1.
The Aerospace Corporation
–
The Aerospace Corporation is a California nonprofit corporation that operates a Federally Funded Research and Development Center headquartered in El Segundo, California. The corporation provides technical guidance and advice on all aspects of missions to military, civil. Although SMC and NRO are the customers, Aerospace also performs work for civil agencies as well as international organizations. On July 1,1954, the Western Development Division of the United States Air Force was established, WDD was responsible for the development of the intercontinental ballistic missile. The Ramo-Wooldridge Corporation was identified as the organization responsible for systems engineering for the ICBM program. Their Space Technology Laboratories was responsible for all missile tasks, despite early successes, there was criticism from both government and industry on the role RW played as systems engineer, in particular that RW held a privileged position with the Air Force. In 1958 RW merged with Thompson Products to become TRW and the Space Technology Laboratories became an independent subsidiary of TRW, in September 1959, United States Congress issued House Report 1121 which recommended that STL be converted into a non-profit institution. On June 3,1960 Aerospace was established under the laws of the State of California as a nonprofit corporation, among the earliest projects it supported were the Dyna-Soar orbital spaceplane, Project Mercury, and the man-rating of the Atlas intercontinental ballistic missile. The Aerospace Corporation provided general engineering and technical direction for the Titan II missile, first tested in 1962. During the 1970s, Aerospace began performing advance space program analysis and program studies for NASAs development of the Space Transportation System, Aerospace also began tests on airborne UHF terminals for the Air Force Satellite Communications System, AFSATCOM. In the mid-70s Aerospace assumed general systems engineering and integration responsibility for the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program, beginning in 1973, a program office was established to assist the Air Force in the creation of the Global Positioning System. In recognition of their GPS collaboration, Aerospace shared the 1992 Robert J, throughout the 1980s, Aerospace supported the Inertial Upper Stage, the Strategic Defense Initiative, the Milstar and DSCS satellite communication systems, and antisatellite programs. They provided planning, design, and evaluation for the Air Force Satellite Control Network, during this same time period, the company also provided systems engineering and integration for launch vehicles, including the Atlas, Titan II, Titan IV, and Delta II. In the 1990s, Aerospace participated in the planning and development of requirements for the Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle program. They continued to launch vehicle systems engineering for the Atlas II, Delta III. Satellite program support included Wideband Gapfiller, Space Based Laser, the Ultrahigh-Frequency Follow-On program, Aerospace has been involved in the analysis of concept designs for the Space Tracking and Surveillance System. Aerospace plays an role in the development of the Advanced Extremely High Frequency program that will replace the Milstar system. Another system that Aerospace was supporting is the Transformational Satellite Communications System MILSATCOM architecture to link military, however, it was cancelled per the recommendations of Defense Secretary Robert M. Gates due to DoD budgetary constraints
2.
Atmosphere
–
An atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding a planet or other material body, that is held in place by the gravity of that body. An atmosphere is likely to be retained if the gravity it is subject to is high. The atmosphere of Earth is mostly composed of nitrogen, oxygen, argon with carbon dioxide, the atmosphere helps protect living organisms from genetic damage by solar ultraviolet radiation, solar wind and cosmic rays. Its current composition is the product of billions of years of modification of the paleoatmosphere by living organisms. The term stellar atmosphere describes the region of a star. Stars with sufficiently low temperatures may form compound molecules in their outer atmosphere, Atmospheric pressure is the force per unit area that is applied perpendicularly to a surface by the surrounding gas. It is determined by a gravitational force in combination with the total mass of a column of gas above a location. On Earth, units of air pressure are based on the recognized standard atmosphere. It is measured with a barometer, the pressure of an atmospheric gas decreases with altitude due to the diminishing mass of gas above. The height at which the pressure from an atmosphere declines by a factor of e is called the height and is denoted by H. For such an atmosphere, the pressure declines exponentially with increasing altitude. However, atmospheres are not uniform in temperature, so the determination of the atmospheric pressure at any particular altitude is more complex. Surface gravity, the force that holds down an atmosphere, differs significantly among the planets, for example, the large gravitational force of the giant planet Jupiter is able to retain light gases such as hydrogen and helium that escape from objects with lower gravity. Thus, the distant and cold Titan, Triton, and Pluto are able to retain their atmospheres despite their relatively low gravities, rogue planets, theoretically, may also retain thick atmospheres. Since a collection of gas molecules may be moving at a range of velocities. Lighter molecules move faster than ones with the same thermal kinetic energy. It is thought that Venus and Mars may have lost much of their water when, after being photo dissociated into hydrogen and oxygen by solar ultraviolet, Earths magnetic field helps to prevent this, as, normally, the solar wind would greatly enhance the escape of hydrogen. However, over the past 3 billion years Earth may have lost gases through the polar regions due to auroral activity
3.
Aeronautics
–
Aeronautics is the science or art involved with the study, design, and manufacturing of air flight capable machines, and the techniques of operating aircraft and rockets within the atmosphere. The British Royal Aeronautical Society identifies the aspects of aeronautical Art, Science and Engineering and the profession of Aeronautics. A significant part of science is a branch of dynamics called aerodynamics, which deals with the motion of air. Attempts to fly without any real aeronautical understanding have been made from the earliest times, typically by constructing wings, wiser investigators sought to gain some rational understanding through the study of bird flight. An early example appears in ancient Egyptian texts, later medieval Islamic scientists also made such studies. The founders of modern aeronautics, Leonardo da Vinci in the Renaissance and Cayley in 1799, man-carrying kites are believed to have been used extensively in ancient China. In 1282 the European explorer Marco Polo described the Chinese techniques then current, the Chinese also constructed small hot air balloons, or lanterns, and rotary-wing toys. The lifting medium for his balloon would be an aether whose composition he did not know, although his designs were rational, they were not based on particularly good science. Many of his designs, such as a four-person screw-type helicopter, have severe flaws and he did at least understand that An object offers as much resistance to the air as the air does to the object. His analysis led to the realisation that manpower alone was not sufficient for sustained flight, da Vincis work was lost after his death and did not reappear until it had been overtaken by the work of George Cayley. The modern era of lighter-than-air flight began early in the 17th century with Galileos experiments in which he showed that air has weight and these would be lighter than the displaced air and able to lift an airship. His proposed methods of controlling height are still in use today, by carrying ballast which may be dropped overboard to gain height, in practice de Terzis spheres would have collapsed under air pressure, and further developments had to wait for more practicable lifting gases. From the mid-18th century the Montgolfier brothers in France began experimenting with balloons and their balloons were made of paper, and early experiments using steam as the lifting gas were short-lived due to its effect on the paper as it condensed. Meanwhile, the discovery of hydrogen led Joseph Black in c.1780 to propose its use as a lifting gas, on hearing of the Montgolfier Brothers invitation, the French Academy member Jacques Charles offered a similar demonstration of a hydrogen balloon. Charles and two craftsmen, the Robert brothers, developed a material of rubberised silk for the envelope. The hydrogen gas was to be generated by chemical reaction during the filling process, the Montgolfier designs had several shortcomings, not least the need for dry weather and a tendency for sparks from the fire to set light to the paper balloon. The manned design had a gallery around the base of the rather than the hanging basket of the first, unmanned design. On their free flight, De Rozier and dArlandes took buckets of water, on the other hand, the manned design of Charles was essentially modern
4.
Outer space
–
Outer space or just space, is the void that exists between celestial bodies, including Earth. The baseline temperature, as set by the radiation from the Big Bang, is 2.7 kelvins. In most galaxies, observations provide evidence that 90% of the mass is in a form, called dark matter. Data indicates that the majority of the mass-energy in the universe is a poorly understood vacuum energy of space which astronomers label dark energy. Intergalactic space takes up most of the volume of the Universe, there is no firm boundary where outer space starts. However the Kármán line, at an altitude of 100 km above sea level, is used as the start of outer space in space treaties. The framework for international law was established by the Outer Space Treaty. This treaty precludes any claims of sovereignty and permits all states to freely explore outer space. Despite the drafting of UN resolutions for the uses of outer space. Humans began the exploration of space during the 20th century with the advent of high-altitude balloon flights. Earth orbit was first achieved by Yuri Gagarin of the Soviet Union in 1961, due to the high cost of getting into space, manned spaceflight has been limited to low Earth orbit and the Moon. Outer space represents an environment for human exploration because of the dual hazards of vacuum. Microgravity also has an effect on human physiology that causes both muscle atrophy and bone loss. In addition to health and environmental issues, the economic cost of putting objects, including humans. In 350 BCE, Greek philosopher Aristotle suggested that nature abhors a vacuum and this concept built upon a 5th-century BCE ontological argument by the Greek philosopher Parmenides, who denied the possible existence of a void in space. Based on this idea that a vacuum could not exist, in the West it was held for many centuries that space could not be empty. As late as the 17th century, the French philosopher René Descartes argued that the entirety of space must be filled, in ancient China, there were various schools of thought concerning the nature of the heavens, some of which bear a resemblance to the modern understanding. In the 2nd century, astronomer Zhang Heng became convinced that space must be infinite, extending well beyond the mechanism that supported the Sun, the surviving books of the Hsüan Yeh school said that the heavens were boundless, empty and void of substance
5.
Astronautics
–
Astronautics is the theory and practice of navigation beyond Earths atmosphere. The term astronautics was coined in the 1920s by J. H. Rosny, president of the Goncourt academy, because there is a degree of technical overlap between the two fields, the term aerospace is often used to describe both at once. In 1930, Robert Esnault-Pelterie publishes the first book on the new research field, space launch vehicles must withstand titanic forces, while satellites can experience huge variations in temperature in very brief periods. Extreme constraints on mass cause astronautical engineers to face the constant need to save mass in the design in order to maximize the payload that reaches orbit. The early history of astronautics is theoretical, the mathematics of space travel was established by Isaac Newton in his 1687 treatise Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica. Other mathematicians, such as Swiss Leonhard Euler and Franco-Italian Joseph Louis Lagrange also made contributions in the 18th and 19th centuries. In spite of this, astronautics did not become a discipline until the mid-20th century. On the other hand, the question of spaceflight puzzled the literary imaginations of such figures as Jules Verne and H. G. Wells. Δ v = v e ln m 0 m 1 In fact this equation was derived earlier by William Moore, for more information on the mathematical basis of space travel, see Orbital mechanics. The Prix dAstronautique awarded by the Société astronomique de France, the French astronomical society, was the first prize on this subject, although many regard astronautics itself as a rather specialized subject, engineers and scientists working in this area must be knowledgeable in many distinct fields. Astrodynamics, the study of orbital motion and those specializing in this field examine topics such as spacecraft trajectories, ballistics and celestial mechanics. Spacecraft propulsion, how spacecraft change orbits, and how they are launched, most spacecraft have some variety of rocket engine, and thus most research efforts focus on some variety of rocket propulsion, such as chemical, nuclear or electric. Spacecraft design, a form of systems engineering that centers on combining all the necessary subsystems for a particular launch vehicle or satellite. Controls, keeping a satellite or rocket in its desired orbit and orientation
6.
Aircraft
–
An aircraft is a machine that is able to fly by gaining support from the air. It counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or by using the lift of an airfoil. The human activity that surrounds aircraft is called aviation, crewed aircraft are flown by an onboard pilot, but unmanned aerial vehicles may be remotely controlled or self-controlled by onboard computers. Aircraft may be classified by different criteria, such as type, aircraft propulsion, usage. Each of the two World Wars led to technical advances. Consequently, the history of aircraft can be divided into five eras, Pioneers of flight, first World War,1914 to 1918. Aviation between the World Wars,1918 to 1939, Second World War,1939 to 1945. Postwar era, also called the jet age,1945 to the present day, aerostats use buoyancy to float in the air in much the same way that ships float on the water. They are characterized by one or more large gasbags or canopies, filled with a relatively low-density gas such as helium, hydrogen, or hot air, which is less dense than the surrounding air. When the weight of this is added to the weight of the aircraft structure, a balloon was originally any aerostat, while the term airship was used for large, powered aircraft designs – usually fixed-wing. In 1919 Frederick Handley Page was reported as referring to ships of the air, in the 1930s, large intercontinental flying boats were also sometimes referred to as ships of the air or flying-ships. – though none had yet been built, the advent of powered balloons, called dirigible balloons, and later of rigid hulls allowing a great increase in size, began to change the way these words were used. Huge powered aerostats, characterized by an outer framework and separate aerodynamic skin surrounding the gas bags, were produced. There were still no fixed-wing aircraft or non-rigid balloons large enough to be called airships, then several accidents, such as the Hindenburg disaster in 1937, led to the demise of these airships. Nowadays a balloon is an aerostat and an airship is a powered one. A powered, steerable aerostat is called a dirigible, sometimes this term is applied only to non-rigid balloons, and sometimes dirigible balloon is regarded as the definition of an airship. Non-rigid dirigibles are characterized by a moderately aerodynamic gasbag with stabilizing fins at the back and these soon became known as blimps. During the Second World War, this shape was adopted for tethered balloons, in windy weather
7.
