canadian government to promulgate the Canadian Space Agency Act which established the Canadian Space Agency. The Act received royal assent on May 10,1990 and came into force on December 14,1990, in 1999 the CSA was moved from project based to A-base funding and given a fixed annual budget of $300 Million. The actual budget varies from year to year due to additional earmarks, the Canadian Space Agencys mission statement says that the agency is committed to leading the development and application of space knowledge for the benefit of Canadians and humanity. Canadas collaboration with Europe in space activities predated both the European Space Agency and the Canadian Space Agency, Canada is allowed to participate in optional programs, it also has to contribute to the General Budget but not as much as associate membership would have entailed. This status was unique at the time and remains so today, on 15 December 2010 the accord was renewed for a further 10 years, until 2020. By virtue of this accord, Canada takes part in ESA deliberative bodies and decision-making, Canadian firms can bid for and receive contracts to work on programmes. The accord has a provision ensuring a fair industrial return to Canada. The head of the Canadian delegation to ESA is the president of the Canadian Space Agency, as of February 2009, there are currently 30 Canadians that are employed as staff members at ESA. The Canadian Space Program is administered by the Canadian Space Agency, Canada has contributed technology, expertise and personnel to the world space effort, especially in collaboration with ESA and NASA. The Canadarm and Canadarm2 employ the Advanced Space Vision System which allows efficient use of the robotic arms. Another Canadian technology of note is the Orbiter Boom Sensor System, there have been four recruiting campaigns for astronauts for the CSA. The first, in 1983, led to the selection of Roberta Bondar, Marc Garneau, Robert Thirsk, Ken Money, Bjarni Tryggvason, the second, in 1992, selected Chris Hadfield, Julie Payette, Dafydd Williams and Michael McKay
Canadian Space Agency
–
Canadarm (right) during Space Shuttle mission
STS-72
Canadian Space Agency
–
Canadian Space Agency
Canadian Space Agency
–
The Mobile Base System just before Canadarm2 installed it on the Mobile Transporter during
STS-111
Canadian Space Agency
–
The Alouette 1 was the first satellite built by a country other than the United States or Soviet Union.
12.
Indian Space Research Organisation
–
The Indian Space Research Organisation is the space agency of the Government of India headquartered in the city of Bengaluru. Its vision is to space technology for national development, while pursuing space science research. The establishment of ISRO thus institutionalised space activities in India and it is managed by the Department of Space, which reports to the Prime Minister of The Republic of India. ISRO built Indias first satellite, Aryabhata, which was launched by the Soviet Union on 19 April 1975 and it was named after the Mathematician Aryabhata. In 1980, Rohini became the first satellite to be placed in orbit by an Indian-made launch vehicle and these rockets have launched numerous communications satellites and earth observation satellites. Satellite navigation systems like GAGAN and IRNSS have been deployed, in January 2014, ISRO successfully used an indigenous cryogenic engine in a GSLV-D5 launch of the GSAT-14. On 18 June 2016 ISRO successfully set a record with a launch of 20 satellites in a single payload, on 15 February 2017, ISRO launched 104 satellites in a single rocket and created a world record. Raman and Meghnad Saha contributed to scientific principles applicable in space sciences, however, it was the period after 1945 which saw important developments being made in coordinated space research in India. Studies were carried out at research laboratories, universities, and independent locations, in 1950, the Department of Atomic Energy was founded with Homi Bhabha as its secretary. The Department provided funding for research throughout India. During this time, tests continued on aspects of meteorology and the Earths magnetic field, in 1954, the Uttar Pradesh state observatory was established at the foothills of the Himalayas. The Rangpur Observatory was set up in 1957 at Osmania University, Space research was further encouraged by the technically inclined Prime Minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru. In 1957, the Soviet Union successfully launched Sputnik and opened up possibilities for the rest of the world to conduct a space launch, the Indian National Committee for Space Research was set up in 1962 by Jawaharlal Nehru, Indias first Prime Minister. The prime objective of ISRO is to space technology and its application to various national tasks. The Indian space programme was driven by the vision of Vikram Sarabhai, in 2008 India launched as many as 11 satellites, including nine from other countries and went on to become the first nation to launch 10 satellites on one rocket. ISRO has successfully put into two major satellite systems, Indian National Satellites for communication services and Indian Remote Sensing satellites for management of natural resources. In July 2012, the former President, A. P. J. Abdul Kalam said that research was being done by ISRO, ISRO is managed by the Department of Space of the Government of India. Development and Educational Communication Unit, Ahmedabad, ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network, Bangalore
Indian Space Research Organisation
–
Vikram Sarabhai, the father of India's Space Programme
Indian Space Research Organisation
–
ISRO logo
Indian Space Research Organisation
–
The Structure of the Department of Space of the Government of India
Indian Space Research Organisation
–
First test launch of
GSLV Mk III, with an unmanned crew module
13.
JAXA
–
The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, or JAXA, is Japans national aero-space agency. Through the merger of three previously independent organizations, JAXA was formed on 1 October 2003 and its motto is One JAXA and its corporate slogan is Explore to Realize. Before the merger, ISAS was responsible for space and planetary research, NASDA, which was founded on 1 October 1969, had developed rockets, satellites, and also built the Japanese Experiment Module. The old NASDA headquarters were located at the current site of the Tanegashima Space Center, NASDA also trained Japanese astronauts, who flew with the US Space Shuttles. In 2012, new legislation extended JAXAs remit from peaceful purposes only to some military space development. Political control of JAXA passed from MEXT to the Prime Ministers Cabinet Office through a new Space Strategy Office, JAXA is composed of the following organizations. Its headquarters are in Chōfu, Tokyo and it also has Earth Observation Research Center, Tokyo Earth Observation Center in Hatoyama, Saitama Noshiro Testing Center in Noshiro, Akita – Established in 1962. It carries out development and testing of rocket engines, sanriku Balloon Center – Balloons have been launched from this site since 1971. Kakuda Space Center in Kakuda, Miyagi – Leads the development of rocket engines, works mainly with development of liquid fuel engines. Sagamihara Campus – Development of experimental equipment for rockets and satellites, Tanegashima Space Center - currently the launch site for the H-IIA and H-IIB rockets. This is the center of Japans space network and it is involved in research and development of satellites and rockets, and tracking and controlling of satellites. It develops experimental equipment for the Japanese Experiment Module, training of astronauts also takes place here. For International Space Station operations, the Japanese Flight Control Team is located at the Space Station Integration & Promotion Center in Tsukuba, SSIPC communicates regularly with ISS crewmembers via S-band audio. Uchinoura Space Center - currently the site for the Epsilon rocket. JAXA uses the H-IIA rocket from the former NASDA body and its variant H-IIB to launch engineering test satellites, weather satellites, for science missions like X-ray astronomy, JAXA uses the Epsilon rocket. For experiments in the upper atmosphere JAXA uses the SS-520, S-520, prior to the establishment of JAXA, ISAS had been most successful in its space program in the field of X-ray astronomy during the 1980s and 1990s. Another successful area for Japan has been Very Long Baseline Interferometry with the HALCA mission, additional success was achieved with solar observation and research of the magnetosphere, among other areas. NASDA was mostly active in the field of satellite technology
JAXA
–
JAXA
Kibo, the largest module of the
ISS.
