1.
American Revolution
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The British responded by imposing punitive laws on Massachusetts in 1774 known as the Coercive Acts, following which Patriots in the other colonies rallied behind Massachusetts. Tensions escalated to the outbreak of fighting between Patriot militia and British regulars at Lexington and Concord in April 1775, the conflict then developed into a global war, during which the Patriots fought the British and Loyalists in what became known as the American Revolutionary War. The Continental Congress determined King George IIIs rule to be tyrannical and infringing the rights as Englishmen. The Patriot leadership professed the political philosophies of liberalism and republicanism to reject monarchy and aristocracy, Congress rejected British proposals requiring allegiance to the monarchy and abandonment of independence. The British were forced out of Boston in 1776, but then captured and they blockaded the ports and captured other cities for brief periods, but failed to defeat Washingtons forces. After a failed Patriot invasion of Canada, a British army was captured at the Battle of Saratoga in late 1777, a combined American–French force captured a second British army at Yorktown in 1781, effectively ending the war in the United States. The Treaty of Paris in 1783 formally ended the conflict, confirming the new nations complete separation from the British Empire. The United States took possession of all the territory east of the Mississippi River and south of the Great Lakes, with the British retaining control of Canada. Among the significant results of the revolution was the creation of a new Constitution of the United States. Historians typically begin their histories of the American Revolution with the British victory in the French and Indian War in 1763, the lands west of Quebec and west of a line running along the crest of the Allegheny mountains became Indian territory, temporarily barred to settlement. For the prior history, see Thirteen Colonies, in 1764, Parliament passed the Currency Act to restrain the use of paper money which British merchants saw as a means to evade debt payments. Parliament also passed the Sugar Act, imposing customs duties on a number of articles, none did and Parliament passed the Stamp Act in March 1765 which imposed direct taxes on the colonies for the first time. All official documents, newspapers, almanacs, and pamphlets—even decks of playing cards—were required to have the stamps, the colonists did not object that the taxes were high, but because they had no representation in the Parliament. Benjamin Franklin testified in Parliament in 1766 that Americans already contributed heavily to the defense of the Empire, stationing a standing army in Great Britain during peacetime was politically unacceptable. London had to deal with 1,500 politically well-connected British officers who became redundant, in 1765, the Sons of Liberty formed. They used public demonstrations, boycott, violence, and threats of violence to ensure that the British tax laws were unenforceable, in Boston, the Sons of Liberty burned the records of the vice admiralty court and looted the home of chief justice Thomas Hutchinson. Several legislatures called for united action, and nine colonies sent delegates to the Stamp Act Congress in New York City in October 1765, moderates led by John Dickinson drew up a Declaration of Rights and Grievances stating that taxes passed without representation violated their rights as Englishmen. Colonists emphasized their determination by boycotting imports of British merchandise, the Parliament at Westminster saw itself as the supreme lawmaking authority throughout all British possessions and thus entitled to levy any tax without colonial approval
2.
Patriot (American Revolution)
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Patriots were those colonists of the Thirteen Colonies who rebelled against British control during the American Revolution and in July 1776 declared the United States of America an independent nation. Their rebellion was based on the philosophy of republicanism, as expressed by spokesmen such as Thomas Jefferson, John Adams. They were opposed by the Loyalists who instead supported continued British rule, as a group, Patriots represented a wide array of social, economic and ethnic backgrounds. The critics of British rule called themselves Whigs after 1768, identifying members of the British Whig party. The Oxford English Dictionary third definition of Patriot is A person actively opposing enemy forces occupying his or her country, a member of a resistance movement, originally used of those who opposed and fought the British in the American War of Independence. The earliest citation is a 1773 letter by Benjamin Franklin, in Britain at the time, patriot had a negative connotation, and was used, says Samuel Johnson as a negative epithet for a factious disturber of the government. During the Revolution these persons became known primarily as Loyalists, afterward, many emigrated north to the remaining British territories in what is now modern Canada. There they called themselves the United Empire Loyalists, many Patriots were active before 1775 in groups such as the Sons of Liberty. The most prominent leaders of the Patriots are referred to today by Americans as the Founding Fathers, the Patriots came from many different backgrounds. Among the most active of the Patriots group were highly educated, however, without the support of the ordinary men and women, such as farmers, lawyers, merchants, seamstresses, homemakers, shopkeepers, and ministers, the struggle for independence would have failed. With a white population of about 2.5 million, that makes about 380,000 to 500,000 Loyalists, the great majority of them remained in America, since only about 80,000 Loyalists left the United States 1775–1783. They went to Canada, Britain, Florida or the West Indies, to understand how people made the choice between being a Patriot or a Loyalist, historians have compared the motivations and personalities of leading men on each side. Labaree has identified eight characteristics that differentiated the two groups, psychologically, Loyalists were older, better established, and more likely to resist innovation than the Patriots. Men who were alienated by physical attacks on Royal officials took the Loyalist position, most men who wanted to find a compromise solution wound up on the Loyalist side, while the proponents of immediate action became Patriots. Some Loyalists were procrastinators who believed that independence was bound to some day, but wanted to postpone the moment. Loyalists were cautious and afraid of anarchy or tyranny that might come from mob rule, Patriots made an effort to use. Finally, Labaree argues that Loyalists were pessimists who lacked the Patriots confidence that independence lay ahead, the Patriot faction came to reject taxes imposed by legislatures in which the tax-payer was not represented. No taxation without representation, was their slogan, referring to the lack of representation in the British Parliament, the British countered there was virtual representation, that is, all members of Parliament represented the interests of all the citizens of the British Empire
3.
Bounty (reward)
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A bounty is a payment or reward often offered by a group as an incentive for the accomplishment of a task by someone usually not associated with the group. Bounties are most commonly issued for the capture or retrieval of a person or object and they are typically in the form of money. By definition bounties can be retracted at any time by whomever issued them, two modern examples of bounties are the bounty placed for the capture of Saddam Hussein and his sons by the United States government and Microsofts bounty for computer virus creators. Those who make a living by pursuing bounties are known as bounty hunters, a bounty system was used in the American Civil War. It was an incentive to increase enlistments, another bounty system was used in New South Wales to increase the number of immigrants from 1832. Bounties were sometimes paid as rewards for killing Native Americans, in 1862, a farmer received a $500 bounty for shooting Taoyateduta. In 1856 Governor Isaac Stevens put a bounty on the head of Indians from Eastern Washington, $20 for ordinary Indians and $80 for a chief. In Australia in 1824, a bounty of 500 acres of land was offered for capturing alive the Wiradjuri warrior Windradyne, a week after the bounty being offered the word alive was dropped from the reward notices, however he was neither captured nor betrayed by his people. Bounties have been offered on animals deemed undesirable by particular governments or corporations, in Tasmania, the thylacine was relentlessly hunted to extinction based on such schemes. Gray wolves too were extirpated from much of the present United States by bounty hunters, since after the Restoration criminality was increasing, the dissatisfaction with the penal system led to the implementation of the rewards. £10 were promised to anyone who gave information about a robber or burglar, between 1660 and 1692 Parliament introduced a series of statutes that offered rewards up to £40. Under William III the rewards became an element in the fight against crime. As it was written in the legislation of 1692, when a statutory reward overlapped a proclamation, prosecuting or convicting of a highway robber could be worth £140 a head, £240 for a pair or £420 for a three-person group. These were huge sums at the time when an artisan earned about £20, supplementary reward was part of the administration of the law for six years, then with the death of George I it came to an end. After two years, in February 1728 a new proclamation reinstated the £100 reward by respecting the original terms, private parties were also free to offer rewards in addition to rewards by proclamations, then this practice was taken up by governmental departments and local authorities. In 1716, Robert Griffith was indicted for stealing from Thomas Brooks, one watch, value £51. She offered a reward of £15 to anyone who gave information about the robber, the reward was received by Mr. Holder, after he brought Mrs. Smith the silver watch that was stolen. In 1732 Henry Carey offered a reward of 2 guineas for the securing of Richard Marshall, Marshall together with Mary Horsenail and Amy Mason were indicted for breaking and entering the house of Mr. Carey in Dorrington-street
4.
Crispus Attucks
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Crispus Attucks was the first person killed in the Boston massacre, in Boston, Massachusetts, and is widely considered to be the first American casualty in the American Revolutionary War. Aside from the event of his death, along with Samuel Gray and James Caldwell and he was probably a Native American slave or freeman, merchant seaman and dockworker of Wampanoag and African descent. Some circumstantial evidence suggests that his father may have been Prince Yonger, an African-born slave and his mother, Nanny Peterattucks, despite the lack of clarity, Attucks became an icon of the anti-slavery movement in the mid-19th century. He was held up as the first martyr of the American Revolution, in the 1850s, as the abolitionist movement gained momentum in Boston, supporters lauded Attucks as an African American who played a heroic role in the history of the United States. Historians disagree on whether Crispus Attucks was a man or an escaped slave. Because of his heritage, his story is also significant for Native Americans. Attucks appears to have born in Framingham, Massachusetts. While nothing is known with certainty about Attuckss family, some speculate that his father married a woman who originated from the Natick Tribe. Framingham had a population of black inhabitants from at least 1716. Attucks was almost certainly of mixed African and Native American parentage and many assume he was descended from John Attuck of Massachusetts, in 1750 William Brown, a slave-owner in Framingham, advertised for the return of a runaway slave named Crispas. In the advertisement, Brown describes what Attucks looked like and was wearing when he was last seen and he also said that a reward of 10 pounds would be given to whoever found and returned Attucks to him. Attuckss status at the time of the massacre as either a black or a runaway slave has been a matter of debate for historians. What is known is that Attucks became a sailor and he spent much of the remainder of his life at sea or working around the docks along the Atlantic seaboard, many historians also believe that he went by the alias Michael Johnson in order to avoid being caught. He may only have been temporarily in Boston in early 1770, radical Whigs had coordinated waterfront mobs against the authorities. The presence of troops, instead of reducing tensions, served to inflame them. After dusk on March 5,1770, a crowd of colonists confronted a sentry who had chastised a boy for complaining that an officer did not pay a barber bill, both townspeople and a company of British soldiers of the 29th Regiment of Foot gathered. The colonists threw snowballs and debris at the soldiers, Attucks and a group of men with Attucks approached the Old State House armed with clubs. A soldier was struck with a piece of wood, an act some witnesses claimed was done by Attucks, other witnesses stated that Attucks was leaning upon a stick when the soldiers opened fire
5.
Boston Massacre
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The Boston Massacre, known as the Incident on King Street by the British, was an incident on March 5,1770, in which British Army soldiers shot and killed people while under attack by a mob. The incident was publicized by leading Patriots, such as Paul Revere and Samuel Adams. Amid ongoing tense relations between the population and the soldiers, a mob formed around a British sentry, who was subjected to verbal abuse and he was eventually supported by eight additional soldiers, who were subjected to verbal threats and snowballs. Spontaneously they fired into the crowd, instantly killing three demonstrators, two died later. The crowd eventually dispersed after Acting Governor Thomas Hutchinson promised an inquiry, eight soldiers, one officer, and four civilians were arrested and charged with murder. Defended by lawyer and future American president John Adams, six of the soldiers were acquitted, Boston, the capital of the Province of Massachusetts Bay and an important shipping town, was a major center of resistance to unpopular acts of taxation by the British Parliament in the 1760s. In 1768, the Townshend Acts were placed upon the colonists, by which a variety of items that were manufactured in Britain. Colonists objected that the Townshend Acts were a violation of the natural, charter, the Massachusetts House of Representatives began a campaign against the Townshend Acts by sending a petition to King George III asking for the repeal of the Townshend Revenue Act. In Great Britain, Lord Hillsborough, who had recently appointed to the newly created office of Colonial Secretary, was alarmed by the actions of the Massachusetts House. In April 1768 he sent a letter to the governors in America. He also ordered Massachusetts Governor Francis Bernard to direct the Massachusetts House to rescind the letter. Bostons chief customs officer, Charles Paxton, wrote to Hillsborough, commodore Samuel Hood responded by sending the fifty-gun warship HMS Romney, which arrived in Boston Harbor in May 1768. On June 10,1768, customs officials seized Liberty, a sloop owned by leading Boston merchant John Hancock, Bostonians, already angry because the captain of Romney had been impressing local sailors, began to riot. Customs officials fled to Castle William for protection, given the unstable state of affairs in Massachusetts, Hillsborough instructed General Thomas Gage, Commander-in-Chief, North America, to send such Force as You shall think necessary to Boston. On October 1,1768, the first of four British Army regiments began disembarking in Boston, two regiments were removed from Boston in 1769, but the 14th and the 29th Regiments of Foot remained. Tensions rose markedly after Christopher Seider, a lad about eleven Years of Age, was killed by a customs employee on February 22,1770. Seiders death was glorified in the Boston Gazette, and his funeral was described as one of the largest of the time in Boston, the killing and subsequent propaganda inflamed tensions, with gangs of colonists looking for soldiers to harass, and soldiers also on occasion looking for confrontation. On the evening of March 5, Private Hugh White, a British soldier, stood on duty outside the Custom house on King Street
6.