Spacecraft
–
A spacecraft is a vehicle, or machine designed to fly in outer space. Spacecraft are used for a variety of purposes, including communications, earth observation, meteorology, navigation, space colonization, planetary exploration, on a sub-orbital spaceflight, a spacecraft enters space and then returns to the surface, without having gone into an orbit. For orbital spaceflights, spacecraft enter closed orbits around the Earth or around other celestial bodies, robotic spacecraft used to support scientific research are space probes. Robotic spacecraft that remain in orbit around a body are artificial satellites. Only a handful of interstellar probes, such as Pioneer 10 and 11, Voyager 1 and 2, orbital spacecraft may be recoverable or not. By method of reentry to Earth they may be divided in non-winged space capsules, Sputnik 1 was the first artificial satellite. It was launched into an elliptical low Earth orbit by the Soviet Union on 4 October 1957, the launch ushered in new political, military, technological, and scientific developments, while the Sputnik launch was a single event, it marked the start of the Space Age. Apart from its value as a technological first, Sputnik 1 also helped to identify the upper atmospheric layers density and it also provided data on radio-signal distribution in the ionosphere. Pressurized nitrogen in the satellites false body provided the first opportunity for meteoroid detection, Sputnik 1 was launched during the International Geophysical Year from Site No. 1/5, at the 5th Tyuratam range, in Kazakh SSR. The satellite travelled at 29,000 kilometers per hour, taking 96.2 minutes to complete an orbit and this altitude is called the Kármán line. In particular, in the 1940s there were several test launches of the V-2 rocket, as of 2016, only three nations have flown manned spacecraft, USSR/Russia, USA, and China. The first manned spacecraft was Vostok 1, which carried Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin into space in 1961, there were five other manned missions which used a Vostok spacecraft. The second manned spacecraft was named Freedom 7, and it performed a sub-orbital spaceflight in 1961 carrying American astronaut Alan Shepard to an altitude of just over 187 kilometers, there were five other manned missions using Mercury spacecraft. Other Soviet manned spacecraft include the Voskhod, Soyuz, flown unmanned as Zond/L1, L3, TKS, China developed, but did not fly Shuguang, and is currently using Shenzhou. Except for the shuttle, all of the recoverable manned orbital spacecraft were space capsules. Manned space capsules The International Space Station, manned since November 2000, is a joint venture between Russia, the United States, Canada and several other countries, some reusable vehicles have been designed only for manned spaceflight, and these are often called spaceplanes. The first example of such was the North American X-15 spaceplane, the first reusable spacecraft, the X-15, was air-launched on a suborbital trajectory on July 19,1963. The first partially reusable spacecraft, a winged non-capsule, the Space Shuttle, was launched by the USA on the 20th anniversary of Yuri Gagarins flight
8.
Government
–
A government is the system by which a state or community is controlled. In the Commonwealth of Nations, the government is also used more narrowly to refer to the collective group of people that exercises executive authority in a state. This usage is analogous to what is called an administration in American English, finally, government is also sometimes used in English as a synonym for governance. In the case of its broad definition, government normally consists of legislators, administrators. Government is the means by which state policy is enforced, as well as the mechanism for determining the policy of the state. A form of government, or form of governance, refers to the set of political systems. Government of any kind currently affects every human activity in many important ways, in political science, it has long been a goal to create a typology or taxonomy of polities. as typologies of political systems are not obvious. It is especially important in the science fields of comparative politics. On the surface, identifying a form of government appears to be simple, the United States is a constitutional republic, while the former Soviet Union was a socialist republic. However self-identification is not objective, and as Kopstein and Lichbach argue, for example, elections are a defining characteristic of an electoral democracy, but in practice elections in the former Soviet Union were not free and fair and took place in a one-party state. Voltaire argued that the Holy Roman Empire is neither Holy, nor Roman, many governments that officially call themselves a democratic republic are not democratic, nor a republic, they are usually a dictatorship de facto. Communist dictatorships have been prone to use this term. For example, the name of North Vietnam was The Democratic Republic of Vietnam. China uses a variant, The Peoples Republic of China, thus in many practical classifications it would not be considered democratic. Experience with those movements in power, and the ties they may have to particular forms of government. For example, The meaning of conservatism in the United States has little in common with the way the words definition is used elsewhere, as Ribuffo notes, what Americans now call conservatism much of the world calls liberalism or neoliberalism. Since the 1950s conservatism in the United States has been associated with the Republican Party. However, during the era of segregation many Southern Democrats were conservatives, values are sorted from 1–100 based on level of democracy and political accountability
9.
NASA
–
President Dwight D. Eisenhower established NASA in 1958 with a distinctly civilian orientation encouraging peaceful applications in space science. The National Aeronautics and Space Act was passed on July 29,1958, disestablishing NASAs predecessor, the new agency became operational on October 1,1958. Since that time, most US space exploration efforts have led by NASA, including the Apollo Moon landing missions, the Skylab space station. Currently, NASA is supporting the International Space Station and is overseeing the development of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle, the agency is also responsible for the Launch Services Program which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches. NASA shares data with various national and international such as from the Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite. Since 2011, NASA has been criticized for low cost efficiency, from 1946, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics had been experimenting with rocket planes such as the supersonic Bell X-1. In the early 1950s, there was challenge to launch a satellite for the International Geophysical Year. An effort for this was the American Project Vanguard, after the Soviet launch of the worlds first artificial satellite on October 4,1957, the attention of the United States turned toward its own fledgling space efforts. This led to an agreement that a new federal agency based on NACA was needed to conduct all non-military activity in space. The Advanced Research Projects Agency was created in February 1958 to develop technology for military application. On July 29,1958, Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act, a NASA seal was approved by President Eisenhower in 1959. Elements of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency and the United States Naval Research Laboratory were incorporated into NASA, earlier research efforts within the US Air Force and many of ARPAs early space programs were also transferred to NASA. In December 1958, NASA gained control of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, NASA has conducted many manned and unmanned spaceflight programs throughout its history. Some missions include both manned and unmanned aspects, such as the Galileo probe, which was deployed by astronauts in Earth orbit before being sent unmanned to Jupiter, the experimental rocket-powered aircraft programs started by NACA were extended by NASA as support for manned spaceflight. This was followed by a space capsule program, and in turn by a two-man capsule program. This goal was met in 1969 by the Apollo program, however, reduction of the perceived threat and changing political priorities almost immediately caused the termination of most of these plans. NASA turned its attention to an Apollo-derived temporary space laboratory, to date, NASA has launched a total of 166 manned space missions on rockets, and thirteen X-15 rocket flights above the USAF definition of spaceflight altitude,260,000 feet. The X-15 was an NACA experimental rocket-powered hypersonic research aircraft, developed in conjunction with the US Air Force, the design featured a slender fuselage with fairings along the side containing fuel and early computerized control systems
10.
European Space Agency
–
The European Space Agency is an intergovernmental organisation of 22 member states, dedicated to the exploration of space. Established in 1975 and headquartered in Paris, France, ESA has a staff of about 2,000. The main European launch vehicle Ariane 5 is operated through Arianespace with ESA sharing in the costs of launching, after World War II, many European scientists left Western Europe in order to work with the United States. The meeting was attended by representatives from eight countries, including Harrie Massey. The Western European nations decided to have two different agencies, one concerned with developing a system, ELDO, and the precursor of the European Space Agency. The latter was established on 20 March 1964 by an agreement signed on 14 June 1962, from 1968 to 1972, ESRO launched seven research satellites. ESA in its current form was founded with the ESA Convention in 1975, ESA has 10 founding member states, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. These signed the ESA Convention in 1975 and deposited the instruments of ratification by 1980, during this interval the agency functioned in a de facto fashion. ESA launched its first major scientific mission in 1975, Cos-B, ESA joined NASA in the IUE, the worlds first high-orbit telescope, which was launched in 1978 and operated very successfully for 18 years. A number of successful Earth-orbit projects followed, and in 1986 ESA began Giotto, its first deep-space mission, to study the comets Halley and Grigg–Skjellerup. Hipparcos, a mission, was launched in 1989 and in the 1990s SOHO, Ulysses. Recent scientific missions in co-operation with NASA include the Cassini–Huygens space probe, as the successor of ELDO, ESA has also constructed rockets for scientific and commercial payloads. Ariane 1, launched in 1979, brought mostly commercial payloads into orbit from 1984 onward, the successor launch vehicle of Ariane 5, the Ariane 6 is already in the definition stage and is envisioned to enter service in the 2020s. The beginning of the new millennium saw ESA become, along with agencies like NASA, JAXA, ISRO, CSA and Roscosmos, one of the major participants in scientific space research. Although ESA had relied on co-operation with NASA in previous decades, especially the 1990s, changed circumstances led to decisions to rely more on itself, a 2011 press issue thus stated, Russia is ESAs first partner in its efforts to ensure long-term access to space. ESA maintains its scientific and research projects mainly for astronomy-space missions such as Corot, launched on 27 December 2006 and this is the reason space exploration is an integral part of overall space activities. It has always been so, and it will be more important in the future. ESA describes its work in two overlapping ways, For the general public the various fields of work are described as Activities, Member states participate to varying degrees in the mandatory and optional space programmes
11.
Canadian Space Agency
–
The Canadian Space Agency was established by the Canadian Space Agency Act which received Royal Assent on May 10,1990. The agency reports to the federal Minister of Innovation, Science, the current president of the Canadian Space Agency is Sylvain Laporte, who took the position March 9,2015 following the announcement of his appointment on February 27,2015. The headquarters of the CSA is located at the John H. Chapman Space Centre in Longueuil, the agency also has offices in Ottawa, Ontario, at the David Florida Laboratory, and small liaison offices in Houston, Washington, D. C. and Paris. The origins of the Canadian upper atmosphere and space program can be traced back to the end of the Second World War and this work would soon lead to the development of Canadas first satellite known as Alouette 1. With the launch of Alouette 1 in September 1962 Canada became the country to put an artificial satellite into space. This undertaking was designated an International Milestone of Electrical Engineering by IEEE in 1993, the launch of Anik A-1 in 1972 made Canada the first country in the world to establish its own domestic geostationary communication satellite network. These and other related activities in the 1980s compelled the Canadian government to promulgate the Canadian Space Agency Act which established the Canadian Space Agency. The Act received royal assent on May 10,1990 and came into force on December 14,1990, in 1999 the CSA was moved from project based to A-base funding and given a fixed annual budget of $300 Million. The actual budget varies from year to year due to additional earmarks, the Canadian Space Agencys mission statement says that the agency is committed to leading the development and application of space knowledge for the benefit of Canadians and humanity. Canadas collaboration with Europe in space activities predated both the European Space Agency and the Canadian Space Agency, Canada is allowed to participate in optional programs, it also has to contribute to the General Budget but not as much as associate membership would have entailed. This status was unique at the time and remains so today, on 15 December 2010 the accord was renewed for a further 10 years, until 2020. By virtue of this accord, Canada takes part in ESA deliberative bodies and decision-making, Canadian firms can bid for and receive contracts to work on programmes. The accord has a provision ensuring a fair industrial return to Canada. The head of the Canadian delegation to ESA is the president of the Canadian Space Agency, as of February 2009, there are currently 30 Canadians that are employed as staff members at ESA. The Canadian Space Program is administered by the Canadian Space Agency, Canada has contributed technology, expertise and personnel to the world space effort, especially in collaboration with ESA and NASA. The Canadarm and Canadarm2 employ the Advanced Space Vision System which allows efficient use of the robotic arms. Another Canadian technology of note is the Orbiter Boom Sensor System, there have been four recruiting campaigns for astronauts for the CSA. The first, in 1983, led to the selection of Roberta Bondar, Marc Garneau, Robert Thirsk, Ken Money, Bjarni Tryggvason, the second, in 1992, selected Chris Hadfield, Julie Payette, Dafydd Williams and Michael McKay
12.