JAXA
–
Explore to Realize
JAXA
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Head Office
JAXA
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Tanegashima Space Center
14.
Russian Federal Space Agency
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The Roscosmos State Corporation for Space Activities, commonly known as Roscosmos, is the governmental body responsible for the space science program of Russia and general aerospace research. The Corporation was established on the basis of the now-defunct Federal Space Agency on December 28,2015, Roscosmos was previously known as the Russian Aviation and Space Agency. The headquarters of Roscosmos are located in Moscow, while the main Mission Control space center is located in the city of Korolev. The Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center is in Star City, the Launch facilities used are Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan, and Vostochny Cosmodrome being built in the Russian Far East in Amur Oblast. The current Director since January 2015 is Igor Komarov, in 2015 the Russian government merged Roscosmos with the United Rocket and Space Corporation, the re-nationalized Russian space industry, to create the Roscosmos State Corporation. The Soviet space program did not have central executive agencies, instead, its organizational architecture was multi-centered, it was the design bureaus and the council of designers that had the most say, not the political leadership. The creation of a central agency after the separation of Russia from the Soviet Union was therefore a new development, Russian Space Agency was formed on February 25,1992, by a decree of President Yeltsin. Yuri Koptev, who had worked with designing Mars landers at NPO Lavochkin. In the early years, the agency suffered from lack of authority as the design bureaus fought to protect their own spheres of operation. For example, the decision to keep Mir in operation beyond 1999 was not taken by the agency, instead, another example is that the decision to develop the new Angara rocket was rather a function of Khrunichevs ability to attract resources than a conscious long-term decision by the agency. The 1990s saw serious financial problems because of decreased cash flow and this resulted in Roscosmos leading role in commercial satellite launches and space tourism. In March 2004, director Yuri Koptev was replaced by Anatoly Perminov, the Russian economy boomed throughout 2005 from high prices for exports, such as oil and gas, the outlook for future funding in 2006 appeared more favorable. The budget for 2006 was as high as 25 billion rubles, under the current 10-year budget approved, the budget of the Space Agency shall increase 5–10% per year, providing the space agency with a constant influx of money. In addition to the budget, Roscosmos plans to have over 130 billion rubles flowing into its budget by other means, such as industry investments and it is around the time US-based The Planetary Society entered a partnership with Roscosmos. In 2011, the government spent 115 billion rubles in the space programs. The proposed project core budget for 2013 to be around 128.3 billion rubles, the budget for the whole space program is,169.8 billion rubles. By 2015, the amount of the budget can be increased to 199.2 billion rubles, priorities of the Russian space program include the new Angara rocket family and development of new communications, navigation and remote Earth sensing spacecraft. The GLONASS global navigation system has for many years been one of the top priorities and has been given its own budget line in the federal space budget
Russian Federal Space Agency
Russian Federal Space Agency
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Logo of Roscosmos
Russian Federal Space Agency
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Cosmonaut on EVA (February 2012)
Russian Federal Space Agency
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The
Zarya module was the first module of the ISS, launched in 1998.
15.
China National Space Administration
–
The China National Space Administration is the national space agency of the Peoples Republic of China. It is responsible for the space program and for planning. CNSA and China Aerospace Corporation assumed the authority over space development efforts previously held by the Ministry of Aerospace Industry. It is an agency of the State Administration for Science, Technology and Industry for National Defence, itself a subordinate agency of the Ministry of Industry. The headquarters are in Haidian District, Beijing, CNSA is a new agency created in 1993 when the Ministry of Aerospace Industry was split into CNSA and the China Aerospace Corporation. The former was to be responsible for policy, while the latter was to be responsible for execution and this arrangement proved somewhat unsatisfactory, as these two agencies were, in effect, one large agency, sharing both personnel and management. As part of a restructuring in 1998, CASC was split into a number of smaller state-owned companies. CNSA was established as a government institution to develop and fulfill Chinas due international obligations, the Ninth NPC assigned CNSA as an internal structure of the Commission of Science, Technology and Industry for National Defense. Significant achievements have been scored in the bilateral and multilateral and technology exchanges, administrators of CNSA are appointed by the State Council. As of 2013, ten Chinese nationals have traveled in space, Wang Yaping Zhang Xiaoguang The current administrator is Xu Dazhe, wu Yanhua is vice-administrator and Tian Yulong is secretary general. The arrow in the middle is similar to the Chinese character 人 which means human or people, the three concentric ellipses stand for three types of Escape Velocity which are milestones of space exploration. The second ring is drawn with a line, to state that China has passed the first stage of exploration and is undergoing the second stage exploration. The 人 character stands above the three rings to emphasize humanitys capability to escape and explore, olive branches were added to state that Chinas space exploration is peaceful in nature. Chinese space program Chinese Lunar Exploration Program List of space agencies Official website
China National Space Administration
–
Fei Junlong
China National Space Administration
–
Jing Haipeng
China National Space Administration
–
Liu Boming
China National Space Administration
–
Liu Wang
16.
Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission
–
Its mission statement and objective is to conduct peaceful research in space technology and promote the technology for socio-economic uplift of the country. Established in its form on 16 September 1961 by an executive order of President of Pakistan, it is headquartered in Karachi. Since its creation in 1961, the SUPARCO has achieved numerous milestones, including the first successful spaceflight of countrys first weather expendable launch rocket, the countrys first satellite, Badr-I, was built by the SUPARCO and launched by the Peoples Republic of China in 1990. However, during the meantime, the programme suffered many setbacks, difficulties. The bureaucratic influence and politicization further lagged the space programme and many projects were cancelled by the superior authorities and its official mission states its space policy, Strive to achieve self-reliance in space technology and applications for national security, economy and society. Since 1958, Nobel Laureate Abdus Salam had played a major and it was decided to set up a committee dealing with space sciences, consequently, a Space Sciences Research Wing at the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission. Within few weeks, the committee was established through the Presidential Executive Order of President Ayub Khan which was addressed to co-chairman Ishrat Usmani, the programme of rocket test firings was entrusted to the Chairman of PAEC. One of the most earliest and notable achievements of SUPARCO activities was its unmanned space flight programme that was recorded on 7 June 1962, SUPARCO made research in the development of first solid-fuel expandable rockets, an assistance provided by the United States. On 7 June 1962, SUPARCO landed a record achievement when it launched first unmanned solid-fuel sounding rocket, the rocket was developed in a joint venture with Air force in a team led by PAFs Air Commodore WJM Turowicz. Known as the Rehbar-I, Pakistan had secured its distinction as the country in Asia. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration publicly hailed the space programme as the beginning of a programme of continuous cooperation in space research of mutual interest. This cooperative agreement called for the training of Pakistans scientists, engineers, before the June 1962 space flight programme, NASA had begun to train Pakistans scientists at Wallops Island and the Goddard Space Flight Centres. NASA also set up fellowships and research programmes at various American universities for advanced training. By the presidential decree, Salam was brought as its first and founding chairman, Abdus Salam laid foundation of space infrastructure in Karachi and Lahore, particularly establishing infrastructure for physics research. With the establishment of SUPARCO, Pakistan was the first South Asian country to start a space programme, in 1967, Abdus Salam was succeeded by Air Commdore Władysław Turowicz, as he was made administrator of SUPARCO. Air Commdore Turowicz led the foundation of research activities and rocketry development in SUPARCO to the field of aeronautic sciences, the Doppler Radar Station was also established in the country as a part of a global network. In 1973, American Apollo 17 astronauts Eugene Cernan, Ronald Evans and Harrison Schmitt paid a visit to Karachi amid great fanfare. During the early 1970s, the Islamabad Ionospheric Station within Quaid-e-Azam University was set up, the space flight programme was abruptly ended due to lack of funds and lessening government response
Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission
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SUPARCO logo
Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission
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An artistic diagram of
Paksat-1E satellite.
Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission
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The
Badr-I is displayed before its prior launch in 1990.
Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission
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The preparations are being made to launched the Pakistan-based Rehbar Nike-Cajun in launch position in the 1962.
17.
Iranian Space Agency
–
The Iranian Space Agency is Irans governmental space agency. Iran became a nation in 2009. Iran is one of the 24 founding members of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, which was set up in 1958. To follow and implement the set by the Council, ISA affiliated with the Ministry of Communication and Information Technology in the form of an autonomous organization, was organized. The President of ISA held the position of the Vice-Minister of Communications and Information Technology, since 2015 Irans space program has been quietly suspended by President Rouhani following international pressures. The proposed budget for the year 1393 is 1,865,583 million rials, other related organizations have received separate budget allocations. Iranian Space Research Center has received an additional 1,751,000 million rials of budget for the year 1393, the budget for the year 2008 was mentioned to be $3.9 billion. However it was not apparent whether the allocation was just for one year or a longer period, under president Hassan Rouhani, the proposed 2017-budget for the Iranian Space Agency fell to a dismally low of $4.6 million. Iran has developed a satellite launch vehicle named Safir SLV. The first stage consists of a lengthened up-rated Shahab-3C, according to the technical documentation presented in the annual meeting of the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs it is a two-stage rocket with all liquid propellant engines. The first stage is capable of carrying the payload to the altitude of 68 kilometers. The Safir-1B is the generation of Safir SLV and can carry a satellite weighing 60 kilograms into an elliptical orbit of 300 to 450 kilometers. The thrust of the Safir-1B rocket engine has increased from 32 to 37 tons. In 2010 a more powerful rocket named Simorgh was built and its mission is to carry heavier satellites into orbit. The Simorgh rocket is 27 meters long, and has a mass of 77 tonnes. Its first stage is powered by four engines, each generating up to 29,000 kilograms of thrust, plus a fifth which will be used for altitude control. At liftoff, these engines generate a total of 130,000 kilograms of thrust. Simorgh is capable of putting a 60-kilogram payload into a 500-kilometer low Earth orbit, in 2015, Israeli media reported the missile is capable of taking a manned spacecraft or satellite into space
Iranian Space Agency
Iranian Space Agency
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Official logo of ISA
Iranian Space Agency
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Omid satellite.
Iran is the
9th country to put a domestically-built satellite into orbit using its own launcher and the sixth to send
animals in space.
18.
Korea Aerospace Research Institute
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The Korea Aerospace Research Institute is the aeronautics and space agency of Republic of Korea. Its main laboratories are located in Daejeon, in the Daedeok Science Town, current projects include the KSLV-2 launcher. Past projects include the 1999 Arirang-1 satellite, the agency was founded in 1989. Prior to South Koreas entry into the IAE in 1992, it focused primarily on aerospace technology, KARI began in 1990 to develop its own rockets. It produced the KSR-I and KSR-II, one and two-stage rockets in the early 1990s, in December 1997 it began development of a LOX/kerosene rocket engine. KARI wished to develop satellite launch capability, a test launch of the KSR-III took place in 2002. In addition, several satellites, including the KOMPSAT Seriese, the COMS, on January 30,2013, they launched a satellite into space from their own soil for the first time. The first stage of its rocket will have 4 clustered engines and it was announced that KARI has already developed few prototypes of a 75 metric ton thrust engine. In late 2011, KARI unveiled its tiltrotor Unmanned Aerial Vehicle that can fly at around 400 km/hr and this was the worlds first tilt rotor UAV to have been developed
Korea Aerospace Research Institute
–
Science and Technology Satellite 2C or STSAT-2C. First individually launched Korean satellite into orbit
Korea Aerospace Research Institute
–
Korea Aerospace Research Institute 한국항공우주연구원
Korea Aerospace Research Institute
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Actual-sized replica of KSLV-1 Naro at public exhibition area of
Naro Space Center.
