1.
Summit
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A summit is a point on a surface that is higher in elevation than all points immediately adjacent to it. Mathematically, a summit is a maximum in elevation. The topographic terms acme, apex, peak, and zenith are synonymous, the UIAA definition is that a summit is independent if it has a prominence of 30 metres or more, it is a mountain if it has a prominence of at least 300 metres. This can be summarised as follows, A pyramidal peak is an exaggerated form produced by ice erosion of a mountain top, Summit may also refer to the highest point along a line, trail, or route. In many parts of the western United States, the term refers to the highest point along a road, highway. For example, the highest point along Interstate 80 in California is referred to as Donner Summit while the highest point on Interstate 5 is Siskiyou Mountain Summit, geoid Hill List of highest mountains Maxima and minima Nadir Summit accordance Peak finder
2.
Topographic prominence
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It is a measure of the independence of a summit. A peaks key col is a point on this contour line. By convention, the prominence of Mount Everest, the Earths highest mountain, is taken to equal the elevation of its summit above sea level, if the peaks prominence is P metres, to get from the summit to any higher terrain one must descend at least P metres. Together with the convention for Mount Everest, this implies that the prominence of any island or continental highpoint is equal to its elevation above sea level, for every ridge connecting the peak to higher terrain, find the lowest point on the ridge. The key col is defined as the highest of these cols, the prominence is the difference between the elevation of the peak and the elevation of the key col. The following mental exercise may illustrate the meaning of topographic prominence, imagine you are standing at the top of a peak and imagine that an imaginary sea level rises to your feet. Now slowly lower the sea level and an imaginary island appears beneath your feet. Your island will grow and will merge with other islands that emerge, the parent peak may be either close or far from the subject peak. The summit of Mount Everest is the parent peak of Aconcagua at a distance of 17,755 km, the key col may also be close or far from the subject peak. The key col for Aconcagua is the Bering Strait at a distance of 13,655 km, the key col for the South Summit of Mount Everest is about 100 m distant. Prominence is interesting to many mountaineers because it is a measurement that is strongly correlated with the subjective significance of a summit. Peaks with low prominences are either subsidiary tops of some higher summit or relatively insignificant independent summits, peaks with high prominences tend to be the highest points around and are likely to have extraordinary views. Only summits with a sufficient degree of prominence are regarded as independent mountains, for example, the worlds second-highest mountain is K2. While Mount Everests South Summit is taller than K2, it is not considered an independent mountain because it is a subsummit of the main summit, many lists of mountains take topographic prominence as a criterion for inclusion, or cutoff. John and Anne Nuttalls The Mountains of England and Wales uses a cutoff of 15 m, in the contiguous United States, the famous list of fourteeners uses a cutoff of 300 ft /91 m. Also in the U. S.2000 feet of prominence has become a threshold that signifies that a peak has major stature. This generates lists of peaks ranked by prominence, which are different from lists ranked by elevation. Such lists tend to emphasize isolated high peaks, such as range or island high points, one advantage of a prominence-ranked list is that it needs no cutoff, since a peak with high prominence is automatically an independent peak
3.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
4.
Malayalam
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Malayalam /mʌləˈjɑːləm/ is a language spoken in India, predominantly in the state of Kerala. It is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India and was designated as a Classical Language in India in 2013 and it was developed to the current form mainly by the influence of the poet Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan in the 16th century. Malayalam has official status in the state of Kerala and in the union territories of Lakshadweep. It belongs to the Dravidian family of languages and is spoken by some 38 million people, according to one theory, Malayalam originated from Middle Tamil in the 7th century. However, the current understanding proposes the separation of Malayalam from Proto-Dravidian in the pre-historic era, Malayalam incorporated many elements from Sanskrit through the ages. Before Malayalam came into being, Old Tamil was used in literature and courts of a region called Tamilakam, including present day Kerala state, silappatikaramit was written by Chera prince Ilango Adigal from Chunkaparra, and is considered a classic in Sangam literature. Modern Malayalam still preserves many words from the ancient Tamil vocabulary of Sangam literature, the earliest script used to write Malayalam was the Vatteluttu alphabet, and later the Kolezhuttu, which derived from it. As Malayalam began to borrow words as well as the rules of grammar from Sanskrit. This developed into the modern Malayalam script, many medieval liturgical texts were written in an admixture of Sanskrit and early Malayalam, called Manipravalam. The oldest literary work in Malayalam, distinct from the Tamil tradition, is dated from between the 9th and 11th centuries, the first travelogue in any Indian language is the Malayalam Varthamanappusthakam, written by Paremmakkal Thoma Kathanar in 1785. Due to its lineage deriving from both Tamil and Sanskrit, the Malayalam script has the largest number of letters among the Indian language orthographies, the Malayalam script includes letters capable of representing almost all the sounds of all Indo-Aryan and Dravidian languages. Malayalam serves as a language on the islands including the Mahl-dominated Minicoy Island. The word Malayalam originated from the Sanskrit resp, Malayalam words malai or mala, meaning hill, and elam, meaning region. Malayalam thus translates as hill region and used to refer to the land of the Chera dynasty, the language Malayalam is alternatively called Alealum, Malayalani, Malayali, Malean, Maliyad, and Mallealle. The word Malayalam originally meant only for the name of the region, Malayanma or Malayayma represented the language. With the emergence of modern Malayalam language, the name of the language started to be known by the name of the region, hence now, the word Malayanma is considered by some to represent the olden Malayalam language. The language got the name Malayalam during the mid 19th century, the origin of Malayalam, an independent offshoot of the proto-Dravidian language, has been and continues to be an engaging pursuit among comparative historical linguists. Together with Tamil, Toda, Kannada and Tulu, Malayalam belongs to the group of Dravidian languages
5.