Indian Space Research Organisation
–
The Indian Space Research Organisation is the space agency of the Government of India headquartered in the city of Bengaluru. Its vision is to space technology for national development, while pursuing space science research. The establishment of ISRO thus institutionalised space activities in India and it is managed by the Department of Space, which reports to the Prime Minister of The Republic of India. ISRO built Indias first satellite, Aryabhata, which was launched by the Soviet Union on 19 April 1975 and it was named after the Mathematician Aryabhata. In 1980, Rohini became the first satellite to be placed in orbit by an Indian-made launch vehicle and these rockets have launched numerous communications satellites and earth observation satellites. Satellite navigation systems like GAGAN and IRNSS have been deployed, in January 2014, ISRO successfully used an indigenous cryogenic engine in a GSLV-D5 launch of the GSAT-14. On 18 June 2016 ISRO successfully set a record with a launch of 20 satellites in a single payload, on 15 February 2017, ISRO launched 104 satellites in a single rocket and created a world record. Raman and Meghnad Saha contributed to scientific principles applicable in space sciences, however, it was the period after 1945 which saw important developments being made in coordinated space research in India. Studies were carried out at research laboratories, universities, and independent locations, in 1950, the Department of Atomic Energy was founded with Homi Bhabha as its secretary. The Department provided funding for research throughout India. During this time, tests continued on aspects of meteorology and the Earths magnetic field, in 1954, the Uttar Pradesh state observatory was established at the foothills of the Himalayas. The Rangpur Observatory was set up in 1957 at Osmania University, Space research was further encouraged by the technically inclined Prime Minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru. In 1957, the Soviet Union successfully launched Sputnik and opened up possibilities for the rest of the world to conduct a space launch, the Indian National Committee for Space Research was set up in 1962 by Jawaharlal Nehru, Indias first Prime Minister. The prime objective of ISRO is to space technology and its application to various national tasks. The Indian space programme was driven by the vision of Vikram Sarabhai, in 2008 India launched as many as 11 satellites, including nine from other countries and went on to become the first nation to launch 10 satellites on one rocket. ISRO has successfully put into two major satellite systems, Indian National Satellites for communication services and Indian Remote Sensing satellites for management of natural resources. In July 2012, the former President, A. P. J. Abdul Kalam said that research was being done by ISRO, ISRO is managed by the Department of Space of the Government of India. Development and Educational Communication Unit, Ahmedabad, ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network, Bangalore
13.
JAXA
–
The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, or JAXA, is Japans national aero-space agency. Through the merger of three previously independent organizations, JAXA was formed on 1 October 2003 and its motto is One JAXA and its corporate slogan is Explore to Realize. Before the merger, ISAS was responsible for space and planetary research, NASDA, which was founded on 1 October 1969, had developed rockets, satellites, and also built the Japanese Experiment Module. The old NASDA headquarters were located at the current site of the Tanegashima Space Center, NASDA also trained Japanese astronauts, who flew with the US Space Shuttles. In 2012, new legislation extended JAXAs remit from peaceful purposes only to some military space development. Political control of JAXA passed from MEXT to the Prime Ministers Cabinet Office through a new Space Strategy Office, JAXA is composed of the following organizations. Its headquarters are in Chōfu, Tokyo and it also has Earth Observation Research Center, Tokyo Earth Observation Center in Hatoyama, Saitama Noshiro Testing Center in Noshiro, Akita – Established in 1962. It carries out development and testing of rocket engines, sanriku Balloon Center – Balloons have been launched from this site since 1971. Kakuda Space Center in Kakuda, Miyagi – Leads the development of rocket engines, works mainly with development of liquid fuel engines. Sagamihara Campus – Development of experimental equipment for rockets and satellites, Tanegashima Space Center - currently the launch site for the H-IIA and H-IIB rockets. This is the center of Japans space network and it is involved in research and development of satellites and rockets, and tracking and controlling of satellites. It develops experimental equipment for the Japanese Experiment Module, training of astronauts also takes place here. For International Space Station operations, the Japanese Flight Control Team is located at the Space Station Integration & Promotion Center in Tsukuba, SSIPC communicates regularly with ISS crewmembers via S-band audio. Uchinoura Space Center - currently the site for the Epsilon rocket. JAXA uses the H-IIA rocket from the former NASDA body and its variant H-IIB to launch engineering test satellites, weather satellites, for science missions like X-ray astronomy, JAXA uses the Epsilon rocket. For experiments in the upper atmosphere JAXA uses the SS-520, S-520, prior to the establishment of JAXA, ISAS had been most successful in its space program in the field of X-ray astronomy during the 1980s and 1990s. Another successful area for Japan has been Very Long Baseline Interferometry with the HALCA mission, additional success was achieved with solar observation and research of the magnetosphere, among other areas. NASDA was mostly active in the field of satellite technology
14.
Roscosmos
–
The Roscosmos State Corporation for Space Activities, commonly known as Roscosmos, is the governmental body responsible for the space science program of Russia and general aerospace research. The Corporation was established on the basis of the now-defunct Federal Space Agency on December 28,2015, Roscosmos was previously known as the Russian Aviation and Space Agency. The headquarters of Roscosmos are located in Moscow, while the main Mission Control space center is located in the city of Korolev. The Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center is in Star City, the Launch facilities used are Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan, and Vostochny Cosmodrome being built in the Russian Far East in Amur Oblast. The current Director since January 2015 is Igor Komarov, in 2015 the Russian government merged Roscosmos with the United Rocket and Space Corporation, the re-nationalized Russian space industry, to create the Roscosmos State Corporation. The Soviet space program did not have central executive agencies, instead, its organizational architecture was multi-centered, it was the design bureaus and the council of designers that had the most say, not the political leadership. The creation of a central agency after the separation of Russia from the Soviet Union was therefore a new development, Russian Space Agency was formed on February 25,1992, by a decree of President Yeltsin. Yuri Koptev, who had worked with designing Mars landers at NPO Lavochkin. In the early years, the agency suffered from lack of authority as the design bureaus fought to protect their own spheres of operation. For example, the decision to keep Mir in operation beyond 1999 was not taken by the agency, instead, another example is that the decision to develop the new Angara rocket was rather a function of Khrunichevs ability to attract resources than a conscious long-term decision by the agency. The 1990s saw serious financial problems because of decreased cash flow and this resulted in Roscosmos leading role in commercial satellite launches and space tourism. In March 2004, director Yuri Koptev was replaced by Anatoly Perminov, the Russian economy boomed throughout 2005 from high prices for exports, such as oil and gas, the outlook for future funding in 2006 appeared more favorable. The budget for 2006 was as high as 25 billion rubles, under the current 10-year budget approved, the budget of the Space Agency shall increase 5–10% per year, providing the space agency with a constant influx of money. In addition to the budget, Roscosmos plans to have over 130 billion rubles flowing into its budget by other means, such as industry investments and it is around the time US-based The Planetary Society entered a partnership with Roscosmos. In 2011, the government spent 115 billion rubles in the space programs. The proposed project core budget for 2013 to be around 128.3 billion rubles, the budget for the whole space program is,169.8 billion rubles. By 2015, the amount of the budget can be increased to 199.2 billion rubles, priorities of the Russian space program include the new Angara rocket family and development of new communications, navigation and remote Earth sensing spacecraft. The GLONASS global navigation system has for many years been one of the top priorities and has been given its own budget line in the federal space budget
15.
China National Space Administration
–
The China National Space Administration is the national space agency of the Peoples Republic of China. It is responsible for the space program and for planning. CNSA and China Aerospace Corporation assumed the authority over space development efforts previously held by the Ministry of Aerospace Industry. It is an agency of the State Administration for Science, Technology and Industry for National Defence, itself a subordinate agency of the Ministry of Industry. The headquarters are in Haidian District, Beijing, CNSA is a new agency created in 1993 when the Ministry of Aerospace Industry was split into CNSA and the China Aerospace Corporation. The former was to be responsible for policy, while the latter was to be responsible for execution and this arrangement proved somewhat unsatisfactory, as these two agencies were, in effect, one large agency, sharing both personnel and management. As part of a restructuring in 1998, CASC was split into a number of smaller state-owned companies. CNSA was established as a government institution to develop and fulfill Chinas due international obligations, the Ninth NPC assigned CNSA as an internal structure of the Commission of Science, Technology and Industry for National Defense. Significant achievements have been scored in the bilateral and multilateral and technology exchanges, administrators of CNSA are appointed by the State Council. As of 2013, ten Chinese nationals have traveled in space, Wang Yaping Zhang Xiaoguang The current administrator is Xu Dazhe, wu Yanhua is vice-administrator and Tian Yulong is secretary general. The arrow in the middle is similar to the Chinese character 人 which means human or people, the three concentric ellipses stand for three types of Escape Velocity which are milestones of space exploration. The second ring is drawn with a line, to state that China has passed the first stage of exploration and is undergoing the second stage exploration. The 人 character stands above the three rings to emphasize humanitys capability to escape and explore, olive branches were added to state that Chinas space exploration is peaceful in nature. Chinese space program Chinese Lunar Exploration Program List of space agencies Official website
16.
Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission
–
The Astronomy and Astrophysics program, is an active scientific mission of the Space Research Commission, dedicated for the development of space science. The program is promoted in the public circles through an academic bulletin which was launched on 2 January 2012 by Suparco and this program is mainly focused on theoretical and observational research while collaborating with major space agencies in the world. The genesis of this program traced back to 2009 after Suparco publicly celebrated the International Year of Astronomy which was appreciated by the public. Since then, Suparco managed and helds the World Space Week events, on monthly basis, Suparco through its bulletin covers the research events and book reviews as well as work being carried out at SUPARCO under this program. In January 2012, the program was launched its publishing its first publication in its bulletin, the first publication under this program included the research on upper atmosphere, software development relating the space technology, Lunar theory, Lunar eclipse Quadrantids and the asteroids. Since its establishment, a total of nine important publications has been released under the auspicious of this program with the last volume was issued in September 2012
17.
Iranian Space Agency
–
The Iranian Space Agency is Irans governmental space agency. Iran became a nation in 2009. Iran is one of the 24 founding members of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, which was set up in 1958. To follow and implement the set by the Council, ISA affiliated with the Ministry of Communication and Information Technology in the form of an autonomous organization, was organized. The President of ISA held the position of the Vice-Minister of Communications and Information Technology, since 2015 Irans space program has been quietly suspended by President Rouhani following international pressures. The proposed budget for the year 1393 is 1,865,583 million rials, other related organizations have received separate budget allocations. Iranian Space Research Center has received an additional 1,751,000 million rials of budget for the year 1393, the budget for the year 2008 was mentioned to be $3.9 billion. However it was not apparent whether the allocation was just for one year or a longer period, under president Hassan Rouhani, the proposed 2017-budget for the Iranian Space Agency fell to a dismally low of $4.6 million. Iran has developed a satellite launch vehicle named Safir SLV. The first stage consists of a lengthened up-rated Shahab-3C, according to the technical documentation presented in the annual meeting of the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs it is a two-stage rocket with all liquid propellant engines. The first stage is capable of carrying the payload to the altitude of 68 kilometers. The Safir-1B is the generation of Safir SLV and can carry a satellite weighing 60 kilograms into an elliptical orbit of 300 to 450 kilometers. The thrust of the Safir-1B rocket engine has increased from 32 to 37 tons. In 2010 a more powerful rocket named Simorgh was built and its mission is to carry heavier satellites into orbit. The Simorgh rocket is 27 meters long, and has a mass of 77 tonnes. Its first stage is powered by four engines, each generating up to 29,000 kilograms of thrust, plus a fifth which will be used for altitude control. At liftoff, these engines generate a total of 130,000 kilograms of thrust. Simorgh is capable of putting a 60-kilogram payload into a 500-kilometer low Earth orbit, in 2015, Israeli media reported the missile is capable of taking a manned spacecraft or satellite into space
18.
Korea Aerospace Research Institute
–
The Korea Aerospace Research Institute is the aeronautics and space agency of Republic of Korea. Its main laboratories are located in Daejeon, in the Daedeok Science Town, current projects include the KSLV-2 launcher. Past projects include the 1999 Arirang-1 satellite, the agency was founded in 1989. Prior to South Koreas entry into the IAE in 1992, it focused primarily on aerospace technology, KARI began in 1990 to develop its own rockets. It produced the KSR-I and KSR-II, one and two-stage rockets in the early 1990s, in December 1997 it began development of a LOX/kerosene rocket engine. KARI wished to develop satellite launch capability, a test launch of the KSR-III took place in 2002. In addition, several satellites, including the KOMPSAT Seriese, the COMS, on January 30,2013, they launched a satellite into space from their own soil for the first time. The first stage of its rocket will have 4 clustered engines and it was announced that KARI has already developed few prototypes of a 75 metric ton thrust engine. In late 2011, KARI unveiled its tiltrotor Unmanned Aerial Vehicle that can fly at around 400 km/hr and this was the worlds first tilt rotor UAV to have been developed
19.