19.
Satellite
–
In the context of spaceflight, a satellite is an artificial object which has been intentionally placed into orbit. Such objects are called artificial satellites to distinguish them from natural satellites such as Earths Moon. In 1957 the Soviet Union launched the worlds first artificial satellite, since then, about 6,600 satellites from more than 40 countries have been launched. According to a 2013 estimate,3,600 remained in orbit, of those, about 1,000 were operational, the rest have lived out their useful lives and become space debris. Approximately 500 operational satellites are in orbit,50 are in medium-Earth orbit. A few large satellites have been launched in parts and assembled in orbit. Over a dozen space probes have been placed into orbit around other bodies and become artificial satellites to the Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, a few asteroids, Satellites are used for many purposes. Common types include military and civilian Earth observation satellites, communications satellites, navigation satellites, weather satellites, Space stations and human spacecraft in orbit are also satellites. Satellite orbits vary greatly, depending on the purpose of the satellite, well-known classes include low Earth orbit, polar orbit, and geostationary orbit. A launch vehicle is a rocket that throws a satellite into orbit, usually it lifts off from a launch pad on land. Some are launched at sea from a submarine or a mobile maritime platform, Satellites are usually semi-independent computer-controlled systems. Satellite subsystems attend many tasks, such as power generation, thermal control, telemetry, attitude control, the first fictional depiction of a satellite being launched into orbit was a short story by Edward Everett Hale, The Brick Moon. The idea surfaced again in Jules Vernes The Begums Fortune, in 1903, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky published Exploring Space Using Jet Propulsion Devices, which is the first academic treatise on the use of rocketry to launch spacecraft. He calculated the speed required for a minimal orbit. In 1928, Herman Potočnik published his book, The Problem of Space Travel — The Rocket Motor. He described the use of orbiting spacecraft for observation of the ground, in a 1945 Wireless World article, the English science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke described in detail the possible use of communications satellites for mass communications. He suggested that three geostationary satellites would provide coverage over the entire planet, the first artificial satellite was Sputnik 1, launched by the Soviet Union on October 4,1957, and initiating the Soviet Sputnik program, with Sergei Korolev as chief designer. This in turn triggered the Space Race between the Soviet Union and the United States, Sputnik 1 helped to identify the density of high atmospheric layers through measurement of its orbital change and provided data on radio-signal distribution in the ionosphere
Satellite
Satellite
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A full-size model of the
Earth observation satellite ERS 2
Satellite
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Konstantin Tsiolkovsky
Satellite
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Sputnik 1: The first artificial satellite to orbit Earth.
20.
Boeing
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The Boeing Company is an American multinational corporation that designs, manufactures, and sells airplanes, rotorcraft, rockets, and satellites worldwide. The company also provides leasing and product support services, Boeing stock is a component of the Dow Jones Industrial Average. The Boeing Companys corporate headquarters are located in Chicago and the company is led by President, Boeing is organized into five primary divisions, Boeing Commercial Airplanes, Boeing Defense, Space & Security, Engineering, Operations & Technology, Boeing Capital, and Boeing Shared Services Group. Boeing bought Heaths shipyard in Seattle on the Duwamish River, which became his first airplane factory. Boeing was incorporated in Seattle by William Boeing, on July 15,1916, Boeing was later incorporated in Delaware, the original Certificate of Incorporation was filed with the Secretary of State of Delaware on July 19,1934. Boeing, who studied at Yale University, worked initially in the timber industry and this knowledge proved invaluable in his subsequent design and assembly of airplanes. The company stayed in Seattle to take advantage of the supply of spruce wood. William Boeing founded his company a few months after the June 15 maiden flight of one of the two B&W seaplanes built with the assistance of George Conrad Westervelt, a U. S. Navy engineer. Boeing and Westervelt decided to build the B&W seaplane after having flown in a Curtiss aircraft, Boeing bought a Glenn Martin Flying Birdcage seaplane and was taught to fly by Glenn Martin himself. Boeing soon crashed the Birdcage and when Martin informed Boeing that replacement parts would not become available for months, Westervelt agreed to build a better airplane and soon produced the B&W Seaplane. This first Boeing airplane was assembled in a hangar located on the northeast shore of Seattles Lake Union. Many of Boeings early planes were seaplanes, on April 6,1917, the U. S. declared War on Germany and later in the year entered World War I. On May 9,1917, the became the Boeing Airplane Company. With the U. S. entering the war, Boeing knew that the U. S. Navy needed seaplanes for training, so Boeing shipped two new Model Cs to Pensacola, Florida, where the planes were flown for the Navy. The Navy liked the Model C and ordered 50 more, the company moved its operations to a larger former shipbuilding facility known as Boeing Plant 1, located on the lower Duwamish River, Washington state. Others, including Boeing, started selling other products, Boeing built dressers, counters, and furniture, along with flat-bottom boats called Sea Sleds. In 1919 the Boeing B-1, flying boat made its first flight and it accommodated one pilot and two passengers and some mail. Over the course of eight years, it made international airmail flights from Seattle to Victoria, on May 24,1920, the Boeing Model 8 made its first flight
Boeing
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Replica of Boeing's first plane, the
Boeing Model 1, at the
Museum of Flight
Boeing
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William E. Boeing in 1929
Boeing
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Boeing 377 Stratocruiser
Boeing
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The
Boeing 707 in
British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC) livery, 1964
21.