Tamil language
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Tamil is a Dravidian language predominantly spoken by the Tamil people of India and Sri Lanka, and also by the Tamil diaspora, Sri Lankan Moors, Burghers, Douglas, and Chindians. Tamil is a language of two countries, Singapore and Sri Lanka. It has official status in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and it is also used as one of the languages of education in Malaysia, along with English, Malay and Mandarin. Tamil is also spoken by significant minorities in the four other South Indian states of Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana and it is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India. Tamil is one of the classical languages in the world. Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions from 500 BC have been found on Adichanallur and 2 and it has been described as the only language of contemporary India which is recognizably continuous with a classical past. The variety and quality of classical Tamil literature has led to it being described as one of the classical traditions. A recorded Tamil literature has been documented for over 2000 years, the earliest period of Tamil literature, Sangam literature, is dated from ca.300 BC – AD300. It has the oldest extant literature among other Dravidian languages, the earliest epigraphic records found on rock edicts and hero stones date from around the 3rd century BC. More than 55% of the inscriptions found by the Archaeological Survey of India are in the Tamil language. Tamil language inscriptions written in Brahmi script have been discovered in Sri Lanka, the two earliest manuscripts from India, acknowledged and registered by the UNESCO Memory of the World register in 1997 and 2005, were written in Tamil. In 1578, Portuguese Christian missionaries published a Tamil prayer book in old Tamil script named Thambiraan Vanakkam, the Tamil Lexicon, published by the University of Madras, was one of the earliest dictionaries published in the Indian languages. According to a 2001 survey, there were 1,863 newspapers published in Tamil, Tamil belongs to the southern branch of the Dravidian languages, a family of around 26 languages native to the Indian subcontinent. It is also classified as being part of a Tamil language family, the closest major relative of Tamil is Malayalam, the two began diverging around the 9th century CE. According to linguists like Bhadriraju Krishnamurti, Tamil, as a Dravidian language, descends from Proto-Dravidian, linguistic reconstruction suggests that Proto-Dravidian was spoken around the third millennium BC, possibly in the region around the lower Godavari river basin in peninsular India. The material evidence suggests that the speakers of Proto-Dravidian were of the associated with the Neolithic complexes of South India. The next phase in the reconstructed proto-history of Tamil is Proto-South Dravidian, the linguistic evidence suggests that Proto-South Dravidian was spoken around the middle of the second millennium BC, and that proto-Tamil emerged around the 3rd century BC. The earliest epigraphic attestations of Tamil are generally taken to have been shortly thereafter
6.
Neyyattinkara
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Neyyattinkara in Thiruvananthapuram district is a municipal Town 20 km south of the kerala State capital Trivandrum on the National Highway 66 to Kanyakumari. The town spreads over an area of 16.21 km2 on the banks of the Neyyar River and is the headquarters of the Neyyattinkara taluk and it is a suburb of the extended metropolitan region of Thiruvananthapuram city. The name Neyyattinkara in Malayalam regional language means shore of Neyyar River and this river flows from Agasthyarkoodam, the highest peak in southern end of the Western Ghats. The town comes under the surveillance of Neyyattinkara Municipality and it is the town on the banks of Neyyar River. The rapidly growing Thiruvananthapuram city has almost reached its outskirts, the town is mostly residential, with lots of service sector establishments. There is 24 hours to and fro bus service in NH47 connecting Nagarcoil » Neyyattinkara » Trivandrum, further, there is to and fro rail service connecting Nagarcoil » Neyyattinkara » Trivandrum. Cave pictures, probably by Neolithic people, are found in Pandavanpara and this famous cave will come under Perumkadavila panchayath. The name of this portion of land, before Marthanda Varma became the ruler of Travancore, was Thenganad, Neyyattinkara is located at 8. 4°N77. 08°E /8.4,77.08. It has an elevation of 26 metres. The town is situated on the Neyyar River side, one of the rivers in Trivandrum district. The river flows to the part of the town. Water Supply for the town and the adjacent places is obtained from this river, topography of the town is rather uneven, with higher areas in the downtown. Nearby the town is the hillock Aruvippuram, the Western Ghats form a scenic backdrop to the town. The town is sandwiched between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea, the nearby sea shore is just 10 km. away in west, and seven kilometres to the east can take you to the mammoth hillocks of Western ghats. The geology is said to be typical of the Kerala soil - the Laterite, the town can still boast of a good green cover in residential and non-residential areas. The Neyyattinkara Sree Krishna Swamy Temple is situated in the centre of the town and is an important pilgrimage centre, the annual festival is an important attraction for people in the district. Besides the religious significance, the temple holds a place in Travancore history. Legend has it that the then Crown Prince Marthanda Marthanda Varma was redirected by a boy to a Jackfruit Tree near the Temple while he was being chased by his enemies
7.