Satellite
–
In the context of spaceflight, a satellite is an artificial object which has been intentionally placed into orbit. Such objects are called artificial satellites to distinguish them from natural satellites such as Earths Moon. In 1957 the Soviet Union launched the worlds first artificial satellite, since then, about 6,600 satellites from more than 40 countries have been launched. According to a 2013 estimate,3,600 remained in orbit, of those, about 1,000 were operational, the rest have lived out their useful lives and become space debris. Approximately 500 operational satellites are in orbit,50 are in medium-Earth orbit. A few large satellites have been launched in parts and assembled in orbit. Over a dozen space probes have been placed into orbit around other bodies and become artificial satellites to the Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, a few asteroids, Satellites are used for many purposes. Common types include military and civilian Earth observation satellites, communications satellites, navigation satellites, weather satellites, Space stations and human spacecraft in orbit are also satellites. Satellite orbits vary greatly, depending on the purpose of the satellite, well-known classes include low Earth orbit, polar orbit, and geostationary orbit. A launch vehicle is a rocket that throws a satellite into orbit, usually it lifts off from a launch pad on land. Some are launched at sea from a submarine or a mobile maritime platform, Satellites are usually semi-independent computer-controlled systems. Satellite subsystems attend many tasks, such as power generation, thermal control, telemetry, attitude control, the first fictional depiction of a satellite being launched into orbit was a short story by Edward Everett Hale, The Brick Moon. The idea surfaced again in Jules Vernes The Begums Fortune, in 1903, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky published Exploring Space Using Jet Propulsion Devices, which is the first academic treatise on the use of rocketry to launch spacecraft. He calculated the speed required for a minimal orbit. In 1928, Herman Potočnik published his book, The Problem of Space Travel — The Rocket Motor. He described the use of orbiting spacecraft for observation of the ground, in a 1945 Wireless World article, the English science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke described in detail the possible use of communications satellites for mass communications. He suggested that three geostationary satellites would provide coverage over the entire planet, the first artificial satellite was Sputnik 1, launched by the Soviet Union on October 4,1957, and initiating the Soviet Sputnik program, with Sergei Korolev as chief designer. This in turn triggered the Space Race between the Soviet Union and the United States, Sputnik 1 helped to identify the density of high atmospheric layers through measurement of its orbital change and provided data on radio-signal distribution in the ionosphere
20.
Boeing
–
The Boeing Company is an American multinational corporation that designs, manufactures, and sells airplanes, rotorcraft, rockets, and satellites worldwide. The company also provides leasing and product support services, Boeing stock is a component of the Dow Jones Industrial Average. The Boeing Companys corporate headquarters are located in Chicago and the company is led by President, Boeing is organized into five primary divisions, Boeing Commercial Airplanes, Boeing Defense, Space & Security, Engineering, Operations & Technology, Boeing Capital, and Boeing Shared Services Group. Boeing bought Heaths shipyard in Seattle on the Duwamish River, which became his first airplane factory. Boeing was incorporated in Seattle by William Boeing, on July 15,1916, Boeing was later incorporated in Delaware, the original Certificate of Incorporation was filed with the Secretary of State of Delaware on July 19,1934. Boeing, who studied at Yale University, worked initially in the timber industry and this knowledge proved invaluable in his subsequent design and assembly of airplanes. The company stayed in Seattle to take advantage of the supply of spruce wood. William Boeing founded his company a few months after the June 15 maiden flight of one of the two B&W seaplanes built with the assistance of George Conrad Westervelt, a U. S. Navy engineer. Boeing and Westervelt decided to build the B&W seaplane after having flown in a Curtiss aircraft, Boeing bought a Glenn Martin Flying Birdcage seaplane and was taught to fly by Glenn Martin himself. Boeing soon crashed the Birdcage and when Martin informed Boeing that replacement parts would not become available for months, Westervelt agreed to build a better airplane and soon produced the B&W Seaplane. This first Boeing airplane was assembled in a hangar located on the northeast shore of Seattles Lake Union. Many of Boeings early planes were seaplanes, on April 6,1917, the U. S. declared War on Germany and later in the year entered World War I. On May 9,1917, the became the Boeing Airplane Company. With the U. S. entering the war, Boeing knew that the U. S. Navy needed seaplanes for training, so Boeing shipped two new Model Cs to Pensacola, Florida, where the planes were flown for the Navy. The Navy liked the Model C and ordered 50 more, the company moved its operations to a larger former shipbuilding facility known as Boeing Plant 1, located on the lower Duwamish River, Washington state. Others, including Boeing, started selling other products, Boeing built dressers, counters, and furniture, along with flat-bottom boats called Sea Sleds. In 1919 the Boeing B-1, flying boat made its first flight and it accommodated one pilot and two passengers and some mail. Over the course of eight years, it made international airmail flights from Seattle to Victoria, on May 24,1920, the Boeing Model 8 made its first flight
21.
Airbus
–
Airbus SAS is a division of the multinational Airbus Group SE that manufactures civil aircraft. It is based in Blagnac, France, a suburb of Toulouse, with production and manufacturing facilities mainly in France, Germany, Spain, China, United Kingdom, Airbus began as a consortium of aerospace manufacturers, Airbus Industrie. After a protracted sales process BAE sold its shareholding to EADS on 13 October 2006, Airbus has sixteen key sites in four countries, France, Germany, Spain and the United Kingdom. Final assembly production is based at Toulouse, France, Hamburg, Germany, Seville, Spain, Tianjin, China, Airbus has subsidiaries in the United States, Japan and India. The company produces and markets the first commercially viable digital fly-by-wire airliner, the Airbus A320, and the worlds largest passenger airliner, Airbus Industrie began as a consortium of European aviation firms formed to compete with American companies such as Boeing, McDonnell Douglas, and Lockheed. While many European aircraft were innovative, even the most successful had small production runs, in the mid-1960s, tentative negotiations commenced regarding a European collaborative approach. The same year Hawker Siddeley teamed with Breguet and Nord to study airbus designs, the Hawker Siddeley/Breguet/Nord groups HBN100 became the basis for the continuation of the project. By 1966 the partners were Sud Aviation, later Aérospatiale, Arbeitsgemeinschaft Airbus, later Deutsche Airbus, a request for funding was made to the three governments in October 1966. On 25 July 1967 the three agreed to proceed with the proposal. In the two years following this agreement, both the British and French governments expressed doubts about the project, the MoU had stated that 75 orders must be achieved by 31 July 1968. With concerns at proposal of the A300B proposal in December 1968, and fearing it would not recoup its investment due to lack of sales, West Germany took this opportunity to increase its share of the project to 50%. Given the participation by Hawker Siddeley up to point, France. Thus the British company was allowed to continue as a privileged subcontractor, Hawker Siddeley invested GB£35 million in tooling and, requiring more capital, received a GB£35 million loan from the West German government. Airbus Industrie was formally established as a Groupement dIntérêt Économique on 18 December 1970 and it had been formed by a government initiative between France, West Germany and the UK that originated in 1967. Its initial shareholders were the French company Aérospatiale and the West German company Deutsche Airbus, Aérospatiale and Deutsche Airbus each took a 36. 5% share of production work, Hawker Siddeley 20% and the Dutch company Fokker-VFW 7%. Each company would deliver its sections as fully equipped, ready-to-fly items, in October 1971 the Spanish company CASA acquired a 4. 2% share of Airbus Industrie, with Aérospatiale and Deutsche Airbus reducing their stakes to 47. 9%. In January 1979 British Aerospace, which had absorbed Hawker Siddeley in 1977, the majority shareholders reduced their shares to 37. 9%, while CASA retained its 4. 2%. The Airbus A300 was to be the first aircraft to be developed, manufactured and marketed by Airbus, by early 1967 the A300 label began to be applied to a proposed 320 seat, twin engined airliner
22.
SpaceX
–
Space Exploration Technologies Corporation, better known as SpaceX, is an American aerospace manufacturer and space transport services company headquartered in Hawthorne, California. It was founded in 2002 by entrepreneur Elon Musk with the goal of reducing space transportation costs, SpaceX has since developed the Falcon launch vehicle family and the Dragon spacecraft family, which both currently deliver payloads into Earth orbit. As of March 2017, SpaceX has since flown ten missions to the International Space Station under a cargo resupply contract, SpaceX announced in 2011 they were beginning a privately funded reusable launch system technology development program. In December 2015, a first stage was flown back to a landing pad near the launch site and this was the first such achievement by a rocket for orbital spaceflight. In April 2016, with the launch of CRS-8, SpaceX successfully vertically landed a first stage on an ocean drone-ship landing platform, in May 2016, in another first, SpaceX again landed a first stage, but during a significantly more energetic geostationary transfer orbit mission. In March 2017, SpaceX became the first to successfully re-launch and this is the main purpose this System was designed for. In February 2017, Elon Musk announced that the company had contracted by two private individuals to send them in a Dragon spacecraft on a free return trajectory around the Moon. Provisionally launching in 2018, this may become the first instance of lunar tourism. Musk tried to buy cheap rockets from Russia, but returned empty-handed after failing to find rockets for an affordable price, on the flight home, Musk realized that he could start a company that could build the affordable rockets he needed. According to early Tesla and SpaceX investor Steve Jurvetson, Musk calculated that the raw materials for building a rocket actually were only 3 percent of the price of a rocket at the time. SpaceX started with the smallest useful orbital rocket, instead of building a complex and riskier launch vehicle. In early 2002, Musk was seeking staff for his new space company, Musk approached renowned rocket engineer Tom Mueller and Mueller agreed to work for Musk, and thus SpaceX was born. SpaceX was first headquartered in a warehouse in El Segundo, California, the company has grown rapidly since it was founded in 2002, growing from 160 employees in 2005 to nearly 5,000 in late 2015 and February 2016. At year-end 2012, SpaceX had over 40 launches on its manifest representing about $4 billion in contract revenue, the contracts included both commercial and government customers. As of December 2013, SpaceX had a total of 50 future launches under contract, Musk has stated that one of his goals is to improve the cost and reliability of access to space, ultimately by a factor of ten. CEO Elon Musk said, I believe $500 per pound or less is very achievable, a major goal of SpaceX has been to develop a rapidly reusable launch system. Musk stated in a 2011 interview that he hopes to send humans to Mars surface within 10–20 years, in 2010, Musks calculations convinced him that the colonization of Mars was possible. After completing its primary burn, the first stage of the rocket detached from the second stage as usual
23.
Lockheed Martin
–
Lockheed Martin is an American global aerospace, defense, security and advanced technologies company with worldwide interests. It was formed by the merger of Lockheed Corporation with Martin Marietta in March 1995 and it is headquartered in Bethesda, Maryland, in the Washington, DC, area. Lockheed Martin employs 126,000 people worldwide, Marillyn Hewson is the current President and Chief Executive Officer. Lockheed Martin is one of the largest companies in the aerospace, defense, security and it is the worlds largest defense contractor based on revenue for fiscal year 2014. In 2013, 78% of Lockheed Martins revenues came from sales, it topped the list of US federal government contractors. In 2009 US government contracts accounted for $38.4 billion, foreign government contracts $5.8 billion, Lockheed Martin operates in five business segments, Aeronautics, Information Systems & Global Solutions, Missiles and Fire Control, Rotary and Mission Systems, and Space Systems. The company also invests in healthcare systems, renewable energy systems, intelligent energy distribution, merger talks between Lockheed Corporation and Martin Marietta began in March 1994, with the companies announcing their $10 billion planned merger on August 30,1994. The deal was finalized on March 15,1995, when the two companies approved the merger. The segments of the two companies not retained by the new company formed the basis for the present L-3 Communications, Lockheed Martin also later spun off the materials company Martin Marietta Materials. Both companies contributed important products to the new portfolio, Lockheed products included the Trident missile, P-3 Orion, F-16 Fighting Falcon, F-22 Raptor, C-130 Hercules, A-4AR Fightinghawk and the DSCS-3 satellite. Martin Marietta products included Titan rockets, Sandia National Laboratories, Space Shuttle External Tank, Viking 1 and Viking 2 landers, the Transfer Orbit Stage and various satellite models. On April 22,1996, Lockheed Martin completed the acquisition of Loral Corporations defense electronics and system integration businesses for $9.1 billion, the remainder of Loral became Loral Space & Communications. Lockheed Martin abandoned plans for a $8, the development of the spacecraft cost $193.1 million. In May 2001, Lockheed Martin sold Lockheed Martin Control Systems to BAE Systems, on November 27,2000, Lockheed completed the sale of its Aerospace Electronic Systems business to BAE Systems for $1.67 billion, a deal announced in July 2000. This group encompassed Sanders Associates, Fairchild Systems, and Lockheed Martin Space Electronics & Communications. In 2001, Lockheed Martin won the contract to build the F-35 Lightning II, in 2001, Lockheed Martin settled a nine–year investigation conducted by NASAs Office of Inspector General with the assistance of the Defense Contract Audit Agency. The company paid the United States government $7.1 million based on allegations that its predecessor, Lockheed Engineering Science Corporation, submitted false lease costs claims to NASA. On August 31,2006, Lockheed Martin won a $3.9 billion contract from NASA to design and build the CEV capsule, in 2009, NASA reduced the capsule crew requirements from the initial six seats to four for transport to the International Space Station
24.