John Henry Bufford
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John Henry Bufford was a lithographer in 19th-century Boston, Massachusetts. Bufford trained in the Pendleton shop in Boston from 1829 to 1831, according to one historian, Buffords work as a lithographer represented a mediocre sort of craftmanship at best. He had no very special skills as original artist and gravitated to management. In 1835 he moved to New York, where he worked independently for five years while accepting commissions from George Endicott, Bufford returned to Boston in 1839, and became chief artist in the print shop owned by Benjamin W. Thayer. By 1844, the name changed to J. H. Bufford & Co. lithographic portraits copied from daguerreotypes. Artists who worked for Bufford included Francis DAvignon, Winslow Homer, clients included music publisher William H. Oakes. In the 1840s-1860s Bufford lived in Roxbury and worked on Washington Street, J. H. Bufford & Co. 204-206 Washington St. J. H. Bufford,260 Washington St. Buffords Lithographic & Publishing House, after Buffords death in 1870, his sons Frank G. Bufford and John Henry Bufford, Jr. continued the business. Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society, works by or about John Henry Bufford at Internet Archive James Otto Lewis. The history of Temple, N. H, were done by John H. Bufford, from sketches by himself. Boston Public Library, Norman B. Leventhal Map Center, owns several maps printed by Bufford, prints & Photographs Division owns materiala related to Bufford. Boston Athenaeum owns numerous works by J. H. Bufford & Co, Boston, Buffords Print Publishing House,1863
7.
Minutemen
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They were also known for being ready at a minutes notice, hence the name. They provided a mobile, rapidly deployed force that allowed the colonies to respond immediately to war threats. The minutemen were among the first to fight in the American Revolution and their teams constituted about a quarter of the entire militia. They were generally younger and more mobile, and served as part of a network for early response, Minuteman and Sons of Liberty member Paul Revere was among those who spread the news that the British Regulars were coming out from Boston. Revere was captured before completing his mission when the British marched toward the arsenal in Concord to confiscate the weapons, the term has also been applied to various later United States civilian-based paramilitary forces to recall the success and patriotism of the originals. In the British colony of Massachusetts Bay, all able-bodied men between the ages of 16 and 60 were required to participate in their local militia. As early as 1645 in the Massachusetts Bay Colony, some men were selected from the ranks of town-based training bands to be ready for rapid deployment. Men so selected were designated as minutemen and they were usually drawn from settlers of each town, and so it was very common for them to be fighting alongside relatives and friends. Other towns, such as Lexington, preferred to keep their entire militia in a single unit, members of the minutemen, by contrast, were no more than 30 years old, and were chosen for their enthusiasm, political reliability, and strength. They were the first armed militia to arrive at or await a battle, officers were elected by popular vote, as in the rest of the militia, and each unit drafted a formal written covenant to be signed upon enlistment. In this organization, it was common for officers to make decisions through consultation and consensus with their men, as opposed to giving orders to be followed without question. These minute-men were to comprise one-quarter of the militia, to be enlisted under the direction of the field-officers. The privates were to choose their captains and subalterns, and these officers were to form the companies into battalions, and chose the field-officers to command the same. Hence the minute-men became a distinct from the rest of the militia. More attention than formerly was likewise bestowed on the training and drilling of militia, the need for efficient minuteman companies was illustrated by the Powder Alarm of 1774. Militia companies were called out to resist British troops, who were sent to capture ammunition stores, by the time the militia was ready, the British regulars had already captured the arms at Cambridge and Charlestown and had returned to Boston. In August 1636, the first offensive attack by militias failed when Massachusetts dispatched John Endecott with four companies on an unsuccessful campaign against the Pequot Indians. According to one account, the expedition succeeded only in killing one Indian
8.
Native Americans in the United States
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In the United States, Native Americans are people descended from the Pre-Columbian indigenous population of the land within the countrys modern boundaries. These peoples were composed of distinct tribes, bands, and ethnic groups. Most Native American groups had historically preserved their histories by oral traditions and artwork, at the time of first contact, the indigenous cultures were quite different from those of the proto-industrial and mostly Christian immigrants. Some of the Northeastern and Southwestern cultures in particular were matrilineal, the majority of Indigenous American tribes maintained their hunting grounds and agricultural lands for use of the entire tribe. Europeans at that time had patriarchal cultures and had developed concepts of property rights with respect to land that were extremely different. Assimilation became a consistent policy through American administrations, during the 19th century, the ideology of manifest destiny became integral to the American nationalist movement. Expansion of European-American populations to the west after the American Revolution resulted in increasing pressure on Native American lands and this resulted in the ethnic cleansing of many tribes, with the brutal, forced marches coming to be known as The Trail of Tears. As American expansion reached into the West, settler and miner migrants came into increasing conflict with the Great Basin, Great Plains and these were complex nomadic cultures based on horse culture and seasonal bison hunting. Over time, the United States forced a series of treaties and land cessions by the tribes, in 1924, Native Americans who were not already U. S. citizens were granted citizenship by Congress. Contemporary Native Americans have a relationship with the United States because they may be members of nations, tribes. The terms used to refer to Native Americans have at times been controversial, by comparison, the indigenous peoples of Canada are generally known as First Nations. It is not definitively known how or when the Native Americans first settled the Americas and these early inhabitants, called Paleoamericans, soon diversified into many hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes. The archaeological periods used are the classifications of archaeological periods and cultures established in Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips 1958 book Method and they divided the archaeological record in the Americas into five phases, see Archaeology of the Americas. The Clovis culture, a hunting culture, is primarily identified by use of fluted spear points. Artifacts from this culture were first excavated in 1932 near Clovis, the Clovis culture ranged over much of North America and also appeared in South America. The culture is identified by the distinctive Clovis point, a flaked flint spear-point with a notched flute, dating of Clovis materials has been by association with animal bones and by the use of carbon dating methods. Recent reexaminations of Clovis materials using improved carbon-dating methods produced results of 11,050 and 10,800 radiocarbon years B. P, other tribes have stories that recount migrations across long tracts of land and a great river, believed to be the Mississippi River. Genetic and linguistic data connect the people of this continent with ancient northeast Asians
9.
Massachusetts
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It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island to the south, New Hampshire and Vermont to the north, and New York to the west. The state is named for the Massachusett tribe, which inhabited the area. The capital of Massachusetts and the most populous city in New England is Boston, over 80% of Massachusetts population lives in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, a region influential upon American history, academia, and industry. Originally dependent on agriculture, fishing and trade, Massachusetts was transformed into a manufacturing center during the Industrial Revolution, during the 20th century, Massachusetts economy shifted from manufacturing to services. Modern Massachusetts is a leader in biotechnology, engineering, higher education, finance. Plymouth was the site of the first colony in New England, founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, in 1692, the town of Salem and surrounding areas experienced one of Americas most infamous cases of mass hysteria, the Salem witch trials. In 1777, General Henry Knox founded the Springfield Armory, which during the Industrial Revolution catalyzed numerous important technological advances, in 1786, Shays Rebellion, a populist revolt led by disaffected American Revolutionary War veterans, influenced the United States Constitutional Convention. In the 18th century, the Protestant First Great Awakening, which swept the Atlantic World, in the late 18th century, Boston became known as the Cradle of Liberty for the agitation there that led to the American Revolution. The entire Commonwealth of Massachusetts has played a commercial and cultural role in the history of the United States. Before the American Civil War, Massachusetts was a center for the abolitionist, temperance, in the late 19th century, the sports of basketball and volleyball were invented in the western Massachusetts cities of Springfield and Holyoke, respectively. Many prominent American political dynasties have hailed from the state, including the Adams, both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also in Cambridge, have been ranked among the most highly regarded academic institutions in the world. Massachusetts public school students place among the top nations in the world in academic performance, the official name of the state is the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. While this designation is part of the official name, it has no practical implications. Massachusetts has the position and powers within the United States as other states. Massachusetts was originally inhabited by tribes of the Algonquian language family such as the Wampanoag, Narragansett, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Mahican, and Massachusett. While cultivation of crops like squash and corn supplemented their diets, villages consisted of lodges called wigwams as well as longhouses, and tribes were led by male or female elders known as sachems. Between 1617 and 1619, smallpox killed approximately 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans, the first English settlers in Massachusetts, the Pilgrims, arrived via the Mayflower at Plymouth in 1620, and developed friendly relations with the native Wampanoag people. This was the second successful permanent English colony in the part of North America that later became the United States, the event known as the First Thanksgiving was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World which lasted for three days
10.
Militia
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For instance, the members of some U. S. Army National Guard units are considered professional soldiers, as they are trained to maintain the same standards as their full-time counterparts. Militias thus can be military or paramilitary, depending on the instance, some of the contexts in which the term militia is used include, Forces engaged in defense activity or service, to protect a community, its territory, property, and laws. The entire able-bodied population of a community, town, county, or state, a subset of these who may be legally penalized for failing to respond to a call-up. A subset of these who actually respond to a call-up, regardless of legal obligation, a private, non-government force, not necessarily directly supported or sanctioned by its government. An irregular armed force enabling its leader to exercise military, economic, an official reserve army, composed of citizen soldiers. Called by various names in different countries, such as the Army Reserve, National Guard, the national police forces in several former communist states such as the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact countries, but also in the non-aligned SFR Yugoslavia. The term was inherited in Russia and other former CIS countries, in France the equivalent term Milice has become tainted due to its use by notorious collaborators with Nazi Germany. A select militia is composed of a small, non-representative portion of the population, as regular military forces were insufficient to counter the British attackers, Santiago de Liniers drafted all males in the city capable of bearing arms into the military. These recruits included the peoples, who ranked low down in the social hierarchy. With these reinforcements, the British armies were twice defeated, the militias became a strong factor in the politics of the city afterwards, as a springboard from which the criollos could manifest their political ambitions. They were a key element in the success of the May Revolution, a decree by Mariano Moreno derogated the system of promotions involving criollos, allowing instead their promotion on military merit. The Argentine Civil War was waged by militias again, as both federalists and unitarians drafted common people into their ranks as part of ongoing conflicts and these irregular armies were organized at a provincial level, and assembled as leagues depending on political pacts. This system had declined by the 1870s, mainly due to the establishment of the modern Argentine Army, provincial militias were outlawed and decimated by the new army throughout the presidential terms of Mitre, Sarmiento, Avellaneda and Roca. Armenian militia also played a role in the Georgia-Abkhazia War of 1992–1993, in the Colony of New South Wales Governor Lachlan Macquarie proposed a colonial militia but the idea was rejected. Governor Ralph Darling felt a mounted force was more efficient than a militia. A military volunteer movement attracted wide interest during the Crimean War, following Federation, the various military reserve forces of the Commonwealth of Australia became the Citizen Military Force. In the beginning, members didnt have uniforms and often paraded in business attire and they were given instruction on guerrilla warfare, and later the private organization was taken over by the Australian Government and became part of the Australian Military Forces. After World War I, multiple militias formed as soldiers returned home to their villages, only to many of them occupied by Slovene
11.
Boston
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Boston is the capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. Boston is also the seat of Suffolk County, although the county government was disbanded on July 1,1999. The city proper covers 48 square miles with a population of 667,137 in 2015, making it the largest city in New England. Alternately, as a Combined Statistical Area, this wider commuting region is home to some 8.1 million people, One of the oldest cities in the United States, Boston was founded on the Shawmut Peninsula in 1630 by Puritan settlers from England. It was the scene of several key events of the American Revolution, such as the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Siege of Boston. Upon U. S. independence from Great Britain, it continued to be an important port and manufacturing hub as well as a center for education, through land reclamation and municipal annexation, Boston has expanded beyond the original peninsula. Its rich history attracts many tourists, with Faneuil Hall alone drawing over 20 million visitors per year, Bostons many firsts include the United States first public school, Boston Latin School, first subway system, the Tremont Street Subway, and first public park, Boston Common. Bostons economic base also includes finance, professional and business services, biotechnology, information technology, the city has one of the highest costs of living in the United States as it has undergone gentrification, though it remains high on world livability rankings. Bostons early European settlers had first called the area Trimountaine but later renamed it Boston after Boston, Lincolnshire, England, the renaming on September 7,1630 was by Puritan colonists from England who had moved over from Charlestown earlier that year in quest of fresh water. Their settlement was limited to the Shawmut Peninsula, at that time surrounded by the Massachusetts Bay and Charles River. The peninsula is thought to have been inhabited as early as 5000 BC, in 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Colonys first governor John Winthrop led the signing of the Cambridge Agreement, a key founding document of the city. Puritan ethics and their focus on education influenced its early history, over the next 130 years, the city participated in four French and Indian Wars, until the British defeated the French and their Indian allies in North America. Boston was the largest town in British America until Philadelphia grew larger in the mid-18th century, Bostons harbor activity was significantly curtailed by the Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812. Foreign trade returned after these hostilities, but Bostons merchants had found alternatives for their investments in the interim. Manufacturing became an important component of the economy, and the citys industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance by the mid-19th century. Boston remained one of the nations largest manufacturing centers until the early 20th century, a network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region facilitated shipment of goods and led to a proliferation of mills and factories. Later, a network of railroads furthered the regions industry. Boston was a port of the Atlantic triangular slave trade in the New England colonies
12.