Airbus
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Airbus SAS is a division of the multinational Airbus Group SE that manufactures civil aircraft. It is based in Blagnac, France, a suburb of Toulouse, with production and manufacturing facilities mainly in France, Germany, Spain, China, United Kingdom, Airbus began as a consortium of aerospace manufacturers, Airbus Industrie. After a protracted sales process BAE sold its shareholding to EADS on 13 October 2006, Airbus has sixteen key sites in four countries, France, Germany, Spain and the United Kingdom. Final assembly production is based at Toulouse, France, Hamburg, Germany, Seville, Spain, Tianjin, China, Airbus has subsidiaries in the United States, Japan and India. The company produces and markets the first commercially viable digital fly-by-wire airliner, the Airbus A320, and the worlds largest passenger airliner, Airbus Industrie began as a consortium of European aviation firms formed to compete with American companies such as Boeing, McDonnell Douglas, and Lockheed. While many European aircraft were innovative, even the most successful had small production runs, in the mid-1960s, tentative negotiations commenced regarding a European collaborative approach. The same year Hawker Siddeley teamed with Breguet and Nord to study airbus designs, the Hawker Siddeley/Breguet/Nord groups HBN100 became the basis for the continuation of the project. By 1966 the partners were Sud Aviation, later Aérospatiale, Arbeitsgemeinschaft Airbus, later Deutsche Airbus, a request for funding was made to the three governments in October 1966. On 25 July 1967 the three agreed to proceed with the proposal. In the two years following this agreement, both the British and French governments expressed doubts about the project, the MoU had stated that 75 orders must be achieved by 31 July 1968. With concerns at proposal of the A300B proposal in December 1968, and fearing it would not recoup its investment due to lack of sales, West Germany took this opportunity to increase its share of the project to 50%. Given the participation by Hawker Siddeley up to point, France. Thus the British company was allowed to continue as a privileged subcontractor, Hawker Siddeley invested GB£35 million in tooling and, requiring more capital, received a GB£35 million loan from the West German government. Airbus Industrie was formally established as a Groupement dIntérêt Économique on 18 December 1970 and it had been formed by a government initiative between France, West Germany and the UK that originated in 1967. Its initial shareholders were the French company Aérospatiale and the West German company Deutsche Airbus, Aérospatiale and Deutsche Airbus each took a 36. 5% share of production work, Hawker Siddeley 20% and the Dutch company Fokker-VFW 7%. Each company would deliver its sections as fully equipped, ready-to-fly items, in October 1971 the Spanish company CASA acquired a 4. 2% share of Airbus Industrie, with Aérospatiale and Deutsche Airbus reducing their stakes to 47. 9%. In January 1979 British Aerospace, which had absorbed Hawker Siddeley in 1977, the majority shareholders reduced their shares to 37. 9%, while CASA retained its 4. 2%. The Airbus A300 was to be the first aircraft to be developed, manufactured and marketed by Airbus, by early 1967 the A300 label began to be applied to a proposed 320 seat, twin engined airliner
Airbus
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Airbus A300, the first aircraft launched by Airbus
Airbus
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Eastern Air Lines was Airbus's first customer in the American market, ordering the
Airbus A300 B4
Airbus
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Airbus A340 introduced in 1993
Airbus
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Airbus A330 introduced in 1994
22.
SpaceX
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Space Exploration Technologies Corporation, better known as SpaceX, is an American aerospace manufacturer and space transport services company headquartered in Hawthorne, California. It was founded in 2002 by entrepreneur Elon Musk with the goal of reducing space transportation costs, SpaceX has since developed the Falcon launch vehicle family and the Dragon spacecraft family, which both currently deliver payloads into Earth orbit. As of March 2017, SpaceX has since flown ten missions to the International Space Station under a cargo resupply contract, SpaceX announced in 2011 they were beginning a privately funded reusable launch system technology development program. In December 2015, a first stage was flown back to a landing pad near the launch site and this was the first such achievement by a rocket for orbital spaceflight. In April 2016, with the launch of CRS-8, SpaceX successfully vertically landed a first stage on an ocean drone-ship landing platform, in May 2016, in another first, SpaceX again landed a first stage, but during a significantly more energetic geostationary transfer orbit mission. In March 2017, SpaceX became the first to successfully re-launch and this is the main purpose this System was designed for. In February 2017, Elon Musk announced that the company had contracted by two private individuals to send them in a Dragon spacecraft on a free return trajectory around the Moon. Provisionally launching in 2018, this may become the first instance of lunar tourism. Musk tried to buy cheap rockets from Russia, but returned empty-handed after failing to find rockets for an affordable price, on the flight home, Musk realized that he could start a company that could build the affordable rockets he needed. According to early Tesla and SpaceX investor Steve Jurvetson, Musk calculated that the raw materials for building a rocket actually were only 3 percent of the price of a rocket at the time. SpaceX started with the smallest useful orbital rocket, instead of building a complex and riskier launch vehicle. In early 2002, Musk was seeking staff for his new space company, Musk approached renowned rocket engineer Tom Mueller and Mueller agreed to work for Musk, and thus SpaceX was born. SpaceX was first headquartered in a warehouse in El Segundo, California, the company has grown rapidly since it was founded in 2002, growing from 160 employees in 2005 to nearly 5,000 in late 2015 and February 2016. At year-end 2012, SpaceX had over 40 launches on its manifest representing about $4 billion in contract revenue, the contracts included both commercial and government customers. As of December 2013, SpaceX had a total of 50 future launches under contract, Musk has stated that one of his goals is to improve the cost and reliability of access to space, ultimately by a factor of ten. CEO Elon Musk said, I believe $500 per pound or less is very achievable, a major goal of SpaceX has been to develop a rapidly reusable launch system. Musk stated in a 2011 interview that he hopes to send humans to Mars surface within 10–20 years, in 2010, Musks calculations convinced him that the colonization of Mars was possible. After completing its primary burn, the first stage of the rocket detached from the second stage as usual
SpaceX
–
The company's headquarters, located in
Hawthorne, California.
SpaceX
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SpaceX employees with the Dragon capsule at SpaceX HQ in Hawthorne, California, February, 2015.
SpaceX
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Falcon 9 v1.1 rocket cores under construction at the SpaceX Hawthorne facility, November 2014.
SpaceX
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SpaceX McGregor engine test bunker, September 2012
23.