Thiruvananthapuram district
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Thiruvananthapuram District is the southernmost district of the coastal state of Kerala. It is the largest city in Kerala and it came into existence in the year 1957. The headquarters is the city of Thiruvananthapuram which is also the city of Kerala. The district has an area of 2,192 square kilometres and a population of 3,307,284 and it is the densest district in Kerala with 1,509 inhabitants per square kilometre. It is divided into six taluks, Thiruvananthapuram, Chirayinkeezhu, Neyyattinkara, Nedumangadu, Varkala, the urban bodies in the district are the Thiruvananthapuram Corporation, Varkala, Neyyattinkara, Attingal and Nedumangad municipalities. Thiruvananthapuram district is situated between north latitudes 8°17 and 8°54 and east longitudes 76°41 and 77°17, the southern-most extremity, Kaliyikkavila, is 56 kilometres away from Kanyakumari, the Lands End of mainland India. The district has three rivers, several freshwater lakes and more than 300 ponds. The eastern region is forested, northern regions are mostly under rubber cultivation, built up areas and rice fields complete the land use. The district has the name as its headquarters city, Thiruvananthapuram. The city gets its name from the word Thiru-anantha-puram, meaning the Abode of Lord Anantha, the name derives from the deity of the Hindu temple at the center of the Thiruvananthapuram city. Anantha is the serpent Shesha on whom Padmanabhan or Vishnu reclines, the district was officially referred to as Trivandrum in English until 1991, when the government decided to reinstate the citys original name, Thiruvananthapuram, in all languages. Thiruvananthapuram city and several places in the district loom large in ancient tradition. The place had earlier been frequented by the Portuguese and later by the Dutch and it was from here that the English gradually extended their domain to other parts of Travancore. Modern history begins with Marthanda Varma,1729 CE–1758 CE, who is regarded as the Father of modern Travancore. Thiruvananthapuram was known as a center of intellectual and artistic activities in those days. The temple of Vishnu reclining on Anantha, the Sri Padmanabhaswamy temple, along with the presiding deity of Padmanabha, this temple has temples inside it, dedicated to Lord Krishna, Lord Narasimha, Lord Ganesha, and Lord Ayyappa. The temple was built by King Marthanda Varma of the Travancore royal family when, in 1745, he shifted the Travancore capital from Padmanabhapuram, King Marthanda Varma started reigning as Sree Padmanabhadasa, the Slave of Sree Padmanabha. The vast temple complex, with its tall Gopuram decorated with detailed carvings reflected in the temple tank, is today a center of attraction for the pious, the tourist
8.