Framingham, Massachusetts
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Framingham is a town in Middlesex County, Massachusetts, United States. The population was 68,318 as of the United States 2010 Census, founded in 1700, Framingham was placed at #36 on Best Places to Live in US by CNN Money magazine in 2012. Framingham, sited on the ancient trail known as the Old Connecticut Path, was first settled when John Stone settled on the west bank of the Sudbury River in 1647. In 1660, Thomas Danforth, an official of the Bay Colony, formerly of Framlingham, Suffolk, received a grant of land at Danforths Farms and he strenuously resisted petitions for incorporation of the town, which was officially incorporated in 1700, following his death the previous year. Why the L was dropped from the new name is not known. The first church was organized in 1701, the first teacher was hired in 1706, on February 22,1775, the British general Thomas Gage sent two officers and an enlisted man out of Boston to survey the route to Worcester, Massachusetts. In Framingham, those spies stopped at Buckminsters Tavern and they watched the town militia muster outside the building, impressed with the mens numbers but not their discipline. Though the whole company came into the tavern after their drill, Gage did not order a march along that route, instead ordering troops to Concord, Massachusetts, on April 18–19. Framingham sent two companies totaling about 130 men into the Battles of Lexington and Concord that followed. In the years prior to the American Civil War, Framingham was an annual gathering-spot for members of the abolitionist movement, each Independence Day from 1854 to 1865, the Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society held a rally in a picnic area called Harmony Grove near what is now downtown Framingham. At the 1854 rally, William Lloyd Garrison burned copies of the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850, judicial decisions enforcing it, other prominent abolitionists present that day included William Cooper Nell, Sojourner Truth, Wendell Phillips, Lucy Stone, and Henry David Thoreau. During the post–World War II baby boom, Framingham, like many suburban areas, experienced a large increase in population. Much of the housing constructed during that time consisted of split-level, in 2000, Framingham celebrated its Tercentennial. Framingham is located at 42°17′59″N 71°25′35″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 26.4 square miles. 25.1 square miles of it is land and 1.3 square miles of it is water, Framingham is located in eastern Massachusetts,20 miles west of Boston, midway between Boston and Worcester. It is bordered by Southborough and Marlborough on the west, Sherborn and Ashland on the south, Natick on the east, Wayland on the northeast, the town of Framingham is divided by Route 9, which passes east-to-west through the middle of the town. South Framingham includes Downtown Framingham, and the villages of Coburnville, Lokerville, North Framingham includes the villages of Nobscot, Pinefield, Ridgefield, and Saxonville plus Framingham Center. As of the census of 2010, there were 68,318 people,27,529 households, the population density was 2,663.6 people per square mile
13.
Battles of Lexington and Concord
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The Battles of Lexington and Concord were the first military engagements of the American Revolutionary War. The battles were fought on April 19,1775, in Middlesex County, Province of Massachusetts Bay, within the towns of Lexington, Concord, Lincoln, Menotomy, and Cambridge, near Boston. The battles marked the outbreak of armed conflict between the Kingdom of Great Britain and thirteen of its colonies on the mainland of British America. In late 1774 the Suffolk Resolves were adopted to resist the enforcement of the made to the Massachusetts colonial government by the British parliament following the Boston Tea Party. The colonial assembly responded by forming a Patriot provisional government known as the Massachusetts Provincial Congress, the rebel government exercised effective control of the colony outside of British-controlled Boston. In response, the British government in February 1775 declared Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion, through effective intelligence gathering, Patriot colonials had received word weeks before the expedition that their supplies might be at risk and had moved most of them to other locations. They also received details about British plans on the night before the battle and were able to notify the area militias of the British expedition. The first shots were fired just as the sun was rising at Lexington, the militia were outnumbered and fell back, and the regulars proceeded on to Concord, where they broke apart into companies to search for the supplies. At the North Bridge in Concord, approximately 400 militiamen engaged 100 regulars from three companies of the Kings troops at about 11,00 am, resulting in casualties on both sides. The outnumbered regulars fell back from the bridge and rejoined the body of British forces in Concord. The British forces began their march to Boston after completing their search for military supplies. Gunfire erupted again between the two sides and continued throughout the day as the regulars marched back towards Boston, upon returning to Lexington, Lt. Col. Smiths expedition was rescued by reinforcements under Brigadier General Hugh Percy, a future duke of Northumberland known as Earl Percy. The combined force, now of about 1,700 men, marched back to Boston under heavy fire in a tactical withdrawal, the accumulated militias blockaded the narrow land accesses to Charlestown and Boston, starting the Siege of Boston. Ralph Waldo Emerson, in his Concord Hymn, described the first shot fired by the Patriots at the North Bridge as the shot heard round the world, Gages plan was to avoid conflict by removing military supplies from Whig militias using small, secret, and rapid strikes. This struggle for supplies led to one British success and several rebel successes in a series of nearly bloodless conflicts known as the Powder Alarms. Gage considered himself to be a friend of liberty and attempted to separate his duties as Governor of the colony, edmund Burke described Gages conflicted relationship with Massachusetts by saying in Parliament, An Englishman is the unfittest person on Earth to argue another Englishman into slavery. The colonists had been forming militias since the 17th century, initially for local defense against Indian attacks and these forces also saw action in the French and Indian War between 1754 and 1763 when they fought alongside British regulars. Under provincial law, all towns were obligated to form militia companies composed of all males 16 years of age and older, the militias were formally under the jurisdiction of the provincial government, but New England militia companies elected their own officers
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Prince Estabrook
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Prince Estabrook was a enslaved black man and Minutemen Private who fought and was wounded at the Battle of Lexington and Concord, the first battle of the American Revolutionary War. An undated broadside from the time identified him as a Negro Man, spelled his name Easterbrooks, born around 1741, he was a slave belonging to the family of Benjamin Estabrook from whom he most likely took his name. The Essex Register of 25 April 1775 lists Prince Easterbrooks - a Negro-Man. of Lexington as having been wounded by the British troops at some time during the Battles of Lexington and he enlisted in the Lexington Militia in 1773 and served in the army off and on until 1783. His master, Benjamin Estabrook, granted him emancipation following his service to the Continental Army and he was buried in the graveyard First Parish Church following his death in 1830. The inscription on the marker reads, In Honor of Prince Estabrook -- Prince Estabrook was a slave who lived in Lexington, at dawn on April 19,1775, he was one of the Lexington Minute Men awaiting the arrival of the British Regulars at the Buckman Tavern. In the battle followed, Prince Estabrook was wounded on Lexington Green. Through circumstances and destiny, he became the first black soldier to fight in the American Revolution. -- This monument is dedicated to the memory of Prince Estabrook, -- Donated by the Alice Hinkle Memorial Fund -- April 21,2008
15.
Battle of Bunker Hill
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The Battle of Bunker Hill was fought on June 17,1775, during the Siege of Boston in the early stages of the American Revolutionary War. The battle is named after Bunker Hill in Charlestown, Massachusetts and it was the original objective of both the colonial and British troops, though the majority of combat took place on the adjacent Breeds Hill. In response,1,200 colonial troops under the command of William Prescott stealthily occupied Bunker Hill, during the night, the colonists constructed a strong redoubt on Breeds Hill, as well as smaller fortified lines across the Charlestown Peninsula. By daybreak of June 17, the British became aware of the presence of forces on the Peninsula. Two assaults on the positions were repulsed with significant British casualties. The colonists retreated to Cambridge over Bunker Hill, leaving the British in control of the Peninsula, the battle had demonstrated that inexperienced militia were able to stand up to regular army troops in battle. Subsequently, the battle discouraged the British from any further attacks against well defended front lines. American casualties were much fewer, although their losses included General Joseph Warren and Major Andrew McClary. Their new approach to battle was actually giving the Americans greater opportunity to retreat if defeat was imminent, the costly engagement also convinced the British of the need to hire substantial numbers of foreign mercenaries to bolster their strength in the face of the new and formidable Continental Army. Boston, situated on a peninsula, was protected from close approach by the expanses of water surrounding it. In the aftermath of the battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19,1775, the militia, a force of about 15,000 men had surrounded the town. Under the command of Artemas Ward, they controlled the land access to Boston itself. The British troops, a force of about 6,000 under the command of General Thomas Gage, occupied the city, in theory, they were thus able to remain in Boston indefinitely. However, the land across the water from Boston contained a number of hills, if the militia could obtain enough artillery pieces, these could be placed on the hills and used to bombard the city until the occupying army evacuated it or surrendered. It was with this in mind that the Knox Expedition, led by Henry Knox, the Charlestown Peninsula, lying to the north of Boston, started from a short, narrow isthmus at its northwest, extending about 1 mile southeastward into Boston Harbor. Bunker Hill, with an elevation of 110 feet, lay at the end of the peninsula. Breeds Hill, at a height of 62 feet, was more southerly, the town of Charlestown occupied flats at the southern end of the peninsula. At its closest approach, less than 1,000 feet separated the Charlestown Peninsula from the Boston Peninsula, throughout May, in response to orders from Gage requesting support, the British received reinforcements, until they reached a strength of about 6,000 men
16.
Salem Poor
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Salem Poor was an African-American slave who purchased his freedom, became a soldier, and rose to fame as a war hero during the American Revolutionary War. Poor was born in 1747 into slavery on a farm in Andover, Massachusetts owned by John Poor and he bought his freedom on July 10,1769 from John Poor Jr. for £27, a years salary for an average working man at the time. Before joining the Revolutionary Army in 1775, Poor lived in Andover with his wife, Nancy, a free African American woman, and their son. In May 1775, Poor enlisted in the militia, serving under Captain Benjamin Ames in Colonel James Fryes regiment, opposing the British troops occupying besieged Boston. He is best remembered today for his actions during the Battle of Bunker Hill on June 17,1775, the Subscribers beg leave to Report to your Honorable. House that under Our Own observation, we declare that A Negro Man Called Salem Poor of Col. Fryes Regiment, on July 10,1775, George Washington ended the recruitment of African Americans. On November 12, he issued orders prohibiting all black men from serving in the Continental Army, on hearing of this, Lord Dunmore, who at the time was Governor of Virginia, offered freedom to all slaves willing to serve with the British. Washington, sensing the disaster that would almost surely result, immediately changed his position, Poor immediately re-enlisted in the militia and fought with the Patriot forces until March 20,1780, when he was apparently discharged. He is known to have retreated to the camp at Valley Forge. In 1780, he married his wife, Mary Twing. The couple moved to Providence, however, they were ordered to leave that city, in 1785, he placed an advertisement in the Boston Gazette to disown Marys debts and forewarn all Persons from trusting MARY, the Wife of the Subscriber. Poor then married Sarah Stevens, a woman, in 1787. He was briefly jailed for breach of peace in 1799, married for the fourth and final time in 1801, in 1975, Poor was honored with a stamp in the Contributors to the Cause series commemorating the United States Bicentennial. Poor Street in Andover was named after him, quotations related to American Revolution at Wikiquote
17.
Barzillai Lew
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Barzillai Lew was an African American soldier who served with distinction during the American Revolutionary War. Barzillai Lews story began with Primus Lew of Groton, Massachusetts, as free-blacks, Primus and Margret Lew married in 1742 and they had two sons and two daughters. Primus served as a musician in the French and Indian War in 1747, in 1752, Primus married again to Rose Canterbury and bought a farm on the west side of the Nashua River in the Pepperell section of Groton, Massachusetts and they had two children. Primus and Margret Lews oldest son Barzillai often called Zeal or Zelah, was born a free-black in Groton, following in his father’s footsteps, Barzillai Lew was a fifer in Captain Thomas Farrington’s Company from Groton, which marched northward for “the total reduction of Canada. From March 10,1760 to December 1,1760, he served with the English forces against the French and Indians and was present at the capture of Montreal. Lew was known as big and strong with a talent as a musician. In the mid-1760s, Lew sold his farm in the Pepperell section of Groton and moved to Chelmsford. About 1766, he bought the freedom of Dinah Bowman from Major Abraham Blood for 400 pounds and she was fair skinned and described as bleached by the sun. At the opening of the American Revolution, Lews skills and talents were called upon again, as soldier, fifer, and drummer, Lew fought at the Battle of Bunker Hill on June 17,1775. In the military records, Lew is described as cooper by trade, and quite dark-colored, Bunker Hill was one of the most important battles in the American Revolution, inexperienced colonial forces fought a highly trained army of British soldiers. During the bloodiest battle of the war, the British lost 226 troops, the Colonists/Americans counted 140 dead,301 wounded, and 30 captured. It was said that during the battle, Lew kept American morale high with his version of Theres Nothing Makes the British Run like Yankee Doodle Dandy. In 1777, on his home to Chelmsford, Lew joined Captain Joseph Bradley Varnums company of volunteers, Dracut. In September 1777, Varnums militia was ordered to Fort Ticonderoga, Joseph Bradley Varnum’s son John wrote in his Journal on November 1,1777. Jona Parkhurst came home from ye Army, brings word that all is well, Zeal is selected for a fifer and fiddler for the grand appearance the day that Burgoynes Famous Army is to be brought in. A Wonderful Show, a day that our hearts should be employed to speak & live to the praise of God and this wonderful show was the surrender of British General John Burgoyne to American General Horatio Gates at Saratoga, after the Siege of Fort Ticonderoga. During the American Revolution, African Americans from Massachusetts served as freemen or as slaves with their masters in many local militias, washington urged Rhode Island Governor Nicholas Cooke to give the recruiting officers every assistance. In February, the Rhode Island legislature approved the action — giving slaves their freedom in return for military service, the resulting black regiment, commanded by white Quaker Christopher Greene was the 1st Rhode Island Regiment also known as the Varnum Continentals
18.