Lockheed Martin
–
Lockheed Martin is an American global aerospace, defense, security and advanced technologies company with worldwide interests. It was formed by the merger of Lockheed Corporation with Martin Marietta in March 1995 and it is headquartered in Bethesda, Maryland, in the Washington, DC, area. Lockheed Martin employs 126,000 people worldwide, Marillyn Hewson is the current President and Chief Executive Officer. Lockheed Martin is one of the largest companies in the aerospace, defense, security and it is the worlds largest defense contractor based on revenue for fiscal year 2014. In 2013, 78% of Lockheed Martins revenues came from sales, it topped the list of US federal government contractors. In 2009 US government contracts accounted for $38.4 billion, foreign government contracts $5.8 billion, Lockheed Martin operates in five business segments, Aeronautics, Information Systems & Global Solutions, Missiles and Fire Control, Rotary and Mission Systems, and Space Systems. The company also invests in healthcare systems, renewable energy systems, intelligent energy distribution, merger talks between Lockheed Corporation and Martin Marietta began in March 1994, with the companies announcing their $10 billion planned merger on August 30,1994. The deal was finalized on March 15,1995, when the two companies approved the merger. The segments of the two companies not retained by the new company formed the basis for the present L-3 Communications, Lockheed Martin also later spun off the materials company Martin Marietta Materials. Both companies contributed important products to the new portfolio, Lockheed products included the Trident missile, P-3 Orion, F-16 Fighting Falcon, F-22 Raptor, C-130 Hercules, A-4AR Fightinghawk and the DSCS-3 satellite. Martin Marietta products included Titan rockets, Sandia National Laboratories, Space Shuttle External Tank, Viking 1 and Viking 2 landers, the Transfer Orbit Stage and various satellite models. On April 22,1996, Lockheed Martin completed the acquisition of Loral Corporations defense electronics and system integration businesses for $9.1 billion, the remainder of Loral became Loral Space & Communications. Lockheed Martin abandoned plans for a $8, the development of the spacecraft cost $193.1 million. In May 2001, Lockheed Martin sold Lockheed Martin Control Systems to BAE Systems, on November 27,2000, Lockheed completed the sale of its Aerospace Electronic Systems business to BAE Systems for $1.67 billion, a deal announced in July 2000. This group encompassed Sanders Associates, Fairchild Systems, and Lockheed Martin Space Electronics & Communications. In 2001, Lockheed Martin won the contract to build the F-35 Lightning II, in 2001, Lockheed Martin settled a nine–year investigation conducted by NASAs Office of Inspector General with the assistance of the Defense Contract Audit Agency. The company paid the United States government $7.1 million based on allegations that its predecessor, Lockheed Engineering Science Corporation, submitted false lease costs claims to NASA. On August 31,2006, Lockheed Martin won a $3.9 billion contract from NASA to design and build the CEV capsule, in 2009, NASA reduced the capsule crew requirements from the initial six seats to four for transport to the International Space Station
Lockheed Martin
–
Lockheed Martin's Center For Leadership Excellence (CLE) Building in Bethesda, Maryland
Lockheed Martin
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C-130 Hercules; in production since the 1950s, now as the C-130J
Lockheed Martin
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Naval variant of the
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II
Lockheed Martin
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Submarine launch of a Lockheed Trident missile
24.
MacDonald Dettwiler
–
MacDonald, Dettwiler and Associates Ltd. is a Canadian multinational communications and information company. MDA has locations throughout Canada, and the United States operating under the MDA brand name, mDAs most visible products include the Canadarm used on the NASA Space Shuttle, as well as the Canadarm2 and Dextre remote manipulator systems on the International Space Station. 2017 - announced definitive merger agreement February 24,2017 with satellite imagery provider DigitalGlobe for US$2. 4B,2014 - acquired Advanced Systems business line from General Dynamics. 2012 - acquired Space Systems/Loral for US $875 million, making MDA one of the leading communication satellite companies. However, amongst much media coverage, the sale was rejected by the government of Canada under the Investment Canada Act. 2003 – acquired Millar & Bryce, a provider of land information in Scotland, for $21.32 million. 2002 – acquired Dynacs for $3.1 million, with an additional $6,1969 - John MacDonald and Vern Dettwiler founded MacDonald, Dettwiler and Associates. Bombardier Aerospace Canadarm COM DEV International CMC Electronics Héroux-Devtek NeuroArm MDA Space Missions Spar Aerospace Viking Air Official website
MacDonald Dettwiler
–
MDA
25.