Kerala
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Kerala historically known as Keralam, is an Indian state in South India on the Malabar Coast. It was formed on 1 November 1956 following the States Reorganisation Act by combining Malayalam-speaking regions, spread over 38,863 km2, it is bordered by Karnataka to the north and northeast, Tamil Nadu to the east and south, and the Lakshadweep Sea to the west. With 33,387,677 inhabitants as per the 2011 Census, Malayalam is the most widely spoken language and is also the official language of the state. The region has been a prominent spice exporter since 3000 BCE, the Chera Dynasty was the first prominent kingdom based in Kerala, though it frequently struggled against attacks by the neighbouring Cholas and Pandyas. In the 15th century, the spice trade attracted Portuguese traders to Kerala, after independence, Travancore and Cochin joined the Republic of India and Travancore-Cochin was given the status of a state in 1949. In 1956, Kerala state was formed by merging Malabar district, Travancore-Cochin, Hinduism is practised by more than half of the population, followed by Islam and Christianity. The culture is a synthesis of Aryan and Dravidian cultures, developed over millennia, under influences from other parts of India, the production of pepper and natural rubber contributes significantly to the total national output. In the agricultural sector, coconut, tea, coffee, cashew, the states coastline extends for 595 kilometres, and around 1.1 million people in the state are dependent on the fishery industry which contributes 3% to the states income. The state has the highest media exposure in India with newspapers publishing in nine languages, mainly English, Kerala is one of the prominent tourist destinations of India, with backwaters, beaches, Ayurvedic tourism and tropical greenery as its major attractions. The name Kerala has an uncertain etymology, One popular theory derives Kerala from Kera and alam is land, thus land of coconuts, this also happens to be a nickname for the state due to abundance of coconut trees and its use by the locals. The word Kerala is first recorded in a 3rd-century BCE rock inscription left by the Maurya emperor Ashoka, the inscription refers to the local ruler as Keralaputra, or son of Chera. This contradicts the theory that Kera is from coconut tree, at that time, one of three states in the region was called Cheralam in Classical Tamil, Chera and Kera are variants of the same word. The word Cheral refers to the oldest known dynasty of Kerala kings and is derived from the Proto-Tamil-Malayalam word for lake, the earliest Sanskrit text to mention Kerala is the Aitareya Aranyaka of the Rigveda. It is also mentioned in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, the two Hindu epics, the Skanda Purana mentions the ecclesiastical office of the Thachudaya Kaimal who is referred to as Manikkam Keralar, synonymous with the deity of the Koodalmanikyam temple. Keralam may stem from the Classical Tamil cherive-alam or chera alam, the Greco-Roman trade map Periplus Maris Erythraei refers to Keralaputra as Celobotra. According to Hindu mythology, the lands of Kerala were recovered from the sea by the warrior sage Parasurama. Parasurama threw his axe across the sea, and the water receded as far as it reached, according to legend, this new area of land extended from Gokarna to Kanyakumari. The land which rose from sea was filled with salt and unsuitable for habitation, so Parasurama invoked the Snake King Vasuki, out of respect, Vasuki and all snakes were appointed as protectors and guardians of the land
9.
Ambasamudram
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Ambasamudram is the principal town of a taluk named the same, in Tirunelveli district in the state of Tamil Nadu, India. The entire taluk had a population of 392,226 as of 2001, the town of Ambasamudram had a population 35,645 as of 2011. Kasibanathaswamy Temple which was dedicated to Lord Shiva and Krishna Swamy Temple which was dedicated to Lord Vishnu are the ancient temples of Ambasamudram. This picturesque town is situated in the foothills of western ghats on the bank of Tamirabarani river with a twin town Kallidaikurichi/Kallidai is situated on the southern bank. According to 2011 census, Ambasamudram had a population of 35,645 with a sex-ratio of 1,048 females for every 1,000 males, a total of 3,293 were under the age of six, constituting 1,658 males and 1,635 females. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes accounted for 15. 98% and. 24% of the population respectively, the average literacy of the town was 78. 91%, compared to the national average of 72. 99%. The town had a total of,9845 households
10.
Tirunelveli district
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Tirunelveli District is a district of Tamil Nadu state in southern India. The city of Tirunelveli is the district headquarters, Tirunelveli District was formed on 1 September 1790 by the East India Company, and comprised the present Tirunelveli and Thoothukudi districts and parts of Virudhunagar and Ramanathapuram districts. It is the second-largest district, after Villupuram district, as of 2011, the district had a population of 3,077,233. Under the rule of the Pandyan Dynasty, the district was known as Thenpandiyanadu, the Chola dynasty then named it Mudikonda Cholamandalam. The Madurai Nayaks called it Tirunelveli Seemai, under the British East India Company, it was Tinnevelly district, which included the modern Tirunelveli and Thoothukudi districts and parts of the Virudhunagar and Ramanathapuram districts. In 1910, Ramanathapuram District was formed from portions of the Madurai and Tirunelveli Districts, after the Independence of India, Tirunelveli District was bifurcated on 20 October 1986 to Nellai-Kattabomman district and Chidambaranar district. Subsequently, the Government of Tamil Nadu decided to each district according to the name of the headquarters town. The district is located in the part of Tamil Nadu. It borders Virudhunagar District to the north, Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam and Pathanamthitta districts of Kerala to the west, Kanyakumari District to the south, the district covers an area of 6,823 square kilometres. It lies between 8°05 and 9°30 north latitude and 77°05 and 78°25 east longitude, the district contains mountains and lowland plains, including sandy soil and fertile alluvium, and a variety of flora, fauna and protected wildlife. The district also has inland and mountainous forests, Tirunelveli is said to be the only district of Tamil Nadu to have all the five types of ecological zones as described in the ancient Tamil Literature Kurunji, Mullai, Marutham, Neithal and Palai. Tirunelveli has rainfall in all seasons, and benefits both the northeast and southwest monsoons. Most precipitation came from the northeast monsoon followed by the southwest monsoon, the district is irrigated by several rivers originating in the Western Ghats, such as the Pachaiyar River, which flows into the perennial Tambaraparani River. The Tambaraparani and Manimuthar Rivers have many dams, with providing water for irrigation. The Tamiraparani River provides consistent irrigation to an agricultural area. The Chittar River also originates in this district, the Courtallam and Manimuthar waterfalls are the two major falls in the district. According to 2011 census, Tirunelvei district had a population of 3,077,233 with a sex-ratio of 1,023 females for every 1,000 males, much above the national average of 929. A total of 321,687 were under the age of six, Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes accounted for 18. 51% and. 33% of the population respectively
11.