Seymour Burr
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Seymour Burr was an African-American slave in the Connecticut Colony in the North American British Colonies and United States. The British promised the freedom of any African-American slave who enlisted or escaped to fight against the Continental Army. However, he was captured and forcibly returned to his owner. It is alleged that he fought at Bunker Hill and Fort Catskill, however Massachusetts Archives show, that only that on the fifth of April 1781, Seymour enlisted in the 7th Massachusetts Regiment, led by Colonel John Brooks. After his service he was given the freedom he wanted, then in 1805 he married a widow, Mary Wilbore, daughter of Nuff Will and Sarah Moho, a Native American woman of the Ponkapoag tribe, and settled in what is now Canton, Massachusetts. In marrying her, he inherited the 6 acres of land owned by her previous husband and he also collected a government pension for his military service. The couple had two daughters, Polly Croud and Sally, both of his daughters died in Cambridge, Mass. Several descendants of Seymour Burr still live in Boston, Mass, there is conflicting information regarding his birth. Some citations list him as born in Connecticut, possibly of mixed-race parentage, others claim he was born in Guinea, Africa, captured at age seven and his enlistment documents list his age as both 20 and 28, which places his birth in either 1754 or 1762. Seymour Burr died on February 17,1837, and was buried in a grave in the Canton Corner, Canton, Mass. or at the graveyard at Burr Lane, Canton. His obituary was printed in the Liberator, Feb.25,1837, p.35, DIED—In Canton and he was a soldier during the whole of the Revolutionary war. His widow died in 1852 at the age of 101 List of slaves Huntoon, history of the Town of Canton, Norfolk County, Massachusetts. Nell, William Cooper, Stowe, Harriet Beecher, the Colored Patriots of the American Revolution
19.
Continental Army
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The Continental Army was formed by the Second Continental Congress after the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War by the colonies that became the United States of America. Established by a resolution of the Congress on June 14,1775, the Continental Army was supplemented by local militias and troops that remained under control of the individual states or were otherwise independent. General George Washington was the commander-in-chief of the army throughout the war, most of the Continental Army was disbanded in 1783 after the Treaty of Paris ended the war. The 1st and 2nd Regiments went on to form the nucleus of the Legion of the United States in 1792 under General Anthony Wayne and this became the foundation of the United States Army in 1796. The Continental Army consisted of soldiers from all 13 colonies, and after 1776, when the American Revolutionary War began at the Battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19,1775, the colonial revolutionaries did not have an army. As tensions with Great Britain increased in the leading to the war. Training of militiamen increased after the passage of the Intolerable Acts in 1774, colonists such as Richard Henry Lee proposed forming a national militia force, but the First Continental Congress rejected the idea. On April 23,1775, the Massachusetts Provincial Congress authorized the raising of an army consisting of 26 company regiments. New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut soon raised similar, on July 18,1775, the Congress requested all colonies form militia companies from all able bodied effective men, between sixteen and fifty years of age. It was not uncommon for men younger than sixteen to enlist as most colonies had no requirement of consent for those under twenty-one. Four major-generals and eight brigadier-generals were appointed by the Second Continental Congress in the course of a few days, after Pomeroy did not accept, John Thomas was appointed in his place. As the Continental Congress increasingly adopted the responsibilities and posture of a legislature for a sovereign state, as a result, the army went through several distinct phases, characterized by official dissolution and reorganization of units. Soldiers in the Continental Army were citizens who had volunteered to serve in the army, early in the war the enlistment periods were short, as the Continental Congress feared the possibility of the Continental Army evolving into a permanent army. The army never numbered more than 17,000 men, turnover proved a constant problem, particularly in the winter of 1776–77, and longer enlistments were approved. Major General Philip Schuylers ten regiments in New York were sent to invade Canada, the Continental Army of 1776, reorganized after the initial enlistment period of the soldiers in the 1775 army had expired. Despite attempts to broaden the recruiting base beyond New England, the 1776 army remained skewed toward the Northeast both in terms of its composition and of its geographical focus. This army consisted of 36 regiments, most standardized to a battalion of 768 men strong and formed into eight companies. Enlistment terms extended to three years or to the length of the war to avoid the crises that depleted forces
20.
Siege of Yorktown
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The battle boosted faltering American morale and revived French enthusiasm for the war, as well as undermining popular support for the conflict in Great Britain. In 1780, approximately 5,500 French soldiers landed in Rhode Island to assist their American allies in operations against British-controlled New York City. On the advice of Rochambeau, de Grasse informed them of his intent to sail to the Chesapeake Bay, where Cornwallis had taken command of the army. Cornwallis, at first given confusing orders by his officer, Henry Clinton, was eventually ordered to build a defensible deep-water port. Cornwallis movements in Virginia were shadowed by a Continental Army force led by the Marquis de Lafayette, the French and American armies united north of New York City during the summer of 1781. When word of de Grasses decision arrived, the armies began moving south toward Virginia. De Grasse sailed from the West Indies and arrived at the Chesapeake Bay at the end of August, bringing additional troops and providing a naval blockade of Yorktown. He was transporting 500,000 silver pesos collected from the citizens of Havana, Cuba, to fund supplies for the siege, while in Santo Domingo, de Grasse met with Francisco Saavedra de Sangronis, an agent of Carlos III of Spain. De Grasse had planned to leave several of his warships in Santo Domingo, Saavedra promised the assistance of the Spanish navy to protect the French merchant fleet, enabling de Grasse to sail north with all of his warships. In the beginning of September, he defeated a British fleet led by Sir Thomas Graves that came to relieve Cornwallis at the Battle of the Chesapeake, as a result of this victory, de Grasse blocked any escape by sea for Cornwallis. By late September Washington and Rochambeau arrived, and the army, after initial preparations, the Americans and French built their first parallel and began the bombardment. With the British defense weakened, on October 14,1781 Washington sent two columns to attack the last major remaining British outer defenses, a French column took redoubt #9 and an American column took redoubt #10. With these defenses taken, the allies were able to finish their second parallel, with the American artillery closer and more intense than ever, the British situation began to deteriorate rapidly and Cornwallis asked for capitulation terms on the 17th. After two days of negotiation, the ceremony took place on the 19th, Lord Cornwallis was absent from the ceremony. With the capture of more than 7,000 British soldiers, on December 20,1780, Benedict Arnold sailed from New York with 1,500 troops to Portsmouth, Virginia. He first raided Richmond, defeating the militia, from January 5–7 before falling back to Portsmouth. The Marquis de Lafayette was sent south with 1,200 men to help with the assault, however, Destouches was reluctant to dispatch many ships, and in February sent only three. Destouches withdrew due to the damage sustained to his fleet, leaving Arbuthnot, on March 26, Arnold was joined by 2,300 troops under command of Major General William Phillips, who took command of the combined forces
21.
Germans in the American Revolution
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Ethnic Germans served on both sides of the American Revolutionary War. Many supported the Loyalist cause and served as allies of Great Britain, other Germans came to assist the rebelling American patriots, but most of the Germans who were patriots were colonists. During the American Revolution, there were many German-speaking states loosely unified under the Holy Roman Empire, King George III came from an ethnic German family and was the first of the British royal House of Hanover to speak English as his first language. When the British colonies in America rebelled a decade later, several German-speaking states contracted soldiers to the British Army. Although the leasing of soldiers to a power was controversial to some Europeans. In some instances, ethnic Germans even enlisted directly into British units, Americans were alarmed at the arrival of German-speaking troops on American soil, viewing it as a betrayal by King George III. The financial basis of several smaller continental states was the rental of their regiments to fight for various larger nations during the 18th century. Historian Charles W. Ingrao examines The Hessian Mercenary State, Ideas, Institutions, the mercenaries of Hesse were very well trained and equipped, they fought well for whomever was paying their prince. At the conclusion of the war, Congress offered incentives—especially free farmland—for these ethnic Germans to remain in the United States, Great Britain also offered land and tax incentives to its continental soldiers willing to settle in Nova Scotia. The Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel, under Frederick II, an uncle of King George III and it has been estimated that Hesse-Kassel contributed over 16,000 troops during the course of the Revolutionary War, of whom 6,500 did not return. Hessian officer Adam Ludwig Ochs estimated that 1,800 Hessian soldiers were killed, but many in the Hessian army intended on staying in America, and remained after the war. Because the majority of the German-speaking troops came from Hesse, modern Americans sometimes refer to all troops of this war generically as Hessians. Hesse-Kassel signed a treaty of alliance with Great Britain to supply fifteen regiments, four grenadier battalions, the jägers in particular were carefully recruited and well paid, well clothed, and free from manual labor. These jägers proved essential in the Indian style warfare in America, German-speaking armies could not quickly replace men lost on the other side of the Atlantic, so the Hessians recruited African-Americans as servants and soldiers. There were 115 black soldiers serving with Hessian units, most of them as drummers or fifers, perhaps the best-known officer from Hesse-Kassel is General Wilhelm von Knyphausen, who commanded his troops in several major battles. Other notable officers include Colonel Carl von Donop and Colonel Johann Rall, ralls regiment was captured, and many of the soldiers were sent to Pennsylvania to work on farms. Hesse-Hanau was a semi-independent appendage of Hesse-Kassel, governed by the Protestant Hereditary Landgrave William, when William received news of the Battle of Bunker Hill in 1775, he unconditionally offered a regiment to King George III. During the course of the war, Hanau provided 2,422 troops, a significant number of Hessian soldiers were volunteers from Hanau, who had enlisted with the intention of staying in the Americas when the war was over
22.
Royal Deux-Ponts Regiment
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The Régiment Royal Deux-Ponts, was a French foreign regiment of Foot, created under the Ancien Régime in 1757. The regiment was raised on 1 April 1757 by the duc de Deux-Ponts in his estates as well as in Alsatian bailiwicks and this family owned the Petite-Pierre county, the bailiwicks of Bischwiller, Guttemberg, Seltz and Hagenbach. Outside France, it owned the bailiwicks of Neucastel, Barbelroth. The regiment initially counted 2 battalions but was increased to 3 battalions. In February 1758, the regiment was increased to 4 battalions, on January 18,1760, when the German Infantry was reorganised, the regiment was reduced to its original strength. Somewhere between August 23 and September 6,1757, the regiment joined the Army of Saxony, led by Charles, Prince of Soubise, in the area of Erfurt, Soubise considered the regiment as of a particularly bad quality. On 27 September it was combined with Royal Roussillon Infanterie in the first line of the wing of the Franco-Imperial Army. On 5 November the regiment was at the Battle of Rossbach, at the end of the year, it took winter quarters on the Kinzig River in Hessen. At the end of January 1758, the regiment was assigned to the army that Louis XV planned to send to Bohemia for joint operations with the Austrian Army. However, when Ferdinand of Brunswick launched his offensive in Western Germany. It passed the Rhine on 3–4 April, in the first days of June, Soubises army assembled near Friedberg for an offensive in Hesse. The regiment was part of a detachment under the command of Broglie who followed up Ysenburg during his retreat, three of its grenadier companies fought against the Hessian force occupying the Ellenbach woods on the French right wing. On April 13,1759, the regiment took part in the Battle of Bergen where it was part of the occupying the town of Bergen. In 1761, the regiment was at Frankfurt am Main, in 1762, the regiment served in Western Germany. It was commanded by Baron de Clozen in 1758 and from February 20,1761 to February 21,1765 by Baron de Scheidt. The Royal Regiment of Two Bridges, commanded by the Comte Christian de Forbach, was part of the Expédition Particulière that was sent to the United States to help it fight for its independence, the Regiment was commanded by Comte Christian de Forbach. Many of the came from the region around the city of Zweibrücken. In 1791 the regiment became the French 99e régiment d’infanterie de ligne and its second battalion was transferred to the new 178e demi-brigade de bataille in 1794, and the first battalion to the new 177e demi-brigade de bataille in 1795
23.
Continental Navy
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The Continental Navy was the navy of the United States during the American Revolutionary War, and was formed in 1775. The main goal of the navy was to intercept shipments of British matériel, the initial fleet consisted of converted merchantmen because of the lack of funding, manpower, and resources, with exclusively designed warships being built later in the conflict. The vessels that made it to sea met with success only rarely. The fleet did serve to highlight a few examples of Continental resolve and it provided needed experience for a generation of officers who went on to command conflicts which involved the early American navy. With the war over and the Federal government in need of all available capital, the Continental Navy is the first establishment of what is now the United States Navy. The original intent was to intercept the supply of arms and provisions to British soldiers, George Washington had already informed Congress that he had assumed command of several ships for this purpose, and individual governments of various colonies had outfitted their own warships. The measure in the Continental Congress was met with much derision, John Adams later recalled, The opposition. Represented as the most wild, visionary, mad project that had ever been imagined and it was an infant taking a mad bull by his horns. During this time, however, the issue arose of Quebec-bound British supply ships carrying desperately needed provisions that could benefit the Continental Army. The Continental Congress appointed Silas Deane and John Langdon to draft a plan to seize ships from the convoy in question, on June 12,1775, the Rhode Island General Assembly, meeting at East Greenwich, passed a resolution creating a navy for the colony of Rhode Island. The same day, Governor Nicholas Cooke signed orders addressed to Captain Abraham Whipple, commander of the sloop Katy, the first formal movement for the creation of a Continental navy came from Rhode Island, because its merchants widespread shipping activities had been severely harassed by British frigates. On August 26,1775, Rhode Island General Assembly passed a resolution that there be a single Continental fleet funded by the Continental Congress, the resolution was introduced in the Continental Congress on October 3,1775 but was tabled. In the meantime, George Washington had begun to acquire ships, Hannah was commissioned and launched on September 5,1775 from the port of Beverly, Massachusetts, after being sold by the future General John Glover of Marblehead, Massachusetts. On this day, Congress authorized the purchase of two vessels to be armed for a cruise against British merchant ships, these ships became Andrew Doria and Cabot. The first ship in commission was the USS Alfred which was purchased on November 4, on November 10,1775, the Continental Congress passed a resolution calling for two battalions of Marines to be raised for service with the fleet. John Adams drafted its first governing regulations, which were adopted by Congress on November 28,1775, when it came to selecting commanders for ships, Congress tended to be split evenly between merit and patronage. Among those who were selected for political reasons were Esek Hopkins, Dudley Saltonstall, however, Abraham Whipple, Nicholas Biddle, and John Paul Jones managed to be appointed with backgrounds in marine warfare. On December 22,1775, Esek Hopkins was appointed the naval commander-in-chief, Saltonstall, Biddle, Hopkins, and Whipple were commissioned as captains of the Alfred, Andrew Doria, Cabot, and Columbus, respectively
24.