Northrop Grumman
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Northrop Grumman Corporation is an American global aerospace and defense technology company formed by Northrops 1994 purchase of Grumman. The company was named as the fifth-largest defense contractor in the world in 2015, Northrop Grumman employs over 68,000 people worldwide. It reported revenues of $23.526 billion in 2015, Northrop Grumman ranks No.124 on the 2015 Fortune 500 list of Americas largest corporations and ranks in the top ten military-friendly employers. It is headquartered in West Falls Church, Virginia, Northrop Grumman is made up of three business sectors, Aerospace Systems, Mission Systems, and Technology Services. Aerospace Systems, headquartered in Redondo Beach, California produces aircraft, spacecraft, high-energy laser systems and microelectronics for the US and other nations. The B-2 Spirit strategic bomber, the E-8C Joint STARS surveillance aircraft, the RQ-4 Global Hawk, the US Army uses Northrop Grummans RQ-5 Hunter unmanned air vehicle, which has been in operational use since 1995. The U. S. Navy uses Northrop Grumman-built aerial vehicles such as the BQM-74 Chukar, RQ-4 Global Hawk based BAMS UAS, Grumman C-2 Greyhound, Grumman E-2 Hawkeye, and the EA-6B Prowler. Northrop Grumman provides major components and assemblies for different aircraft such as F/A-18 Hornet, F/A-18E/F Super Hornet, Electronic Systems produces and maintains the AWACS aerial surveillance systems for the U. S. the United Kingdom, NATO, Japan, and others. Northrop Grumman is the contractor for the development and integration of the Air Forces $2-billion Multi-Platform Radar Technology Insertion Program. Many other smaller products are made by Northrop Grumman, such as night vision goggles, information Systems, headquartered in McLean, Virginia, supports the U. S. Vinnell, a Technical Services Northrop Grumman subsidiary, provides training and communications for the military. In 2003, it landed a $48 million contract to train the Iraqi Army, in 2005 the company won a $2 billion contract with Virginia to overhaul most of the states IT operations. Later that year, The United Kingdom paid $1.2 billion in a contract with the company to provide maintenance of the countrys defensive radar, Northrop Grumman performs various functions in the War on Drugs. The company sends planes to spray herbicides on suspected cocaine fields in Colombia, remotec, a subsidiary, is the foremost manufacturer of remote control vehicles for explosive ordnance disposal and hazardous material handling. A UK-based subsidiary, Park Air Systems, provides VHF and UHF ground-to-air communications systems for the civil, Northrop Grumman has also worked closely with Antenna Associates, Inc. a manufacturer of Identification friend or foe /Secondary Surveillance Radar antennas located in Massachusetts. In August 2007, Northrop Grumman acquired Scaled Composites in which it had owned a 40% stake. Originally formed in California in 1939 by Jack Northrop, the Northrop Corporation was reincorporated in Delaware in 1985, in 1994, Northrop Aircraft bought Grumman Aerospace, famous for building the Apollo Lunar Module to create Northrop Grumman. In 1996, the new company acquired Westinghouse Electronic Systems, a manufacturer of radar systems. In 1997, the defense computer contractor Logicon was added, which had acquired Geodynamics Corporation in March 1996, in 1998, a merger between Northrop Grumman and competitor Lockheed Martin was considered but abandoned after resistance from the Department of Defense and Department of Justice
Northrop Grumman
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Northrop Grumman manufactured the
B-2 Spirit strategic bomber.
Northrop Grumman
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A
BQM-74 Chukar unmanned aerial drone launches from a
US Navy vessel
Northrop Grumman
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The
assembly line for
Northrop P-61 Black Widows at the Northrop plant in
Hawthorne, California in World War II. Center wings and fuselages take shape on the left, with more nearly finished complete ships on the right.
Northrop Grumman
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Rendering of the $8.7B James Webb Space Telescope
26.
History of aviation
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Kite flying in China dates back to several hundred years BC and slowly spread around the world. It is thought to be the earliest example of man-made flight, Leonardo da Vincis 15th-century dream of flight found expression in several rational but unscientific designs, though he did not attempt to construct any of them. Balloons, both free-flying and tethered, began to be used for military purposes from the end of the 18th century, with the French government establishing Balloon Companies during the Revolution. The modern aeroplane with its tail was established by 1909. After World War II, the boats were in their turn replaced by land planes. In the latter part of the 20th century the advent of digital electronics produced great advances in flight instrumentation, the 21st century saw the large-scale use of pilotless drones for military, civilian and leisure use. With digital controls, inherently unstable aircraft such as flying wings became possible, the origin of mankinds desire to fly is lost in the distant past. From the earliest legends there have been stories of men strapping birdlike wings, stiffened cloaks or other devices to themselves, the Greek legend of Daedalus and Icarus is one of the earliest known, others originated from India, China and the European Dark Ages. During this early period the issues of lift, stability and control were not understood, eilmer of Malmesbury soon followed and many others have continued to do so over the centuries. As late as 1811, Albrecht Berblinger constructed an ornithopter and jumped into the Danube at Ulm, the kite may have been the first form of man-made aircraft. It was invented in China possibly as far back as the 5th century BC by Mozi, later designs often emulated flying insects, birds, and other beasts, both real and mythical. Some were fitted with strings and whistles to make sounds while flying. Ancient and medieval Chinese sources describe kites being used to measure distances, test the wind, lift men, signal, Kites spread from China around the world. After its introduction into India, the further evolved into the fighter kite. Man-carrying kites are believed to have been used extensively in ancient China, an early recorded flight was that of the prisoner Yuan Huangtou, a Chinese prince, in the 6th Century AD. Stories of man-carrying kites also occur in Japan, following the introduction of the kite from China around the seventh century AD and it is said that at one time there was a Japanese law against man-carrying kites. The use of a rotor for vertical flight has existed since 400 BC in the form of the bamboo-copter, the similar moulinet à noix appeared in Europe in the 14th century AD. From ancient times the Chinese have understood that hot air rises and have applied the principle to a type of hot air balloon called a sky lantern
History of aviation
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The
Wright Military Flyer aboard a wagon in 1908.
History of aviation
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French reconnaissance balloon
L'Intrépide of 1796, the oldest existing flying device, in the
Heeresgeschichtliches Museum, Vienna.
History of aviation
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Leonardo da Vinci 's
Ornithopter design.
History of aviation
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A
sky lantern.
27.
George Cayley
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Sir George Cayley, 6th Baronet was a prolific English engineer and is one of the most important people in the history of aeronautics. Many consider him to be the first true scientific aerial investigator, in 1799 he set forth the concept of the modern aeroplane as a fixed-wing flying machine with separate systems for lift, propulsion, and control. He was a pioneer of engineering and is sometimes referred to as the father of aviation. He discovered and identified the four forces which act on a flying vehicle, weight, lift, drag. Modern aeroplane design is based on discoveries and on the importance of cambered wings. He constructed the first flying model aeroplane and also diagrammed the elements of vertical flight and he designed the first glider reliably reported to carry a human aloft. He correctly predicted that sustained flight would not occur until an engine was developed to provide adequate thrust. The Wright brothers acknowledged his importance to the development of aviation and he was a founding member of the British Association for the Advancement of Science and was a distant cousin of the mathematician Arthur Cayley. Cayley, from Brompton-by-Sawdon, near Scarborough in Yorkshire, inherited Brompton Hall and Wydale Hall and other estates on the death of his father, captured by the optimism of the times, he engaged in a wide variety of engineering projects. He suggested that a practical engine might be made using gaseous vapours rather than gunpowder. He is mainly remembered for his studies and experiments with flying machines, including the working, piloted glider that he designed. He wrote a landmark three-part treatise titled On Aerial Navigation, which was published in Nicholsons Journal of Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, the 2007 discovery of sketches in Cayleys school notebooks revealed that even at school Cayley was developing his ideas on the theories of flight. It has been claimed that these images indicate that Cayley identified the principle of an inclined plane as early as 1792. To measure the drag on objects at different speeds and angles of attack, he built a whirling-arm apparatus. He also experimented with rotating wing sections of various forms in the stairwells at Brompton Hall and these scientific experiments led him to develop an efficient cambered airfoil and to identify the four vector forces that influence an aircraft, thrust, lift, drag, and gravity. As a result of his investigations into many other aspects of flight. His emphasis on lightness led him to invent a new method of constructing lightweight wheels which is in use today. For his landing wheels, he shifted the forces from compression to tension by making them from tightly-stretched string
George Cayley
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George Cayley
George Cayley
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A replica of Cayley's glider being flown by Derek Piggott in 1973
George Cayley
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For his grandson, the cricketer, see
George Cayley (cricketer).