Tamil Nadu
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Tamil Nadu is one of the 29 states of India. Its capital and largest city is Chennai, Tamil Nadu lies in the southernmost part of the Indian Peninsula and is bordered by the union territory of Puducherry and the South Indian states of Kerala, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh. The state shares a border with the nation of Sri Lanka. Tamil Nadu is the eleventh-largest state in India by area and the sixth-most populous, the state was ranked sixth among states in India according to the Human Development Index in 2011, with the second-largest state economy after Maharashtra. Tamil Nadu is the second largest state economy in India with ₹13,842 billion in gross domestic product after Maharashtra. Tamil Nadu was ranked as one of the top seven developed states in India based on a Multidimensional Development Index in a 2013 report published by the Reserve Bank of India and its official language is Tamil, which is one of the longest-surviving classical languages in the world. Tamil Nadu is home to natural resources. In addition, its people have developed and continue classical arts, classical music, historic buildings and religious sites include Hindu temples of Tamil architecture, hill stations, beach resorts, multi-religious pilgrimage sites, and eight UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Archaeological evidence points to this area being one of the longest continuous habitations in the Indian peninsula, the ASI archaeologists have proposed that the script used at that site is very rudimentary Tamil Brahmi. Adichanallur has been announced as a site for further excavation. About 60 per cent of the epigraphical inscriptions found by the ASI in India are from Tamil Nadu. A Neolithic stone celt with the Indus script on it was discovered at Sembian-Kandiyur near Mayiladuthurai in Tamil Nadu, according to epigraphist Iravatham Mahadevan, this was the first datable artefact bearing the Indus script to be found in Tamil Nadu. Mahadevan claimed that the find was evidence of the use of the Harappan language, the date of the celt was estimated at between 1500 BCE and 2000 BCE. The early history of the people and rulers of Tamil Nadu is a topic in Tamil literary sources known as Sangam literature, numismatic, archaeological and literary sources corroborate that the Sangam period lasted for about six centuries, from 300 BC to AD300. Three dynasties, namely the Chera, Chola and Pandya, ruled the area of present-day Tamil Nadu, the Chera ruled the whole of present-day Kerala and parts of western Tamil Nadu comprising Coimbatore, Dharmapuri, Karur, Salem and Erode districts from the capital of Vanchi Muthur. The Chola dynasty ruled the northern and central parts of Tamil Nadu from their capital, Uraiyur, All three dynasties had extensive trade relationships with Rome, Greece, Egypt, Ceylon, Phoenicia, Arabia, Mesopotamia and Persia. Trade flourished in commodities such as spices, ivory, pearls, beads, Chera traded extensively from Muziris on the west coast, Chola from Arikamedu and Puhar and Pandya through Korkai port. A Greco-Roman trade and travel document, the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea gives a description of the Tamil country, besides these three dynasties, the Sangam era Tamilakam was also divided into various provinces named nadu, meaning country
12.
Mountain range
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A mountain range is a geographic area containing numerous geologically related mountains. A mountain system or system of ranges, sometimes is used to combine several geological features that are geographically related. Mountain ranges are usually segmented by highlands or mountain passes and valleys, individual mountains within the same mountain range do not necessarily have the same geologic structure or petrology. They may be a mix of different orogenic expressions and terranes, for example thrust sheets, uplifted blocks, fold mountains, most geologically young mountain ranges on the Earths land surface are associated with either the Pacific Ring of Fire or the Alpide Belt. The Andes is 7,000 kilometres long and is considered the worlds longest mountain system. The Alpide belt includes Indonesia and southeast Asia, through the Himalaya, the belt also includes other European and Asian mountain ranges. The Himalayas contain the highest mountains in the world, including Mount Everest, mountain ranges outside of these two systems include the Arctic Cordillera, the Urals, the Appalachians, the Scandinavian Mountains, the Altai Mountains and the Hijaz Mountains. If the definition of a range is stretched to include underwater mountains. The mountain systems of the earth are characterized by a tree structure, the sub-range relationship is often expressed as a parent-child relationship. For example, the White Mountains of New Hampshire and the Blue Ridge Mountains are sub-ranges of the Appalachian Mountains, equivalently, the Appalachians are the parent of the White Mountains and Blue Ridge Mountains, and the White Mountains and the Blue Ridge Mountains are children of the Appalachians. The position of mountains influences climate, such as rain or snow, when air masses move up and over mountains, the air cools producing orographic precipitation. As the air descends on the side, it warms again and is drier. Often, a shadow will affect the leeward side of a range. Mountain ranges are constantly subjected to forces which work to tear them down. Erosion is at work while the mountains are being uplifted and long after until the mountains are reduced to low hills, rivers are traditionally believed to be the principle erosive factor on mountain ranges, with their ability of bedrock incision and sediment transport. The rugged topography of a range is the product of erosion. The basins adjacent to a mountain range are filled with sediments which are buried and turned into sedimentary rock. The early Cenozoic uplift of the Rocky Mountains of Colorado provides an example and this mass of rock was removed as the range was actively undergoing uplift
13.