Royal Navy
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The Royal Navy is the United Kingdoms naval warfare force. Although warships were used by the English kings from the medieval period. The modern Royal Navy traces its origins to the early 16th century, from the middle decades of the 17th century and through the 18th century, the Royal Navy vied with the Dutch Navy and later with the French Navy for maritime supremacy. From the mid 18th century it was the worlds most powerful navy until surpassed by the United States Navy during the Second World War. The Royal Navy played a key part in establishing the British Empire as the world power during the 19th. Due to this historical prominence, it is common, even among non-Britons, following World War I, the Royal Navy was significantly reduced in size, although at the onset of the Second World War it was still the worlds largest. By the end of the war, however, the United States Navy had emerged as the worlds largest, during the Cold War, the Royal Navy transformed into a primarily anti-submarine force, hunting for Soviet submarines, mostly active in the GIUK gap. The Royal Navy is part of Her Majestys Naval Service, which includes the Royal Marines. The professional head of the Naval Service is the First Sea Lord, the Defence Council delegates management of the Naval Service to the Admiralty Board, chaired by the Secretary of State for Defence. The strength of the fleet of the Kingdom of England was an important element in the power in the 10th century. English naval power declined as a result of the Norman conquest. Medieval fleets, in England as elsewhere, were almost entirely composed of merchant ships enlisted into service in time of war. Englands naval organisation was haphazard and the mobilisation of fleets when war broke out was slow, early in the war French plans for an invasion of England failed when Edward III of England destroyed the French fleet in the Battle of Sluys in 1340. Major fighting was confined to French soil and Englands naval capabilities sufficed to transport armies and supplies safely to their continental destinations. Such raids halted finally only with the occupation of northern France by Henry V. Henry VII deserves a large share of credit in the establishment of a standing navy and he embarked on a program of building ships larger than heretofore. He also invested in dockyards, and commissioned the oldest surviving dry dock in 1495 at Portsmouth, a standing Navy Royal, with its own secretariat, dockyards and a permanent core of purpose-built warships, emerged during the reign of Henry VIII. Under Elizabeth I England became involved in a war with Spain, the new regimes introduction of Navigation Acts, providing that all merchant shipping to and from England or her colonies should be carried out by English ships, led to war with the Dutch Republic. In the early stages of this First Anglo-Dutch War, the superiority of the large, heavily armed English ships was offset by superior Dutch tactical organisation and the fighting was inconclusive
25.
South Carolina
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South Carolina /ˌsaʊθ kærəˈlaɪnə/ is a state in the southeastern region of the United States. The state is bordered to the north by North Carolina, to the south and west by Georgia across the Savannah River, South Carolina became the eighth state to ratify the U. S. Constitution, doing so on May 23,1788. South Carolina became the first state to vote to secede from the Union on December 20,1860, after the American Civil War, it was readmitted into the United States on June 25,1868. South Carolina is the 40th most extensive and the 23rd most populous U. S. state and its GDP as of 2013 was $183.6 billion, with an annual growth rate of 3. 13%. The capital and largest city is Columbia with a 2013 population of 133,358, South Carolina is named in honor of King Charles I of England, under whose reign the English colony was first formed, with Carolus being Latin for Charles. There is evidence of activity in the area about 12000 years ago. Along the Savannah River were the Apalachee, Yuchi, and the Yamasee, further west were the Cherokee, and along the Catawba River, the Catawba. These tribes were village-dwellers, relying on agriculture as their food source. The Cherokee lived in wattle and daub houses made with wood and clay, about a dozen separate small tribes summered on the coast harvesting oysters and fish, and cultivating corn, peas and beans. Travelling inland as much as 50 miles mostly by canoe, they wintered on the plain, hunting deer and gathering nuts. The names of these survive in place names like Edisto Island, Kiawah Island. The Spanish were the first Europeans in the area, in 1521, founding San Miguel de Gualdape, established with 500 settlers, it was abandoned within a year by 150 survivors. In 1562 French settlers established a settlement at what is now the Charlesfort-Santa Elena archaeological site on Parris Island, three years later the Spanish built a fort on the same site, but withdrew following hostilities with the English navy. In 1629, King Charles I of England established the Province of Carolina an area covering what is now South and North Carolina, Georgia, in the 1670s, English planters from the Barbados established themselves near what is now Charleston. Settlers built rice plantations in the South Carolina Lowcountry, east of the Atlantic Seaboard fall line, settlers came from all over Europe. Plantation labor was done by African slaves who formed the majority of the population by 1720, another cash crop was the Indigo plant, a plant source of blue dye, developed by Eliza Lucas. Meanwhile, in Upstate South Carolina, west of the Fall Line, was settled by farmers and traders. Colonists overthrew the rule, seeing more direct representation
26.
Committee of Safety (American Revolution)
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In Massachusetts, as affairs drew toward a crisis, it became usual for towns to appoint three committees, of correspondence, of inspection, and of safety. Committees of correspondence were public functionaries of a type first appearing in England and this was done in Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and New York 1763-4. On 21 November 1772 a town meeting at Faneuil Hall, Boston, until late in 1774 it remained the real executive of the town and largely of the province. The Boston committee, by legal town-meeting, was made the executive of Boston, the organization of the committees was at once enormously extended, almost every town, city, or county had one. Pursuant to First Continental Congress resolution 11, committees of inspection were to be formed in every county, city, hundreds of committees of inspection were formed following the First Continental Congresss declaration of the Continental Association, a boycott of British goods, in October 1774. In New York City, it was called the Committee of Observation or Committee of Sixty, initially, the focus of the committees was on enforcing the Non-importation Agreements, which aimed to hinder the import of British manufactured goods. Kathleen Burk writes, It is significant that the Committees believed that they derived their authority from the Continental Congress, Committees of Safety were a later outcome of the committees of correspondence. The network of committees were also vital for reinforcing a sense of purpose. For ordinary people, they were community forums where personal loyalties were revealed, tested, was certainly not an activity for the faint of heart. The members of these groups exposed ideological dissenters, usually people well-known in the communities in which they lived, although the committees attempted as best they could to avoid physical violence, they administered revolutionary justice as they alone defined it. They worked out their own procedures, interrogated people suspected of undermining the American cause. By mid-1775 the committees increasingly busied themselves with identifying, denouncing, the strengthening of the committees of correspondence in the 1770s also marked the creation of what Gordon S. Wood terms a new kind of popular politics in America. Wood writes that the rhetoric of liberty now brought to the surface long-latent political tenancies, ordinary people were no longer willing to trust only wealthy and learned gentlemen to represent them. Various artisan, religious, and ethnic groups now felt that their interests were so distinct that only people of their kind could speak for them. In 1774 radicals in Philadelphia demanded that seven artisans and six Germans be added to the committee of the city. The development of coalition and interest-group politics greatly alarmed both royal officials and more conservative Patriots, very few records of committees of safety survive. Committee activities are attested primarily through newspapers and published material, by 1775, the committees had become counter-governments that gradually replaced royal authority and took control of local governments. They regulated the economy, politics, morality, and militia of their individual communities, in North Carolina in December 1776, they came under the control of a more powerful central authority, the Council of Safety
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Horatio Gates
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Horatio Lloyd Gates was a retired British soldier who served as an American general during the Revolutionary War. He took credit for the American victory in the Battles of Saratoga – a matter of contemporary, Horatio Gates was christened on April 30,1728, in the Parish of St Nicholas, Deptford, Greenwich borough, in the English county of Kent. His parents were Robert and Dorothea Gates, evidence suggests that Dorothea was the granddaughter of John Hubbock, Sr. postmaster at Fulham, and the daughter of John Hubbock, Jr. listed in 1687 sources as a vintner. She had a marriage, to Thomas Reeve, whose family was well situated in the royal Customs service. Dorothea Reeve was housekeeper for the second Duke of Leeds, Peregrine Osborne, marriage into the Reeve family opened the way for Robert Gates to get into and then up through the Customs service. So too, Dorothea Gatess appointment circa 1729 to housekeeper for the third Duke of Bolton provided Horatio Gates with otherwise off-bounds opportunities for education, through Dorothea Gatess associations and energetic networking, young Horace Walpole was enlisted as Horatios godfather and namesake. In 1745, Horatio Gates obtained a commission with financial help from his parents. Gates served with the 20th Foot in Germany during the War of the Austrian Succession and he arrived in Halifax, Nova Scotia under Edward Cornwallis and later was promoted to captain in the 45th Foot the following year. He was participated in engagements against the Mikmaq and Acadians. He married his wife Elizabeth at St. Pauls Church in 1754, leaving Nova Scotia, he sold his commission in 1754 and purchased a captaincy in one of the New York Independent Companies. One of his mentors in his early years was Edward Cornwallis, Gates served under Cornwallis when the latter was governor of Nova Scotia, and also developed a relationship with the lieutenant governor, Robert Monckton. During the French and Indian War, Gates served General Edward Braddock in America, in 1755 he accompanied the ill-fated Braddock Expedition in its attempt to control access to the Ohio Valley. This force included other future Revolutionary War leaders such as Thomas Gage, Charles Lee, Daniel Morgan, Gates didnt see significant combat, since he was severely injured early in the action. His experience in the years of the war was limited to commanding small companies. In 1759 he was brigade major to Brigadier General John Stanwix. Gates served under Monckton in the capture of Martinique in 1762, Monckton bestowed on him the honor of bringing news of the success to England, which brought him a promotion to major. The end of the war brought an end to Gates prospects for advancement, as the army was demobilized. In November 1755, Gates married Elizabeth Phillips and had a son, Robert, Gates military career stalled, as advancement in the British army required money or influence
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Black Loyalist
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A Black Loyalist was an United Empire Loyalist inhabitant of British America, of African descent, who joined the British colonial, military forces, during the American Revolutionary War. Many were slaves held by Patriot rebels who joined the British in exchange for The Crowns promises of freedom, the original of the Book of Negroes and an authenticated transcript are now online. Some of the Loyalists who migrated to Nova Scotia brought enslaved African Americans with them, one historian has argued that the slaves were not regarded as Loyalists, since they had no choice in their fates. Thousands of black slaves escaped, from plantations, in the British colonies, when the British evacuated, they took many former slaves with them. Some Black Loyalists were evacuated to London and were included in the population of the Black Poor. With government assistance,4,000 blacks were transported from London for resettlement to the colony of Sierra Leone in 1787. Five years later, another 1,192 Black Loyalists from Nova Scotia chose to migrate to Sierra Leone, as they were tired of the discrimination and climate in Canada. They became known in Sierra Leone as the Nova Scotian settlers and were part of creating a new nation and, ultimately, the modern-day Sierra Leone Creole people are their descendants. The American leader Thomas Jefferson referred to the Black Loyalists as the fugitives from these States, although many Black Loyalists gained freedom, many of them did not. Some black Loyalists escaped to the British northern colonies and states of the US, others left the US or escaped aboard British ships headed for Britain. Slavery in England had never authorized by legal statutes. Villeinage, a form of semi-serfdom, was recognised but long obsolete. In 1772, a slave threatened with being out of England and returned to the Caribbean challenged the authority of his master. Lord Mansfield, Chief Justice of the Kings Bench, ruled that as slavery had no standing under common law, slave owners were unable to transport slaves outside England, many observers took it to mean that slavery was ended in England. Lower courts often interpreted the ruling as determining that the status of slavery did not exist in England and Wales, the decision did not apply to the Thirteen Colonies and Caribbean colonies, where legislatures had passed laws to institutionalize slavery. A number of cases for emancipation of slave residing in England were presented to the English courts, numerous runaways hoped to reach England, where they expected to gain freedom. The slaves belief that King George III was for them and against their masters rose as tensions increased before the American Revolution, in early 1775 Lord Dunmore wrote to Lord Dartmouth of his intent to take advantage of the situation. In November 1775, Lord Dunmore issued a proclamation, later known as Lord Dunmores Proclamation
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British Army
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The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom. As of 2017 the British Army comprises just over 80,000 trained Regular, or full-time, personnel and just over 26,500 trained Reserve, or part-time personnel. Therefore, the UK Parliament approves the continued existence of the Army by passing an Armed Forces Act at least once every five years, day to day the Army comes under administration of the Ministry of Defence and is commanded by the Chief of the General Staff. Repeatedly emerging victorious from these decisive wars allowed Britain to influence world events with its policies and establish itself as one of the leading military. In 1660 the English, Scottish and Irish monarchies were restored under Charles II, Charles favoured the foundation of a new army under royal control and began work towards its establishment by August 1660. The Royal Scots Army and the Irish Army were financed by the Parliament of Scotland, the order of seniority of the most senior line regiments in the British Army is based on the order of seniority in the English army. At that time there was only one English regiment of dragoons, after William and Marys accession to the throne, England involved itself in the War of the Grand Alliance, primarily to prevent a French invasion restoring Marys father, James II. Spain, in the two centuries, had been the dominant global power, and the chief threat to Englands early transatlantic ambitions. The territorial ambitions of the French, however, led to the War of the Spanish Succession and the Napoleonic Wars. From the time of the end of the Seven Years War in 1763, Great Britain was the naval power. As had its predecessor, the English Army, the British Army fought the Kingdoms of Spain, France, and the Netherlands for supremacy in North America and the West Indies. With native and provincial assistance, the Army conquered New France in the North American theatre of the Seven Years War, the British Army suffered defeat in the American War of Independence, losing the Thirteen Colonies but holding on to Canada. The British Army was heavily involved in the Napoleonic Wars and served in campaigns across Europe. The war between the British and the First French Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte stretched around the world and at its peak, in 1813, the regular army contained over 250,000 men. A Coalition of Anglo-Dutch and Prussian Armies under the Duke of Wellington, the English had been involved, both politically and militarily, in Ireland since being given the Lordship of Ireland by the Pope in 1171. The campaign of the English republican Protector, Oliver Cromwell, involved uncompromising treatment of the Irish towns that had supported the Royalists during the English Civil War, the English Army stayed in Ireland primarily to suppress numerous Irish revolts and campaigns for independence. Having learnt from their experience in America, the British government sought a political solution, the British Army found itself fighting Irish rebels, both Protestant and Catholic, primarily in Ulster and Leinster in the 1798 rebellion. The Haldane Reforms of 1907 formally created the Territorial Force as the Armys volunteer reserve component by merging and reorganising the Volunteer Force, Militia, Great Britains dominance of the world had been challenged by numerous other powers, in the 20th century, most notably Germany