Northrop Grumman
–
Northrop Grumman Corporation is an American global aerospace and defense technology company formed by Northrops 1994 purchase of Grumman. The company was named as the fifth-largest defense contractor in the world in 2015, Northrop Grumman employs over 68,000 people worldwide. It reported revenues of $23.526 billion in 2015, Northrop Grumman ranks No.124 on the 2015 Fortune 500 list of Americas largest corporations and ranks in the top ten military-friendly employers. It is headquartered in West Falls Church, Virginia, Northrop Grumman is made up of three business sectors, Aerospace Systems, Mission Systems, and Technology Services. Aerospace Systems, headquartered in Redondo Beach, California produces aircraft, spacecraft, high-energy laser systems and microelectronics for the US and other nations. The B-2 Spirit strategic bomber, the E-8C Joint STARS surveillance aircraft, the RQ-4 Global Hawk, the US Army uses Northrop Grummans RQ-5 Hunter unmanned air vehicle, which has been in operational use since 1995. The U. S. Navy uses Northrop Grumman-built aerial vehicles such as the BQM-74 Chukar, RQ-4 Global Hawk based BAMS UAS, Grumman C-2 Greyhound, Grumman E-2 Hawkeye, and the EA-6B Prowler. Northrop Grumman provides major components and assemblies for different aircraft such as F/A-18 Hornet, F/A-18E/F Super Hornet, Electronic Systems produces and maintains the AWACS aerial surveillance systems for the U. S. the United Kingdom, NATO, Japan, and others. Northrop Grumman is the contractor for the development and integration of the Air Forces $2-billion Multi-Platform Radar Technology Insertion Program. Many other smaller products are made by Northrop Grumman, such as night vision goggles, information Systems, headquartered in McLean, Virginia, supports the U. S. Vinnell, a Technical Services Northrop Grumman subsidiary, provides training and communications for the military. In 2003, it landed a $48 million contract to train the Iraqi Army, in 2005 the company won a $2 billion contract with Virginia to overhaul most of the states IT operations. Later that year, The United Kingdom paid $1.2 billion in a contract with the company to provide maintenance of the countrys defensive radar, Northrop Grumman performs various functions in the War on Drugs. The company sends planes to spray herbicides on suspected cocaine fields in Colombia, remotec, a subsidiary, is the foremost manufacturer of remote control vehicles for explosive ordnance disposal and hazardous material handling. A UK-based subsidiary, Park Air Systems, provides VHF and UHF ground-to-air communications systems for the civil, Northrop Grumman has also worked closely with Antenna Associates, Inc. a manufacturer of Identification friend or foe /Secondary Surveillance Radar antennas located in Massachusetts. In August 2007, Northrop Grumman acquired Scaled Composites in which it had owned a 40% stake. Originally formed in California in 1939 by Jack Northrop, the Northrop Corporation was reincorporated in Delaware in 1985, in 1994, Northrop Aircraft bought Grumman Aerospace, famous for building the Apollo Lunar Module to create Northrop Grumman. In 1996, the new company acquired Westinghouse Electronic Systems, a manufacturer of radar systems. In 1997, the defense computer contractor Logicon was added, which had acquired Geodynamics Corporation in March 1996, in 1998, a merger between Northrop Grumman and competitor Lockheed Martin was considered but abandoned after resistance from the Department of Defense and Department of Justice
25.
History of aviation
–
Kite flying in China dates back to several hundred years BC and slowly spread around the world. It is thought to be the earliest example of man-made flight, Leonardo da Vincis 15th-century dream of flight found expression in several rational but unscientific designs, though he did not attempt to construct any of them. Balloons, both free-flying and tethered, began to be used for military purposes from the end of the 18th century, with the French government establishing Balloon Companies during the Revolution. The modern aeroplane with its tail was established by 1909. After World War II, the boats were in their turn replaced by land planes. In the latter part of the 20th century the advent of digital electronics produced great advances in flight instrumentation, the 21st century saw the large-scale use of pilotless drones for military, civilian and leisure use. With digital controls, inherently unstable aircraft such as flying wings became possible, the origin of mankinds desire to fly is lost in the distant past. From the earliest legends there have been stories of men strapping birdlike wings, stiffened cloaks or other devices to themselves, the Greek legend of Daedalus and Icarus is one of the earliest known, others originated from India, China and the European Dark Ages. During this early period the issues of lift, stability and control were not understood, eilmer of Malmesbury soon followed and many others have continued to do so over the centuries. As late as 1811, Albrecht Berblinger constructed an ornithopter and jumped into the Danube at Ulm, the kite may have been the first form of man-made aircraft. It was invented in China possibly as far back as the 5th century BC by Mozi, later designs often emulated flying insects, birds, and other beasts, both real and mythical. Some were fitted with strings and whistles to make sounds while flying. Ancient and medieval Chinese sources describe kites being used to measure distances, test the wind, lift men, signal, Kites spread from China around the world. After its introduction into India, the further evolved into the fighter kite. Man-carrying kites are believed to have been used extensively in ancient China, an early recorded flight was that of the prisoner Yuan Huangtou, a Chinese prince, in the 6th Century AD. Stories of man-carrying kites also occur in Japan, following the introduction of the kite from China around the seventh century AD and it is said that at one time there was a Japanese law against man-carrying kites. The use of a rotor for vertical flight has existed since 400 BC in the form of the bamboo-copter, the similar moulinet à noix appeared in Europe in the 14th century AD. From ancient times the Chinese have understood that hot air rises and have applied the principle to a type of hot air balloon called a sky lantern
26.
George Cayley
–
Sir George Cayley, 6th Baronet was a prolific English engineer and is one of the most important people in the history of aeronautics. Many consider him to be the first true scientific aerial investigator, in 1799 he set forth the concept of the modern aeroplane as a fixed-wing flying machine with separate systems for lift, propulsion, and control. He was a pioneer of engineering and is sometimes referred to as the father of aviation. He discovered and identified the four forces which act on a flying vehicle, weight, lift, drag. Modern aeroplane design is based on discoveries and on the importance of cambered wings. He constructed the first flying model aeroplane and also diagrammed the elements of vertical flight and he designed the first glider reliably reported to carry a human aloft. He correctly predicted that sustained flight would not occur until an engine was developed to provide adequate thrust. The Wright brothers acknowledged his importance to the development of aviation and he was a founding member of the British Association for the Advancement of Science and was a distant cousin of the mathematician Arthur Cayley. Cayley, from Brompton-by-Sawdon, near Scarborough in Yorkshire, inherited Brompton Hall and Wydale Hall and other estates on the death of his father, captured by the optimism of the times, he engaged in a wide variety of engineering projects. He suggested that a practical engine might be made using gaseous vapours rather than gunpowder. He is mainly remembered for his studies and experiments with flying machines, including the working, piloted glider that he designed. He wrote a landmark three-part treatise titled On Aerial Navigation, which was published in Nicholsons Journal of Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, the 2007 discovery of sketches in Cayleys school notebooks revealed that even at school Cayley was developing his ideas on the theories of flight. It has been claimed that these images indicate that Cayley identified the principle of an inclined plane as early as 1792. To measure the drag on objects at different speeds and angles of attack, he built a whirling-arm apparatus. He also experimented with rotating wing sections of various forms in the stairwells at Brompton Hall and these scientific experiments led him to develop an efficient cambered airfoil and to identify the four vector forces that influence an aircraft, thrust, lift, drag, and gravity. As a result of his investigations into many other aspects of flight. His emphasis on lightness led him to invent a new method of constructing lightweight wheels which is in use today. For his landing wheels, he shifted the forces from compression to tension by making them from tightly-stretched string
27.
Aeronautical Society of Great Britain
–
The Royal Aeronautical Society, also known as the RAeS, is a British multi-disciplinary professional institution dedicated to the global aerospace community. Founded in 1866, it is the oldest aeronautical society in the world, fellows and Companions of the society can use the post-nominal letters FRAeS or CRAeS, respectively. The Royal Aeronautical Society is a society with an international network of 67 branches. Many practitioners of aerospace disciplines use the Societys designatory post-nominals such as FRAeS, CRAeS, MRAeS, AMRAeS, the RAeS headquarters is located in the United Kingdom. The staff of the Royal Aeronautical Society are based at the Societys headquarters at No.4 Hamilton Place, London, the headquarters is on the north-east edge of Hyde Park Corner, with the nearest access being Hyde Park Corner tube station. They deliver membership benefits and provide a platform for the dissemination of aerospace information. Divisions of the Society have been formed in countries and regions that can sustain a number of Branches, divisions operate with a large degree of autonomy, being responsible for their own branch network, membership recruitment, subscription levels, conference and lecture programmes. Specialist Groups covering all facets of the industry exist under the overall umbrella of the Society. The Groups also act as points for all enquiries to the Society concerning their specialist subject matter. In 2009, the Royal Aeronautical Society formed a group of experts to document how to better simulate aircraft upset conditions, the Society was founded in January 1866 with the name The Aeronautical Society of Great Britain and is the oldest aeronautical society in the world. Early or founding members included James Glaisher, Francis Wenham, the Duke of Argyll, in the first year, there were 65 members, at the end of the second year,91 members, and in the third year,106 members. Annual reports were produced in the first decades, in 1868 the Society held a major exhibition at Londons Crystal Palace with 78 entries. John Stringfellows steam engine was shown there, the Society sponsored the first wind tunnel in 1870-71, designed by Wenham and Browning. In 1918, the name was changed to the Royal Aeronautical Society. In 1940, the RAeS responded to the wartime need to expand the aircraft industry and this technical department became known as the Engineering Sciences Data Unit and eventually became a separate entity in the 1980s. In 1987 the Society of Licensed Aircraft Engineers and Technologists, previously called the Society of Licensed Aircraft Engineers was incorporated into the Royal Aeronautical Society, the following have served as President of the Royal Aeronautical Society, Keith Mans was Chief Executive from 1998-2009. In addition to the award of Fellowship of the Royal Aeronautical Society and these include its Gold, Silver, and Bronze medals. The very first gold medal was awarded in 1909 to the Wright Brothers, Honorary Fellowships and Honorary Companionships are awarded as well
28.
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
–
The American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics is a professional society for the field of aerospace engineering. AIAA is the U. S. representative on the International Astronautical Federation, as of 2015, AIAA has more than 30,000 members among aerospace professionals worldwide, although the majority are American and/or live in the United States. As a major activity AIAA currently publishes several technical journals, the AIAA Journal is published on a monthly basis and serves as the flagship journal of the society. In January 2015 the Journal of Guidance, Control, and Dynamics became the second AIAA journal published on a monthly basis, AIAA also produces several series of technical books ranging from education to progress in advanced research topics. AIAA formed the AIAA Foundation to devote more attention and more resources to the education of both practicing and future aerospace professionals, the AIAA Foundation funds numerous scholarships for both undergraduate and graduate students. Undergraduate scholarships range from $2,000 to $2,500, graduate scholarships are $5,000 or $10,000. AIAA currently has over 6,500 student members in 160 active student branches, the student branches host annual conferences AIAAs highest award for astronautics. It was endowed by Mrs. Robert Goddard in commemoration of her husbands pioneering efforts led to the development of the fields of astronautics. AIAAs highest award for science and engineering. It is named for Dr. Sylvanus A. Reed pioneer of the use of metal in propellor blades, initiated by the founder of Zonatech and given every four years for those who have contributed significantly to the area of aeroelasticity. It is named after famous aeroelastician Prof. Holt Ashley who served as a faculty member at MIT, selection is monitored/coordinated by the awards sub-committee of AIAA Structural Dynamics technical group. Dryden Lectureship in Research, named for Dr. Hugh L. Dryden Durand Lectureship, the Technical Award is presented for a significant accomplishment in developing or using technology that is required for missile systems. The Technical and Management award are presently alternatively at the biannual Missile Sciences Conference, thus, the awards are presented once every four years. The 2008 Technical Award winner was Ernest Ohlmeyer, the award is administered by the AIAA Missile Systems Technical Committee. This award is presented annually to outstanding achievement in the development or application of rocket propulsion systems. The award honors James Hart Wyld, AIAA hosts many conferences and smaller events throughout the year. The largest of those is the AIAA Science and Technology Forum, others include AIAA Aviation and Aeronautics Forum and Exposition, AIAA Propulsion and Energy Forum and Exposition, and AIAA Space and Astronautics Forum and Exposition. National Association of Rocketry Tripoli Rocketry Association International Astronautical Federation SpaceOps Official website
29.