Western Ghats
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Western Ghats மேற்கு தொடர்ச்சி மலை is a mountain range that runs parallel to the western coast of the Indian peninsula, located entirely in India. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and is one of the eight hottest hot-spots of biological diversity in the world and it is sometimes called the Great Escarpment of India. The range runs north to south along the edge of the Deccan Plateau. These hills cover 160,000 km2 and form the catchment area for complex riverine drainage systems that drain almost 40% of India, the Western Ghats block southwest monsoon winds from reaching the Deccan Plateau. The average elevation is around 1,200 m, at least 325 globally threatened species occur in the Western Ghats. The Western Ghats are the mountainous faulted and eroded edge of the Deccan Plateau, geologic evidence indicates that they were formed during the break-up of the supercontinent of Gondwana some 150 million years ago. Geophysical evidence indicates that the west coast of India came into being somewhere around 100 to 80 mya after it broke away from Madagascar, after the break-up, the western coast of India would have appeared as an abrupt cliff some 1,000 m in elevation. Basalt is the predominant rock found in the reaching a thickness of 3 km. Other rock types found are charnockites, granite gneiss, khondalites, leptynites, metamorphic gneisses with detached occurrences of limestone, iron ore. Residual laterite and bauxite ores are found in the southern hills. The Western Ghats extend from the Satpura Range in the north and it traverses south past the states of Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka and Kerala. Major gaps in the range are the Goa Gap, between the Maharashtra and Karnataka sections, and the Palghat Gap on the Tamil Nadu and Kerala border between the Nilgiri Hills and the Anaimalai Hills. The mountains intercept the rain-bearing westerly monsoon winds, and are consequently an area of high rainfall, particularly on their western side. The northern portion of the coastal plain between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea is known as the Konkan, the central portion is called Kanara. The foothill region east of the Ghats in Maharashtra is known as Desh, the range is known as Sahyadri in Maharashtra and Karnataka. The Western Ghats meets the Eastern Ghats at Nilgiris in northwestern Tamil Nadu, Nilgiris connects Biligiriranga Hills in southeastern Karnataka with the Shevaroys and Tirumala hills. In the southern part of the range is Anamudi, the highest peak in Western Ghats, following is a list of some of the highest peaks of the Western Ghats, The Western Ghats form one of the four watersheds of India, feeding the perennial rivers of India. The major river systems originating in the Western Ghats include Godavari, Kaveri, Krishna, Thamiraparani, majority of streams draining the Western Ghats join these rivers and carry large volume of water during the monsoon months
14.
Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary
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The Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary in the southern state of Kerala in India is spread over the southeast corner of the Western Ghats, and covers a total area of 128 km2. It is located between 77° 8’ to 77° 17’ east longitude and 8° 29’ to 8° 37’ north latitude and this is the drainage basin for the Neyyar River and its tributaries - Mullayar and Kallar. The towering peak of Agasthyamalai at an elevation of 1868 meters is a prominent landmark. The mean summer temperature is around 35 degrees Celsius and the winter being around 16 degree Celsius, the average rainfall from the Southwest monsoon between May and July and the Northeast monsoon between October and November, is about 2800 mm. The tourist season here is between the months of November and March and this sanctuary has a substantial natural vegetation cover. The diversity of its flora makes the sanctuary an ideal gene pool preserve, there are 39 species of mammals, including tiger, leopard, sloth bear, elephant, sambar, barking deer, bonnet macaque, Nilgiri langur and Nilgiri tahr. 176 species of birds,30 species of reptiles,17 species of amphibians and 40 species of fishes are reported from the sanctuary, a crocodile farm, set up in 1977 at Neyyar, is home to around 20 mugger crocodiles. The Steve Irwin Crocodile Rehabilitation and Research Centre was inaugurated at Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary in May 2007, Neyyar Elephant Rehabilitation Centre complex within the area cares for several elephants, from elephant calves to an 87-year-old elephant, and offers elephant rides and elephant feeding. There is also a rehabilitation centre. The sanctuary offers facilities for the tourists to visit the lion park and also boat on the Neyyar lake. J. T
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South India