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Slave rebellion
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A slave rebellion is an armed uprising by slaves. Slave rebellions have occurred in all societies that practice slavery or have practiced slavery in the past. Ancient Sparta had a type of serf called helots who were often treated harshly. According to Herodotus, helots were seven times as numerous as Spartans, in the Roman Empire, though the heterogeneous nature of the slave population worked against a strong sense of solidarity, slave revolts did occur and were severely punished. The most famous slave rebellion in Europe was led by Spartacus in Roman Italy and this war resulted in the 6000 surviving rebel slaves being crucified along the main roads leading into Rome. This was the third in a series of unrelated Servile Wars fought by slaves to the Romans, the English peasants revolt of 1381 led to calls for the reform of feudalism in England and an increase in rights for serfs. The Peasants Revolt was one of a number of revolts in late medieval Europe. Richard II agreed to reforms including fair rents and the abolition of serfdom, following the collapse of the revolt, the kings concessions were quickly revoked, but the rebellion is significant because it marked the beginning of the end of serfdom in medieval England. In Russia, the slaves were classified as kholops. A kholops master had unlimited power over his life, Slavery remained a major institution in Russia until 1723, when Peter the Great converted the household slaves into house serfs. Russian agricultural slaves were converted into serfs earlier in 1679. During the 16th and 17th centuries, runaway serfs and kholops known as Cossacks, between the end of the Pugachev rebellion and the beginning of the 19th century, there were hundreds of outbreaks across Russia. Numerous African slave rebellions and insurrections took place in North America during the 17th, 18th, there is documented evidence of more than 250 uprisings or attempted uprisings involving 10 or more slaves. Aptheker stressed how rebellions were rooted in the conditions of the southern slave system. He traversed libraries and archives throughout the South, managing to uncover roughly 250 similar instances, the Zanj Rebellion was the culmination of a series of small revolts. It took place near the city of Basra, in southern Iraq over fifteen years and it grew to involve over 500,000 slaves, who were imported from across the Muslim empire. The Servile Wars were a series of revolts against the Roman Republic during. The First and Second Servile War occurred in Sicily, the Third Servile War occurred in mainland Italy
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Skilled worker
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A skilled worker is any worker who has special skill, training, knowledge, and ability in their work. A skilled worker may have attended a college, university or technical school, or, a skilled worker may have learned their skills on the job. Examples of skilled labor include software development, paramedics, police officers, soldiers, physicians, crane operators, drafters, painters, plumbers, craftsmen, cooks and these workers can be either blue-collar or white-collar workers, with varied levels of training or education. In the northern region of the United States, craft unions may have served as the catalyst to ferment a strong solidarity in favor of skilled labor in the period of the Gilded Age, the Knights argued that the specialization of industrialization had undermined the bargaining power of skilled labor. The period between 1901 and 1925 signals the rise and fall of the Socialist Party of America which depended on skilled workers. Skilled workers were the heart of the movement before World War I but during the 1920s, they lost much of their enthusiasm. In the 20th century, in Nazi Germany, the class was subdivided into, agricultural workers, unskilled and semi-skilled workers, skilled craft workers, other skilled workers. After the end of World War II, West Germany surpassed France in the employment of skilled labor needed at a time when industrialization was sweeping Europe at a fast pace. West Germanys preponderance in the training of skilled workers in technical schools, was the factor to outweigh the balance between the two countries. In the first decade of the 21st century, the wage of a highly skilled machinist in the United States of America is $3,000 to $4,000 per month. In China, the wage for a factory worker is $150 a month. While most jobs require some level of skill, skilled workers bring some degree of expertise to the performance of a given job. For example, a worker who inspects new televisions for whether they turn on or off can fulfil this job with little or no knowledge of the inner workings of televisions. However, someone who repairs televisions would be considered a worker, since such a person would possess the knowledge to be able to identify. In addition to the use of the term, various agencies or governments. Such definitions can affect matters such as immigration, licensure and eligibility for travel or residency, citizenship and Immigration Services, skilled worker positions are not seasonal or temporary and require at least two years of experience or training. Skilled work varies in type, education requirements and availability, such differences are often reflected in titling, opportunity, responsibility and salary. Both skilled and non-skilled workers are vital and indispensable for the smooth-running of a free-market and/or capitalist society, generally, however, individual skilled workers are more valued to a given company than individual non-skilled workers, as skilled workers tend to be more difficult to replace
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Earl of Dunmore
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Earl of Dunmore is a title in the Peerage of Scotland. It was created in 1686 for Lord Charles Murray, second son of John Murray and he was made Lord Murray of Blair, Moulin and Tillimet and Viscount of Fincastle at the same time, also in the Peerage of Scotland. He was succeeded by his son, the second Earl and he was a General in the Army and sat in the House of Lords as a Scottish Representative Peer from 1713 to 1715 and from 1727 to 1752. His younger brother, William Murray, later to become the third Earl, was involved in the Jacobite rising of 1745 and was tried for treason in 1746. Murray pleaded guilty but received a pardon from King George II, the third Earl was succeeded by his son, the fourth Earl. He was also a Scottish Representative Peer in the House of Lords from 1761 to 1774 and from 1776 to 1790 and served as Governor of New York, of Virginia and his eldest son, the fifth Earl, briefly represented Liskeard in the House of Commons. George Murray, 5th Earl of Dunmore, bought the Estate of Harris from Alexander Norman Macleod for £60,000 in 1834. In 1839, the people of South Harris were ejected from their homes by armed soldiers, thus the 6th Earl was about halfway through his proprietorship of the island when he was providing a pound per person for those electing to leave. The seventh Earl of Dunmore served as a Lord-in-Waiting in the second Conservative administration of Benjamin Disraeli and was also Lord Lieutenant of Stirlingshire, the 7th Earl relinquished ownership of the North Harris Estate to his bankers, in particular the Scott family. He was succeeded by his son, the eighth Earl and he was a soldier and was awarded the Victoria Cross in 1897. Lord Dunmore later held office as Captain of the Honourable Corps of Gentlemen-at-Arms. On the death in 1980 of his grandson, the ninth Earl, the line of the fifth Earl failed, the late Earl was succeeded by his distant relative, the tenth Earl. He was the great-great-grandson of the Hon. Alexander Murray, second son on the fourth Earl, as of 2014 the titles are held by his nephew, the twelfth Earl, who succeeded his father in 1995. The family seat was Amhuinnsuidhe Castle, on the Isle of Harris and Dunmore Tower, near Airth, the heir presumptives heir presumptive is his first cousin Stephen Alexander Murray. The heir presumptives heir presumptives heir apparent is his son, Anthony Victor Murray, Lady Charlotte Murray, wife of John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore. Lady Charlotte was the daughter of Alexander Stewart, 6th Earl of Galloway, New York, St Martins Press,1990. Donald J MacLeod, Woodcroft Avenue, Bridge of Don in The Scotsman, Edinburgh 21 April 2011 The Caledonian Mercury,2 September 1841 Leigh Rayments Peerage Pages Lundy, Darryl
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Savannah, Georgia
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Savannah is the oldest city in the U. S. state of Georgia and is the county seat of Chatham County. Established in 1733 on the Savannah River, the city of Savannah became the British colonial capital of the Province of Georgia, a strategic port city in the American Revolution and during the American Civil War, Savannah is today an industrial center and an important Atlantic seaport. It is Georgias fifth-largest city and third-largest metropolitan area, Downtown Savannah largely retains the original town plan prescribed by founder James Oglethorpe. Savannah was the host city for the sailing competitions during the 1996 Summer Olympics held in Atlanta. On February 12,1733, General James Oglethorpe and settlers from the ship Anne landed at Yamacraw Bluff and were greeted by Tomochichi, the Yamacraws, Mary Musgrove often served as an interpreter. The city of Savannah was founded on that date, along with the colony of Georgia, in 1751, Savannah and the rest of Georgia became a Royal Colony and Savannah was made the colonial capital of Georgia. By the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War, Savannah had become the southernmost commercial port of the Thirteen Colonies, British troops took the city in 1778, and the following year a combined force of American and French soldiers failed to rout the British at the Siege of Savannah. The British did not leave the city until July 1782, Savannah, a prosperous seaport throughout the nineteenth century, was the Confederacys sixth most populous city and the prime objective of General William T. Shermans March to the Sea. Early on December 21,1864, local authorities negotiated a surrender to save Savannah from destruction. Savannah was named for the Savannah River, which derives from variant names for the Shawnee. The Shawnee destroyed another Native people, the Westo, and occupied their lands at the head of the Savannah Rivers navigation on the fall line and these Shawnee, whose Native name was Ša·wano·ki, were known by several local variants, including Shawano, Savano, Savana and Savannah. Still other theories suggest that the name Savannah originates from Algonquian terms meaning not only southerners, Savannah lies on the Savannah River, approximately 20 mi upriver from the Atlantic Ocean. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 108.7 square miles. Savannah is the port on the Savannah River and the largest port in the state of Georgia. It is also located near the U. S. Intracoastal Waterway, Georgias Ogeechee River flows toward the Atlantic Ocean some 16 miles south of downtown Savannah. Savannahs climate is classified as humid subtropical, in the Deep South, this is characterized by long and almost tropical summers and short, mild winters. Savannah records few days of freezing temperatures each year, due to its proximity to the Atlantic coast, Savannah rarely experiences temperatures as extreme as those in Georgias interior. Nevertheless, the temperatures have officially ranged from 105 °F, on July 20,1986, down to 3 °F
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Augusta, Georgia
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It is in the piedmont section of the state. The city was named after Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha, according to 2012 US Census estimates, the Augusta–Richmond County population was 197,872, not counting the unconsolidated cities of Hephzibah and Blythe. It is the 116th-largest city in the United States, internationally, Augusta is best known for hosting The Masters golf tournament each spring. The area along the river was inhabited by varying cultures of indigenous peoples. The site of Augusta was used by Native Americans as a place to cross the Savannah River, in 1735, two years after James Oglethorpe founded Savannah, he sent a detachment of troops to explore the upper Savannah River. He gave them an order to build at the head of the part of the river. The expedition was led by Noble Jones, who created the settlement to provide a first line of defense for coastal areas against potential Spanish or French invasion from the interior, Oglethorpe named the town Augusta, in honor of Princess Augusta, wife of Frederick, Prince of Wales. Oglethorpe visited Augusta once, in September 1739, Augusta was the second state capital of Georgia from 1785 until 1795. Augusta developed rapidly as a town as the Black Belt in the Piedmont was developed for cotton cultivation. Invention of the cotton gin made processing of cotton profitable. Cotton plantations were worked by labor, with hundreds of thousands of slaves shipped from the Upper South to the Deep South in the domestic slave trade. In the mid-20th century, it was a site of civil rights demonstrations, in 1970 Charles Oatman, a mentally disabled teenager, was killed by his cellmates in an Augusta jail. A protest against his death broke out in a riot involving 500 people, after six black men were killed by police, the noted singer and entertainer James Brown was called in to help quell lingering tensions, which he succeeded in doing. Augusta is located on the Georgia/South Carolina border, about 150 miles east of Atlanta and 70 miles west of Columbia, the city is located at 33°28′12″N 81°58′30″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the Augusta–Richmond County balance has an area of 306.5 square miles. Augusta is located halfway up the Savannah River on the fall line. The city marks the end of a waterway for the river. The Clarks Hill Dam is built on the line near Augusta
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Charleston, South Carolina