Otto Lilienthal
–
Otto Lilienthal was a German pioneer of aviation who became known as the flying man. He was the first person to make well-documented, repeated, successful flights with unpowered airplanes, newspapers and magazines published photographs of Lilienthal gliding, favorably influencing public and scientific opinion about the possibility of flying machines becoming practical. On August 9,1896, his glider stalled and he was unable to regain control, falling from about 15 m, he broke his neck and died the next day,10 August 1896. Lilienthal was born on 23 May 1848 in Anklam, Pomerania Province, according to his birth certificate, his parents were Carl Gustav, a merchant, and Caroline Wilhemina née Pohle. They belonged to the St. Nikolai evangelical church community in Anklam, where he attended grammar school. Fascinated by the idea of manned flight, Lilienthal and his brother made strap-on wings and he then attended the regional technical school in Potsdam for two years and trained at the Schwarzkopf Company before becoming a professional design engineer. He would later attend the Royal Technical Academy in Berlin, in 1867, Lilienthal began his experiments on the force of air in earnest, interrupted when he served in the Franco-Prussian War. As a staff engineer in various engineering companies, Lilienthal received his first patent for a mining machine, five years later he founded his own company to make boilers and steam engines. Lilienthal published his famous book Birdflight as the Basis of Aviation in 1889, Lilienthal was born to middle-class parents. They had eight children, but only three of them survived infancy, Otto, Gustav, and Marie, the brothers worked together all their lives on technical, social and cultural projects. On 6 June 1878, Lilienthal married Agnes Fischer, daughter of a deputy, music brought them together, she was trained in piano and voice while Lilienthal played the French horn and had a good tenor voice. After marriage, they took up residence in Berlin and had four children, Otto, Anna, Fritz, Lilienthals greatest contribution was in the development of heavier-than-air flight. He made his flights from a hill he built near Berlin and from natural hills. Patent in 1894 by Lilienthal directed pilots to grip the bar for carrying and flying the hang glider, the A-frame of Percy Pilcher and Lilienthal echoes in todays control frame for hang gliders and ultralight aircraft. His total flying time was five hours, at the beginning, in 1891, Lilienthal succeeded with jumps and flights covering a distance of about 25 metres. He could use the updraft of a 10 m/s wind against a hill to remain stationary with respect to the ground, in 1893, in the Rhinow Hills, he was able to achieve flight distances as long as 250 metres. This record remained unbeaten for him or anyone else at the time of his death, Lilienthal did research in accurately describing the flight of birds, especially storks, and used polar diagrams for describing the aerodynamics of their wings. He made many experiments in an attempt to gather reliable aeronautical data, during his short flying career, Lilienthal developed a dozen models of monoplanes, wing flapping aircraft and two biplanes
30.
Camber (aerodynamics)
–
In aeronautics and aeronautical engineering, camber is the asymmetry between the top and the bottom surfaces of an aerofoil. An aerofoil that is not cambered is called a symmetrical aerofoil, the benefits of camber, in contrast to symmetrical aerofoils, were discovered and first utilized by Sir George Cayley in the early 19th century. Camber is usually designed into an aerofoil to increase the lift coefficient. This minimizes the speed of aircraft using the aerofoil. Aircraft with wings based on cambered aerofoils usually have lower stalling speeds than similar aircraft with wings based on symmetric aerofoils, an aircraft designer may also reduce the camber of the outboard section of the wings to increase the critical angle of attack at the wing tips. Some recent designs use negative camber, one such design is called the supercritical aerofoil. It is used for flight, and produces a higher lift to drag ratio at near supersonic flight than traditional aerofoils. Supercritical aerofoils employ a flattened surface, highly cambered aft section. These changes delay the onset of wave drag, the camber of an aerofoil can be defined by a camber line, which is the curve that is halfway between the upper and lower surfaces of the aerofoil. To fully define an aerofoil we also need a thickness function T, such an aerofoil is useful in certain situations, such as with tailless aircraft, because the moment about the aerodynamic center of the aerofoil can be 0. A camber line for such an aerofoil can be defined as follows, the thickness distribution for a NACA 4-series aerofoil was used, with a 12% thickness ratio. The equation for this distribution is, T ¯ = t 0.2 Where t is the thickness ratio. Chord NACA airfoil Aerodynamic drag Zero lift axis Sources Desktop Aerodynamics Digital Textbook, theory of Wing Sections, Ira H. Abbott and Albert E. Von Doenhoff ISBN 0-486-60586-8
31.
Airfoil
–
An airfoil or aerofoil is the shape of a wing, blade, or sail. An airfoil-shaped body moved through a fluid produces an aerodynamic force, the component of this force perpendicular to the direction of motion is called lift. The component parallel to the direction of motion is called drag, subsonic flight airfoils have a characteristic shape with a rounded leading edge, followed by a sharp trailing edge, often with a symmetric curvature of upper and lower surfaces. Foils of similar function designed with water as the fluid are called hydrofoils. The lift on an airfoil is primarily the result of its angle of attack, when oriented at a suitable angle, the airfoil deflects the oncoming air, resulting in a force on the airfoil in the direction opposite to the deflection. This force is known as force and can be resolved into two components, lift and drag. Most foil shapes require an angle of attack to generate lift. This turning of the air in the vicinity of the airfoil creates curved streamlines, resulting in pressure on one side. The lift force can be related directly to the average top/bottom velocity difference without computing the pressure by using the concept of circulation, a fixed-wing aircrafts wings, horizontal, and vertical stabilizers are built with airfoil-shaped cross sections, as are helicopter rotor blades. Airfoils are also found in propellers, fans, compressors and turbines, sails are also airfoils, and the underwater surfaces of sailboats, such as the centerboard and keel, are similar in cross-section and operate on the same principles as airfoils. Swimming and flying creatures and even many plants and sessile organisms employ airfoils/hydrofoils, common examples being bird wings, the bodies of fish, an airfoil-shaped wing can create downforce on an automobile or other motor vehicle, improving traction. Any object with an angle of attack in a fluid, such as a flat plate. Airfoils are more efficient lifting shapes, able to more lift. A lift and drag curve obtained in wind tunnel testing is shown on the right, the curve represents an airfoil with a positive camber so some lift is produced at zero angle of attack. With increased angle of attack, lift increases in a linear relation. At about 18 degrees this airfoil stalls, and lift falls off quickly beyond that, the drop in lift can be explained by the action of the upper-surface boundary layer, which separates and greatly thickens over the upper surface at and past the stall angle. The thicker boundary layer also causes an increase in pressure drag, so that the overall drag increases sharply near. Airfoil design is a facet of aerodynamics
32.
Aerodynamic force
–
Aerodynamic force is exerted on a body by the air in which the body is immersed, and is due to the relative motion between the body and the gas. Aerodynamic force arises from two causes, the force due to the pressure on the surface of the body the shear force due to the viscosity of the gas. Pressure acts locally, normal to the surface, and shear force acts locally, the net aerodynamic force over the body is due to the pressure and shear forces integrated over the total exposed area of the body. When an airfoil is moving relative to the air it generates an aerodynamic force, in addition to these two forces, the body may experience an aerodynamic moment also, the value of which depends on the point chosen for calculation. The force created by a propeller or a jet engine is called thrust, the aerodynamic force on a powered airplane is commonly represented by three vectors, thrust, lift and drag. The other force acting on an aircraft during flight is its weight, weight is a body force and is not an aerodynamic force. A National Flightshop Reprint, Clearwater, Florida Clancy, L. J. Aerodynamics, london Library of Congress Catalog Card No
33.
Wright brothers
–
They made the first controlled, sustained flight of a powered, heavier-than-air aircraft on December 17,1903, four miles south of Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. In 1904–05 the brothers developed their flying machine into the first practical fixed-wing aircraft, although not the first to build and fly experimental aircraft, the Wright brothers were the first to invent aircraft controls that made fixed-wing powered flight possible. The brothers fundamental breakthrough was their invention of three-axis control, which enabled the pilot to steer the aircraft effectively and this method became and remains standard on fixed-wing aircraft of all kinds. From the beginning of their work, the Wright brothers focused on developing a reliable method of pilot control as the key to solving the flying problem. This approach differed significantly from other experimenters of the time who put emphasis on developing powerful engines. Using a small wind tunnel, the Wrights also collected more accurate data than any before, enabling them to design and build wings. Their first U. S. patent,821,393, did not claim invention of a machine, but rather. They gained the skills essential for their success by working for years in their shop with printing presses, bicycles, motors. Their work with bicycles in particular influenced their belief that a vehicle like a flying machine could be controlled and balanced with practice. From 1900 until their first powered flights in late 1903, they conducted extensive tests that also developed their skills as pilots. Their bicycle shop employee Charlie Taylor became an important part of the team, the Wright brothers status as inventors of the airplane has been subject to counter-claims by various parties. Much controversy persists over the competing claims of early aviators. The Wright brothers were two of seven born to Milton Wright, of English and Dutch ancestry, and Susan Catherine Koerner, of German. Wilbur was born near Millville, Indiana, in 1867, Orville in Dayton, Ohio, the other Wright siblings were Reuchlin, Lorin, Katharine, and twins Otis and Ida. In elementary school, Orville was given to mischief and was once expelled, the direct paternal ancestry goes back to a Samuel Wright who sailed to America and settled in Massachusetts in 1636. In 1878 their father, who traveled often as a bishop in the Church of the United Brethren in Christ, the device was based on an invention of French aeronautical pioneer Alphonse Pénaud. Made of paper, bamboo and cork with a band to twirl its rotor. Wilbur and Orville played with it until it broke, and then built their own, in later years, they pointed to their experience with the toy as the spark of their interest in flying
34.
Octave Chanute
–
Octave Chanute was an American civil engineer and aviation pioneer, born in France. He provided many budding enthusiasts, including the Wright brothers, with help and advice, at his death he was hailed as the father of aviation and the heavier-than-air flying machine. Octave Chanute was the son of Elise and Joseph Chanut, professor at the Collège de France and he emigrated with his father to the United States of America in 1838, when the former was named Vice-President at Jefferson College in Louisiana. Octave attended private schools in New York, Octave Chanute began his training as a budding civil engineer in 1848. He was widely considered brilliant and innovative in the engineering profession, during his career he designed and constructed the United States two biggest stock yards, Chicago Stock Yards and Kansas City Stockyards. He designed and built the Hannibal Bridge which was the first bridge to cross the Missouri River in Kansas City, Missouri, in 1869, Chanute also established a procedure for pressure-treating wooden railroad ties with an antiseptic that increased the wood’s lifespan in the tracks. As a way to track the age and longevity of railroad ties and other wooden structures, Chanute retired from the Erie Railway in 1883 to become an independent engineering consultant. Chanute first became interested in watching a balloon take off in Peoria, IL. When he retired from his career in 1883, he decided to devote some leisure time to furthering the new science of aviation. Applying his engineering background, Chanute collected all available data from flight experimenters around the world and he published his findings in a series of articles in The Railroad and Engineering Journal from 1891 to 1893, which were then re-published in the influential book Progress in Flying Machines in 1894. This was the most systematic global survey of fixed-wing heavier-than-air aviation research published up to that time, at the Worlds Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893, Chanute organized in collaboration with Albert Zahm a highly successful International Conference on Aerial Navigation. Chanute was too old to fly himself, so he partnered with younger experimenters, including Augustus M. Herring, Chanute based his interplane strut concept on the Pratt truss, which was familiar to him from his bridge-building work. The Wright brothers based their designs on the Chanute double-decker. A new design of a glider was developed and flown in 1897. In 1897 he started a correspondence with British aviator Percy Pilcher, following Chanutes ideas, Pilcher built a triplane, but he was killed in a glider crash in October 1899 before he could attempt to fly it. Chanute was in contact with the Wright brothers starting in 1900, Chanute helped to publicize the Wright brothers work, and provided consistent encouragement, visiting their camp near Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, in 1901,1902, and 1903. The Wrights and Chanute exchanged hundreds of letters between 1900 and 1910, Chanute freely shared his knowledge about aviation with anyone who was interested and expected others to do the same, although he did encourage colleagues to patent their inventions. His open approach led to friction with the Wright brothers, who believed their ideas about aircraft control were unique and refused to share them
35.