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The region occupies 19. 31% of Indias land area. Covering the southern part of the peninsular Deccan Plateau, South India is bounded by the Bay of Bengal in the east, the Arabian Sea in the west, and the Indian Ocean in the south. The geography of the region is diverse, with two ranges, the Western and Eastern Ghats, bordering the plateau heartland. The Godavari River, Krishna River, Kaveri, Tungabhadra and Vaigai rivers are important non-perennial sources of water, Bangalore, Chennai, Hyderabad, Visakhapatnam, Vijayawada, Coimbatore and Kochi are the largest urban areas. Majority of the people in South India speak one of the four major Dravidian languages, Telugu, Tamil, Kannada and Malayalam. During its history, a number of kingdoms ruled over parts of South India whose invasions across southern and southeastern Asia impacted the history. Major dynasties that were established in South India include the Cheras, Cholas, Pandyas, Pallavas, Satavahanas, Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, european countries entered India through Kerala and the region was colonised by Britain and other nations. HDI in the states is high and the economy has undergone growth at a faster rate than most northern states. Literacy rates in the states are higher than the national average with approximately 80% of the population capable of reading and writing. The fertility rate in South India is 1.9, the lowest of all regions in India, South India also known as Peninsular India has been known by several other names. Carnatic derived from Karnād or Karunād meaning high country has also associated with South India. Carbon dating on ash mounds associated with Neolithic cultures in South India date back to 8000 BCE, artefacts such as ground stone axes, and minor copper objects have been found in the region. Towards the beginning of 1000 BCE, iron technology spread through the region, however, the region was in the middle of a trade route that extended from Muziris to Arikamedu linking the Mediterranean and East Asia. Trade with Phoenicians, Romans, Greeks, Arabs, Syrians, Jews, the region was part of the ancient Silk Road connecting the Asian continent in the East and the West. C. to 14th century A. D. The Vijayanagara Empire, founded in 14th century A. D. was the last Indian dynasty that ruled over the region. The Europeans arrived in the 15th century and by the middle of the 18th century, the French, the British Empire took control of the region from the British East India Company in 1857. During the British colonial rule, the region was divided into the Madras Presidency, Hyderabad state, Mysore, Travancore, Kochi, Vizianagaram and a number of other minor princely states. After the independence of India in 1947, the region was organised into four states, Madras State, Mysore State, Hyderabad State and Travancore-Cochin
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Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve
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The Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve was Established in 2001 and includes 3,500.36 km2 of which 1828 km² is in Kerala and 1672.36 km² is in Tamil Nadu. Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve became part of World Network of Biosphere Reserves in 2016, ABR straddles the border of Kollam and Thiruvananthapuram Districts in Kerala and Tirunelveli and Kanyakumari Districts in Tamil Nadu, South India at the southern end of the Western Ghats. The Biosphere lies Between 8°8 to 9°10 North Latitude, inclusion of adjoining areas of Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu has been approved. The reserve now covers parts of Tirunelveli and Kanyakumari Districts in Tamil Nadu and Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, ABR includes the Indian Ecoregions of South Western Ghats moist deciduous forests, South Western Ghats montane rain forests and Shola. It is the habitat for 2,000 varieties of plants, of which at least 50 are rare. Rare animals include the tiger, Asian Elephant, and Nilgiri Tahr, agastyamalai is also home to the Kanikaran, one of the oldest surviving ancient tribes in the world. Ecotourism is popular in the area, kanikkarans are the Original tribal Settlers in Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve
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India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
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Pathanamthitta district
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Pathanamthitta District is a district in the southern part of Kerala, India. The district headquarters is in the town of Pathanamthitta, however, Tiruvalla city is the largest commercial centre in the district. The district is surrounded by the Kottayam, Idukki, Alappuzha and it has a border with the state of Tamil Nadu in the east. Pathanamthitta, Tiruvalla, Adoor, Konni, Ranni and Mallapally are the taluks in the district, there are four municipalities in Pathanamthitta. They are Tiruvalla, Adoor, Pathanamthitta and Pandalam, having three rivers and a forest cover which includes a tiger reserve, the district also attracts many wildlife and nature enthusiasts. According to the 2001 Census of India, the population was 1,231,577, making it the third least populous district in Kerala, after Wayanad, Pathanamthitta has been declared the first polio-free district in India. Pathanamthitta is one of the richest districts in India with just 1. 17% poverty as of 2013, the districts name is a combination of two Malayalam words, pathanam and thitta, which together mean array of houses on the river side. The district capital is located on the banks of the river Achankovil and it is presumed that the regions that form the district were formerly under the rule of Pandalam, which had connections with the Pandya kingdom. When Pandalam was added to the state of Travancore in 1820. The district was formed on 1 November 1982 in the interest of speeding up development, the formation was done by incorporating various portions of the erstwhile Kollam, Alappuzha and Idukki districts. While the taluks Pathanamthitta, Adoor, Ranni, Konni and Kozhencherry were taken from Kollam district, Pandalam, Thiruvalla, Pathanamthitta being also a land of culture and learning could bring forth the literary talents of two centuries together in single