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Charleston had an estimated population of 132,609 in 2015. Charleston was founded as Charles Town—honoring King Charles II of England—in 1670 and its initial location at Albemarle Point on the west bank of the Ashley River was abandoned in 1680 for its present site, which became the 5th-largest city in North America within 10 years. Despite its size, it remained unincorporated throughout the period, its government was handled directly by the state legislature and by its Anglican parish wardens. It adopted its present spelling with its incorporation as a city in 1783 at the close of the Revolutionary War. The Confederates burned the town prior to its evacuation but continued demand for the cotton and rice, along with growing industry. In 2016, Charleston was ranked the Worlds Best City by Travel + Leisure, the city proper consists of six distinct areas, the Peninsula or Downtown, West Ashley, Johns Island, James Island, Daniel Island, and the Cainhoy Peninsula. The old town fit into 4–5 square miles as late as the First World War, the city limits also have expanded across the Cooper River, encompassing Daniel Island and the Cainhoy area. The present city has an area of 127.5 square miles. North Charleston blocks any expansion up the peninsula, and Mount Pleasant occupies the land directly east of the Cooper River, Charleston Harbor runs about 7 miles southeast to the Atlantic with an average width of about 2 miles, surrounded on all sides except its entrance. Sullivans Island lies to the north of the entrance and Morris Island to itself south, the entrance itself is about 1 mile wide, it was originally only 18 feet deep, but began to be enlarged in the 1870s. The tidal rivers are evidence of a submergent or drowned coastline, there is a submerged river delta off the mouth of the harbor and the Cooper River is deep. Charleston has a subtropical climate, with mild winters, hot, humid summers. Summer is the wettest season, almost half of the rainfall occurs from June to September in the form of thundershowers. Fall remains relatively warm through November, winter is short and mild, and is characterized by occasional rain. Measurable snow only occurs several times per decade at the most, however,6.0 in fell at the airport on December 23,1989, the largest single-day fall on record, contributing to a single-storm and seasonal record of 8.0 in snowfall. The highest temperature recorded within city limits was 104 °F on June 2,1985, and June 24,1944, and the lowest was 7 °F on February 14,1899. At the airport, where records are kept, the historical range is 105 °F on August 1,1999. Hurricanes are a threat to the area during the summer and early fall
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Siege of Savannah
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The Siege of Savannah or the Second Battle of Savannah was an encounter of the American Revolutionary War in 1779. The year before, the city of Savannah, Georgia, had captured by a British expeditionary corps under Lieutenant-Colonel Archibald Campbell. The siege itself consisted of a joint Franco-American attempt to retake Savannah, on October 9 a major assault against the British siege works failed. During the attack, Polish nobleman Count Casimir Pułaski, leading the cavalry forces on the American side, was mortally wounded. With the failure of the joint American-French attack, the failed. This was one of the most significant foreign contributions to the American Revolutionary War and this French-colonial force had been established six months earlier and included hundreds of soldiers of color in addition to white soldiers and a couple black slaves. Their first step was to control of the southern ports of Savannah, Georgia and Charleston. An expedition in December 1778 took Savannah with modest resistance from ineffective militia, the Continental Army regrouped, and by June 1779 the combined army and militia forces guarding Charleston numbered between 5,000 and 7,000 men. French Admiral the Comte dEstaing spent the first part of 1779 in the Caribbean, where his fleet and he took advantage of conditions to capture Grenada in July before acceding to American requests for support in operations against Savannah. Lincoln and the French emissaries agreed on a plan of attack on Savannah, captain Moncrief of the Royal Engineers was tasked with constructing fortifications to repulse the invaders. The British Royal Navy contributed two frigates, both over-age and they landed their guns and most of their men to reinforce the land forces. In addition, the British also deployed the armed brig Keppel and the armed ship Germaine, there were two galleys, Comet, and Thunder, the latter too from East Florida. Lastly, the British armed two merchant vessels, Savannah, and Venus, dEstaing began landing troops below the city on September 12. By September 16 he was moving in on the city, confident of victory, and believing that Maitland would be prevented from reaching Savannah by Lincoln, he offered Prevost the opportunity to surrender. Prevost temporized and asked for 24 hours of truce, prevosts response to dEstaings offer was a polite refusal, even though Lincoln had also arrived outside the city. On 19 September, as Charles-Marie de Trolong du Rumain moved his squadron up the river, he exchanged fire with Comet, Thunder, Savannah, and Venus. The next day the British scuttled Rose, which was leaking badly and they also burnt Savannah and Venus. By scuttling Rose in a part of the channel, the British effectively blocked it
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France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
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Virginia
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Virginia is a state located in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States, as well as in the historic Southeast. The geography and climate of the Commonwealth are shaped by the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Chesapeake Bay, the capital of the Commonwealth is Richmond, Virginia Beach is the most populous city, and Fairfax County is the most populous political subdivision. The Commonwealths estimated population as of 2014 is over 8.3 million, the areas history begins with several indigenous groups, including the Powhatan. In 1607 the London Company established the Colony of Virginia as the first permanent New World English colony, slave labor and the land acquired from displaced Native American tribes each played a significant role in the colonys early politics and plantation economy. Although the Commonwealth was under one-party rule for nearly a century following Reconstruction, the Virginia General Assembly is the oldest continuous law-making body in the New World. The state government was ranked most effective by the Pew Center on the States in both 2005 and 2008 and it is unique in how it treats cities and counties equally, manages local roads, and prohibits its governors from serving consecutive terms. Virginias economy changed from agricultural to industrial during the 1960s and 1970s. Virginia has an area of 42,774.2 square miles, including 3,180.13 square miles of water. Virginias boundary with Maryland and Washington, D. C. extends to the mark of the south shore of the Potomac River. The southern border is defined as the 36° 30′ parallel north, the border with Tennessee was not settled until 1893, when their dispute was brought to the U. S. Supreme Court. The Chesapeake Bay separates the portion of the Commonwealth from the two-county peninsula of Virginias Eastern Shore. The bay was formed from the river valleys of the Susquehanna River. Many of Virginias rivers flow into the Chesapeake Bay, including the Potomac, Rappahannock, York, and James, the Tidewater is a coastal plain between the Atlantic coast and the fall line. It includes the Eastern Shore and major estuaries of Chesapeake Bay, the Piedmont is a series of sedimentary and igneous rock-based foothills east of the mountains which were formed in the Mesozoic era. The region, known for its clay soil, includes the Southwest Mountains around Charlottesville. The Blue Ridge Mountains are a province of the Appalachian Mountains with the highest points in the state. The Ridge and Valley region is west of the mountains and includes the Great Appalachian Valley, the region is carbonate rock based and includes Massanutten Mountain. The Cumberland Plateau and the Cumberland Mountains are in the southwest corner of Virginia, in this region, rivers flow northwest, with a dendritic drainage system, into the Ohio River basin
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Ethiopian Regiment
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It has nothing to do with the present day country of Ethiopia. Composed of slaves who had escaped from Patriot masters, it was led by British officers, Black Loyalists also served in guerrilla units such as the elite Black Brigade, as well as together with British troops and white Loyalist militia recruited in the colonies. Five hundred Virginia slaves promptly abandoned their Revolutionary masters and joined Dunmores ranks, the governor formed them into the Ethiopian Regiment, also known as Lord Dunmores Ethiopian Regiment. During the war, tens of thousands of escaped, having a substantial economic effect on the American South. An estimated 25,000 slaves escaped in South Carolina,30,000 in Virginia, Slaves also escaped in New England and New York, often joining the British forces occupying New York for freedom. While thousands went to the British lines for freedom, others took advantage of the confusion to migrate to other areas of the colonies. Lord Dunmores Ethiopian Regiment, composed of escaped slaves, was probably the first black regiment in the service of the Crown during the revolution. By December 1775 the regiment had nearly 300 blacks, including its most famous member, in later years, he became known as Colonel Tye as an honorary title for his military skills. The Ethiopian Regiment saw service from 1775 to 1776, private Tye and his comrades believed that they were fighting not just for their own individual freedom but for the freedom of enslaved blacks in North America. Their regimental uniforms had sashes inscribed with the words, Liberty to Slaves, although the men were often used for foraging and other labor, they also saw battle. The Ethiopian Regiment perhaps saw action for the first time at the Battle of Kemps Landing in November 1775, the Earl of Dunmore defeated the rebellious colonial militia. Two of its colonels were captured, one colonel was taken by one of his former slaves. The black regiment in British service was a symbol of hope for Americans of African descent and that blacks were trained to bear arms and kill was a revolutionary idea at the time, especially as they were with one of the worlds best armies. In 1775 the Queens Own Loyal Virginia Regiment, the Ethiopian Regiment, and the 14th Regiment of Foot occupied Norfolk, Virginia, virginias Committee of Safety ordered Colonel William Woodford in command of 500 Virginia rebels to Norfolk to oppose Dunmore. His men and others gathered at one end of a key bridge, Dunmores forces, including some of the Ethiopians, had constructed Fort Murray at the other end of the bridge, and Colonel Woodford entrenched on his side of Great Bridge. Woodford sent a man to Dunmore as a double agent with false news of Woodfords strength The spy further said the force were green recruits who would be easily frightened off. Captain Samuel Leslie ordered Captain Charles Fordyce to lead 120 men of the 14th Foot down the causeway to attack the rebel position, the Ethiopian Regiment stood ready on Great Bridge supported by British cannon. Rebel sentries, notably the William Flora, slowed the British advance with buck, alerted by the noise of battle, the rebels manned the breastwork
40.
Henry Lee III
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Lees service during the American Revolution as a cavalry officer in the Continental Army earned him the nickname by which he is best known, Light-Horse Harry. Lee was the father of Civil War-era Confederate general Robert E. Lee, Lee was born near Dumfries in the Colony of Virginia. He was the son of Col. Henry Lee II of Leesylvania and his father was the second cousin of Richard Henry Lee, twelfth President of the Continental Congress. His mother was an aunt of the wife of Virginia Governor Thomas Nelson and his great-grandmother Mary Bland was also a grand-aunt of President Thomas Jefferson. Lee was the grandson of Capt. Henry Lee I, a great-grandson of Richard Bland, and he was also a descendant of Theodorick Bland of Westover and Governor Richard Bennett. Lee graduated from the College of New Jersey in 1773, with the outbreak of the Revolutionary War, he instead became a captain in a Virginia dragoon detachment, which was attached to the 1st Continental Light Dragoons. In 1778, Lee was promoted to major and given the command of a corps of cavalry and infantry known as Lees Legion. In September of the year, Lee commanded a unit of dragoons which defeated a Hessian regiment at the Battle of Edgars Lane. It was during his time as commander of the Legion that Lee earned the sobriquet of Light-Horse Harry for his horsemanship, Lee was promoted to Lieutenant Colonel and was assigned with his Legion to the southern theater of war. They conducted a campaign of terror and intimidation against Loyalists in the region, Lee and his legion also served at the Battle of Guilford Court House, the Siege of Ninety-Six, and the Battle of Eutaw Springs. He was present at Charles Cornwalliss surrender at Yorktown, but left the Army shortly after claiming fatigue, in 1794, Lee was summoned by President George Washington to suppress the Whiskey Rebellion in western Pennsylvania. Lee commanded the 12,950 militiamen sent to quash the rebels, in 1798, Henry Lee was appointed a major general in the U. S. Army due to a possible war with France. In 1808, he was re-commissioned by President Thomas Jefferson as major-general since war with Great Britain was deemed to break out and he asked President James Madison for a commission at the onset of the War of 1812 but without success. In 1812 he published his Memoirs of the War in the Southern Department of the United States, from 1786 to 1788, Lee was a delegate to the Congress of the Confederation, and in 1788 at the Virginia convention, he favored the adoption of the United States Constitution. From 1789 to 1791, he served in the General Assembly and, from 1791 to 1794, was Governor of Virginia, from 1799 to 1801, he served in the United States House of Representatives of the Congress. He famously eulogized Washington to a crowd of 4,000 at the first Presidents funeral on December 26,1799 as, First in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen. Between April 8 and 13,1782, at Stratford Hall, Lee married his cousin, Matilda Ludwell Lee. She was the daughter of Philip Ludwell Lee, Sr. on June 18,1793, Lee married the wealthy Anne Hill Carter at Shirley Plantation
41.
Georgia (U.S. state)
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Georgia is a state in the southeastern United States. It was established in 1733, the last of the original Thirteen Colonies, named after King George II of Great Britain, Georgia was the fourth state to ratify the United States Constitution, on January 2,1788. It declared its secession from the Union on January 19,1861 and it was the last state to be restored to the Union, on July 15,1870. Georgia is the 24th largest and the 8th most populous of the 50 United States, from 2007 to 2008,14 of Georgias counties ranked among the nations 100 fastest-growing, second only to Texas. Georgia is known as the Peach State and the Empire State of the South, Atlanta is the states capital, its most populous city and has been named a global city. Georgia is bordered to the south by Florida, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean and South Carolina, to the west by Alabama, the states northern part is in the Blue Ridge Mountains, part of the Appalachian Mountains system. Georgias highest point is Brasstown Bald at 4,784 feet above sea level, Georgia is the largest state entirely east of the Mississippi River in land area. Before settlement by Europeans, Georgia was inhabited by the mound building cultures, the British colony of Georgia was founded by James Oglethorpe on February 12,1733. The colony was administered by the Trustees for the Establishment of the Colony of Georgia in America under a charter issued by King George II. The Trustees implemented a plan for the colonys settlement, known as the Oglethorpe Plan. In 1742 the colony was invaded by the Spanish during the War of Jenkins Ear, in 1752, after the government failed to renew subsidies that had helped support the colony, the Trustees turned over control to the crown. Georgia became a colony, with a governor appointed by the king. The Province of Georgia was one of the Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution by signing the 1776 Declaration of Independence, the State of Georgias first constitution was ratified in February 1777. Georgia was the 10th state to ratify the Articles of Confederation on July 24,1778, in 1829, gold was discovered in the North Georgia mountains, which led to the Georgia Gold Rush and an established federal mint in Dahlonega, which continued its operation until 1861. The subsequent influx of white settlers put pressure on the government to land from the Cherokee Nation. In 1830, President Andrew Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act into law, sending many eastern Native American nations to reservations in present-day Oklahoma, including all of Georgias tribes. Despite the Supreme Courts ruling in Worcester v. Georgia that ruled U. S. states were not permitted to redraw the Indian boundaries, President Jackson and the state of Georgia ignored the ruling. In 1838, his successor, Martin Van Buren, dispatched troops to gather the Cherokee
42.