Airman
–
An airman is a member of the air component of a nations armed service. In the United States Air Force, it can refer to a specific enlisted rank. More informally, it can refer to any member of an air force, or to any pilot, aviator, or aircrewman, military or civilian, the equivalent in the British Royal Air Force and some other Commonwealth countries is aircraftman/woman. In civilian aviation usage, the airman is analogous to the term sailor in nautical usage. In the American Federal Aviation Administration usage, an airman is any holder of an airmans certificate and this certificate is issued to those who qualify for it by the Federal Aviation Administration Airmen Certification Branch. In the U. S. Air Force, airman is a term which can refer to any member of the United States Air Force. The rank of airman is the enlisted rank from the bottom, just above the rank of airman basic. Since the Air Force was established 1947, all of the ranks of airman have always included females, and in this context. Former U. S. Air Force ranks included airman second class, the current E-2 paygrade rank of airman was called airman third class from 1952 to 1967. These programs are sponsored and taught by four of the services at hundreds of the high schools in the United States. Having achieved the Eagle Scout level from the Boy Scouts of America, having earned 20 college semester credit hours. They also receive their retroactive pay increment that brings them up to the pay grade for an airman upon their completion of basic training. While at the rank of airman, the duties of enlisted personnel include adjusting to the Air Force way of military life, for airmen with high aptitudes, some of these training programs include more than one school and take one year or more to complete. In the U. S. Navy, airman is the rank that corresponds to the pay grade of E-3 in the Navys aviation field. In the U. S. Coast Guard, the ranks are similar or identical to the ones in the U. S. Navy. Coast Guard airman is the rank that corresponds to the pay grade of E-3 in the Coast Guards aviation field. Military pilot Soldier Seaman U. S. Air Force enlisted rank insignia U. S. Navy enlisted rate insignia RAF enlisted ranks Aircraftman
36.
Konstantin Tsiolkovsky
–
Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky was a Russian and Soviet rocket scientist and pioneer of the astronautic theory. Along with the French Robert Esnault-Pelterie, the German Hermann Oberth and his works later inspired leading Soviet rocket engineers such as Sergei Korolev and Valentin Glushko and contributed to the success of the Soviet space program. Tsiolkovsky spent most of his life in a log house on the outskirts of Kaluga, a recluse by nature, he appeared strange and bizarre to his fellow townsfolk. He was born in Izhevskoye, in the Russian Empire, to a middle-class family and his father, Edward Tsiolkovsky, was a Polish-born Russian Orthodox, his mother, Maria Ivanovna Yumasheva belonged to Russian nobility of Volga Tatar origin. His father was successively a forester, teacher, and minor government official, at the age of 10, Konstantin caught scarlet fever and became hard of hearing. When he was 13, his mother died and he was not admitted to elementary schools because of his hearing problem, so he was self-taught. As a reclusive home-schooled child, he passed much of his time by reading books, as a teenager, he began to contemplate the possibility of space travel. After falling behind in his studies, Tsiolkovsky spent three years attending a Moscow library where Russian cosmism proponent Nikolai Fyodorov worked and he later came to believe that colonizing space would lead to the perfection of the human race, with immortality and a carefree existence. Additionally, inspired by the fiction of Jules Verne, Tsiolkovsky theorized many aspects of space travel and he is considered the father of spaceflight and the first person to conceive the space elevator, becoming inspired in 1895 by the newly constructed Eiffel Tower in Paris. Afterwards, Tsiolkovsky passed the exam and went to work at a school in Borovsk near Moscow. He also met and married his wife Varvara Sokolovaya during this time, despite being stuck in Kaluga, a small town far from major learning centers, Tsiolkovsky managed to make scientific discoveries on his own. The first two decades of the 20th century were marred by personal tragedy, Tsiolkovskys son Ignaty committed suicide in 1902, and in 1908 many of his accumulated papers were lost in a flood. In 1911, his daughter Lyubov was arrested for engaging in revolutionary activities and this section has recently been partly machine translated from the Russian article. Please supply an improved translation if possible, Tsiolkovsky stated that he developed the theory of rocketry only as a supplement to philosophical research on the subject. He wrote more than 400 works including approximately 90 published pieces on space travel, Tsiolkovskys first scientific study dates back to 1880–1881. Undaunted, he pressed ahead with his work, The Mechanics of the Animal Organism. It received favorable feedback, and Tsiolkovsky was made a member of the Society, in 1892, he was transferred to a new teaching post in Kaluga where he continued to experiment. Tsiolkovsky developed the first aerodynamics laboratory in Russia in his apartment, in 1897, he built the first Russian wind tunnel with an open test section and developed a method of experimentation using it
37.
Wernher von Braun
–
He was one of the leading figures in the development of rocket technology in Nazi Germany, where he was a member of the Nazi Party and the SS. In his twenties and early thirties, von Braun worked in Germanys rocket development program, following the war, von Braun worked for the United States Army on an intermediate-range ballistic missile program before his group was assimilated into NASA. In 1975, he received the National Medal of Science and he continued insisting on the human mission to Mars throughout his life. Wernher von Braun was born on 23 March 1912 in the town of Wirsitz, in the Posen Province. He was the second of three sons and he belonged to a noble family, inheriting the German title of Freiherr. His father, conservative civil servant Magnus Freiherr von Braun, served as a Minister of Agriculture in the Reich Cabinet during the Weimar Republic, Von Braun had an older brother, Sigismund, and a younger brother, also named Magnus. After Wernher von Brauns Lutheran confirmation, his mother gave him a telescope, the family moved to Berlin in 1915 where his father worked at the Ministry of the Interior. He was taken into custody by the police until his father came to collect him. Wernher von Braun was an amateur pianist who could play Beethoven. He learned to both the cello and the piano at an early age and at one time wanted to become a composer. He took lessons from the composer Paul Hindemith, the few pieces of von Braun’s youthful compositions that exist are reminiscent of Hindemith’s style. Beginning in 1925, von Braun attended a school at Ettersburg Castle near Weimar. There he acquired a copy of By Rocket into Planetary Space by rocket pioneer Hermann Oberth, in 1928, his parents moved him to the Hermann-Lietz-Internat on the East Frisian North Sea island of Spiekeroog. Space travel had always fascinated von Braun, and from then on he applied himself to physics and mathematics to pursue his interest in rocket engineering. In 1930, he attended the Technische Hochschule Berlin, where he joined the Spaceflight Society, in spring 1932, he graduated from the Technische Hochschule Berlin, with a diploma in mechanical engineering. His early exposure to rocketry convinced him that the exploration of space would require far more applications of the current engineering technology. He also studied at ETH Zürich, although he worked mainly on military rockets in his later years there, space travel remained his primary interest. In 1930, von Braun attended a presentation given by Auguste Piccard, after the talk the young student approached the famous pioneer of high-altitude balloon flight, and stated to him, You know, I plan on traveling to the Moon at some time
38.
Space Age
–
The Space Age is a time period encompassing the activities related to the Space Race, space exploration, space technology, and the cultural developments influenced by these events. The Space Age is generally considered to have begun with Sputnik, the Space Age began with the development of several technologies that culminated on October 4,1957, with the launch of Sputnik 1 by the Soviet Union. This was the worlds first artificial satellite, orbiting the Earth in 98.1 minutes, the launch of Sputnik 1 ushered a new era of political, scientific and technological achievements that became known as the Space Age. The Space Age was characterized by development of new technology in a close race mostly between the US and the Soviet Union. Rapid advances were made in rocketry, materials science, computers, much of the technology originally developed for space applications has been spun off and found additional uses. The Space Age reached its peak with the Apollo program, that captured the imagination of much of the worlds population, the landing of Apollo 11 was watched by over 500 million people around the world and is widely recognized as one of the defining moments of the 20th century. Since then, public attention has moved to other areas. During the 1990s funding for space related programs fell sharply as the structures of the Soviet Union disintegrated. Since then participation in space launches has increasingly widened to more governments, since the 1990s, space exploration and space-related technologies gained a perception by many people of being commonplace. Several countries now have space programs, from related technology ventures to full-fledged space programs with launch facilities, there are many scientific and commercial satellites in use today, with thousands of satellites in orbit, and several countries have plans to send humans into space. The Space Age might also be considered to have much earlier than October 4,1957, because in June 1944. Since the aforementioned V-2 rocket flight was undertaken in secrecy, it was not public knowledge for years afterward. Having a rocket powerful enough to reach orbit meant that a nation had the ability to place a payload anywhere on the planet, or to use another term, possessed an inter-continental ballistic missile. The fact that such a development nowhere on the planet was safe from a nuclear warhead is why the orbit standard is used to define when the space age started. The Space Age is considered to have influenced, Automotive design Amusement park attraction including TWA Moonliner, cold War playground equipment Space Chronology 50th Anniversary of the Space Age & Sputnik, NASA
39.
Apollo 11
–
Apollo 11 was the spaceflight that landed the first two humans on the Moon. Mission commander Neil Armstrong and pilot Buzz Aldrin, both American, landed the lunar module Eagle on July 20,1969, at 20,18 UTC. Armstrong became the first to step onto the lunar surface six hours later on July 21 at 02,56,15 UTC and they spent about two and a quarter hours together outside the spacecraft, and collected 47.5 pounds of lunar material to bring back to Earth. Michael Collins piloted the command module Columbia alone in lunar orbit while they were on the Moons surface, Armstrong and Aldrin spent just under a day on the lunar surface before rendezvousing with Columbia in lunar orbit. Apollo 11 was launched by a Saturn V rocket from Kennedy Space Center in Merritt Island, Florida, on July 16, and was the fifth manned mission of NASAs Apollo program. After being sent toward the Moon by the Saturn Vs upper stage, Armstrong and Aldrin then moved into the lunar module Eagle and landed in the Sea of Tranquility. They stayed a total of about 21.5 hours on the lunar surface, the astronauts used Eagles upper stage to lift off from the lunar surface and rejoin Collins in the command module. They jettisoned Eagle before they performed the maneuvers that blasted them out of orbit on a trajectory back to Earth. They returned to Earth and landed in the Pacific Ocean on July 24, broadcast on live TV to a worldwide audience, Armstrong stepped onto the lunar surface and described the event as one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind. Apollo 11 was the second all-veteran multi-person crew in human spaceflight history, a previous solo veteran flight had been made on Soyuz 1 in 1967 by Soviet cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov. Collins was originally slated to be the Command Module Pilot on Apollo 8 but was removed when he required surgery on his back and was replaced by Jim Lovell, his backup for that flight. In early 1969, Anders accepted a job with the National Space Council effective August 1969, charlie Duke, Capsule Communicator Ronald Evans Owen K. Garriott Don L. Low to suggest the Apollo 11 crew be less flippant in naming their craft. During early mission planning, the names Snowcone and Haystack were used and put in the news release, the Command Module was named Columbia after the Columbiad, the giant cannon shell spacecraft fired by a giant cannon in Jules Vernes 1865 novel From the Earth to the Moon. The Lunar Module was named Eagle for the bird of the United States, the bald eagle. The Apollo 11 mission insignia was designed by Collins, who wanted a symbol for peaceful lunar landing by the United States and he chose an eagle as the symbol, put an olive branch in its beak, and drew a lunar background with the Earth in the distance. NASA officials said the talons of the eagle looked too warlike and after some discussion, All colors are natural, with blue and gold borders around the patch. When the Eisenhower dollar coin was released in 1971, the design provided the eagle for its reverse side. The design was used for the smaller Susan B
40.