George Cayley
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Yorkshire Air Museum
28.
Aeronautical Society of Great Britain
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The Royal Aeronautical Society, also known as the RAeS, is a British multi-disciplinary professional institution dedicated to the global aerospace community. Founded in 1866, it is the oldest aeronautical society in the world, fellows and Companions of the society can use the post-nominal letters FRAeS or CRAeS, respectively. The Royal Aeronautical Society is a society with an international network of 67 branches. Many practitioners of aerospace disciplines use the Societys designatory post-nominals such as FRAeS, CRAeS, MRAeS, AMRAeS, the RAeS headquarters is located in the United Kingdom. The staff of the Royal Aeronautical Society are based at the Societys headquarters at No.4 Hamilton Place, London, the headquarters is on the north-east edge of Hyde Park Corner, with the nearest access being Hyde Park Corner tube station. They deliver membership benefits and provide a platform for the dissemination of aerospace information. Divisions of the Society have been formed in countries and regions that can sustain a number of Branches, divisions operate with a large degree of autonomy, being responsible for their own branch network, membership recruitment, subscription levels, conference and lecture programmes. Specialist Groups covering all facets of the industry exist under the overall umbrella of the Society. The Groups also act as points for all enquiries to the Society concerning their specialist subject matter. In 2009, the Royal Aeronautical Society formed a group of experts to document how to better simulate aircraft upset conditions, the Society was founded in January 1866 with the name The Aeronautical Society of Great Britain and is the oldest aeronautical society in the world. Early or founding members included James Glaisher, Francis Wenham, the Duke of Argyll, in the first year, there were 65 members, at the end of the second year,91 members, and in the third year,106 members. Annual reports were produced in the first decades, in 1868 the Society held a major exhibition at Londons Crystal Palace with 78 entries. John Stringfellows steam engine was shown there, the Society sponsored the first wind tunnel in 1870-71, designed by Wenham and Browning. In 1918, the name was changed to the Royal Aeronautical Society. In 1940, the RAeS responded to the wartime need to expand the aircraft industry and this technical department became known as the Engineering Sciences Data Unit and eventually became a separate entity in the 1980s. In 1987 the Society of Licensed Aircraft Engineers and Technologists, previously called the Society of Licensed Aircraft Engineers was incorporated into the Royal Aeronautical Society, the following have served as President of the Royal Aeronautical Society, Keith Mans was Chief Executive from 1998-2009. In addition to the award of Fellowship of the Royal Aeronautical Society and these include its Gold, Silver, and Bronze medals. The very first gold medal was awarded in 1909 to the Wright Brothers, Honorary Fellowships and Honorary Companionships are awarded as well
Aeronautical Society of Great Britain
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The Society's headquarters at No.4 Hamilton Place in London
29.
Institute of Aeronautical Sciences
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The American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics is a professional society for the field of aerospace engineering. AIAA is the U. S. representative on the International Astronautical Federation, as of 2015, AIAA has more than 30,000 members among aerospace professionals worldwide, although the majority are American and/or live in the United States. As a major activity AIAA currently publishes several technical journals, the AIAA Journal is published on a monthly basis and serves as the flagship journal of the society. In January 2015 the Journal of Guidance, Control, and Dynamics became the second AIAA journal published on a monthly basis, AIAA also produces several series of technical books ranging from education to progress in advanced research topics. AIAA formed the AIAA Foundation to devote more attention and more resources to the education of both practicing and future aerospace professionals, the AIAA Foundation funds numerous scholarships for both undergraduate and graduate students. Undergraduate scholarships range from $2,000 to $2,500, graduate scholarships are $5,000 or $10,000. AIAA currently has over 6,500 student members in 160 active student branches, the student branches host annual conferences AIAAs highest award for astronautics. It was endowed by Mrs. Robert Goddard in commemoration of her husbands pioneering efforts led to the development of the fields of astronautics. AIAAs highest award for science and engineering. It is named for Dr. Sylvanus A. Reed pioneer of the use of metal in propellor blades, initiated by the founder of Zonatech and given every four years for those who have contributed significantly to the area of aeroelasticity. It is named after famous aeroelastician Prof. Holt Ashley who served as a faculty member at MIT, selection is monitored/coordinated by the awards sub-committee of AIAA Structural Dynamics technical group. Dryden Lectureship in Research, named for Dr. Hugh L. Dryden Durand Lectureship, the Technical Award is presented for a significant accomplishment in developing or using technology that is required for missile systems. The Technical and Management award are presently alternatively at the biannual Missile Sciences Conference, thus, the awards are presented once every four years. The 2008 Technical Award winner was Ernest Ohlmeyer, the award is administered by the AIAA Missile Systems Technical Committee. This award is presented annually to outstanding achievement in the development or application of rocket propulsion systems. The award honors James Hart Wyld, AIAA hosts many conferences and smaller events throughout the year. The largest of those is the AIAA Science and Technology Forum, others include AIAA Aviation and Aeronautics Forum and Exposition, AIAA Propulsion and Energy Forum and Exposition, and AIAA Space and Astronautics Forum and Exposition. National Association of Rocketry Tripoli Rocketry Association International Astronautical Federation SpaceOps Official website
Institute of Aeronautical Sciences
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American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