Rhode Island
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Rhode Island, officially the State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. Rhode Island is the smallest in area, the eighth least populous, and its official name is also the longest of any state in the Union. Rhode Island is bordered by Connecticut to the west, Massachusetts to the north and east, the state also shares a short maritime border with New York. It boycotted the 1787 convention that drew up the United States Constitution, on May 29,1790, Rhode Island became the 13th and last state to ratify the Constitution. Rhode Islands official nickname is The Ocean State, a reference to the fact that the state has several large bays, Rhode Island covers 1,214 square miles, of which 1,045 square miles are land. Despite its name, most of Rhode Island is located on the mainland of the United States, the official name of the state is State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, which is derived from the merger of four settlements. Rhode Island is now commonly called Aquidneck Island, the largest of several islands in Narragansett Bay, Providence Plantation was the name of the colony founded by Roger Williams in the area now known as the city of Providence. This was adjoined by the settlement of Warwick, hence the plural Providence Plantations and it is unclear how Aquidneck Island came to be known as Rhode Island, although there are two popular theories. Explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano noted the presence of an island near the mouth of Narragansett Bay in 1524, subsequent European explorers were unable to precisely identify the island that Verrazzano had named, but the Pilgrims who later colonized the area assumed that it was Aquidneck. A second theory concerns the fact that Adriaen Block passed by Aquidneck during his expeditions in the 1610s, historians have theorized that this reddish appearance resulted from either red autumn foliage or red clay on portions of the shore. The earliest documented use of the name Rhode Island for Aquidneck was in 1637 by Roger Williams, the name was officially applied to the island in 1644 with these words, Aquethneck shall be henceforth called the Isle of Rodes or Rhode-Island. The name Isle of Rodes is used in a document as late as 1646. Dutch maps as early as 1659 call the island Red Island, Williams was a theologian forced out of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Seeking religious and political tolerance, he and others founded Providence Plantation as a proprietary colony. Providence referred to the concept of providence, and plantation was an English term for a colony. State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations is the longest official name of any state in the Union, advocates for excising plantation asserted that the word specifically referred to the British colonial practice of establishing settlements which disenfranchised native people. Advocates for retaining the name argued that plantation was simply an archaic English synonym for colony, the referendum election was held on November 2,2010, and the people voted overwhelmingly to retain the entire original name. It shares a maritime border with New York State between Block Island and Long Island
43.
1st Rhode Island Regiment
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For the Civil War and Spanish-American War units see 1st Rhode Island Infantry. The 1st Rhode Island Regiment also, known as Varnums Continentals was a Continental Army regiment, from Rhode Island, like most regiments of the Continental Army, the unit went through several incarnations and name changes. It became well known as the Black Regiment because, for a time and it is regarded as the first African-American military regiment, despite the fact that its ranks were not exclusively African-American. Like many Continental Army regiments, the 1st Rhode Island was initially formed by a colonial or state government before being taken into the national army, the revolutionary Rhode Island Assembly authorized the regiment on 6 May 1775 as part of the Rhode Island Army of Observation. The regiment was organized on 8 May 1775 under Colonel James Mitchell Varnum and it consisted of eight companies of volunteers from Kent and King Counties. Varnum marched the regiment to Roxbury, Massachusetts, in June 1775, the regiment was adopted into the Continental Army on 14 June 1775. On 28 June it was reorganized into ten companies, on 28 July 1775, it was assigned to General Nathanael Greenes Brigade in General George Washingtons Main Army. In 1776, the Continental Army was completely reorganized, with many regiments receiving new names, on 1 January 1776, Varnums Regiment was reorganized with eight companies and re-designated as the 9th Continental Regiment. Under Colonel Varnum the regiment took part in the disastrous 1776 campaign, in 1777, the Continental Army was reorganized once again, and on 1 January 1777 the 9th Continental Regiment was re-designated as the 1st Rhode Island Regiment. Varnum no longer commanded the regiment, having made a brigadier general, his eventual successor was Colonel Christopher Greene. Under Colonel Greene the regiment successfully defended Fort Mercer at the Battle of Red Bank on 22 October 1777 against an assault by 2,000 Hessians, blacks had initially been barred from military service in the Continental Army from November 12,1775 until February 23,1778. This was because “bigoted Southern politicians” objected to black involvement in the War because they thought they would be bad soldiers, and they feared armed “negroes. Varnum had raised the idea in a letter to George Washington, the owners of slaves who enlisted were to be compensated by the Assembly in an amount equal to the market value of the slave. A total of 88 slaves enlisted in the regiment over the four months. The regiment eventually totaled about 225 men, probably fewer than 140 of these were African Americans, the 1st Rhode Island Regiment became the only regiment of the Continental Army to have segregated companies of black soldiers. The enlistment of slaves had been controversial, and after June 1778, under Colonel Greene, the regiment fought in the Battle of Rhode Island in August 1778. The regiment played a fairly minor—but praised—role in the battle, suffering three killed, nine wounded, and eleven missing, the first engagement of the “Black Regiment” came in 1778 at the Battle of Rhode Island. The Continental Army was soundly beaten at the Battle of Rhode Island, the regiment, under the leadership of Colonel Greene, held the line admirably, especially considering the British expected to break the line where the Rhode Island Regiment was
44.
Christopher Greene
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Christopher Greene was an American legislator and soldier. He was killed in May 1781 at the Battle of Pines Bridge by Loyalists, Greene was born 12 May 1737 at Occupessatuxet, a village of the town of Warwick, Rhode Island, to Judge Phillip Greene and Elizabeth Greene. He was a deputy to the General Assembly for four years, Greene and Anna would have nine children together. When Greenes father died in 1761, Greene inherited the familys mill estate and he served in the Rhode Island Legislature from 1772 to 1774. Greene was chosen a lieutenant of the Kentish Guards 1774, in May 1775, he was appointed a major in the Army of Observation by the Rhode Island legislature. He was given command of a company and marched to Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1775 George Washington put him in charge of a Continental regiment in Cambridge under the command of Benedict Arnold. Greenes regiment was part of Arnolds expedition through present-day Maine to attack the British garrison at Quebec, in the assault on that city, Greene led a detachment of troops, and after Arnold was wounded Greene was taken prisoner. He was exchanged after eight months confinement, in June 1776, Greene was promoted to major under James M. Varnum, in a division which was commanded by his third cousin, General Nathanael Greene. Fort Mercer and its Pennsylvania counterpart, Fort Mifflin, had the mission of defending the Delaware River against British naval movements on the river, after the British captured Philadelphia in September 1777, the forts prevented the Royal Navy from bringing supplies into the city. On October 22,1777, the fort was assaulted by the Hessians under Colonel Carl von Donop, von Donop was eager to avenge the 1776 defeat of Hessian troops by Washington in the Battle of Trenton. Though they were supported by gunfire from six British men-o-war in the Delaware River, they were repulsed with heavy loss, Colonel Christopher Greene returned to the cooler climate of his home state. He struggled to piece together a unit of former slaves – the 1st Rhode Island, when the idea of offering slaves their freedom in return for active service was first suggested, all concerned believed the plan would help solve the problem of finding Continental recruits. The Rhode Island General Assembly voted that every able-bodied Negro, mulatto, once enlisted and approved by the regimental officers the slave would become absolutely free. Unfortunately the small population of 3,331 blacks and Indians could not support the effort adequately, fewer than two hundred soldiers were recruited. Finding the scheme expensive and impractical, the legislators reversed themselves, no negroe, mulatto, nor Indian slave will be permitted to enlist in the Continental battalions after 10 June 1778. Greene and his officers proceeded to train the black infantrymen who had signed on. All heard the news that a French fleet was on the way, Colonel Greene and his regiment were detached for special service in Rhode Island, and he was placed under the command of General John Sullivan. General Sullivan, whose headquarters were in Providence, was charged with the task of containing the depredations of the 4,000 British, for this purpose he had only a brigade of Rhode Island state troops, and several thousand as yet unmobilized militia
45.
Battle of Rhode Island
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The Battle of Rhode Island, also known as the Battle of Quaker Hill, and the Siege of Newport took place on August 29,1778. The battle ended inconclusively, but afterwards Continental forces withdrew to the mainland, the battle was the first attempt at cooperation between French and American forces following Frances entry into the war as an American ally. France formally recognized the United States of America in February 1778 following the surrender of the British Army after the Battles of Saratoga in October 1777, War was declared between France and Great Britain in March 1778. It was not until early June that a fleet of 13 ships of the line left European waters in pursuit, dEstaings crossing of the Atlantic took three months, but Byron was also delayed due to bad weather and did not reach New York until mid August. The British evacuated from Philadelphia to New York City before dEstaings arrival and their North American fleet was no longer on the river when the French fleet arrived at Delaware Bay in early July. DEstaing decided to sail for New York, but its well-defended harbor presented a challenge to the French fleet. The troops reached their destination on July 15, raising the size of Major General Robert Pigots garrison to more than 6,700 men, American and British forces had been in a standoff on Aquidneck Island since the British occupation began in late 1776. In March 1778, Congress approved the appointment of Major General John Sullivan to Rhode Island, by early May, Sullivan had arrived in the state and produced a detailed report on the situation. He began logistical preparations for an attack on Newport, caching equipment and supplies on the shore of Narragansett Bay. British General Pigot was aware of Sullivans preparations and launched an expedition on May 25 that raided Bristol and this destroyed military supplies and plundered the towns. Sullivans response was to make renewed appeals for assistance, which were reinforced by a Congressional declaration after a raid on Freetown on May 31. General Washington wrote to Sullivan on July 17 ordering him to raise 5,000 troops for operations against Newport. Sullivans force at that time amounted to 1,600 troops, Laurens had left Washingtons camp on the 22nd, riding ahead of a column of Continental troops led by the Marquis de Lafayette. News of the French involvement rallied support for the cause, however, these forces took some time to muster, and the majority of them did not arrive until the first week of August. Washington sent Major General Nathanael Greene, a Rhode Island native and reliable officer, Sullivan had been regularly criticized in Congress for his performance in earlier battles, and Washington urged him to take counsel from Greene and Lafayette. Greene wrote to Sullivan on the matter and reinforced the need for a successful operation, dEstaing sailed from his position outside the New York harbor on July 22, when the British judged the tide high enough for the French ships to cross the bar. He initially sailed south before turning northeast toward Newport, the British fleet in New York consisted of eight ships of the line under the command of Lord Richard Howe, and they sailed out after him once they discovered that his destination was Newport. DEstaing arrived off Point Judith on July 29 and immediately met with Generals Greene, the next day, dEstaing sent frigates into the Sakonnet River and into the main channel leading to Newport
46.
Jamaica
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Jamaica is an island country situated in the Caribbean Sea, consisting of the third-largest island of the Greater Antilles. The island,10,990 square kilometres in area, lies about 145 kilometres south of Cuba, Jamaica is the fourth-largest island country in the Caribbean, by area. Inhabited by the indigenous Arawak and Taíno peoples, the island came under Spanish rule following the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1494, Many of the indigenous people died of disease, and the Spanish imported African slaves as labourers. Named Santiago, the island remained a possession of Spain until 1655, under British colonial rule Jamaica became a leading sugar exporter, with its plantation economy highly dependent on slaves imported from Africa. The British fully emancipated all slaves in 1838, and many chose to have subsistence farms rather than to work on plantations. Beginning in the 1840s, the British imported Chinese and Indian indentured labour to work on plantations, the island achieved independence from the United Kingdom on 6 August 1962. With 2.8 million people, Jamaica is the third-most populous Anglophone country in the Americas, Kingston is the countrys capital and largest city, with a population of 937,700. Jamaicans predominately have African ancestry, with significant European, Chinese, Hakka, Indian, due to a high rate of emigration for work since the 1960s, Jamaica has a large diaspora around the world, particularly in Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Jamaica is a Commonwealth realm, with Queen Elizabeth II as its monarch and her appointed representative in the country is the Governor-General of Jamaica, an office held by Sir Patrick Allen since 2009. Andrew Holness has served as the head of government and Prime Minister of Jamaica from March 2016, the indigenous people, the Taíno, called it Xaymaca in Arawakan, meaning the Land of Wood and Water or the Land of Springs. Colloquially Jamaicans refer to their island as the Rock. Slang names such as Jamrock, Jamdown, or briefly Ja, have derived from this, the Arawak and Taíno indigenous people, originating in South America, settled on the island between 4000 and 1000 BC. When Christopher Columbus arrived in 1494, there were more than 200 villages ruled by caciques, the south coast of Jamaica was the most populated, especially around the area now known as Old Harbour. The Taino still inhabited Jamaica when the English took control of the island in 1655, the Jamaican National Heritage Trust is attempting to locate and document any evidence of the Taino/Arawak. Christopher Columbus claimed Jamaica for Spain after landing there in 1494 and his probable landing point was Dry Harbour, now called Discovery Bay, although there is some debate that it might have been St. Anns Bay. St. Anns Bay was named Saint Gloria by Columbus, as the first sighting of the land, the capital was moved to Spanish Town, then called St. Jago de la Vega, around 1534. Spanish Town has the oldest cathedral of the British colonies in the Caribbean, the Spanish were forcibly evicted by the English at Ocho Rios in St. Ann. In 1655, the English, led by Sir William Penn and General Robert Venables, the English continued to import African slaves as labourers