Space Shuttle Columbia
–
Space Shuttle Columbia was the first space-rated orbiter in NASAs Space Shuttle fleet. It launched for the first time on mission STS-1 on April 12,1981, construction began on Columbia in 1975 at Rockwell Internationals principal assembly facility in Palmdale, California, a suburb of Los Angeles. It is also named after the Command Module of Apollo 11, Columbia was also the female symbol of the United States. After construction, the arrived at Kennedy Space Center on March 25,1979. Columbia was originally scheduled to lift off in late 1979, however the date was delayed by problems with both the SSME components, as well as the thermal protection system. On March 19,1981, during preparations for a ground test, workers were asphyxiated while working in Columbias nitrogen-purged aft engine compartment, resulting in two or three fatalities. Columbia spent 610 days in the Orbiter Processing Facility, another 35 days in the Vehicle Assembly Building, Columbia then undertook three further research missions to test its technical characteristics and performance. Its first operational mission, with a crew, was STS-5. At this point Columbia was joined by Challenger, which flew the next three missions, while Columbia underwent modifications for the first Spacelab mission. At that time the fleet was expanded to include Discovery. Columbia returned to space on January 12,1986, with the launch of STS-61-C, the missions crew included Dr. Franklin Chang-Diaz, as well as the first sitting member of the House of Representatives to venture into space, Bill Nelson. The next shuttle mission, STS-51-L, was undertaken by Challenger and it was launched on January 28,1986, ten days after STS-61-C had landed, and ended in disaster 73 seconds after launch. In the aftermath NASAs shuttle timetable was disrupted, and Columbia was not flown again until 1989, sTS-93, launched on July 23,1999, was the first U. S. space mission with a female commander, Lt. Col. Eileen Collins. This mission deployed the Chandra X-ray Observatory, Columbias final successful mission was STS-109, the fourth servicing mission for the Hubble Space Telescope. Its next mission, STS-107, culminated in the loss when it disintegrated during reentry. Consequently, President Bush decided to retire the Shuttle orbiter fleet by 2010 in favor of the Constellation program, the Constellation program was later cancelled with the NASA Authorization Act of 2010 signed by President Obama on October 11. Due to its weight, Columbia could not have used the planned Centaur-G booster, the retention of the internal airlock allowed NASA to use Columbia for the STS-109 Hubble Space Telescope servicing mission, along with the Spacehab double module used on STS-107. The upgrade also involved replacing many of the white LRSI tiles on the surfaces with Advanced Flexible Reusable Surface Insulation blankets that had been used on Discovery
41.
Mir
–
Mir was a space station that operated in low Earth orbit from 1986 to 2001, run by the Soviet Union and later by Russia. Mir was the first modular space station and was assembled in orbit from 1986 to 1996 and it had a greater mass than any previous spacecraft. At the time it was the largest artificial satellite in orbit and it holds the record for the longest single human spaceflight, with Valeri Polyakov spending 437 days and 18 hours on the station between 1994 and 1995. Mir was occupied for a total of twelve and a half out of its fifteen-year lifespan. Following the success of the Salyut programme, Mir represented the stage in the Soviet Unions space station programme. The first module of the station, known as the module or base block, was launched in 1986. Proton rockets were used to all of its components except for the docking module. When complete, the station consisted of seven pressurised modules and several unpressurised components, power was provided by several photovoltaic arrays attached directly to the modules. The station was maintained at an orbit between 296 km and 421 km altitude and traveled at an speed of 27,700 km/h. Mir was deorbited in March 2001 after funding was cut off, the cost of the Mir programme was estimated by former RKA General Director Yuri Koptev in 2001 as $4.2 billion over its lifetime. Mir was authorized on a 17 February 1976 decree, to design a model of the Salyut DOS-17K space stations. Four Salyut space stations had been launched since 1971, with three more being launched during Mirs development, by August 1978, this had evolved to the final configuration of one aft port and five ports in a spherical compartment at the forward end of the station. It was originally planned that the ports would connect to 7. 5-tonne modules derived from the Soyuz spacecraft and these modules would have used a Soyuz propulsion module, as in Soyuz and Progress, and the descent and orbital modules would have been replaced with a long laboratory module. However, following a February 1979 governmental resolution, the programme was consolidated with Vladimir Chelomeis manned Almaz military space station programme, the docking ports were reinforced to accommodate 20-tonne space station modules based on the TKS spacecraft. NPO Energia was responsible for the space station, with work subcontracted to KB Salyut, due to ongoing work on the Energia rocket and Salyut 7, Soyuz-T. KB Salyut began work in 1979, and drawings were released in 1982 and 1983, by early 1984, work on Mir had halted while all resources were being put into the Buran programme in order to prepare the Buran spacecraft for flight testing. Funding resumed in early 1984 when Valentin Glushko was ordered by the Central Committees Secretary for Space and Defence to orbit Mir by early 1986 and it was clear that the planned processing flow could not be followed and still meet the 1986 launch date. It was decided on Cosmonauts Day 1985 to ship the flight model of the block to the Baikonur cosmodrome and conduct the systems testing
42.
International Space Station
–
The International Space Station is a space station, or a habitable artificial satellite, in low Earth orbit. Its first component launched into orbit in 1998, and the ISS is now the largest man-made body in space, the ISS consists of pressurised modules, external trusses, solar arrays, and other components. ISS components have been launched by Russian Proton and Soyuz rockets, the ISS serves as a microgravity and space environment research laboratory in which crew members conduct experiments in biology, human biology, physics, astronomy, meteorology, and other fields. The station is suited for the testing of systems and equipment required for missions to the Moon. The ISS maintains an orbit with an altitude of between 330 and 435 km by means of reboost manoeuvres using the engines of the Zvezda module or visiting spacecraft and it completes 15.54 orbits per day. The ISS is the space station to be inhabited by crews, following the Soviet and later Russian Salyut, Almaz. The station has continuously occupied for 16 years and 156 days since the arrival of Expedition 1 on 2 November 2000. This is the longest continuous presence in low Earth orbit. It has been visited by astronauts, cosmonauts and space tourists from 17 different nations, Soyuz has very limited downmass capability. The ISS programme is a joint project among five participating space agencies, NASA, Roscosmos, JAXA, ESA, the ownership and use of the space station is established by intergovernmental treaties and agreements. The station is divided two sections, the Russian Orbital Segment and the United States Orbital Segment, which is shared by many nations. As of January 2014, the American portion of ISS is being funded until 2024, Roscosmos has endorsed the continued operation of ISS through 2024 but has proposed using elements of the Russian Orbital Segment to construct a new Russian space station called OPSEK. On 28 March 2015, Russian sources announced that Roscosmos and NASA had agreed to collaborate on the development of a replacement for the current ISS. NASA later issued a statement expressing thanks for Russias interest in future co-operation in space exploration. According to the original Memorandum of Understanding between NASA and Rosaviakosmos, the International Space Station was intended to be a laboratory, observatory and factory in low Earth orbit. It was also planned to provide transportation, maintenance, and act as a base for possible future missions to the Moon, Mars. In the 2010 United States National Space Policy, the ISS was given roles of serving commercial, diplomatic. The ISS provides a platform to conduct scientific research, the ISS simplifies individual experiments by eliminating the need for separate rocket launches and research staff
43.
Commercial use of space
–
Commercial use of space is the provision of goods or services of commercial value by using equipment sent into Earth orbit or outer space. Examples of the use of space include satellite navigation, satellite television. Operators of such services typically contract the manufacturing of satellites and their launch to private or public companies, some commercial ventures have long-terms plans to exploit natural resources originating outside Earth, for example asteroid mining. Space tourism, currently an exceptional activity, could also be an area of growth, as new businesses strive to reduce the costs. The first commercial use of space occurred in 1962, when the Telstar 1 satellite was launched to transmit television signals over the Atlantic ocean. By 2004, global investment in all sectors was estimated to be $50.8 billion. As of 2010, 31% of all launches were commercial. The first commercial use of satellites may have been the Telstar 1 satellite, launched in 1962, Telstar 1 was capable of relaying television signals across the Atlantic Ocean, and was the first satellite to transmit live television, telephone, fax, and other data signals. Two years later, the Hughes Aircraft Company developed the Syncom 3 satellite, Commercial possibilities of satellites were further realized when the Syncom 3, orbiting near the International Date Line, was used to telecast the 1964 Olympic Games from Tokyo to the United States. Between 1960 and 1966, NASA launched a series of weather satellites known as Television Infrared Observation Satellites. These satellites greatly advanced meteorology worldwide, as satellite imagery was used for better forecasting, on April 6,1965, the Hughes Aircraft Company placed the Intelsat I communications satellite geosynchronous orbit over the Atlantic Ocean. Intelsat I was built for the Communications Satellite Corporation, and demonstrated that satellite-based communication was commercially feasible, Intelsat I allowed for near-instantaneous contact between Europe and North America by handling television, telephone and fax transmissions. Two years later, the Soviet Union launched the Orbita satellite, which provided television signals across Russia, similarly, the 1972 Anik A satellite, launched by Telesat Canada, allowed the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation to reach northern Canada for the first time. The commercial space transportation industry derives the bulk of its revenue from the launching of satellites into the Earth’s orbit, Commercial launch providers typically place private and government satellites into low Earth orbit and geosynchronous Earth orbit. In 2002, commercial space transportation generated 6.6 billion dollars, Launch sites within Russia and China have added to the global commercial launch capacity. The Delta IV and Atlas V family of vehicles are made available for commercial ventures for the United States. The three largest Russian systems are the Proton, Soyuz, and Zenit, between 1996 and 2002,245 launches were made for commercial ventures while government launches only total 167 for the same period. Commercial space flight has spurred investment into the development of an efficient reusable launch vehicle which can place payloads into orbit
44.
Space tourism
–
Space tourism is space travel for recreational, leisure or business purposes. To date only orbital space tourism has taken place provided by the Russian Space Agency, some space tourists have signed contracts with third parties to conduct certain research activities while in orbit. Orbital tourist flights were set to resume in 2015 but one planned was postponed indefinitely, as an alternative term to tourism, some organizations such as the Commercial Spaceflight Federation use the term personal spaceflight. The Citizens in Space project uses the term citizen space exploration, the Soviet space program was aggressive in broadening the pool of cosmonauts. The Soviet Intercosmos program included cosmonauts selected from Warsaw Pact members and later allies of the USSR. Most of these cosmonauts received full training for their missions and were treated as equals, the European Space Agency took advantage of the program as well. The U. S. space shuttle program included payload specialist positions which were filled by representatives of companies or institutions managing a specific payload on that mission. These payload specialists did not receive the training as professional NASA astronauts and were not employed by NASA. In 1983, Ulf Merbold from ESA and Byron Lichtenberg from MIT were the first payload specialists to fly on the Space Shuttle, in 1984, Charles D. Walker became the first non-government astronaut to fly, with his employer McDonnell Douglas paying $40,000 for his flight. NASA was also eager to prove its capability to Congressional sponsors, senator Jake Garn was flown on the Shuttle in 1985, followed by Representative Bill Nelson in 1986. During the 1970s, Shuttle prime contractor Rockwell International studied a $200–300 million removable cabin that could fit into the Shuttles cargo bay, the cabin could carry up to 74 passengers into orbit for up to three days. Space Habitation Design Associates proposed, in 1983, a cabin for 72 passengers in the bay, passengers were located in six sections, each with windows and its own loading ramp, and with seats in different configurations for launch and landing. Another proposal was based on the Spacelab habitation modules, which provided 32 seats in the bay in addition to those in the cockpit area. The presentation also forecast flights to orbit within 30 years. As the shuttle program expanded in the early 1980s, NASA began a Space Flight Participant program to allow citizens without scientific or governmental roles to fly, Christa McAuliffe was chosen as the first Teacher in Space in July 1985 from 11,400 applicants. 1,700 applied for the Journalist in Space program, including Walter Cronkite, Tom Brokaw, Tom Wolfe, an Artist in Space program was considered, and NASA expected that after McAuliffes flight two to three civilians a year would fly on the shuttle. After McAuliffe was killed in the Challenger disaster in January 1986 the programs were canceled, McAuliffes backup, Barbara Morgan, eventually got hired in 1998 as a professional astronaut and flew on STS-118 as a mission specialist. A second journalist-in-space program, in which NASA green-lighted Miles OBrien to fly on the shuttle, was scheduled to be announced in 2003
45.
Aerospace manufacturer
–
Aerospace is a high technology industry. In Russia, large companies like Oboronprom and the United Aircraft Corporation are among the major global players in this industry. In the United States, the Department of Defense and NASA are the two biggest consumers of technology and products. By 1999 U. S. share of the market fell to 52 percent. Important locations of the aerospace industry worldwide include Seattle, Wichita, Kansas, Dayton, Ohio. Several consolidations took place in the aerospace and defense industries over the last few decades, between 1988 and 2010, more than 5,452 mergers & acquisitions with a total known-value of US$579 billion were announced worldwide. The largest transactions include the merger of Boeing with McDonnell Douglas valued at US$13.3 billion in 1996, marconi Electronic Systems, a subsidiary of the General Electric Company plc, was acquired by British Aerospace for US$12.3 billion in 1999 merger, to forme BAE Systems. Raytheon acquired Hughes Aircraft Company for $9.5 billion in 1997, Aerospace Aviation accidents and incidents List of aircraft manufacturers List of spacecraft manufacturers Aerospace Industries Association Associação das Indústrias Aeroespaciais do Brasil