volume named Desathuti, Pathanamthitta Kavithakal. Unnikrishnan Poozhikkad collected 184 poems of different poets of Pathanamthitta starting from 18th century, later on Desathuti was formed into a cultural organization which organizes literary symposiums and musical festivals. Pathanamthitta is a district, located at 9°16′N 76°47′E, spanning over an area of 2,637 square kilometres. The district is bordered by the districts Kottayam and Idukki in the north, Alappuzha in the west, to the east it has border with the Tamil Nadu state. The district can be divided into three geographical regions, the highland, the midland and the lowland. The highland stretches through the Western Ghats, where the hills are tall, Western Ghats maintains an average altitude of around 800 m. It descends to the hills of midland in the centre. The lowland with its abundance of trees, lies along the eastern borders of Alappuzha district
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Kollam district
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Kollam district is one of 14 districts of the state of Kerala, India. The district has a cross-section of Keralas natural attributes, it is endowed with a coastline, a major Arabian Sea seaport. The district has many source of waterbodies, Kallada river is one among it and the east side land of river is EastKallada and the west side land is WestKallada. Kallada Boat race is one among the festival events of district. Even though it is a competition between two sides of river many boat clubs from various places even beyond the district use to participate in the event. Kollam is the capital of Keralas cashew industry, plains, mountains, lakes, lagoons and backwaters, forests, farmland and rivers make up the topography of the district. The area had trading relationships with Phoenicia and Ancient Rome and it covers 2,492 square kilometres, is the seventh-largest district in Kerala and is densely populated. It has the shortest coastal line among districts in Kerala, five major urban centres are, Kollam, Paravur, Punalur, Karunagapally, and Kottarakara. Sasthamkotta Lake, the largest freshwater lake in Kerala, is located in Kollam, two major rivers drain the district. Ashtamudi Lake and Paravur Lake are two important lakes in the district, Ashtamudi Lake covers 30 percent of total area of the district. Kollam is located on Ashtamudi Lake, Neendakara, a major fishing port in southern Kerala, is also located on this scenic lake. Edava and Nadayara Lakes are also located in Kollam district. The place is popular as Thangasseri. The lighthouse built at Quilon by the British in the year 1902 is visible as far as 13 miles in the sea, the lighthouse stands to an amazing height of 144 feet. The picturesque view of the sea from the place where the stands is breathtaking. In the vicinity lies the Portuguese Fort, the fort was built in the year 1517 and at present only a wall of the fort has escaped the assaults made by Time. Kollams temperature is almost steady throughout the year, the average temperature ranges from 25 to 32 degrees Celsius. Summer usually runs from March until May, the monsoon begins by June, Kollam receives an annual average rainfall of around 2,700 millimetres
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Kanyakumari district
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Kanyakumari district is the southernmost district in Tamil Nadu state and mainland India. It is the second largest district in the state in terms of population density, the district stands first in terms of literacy rate in the state. Kanyakumari district has a topography with sea on three sides and the mountains of the Western Ghats bordering the northern side. A few artifacts unearthed by excavations in there. The Presidency was later renamed Tamil Nadu and Kanyakumari, today, is one of the 32 districts of Tamil Nadu state, many historical assumptions persist in the district and state, which associate sages such as Vyasa, Agastya, Tolkappiyar, Avvaiyar and Thiruvalluvar to the district. The district is also the birthplace of Ayyavazhi, the area that comprises the current Kanyakumari district was a part of the old Ay kingdom of the first and second Sangham ages. Following the decline of the Ay kingdoms, the area became Venad, the wealth of the Nanjalnadu beckoned many invaded including the Nayaks and later an Islamist army during the reign of Umayamma Rani. The Venad region was in anarchy before Marthanda Varma ascended the throne in 1729 AD, before his reign the Samanthan Nairs ruled the province. Under their rule anarchy was dominant in Kanyakumari region, however, Marthanda Varma brought a sense of disorder under control by annexing the nearby territories, putting down the feudal lords and establishing the strong state of Travancore. He had also bought some portions of Kanyakumari from the then viceroy making it the southern boundary, under his rule the district improved in a social context as well as economically. The famous battle of Colachel took place in the district, later, the maharajahs of Travancore built the forts at Aramboly to prevent any invasion from the Carnatic. Key elements of Velu Thampi Dalawas revolt occurred in the area, in the year 1949, the area became a part of the reestablished Travancore Cochin state. The people of Agasteeswarem, Thovalai, Kalkulam and Vilavancode taluks, an extreme agitation by Tamil speaking residents under the leadership of Marshal Nesamony took place for including Kanyakumari within Tamil Nadu. Eventually the merger happened in 1956 based on language reorganization of states, the district of Kanyakumari is the southern most districts in the state of Tamil Nadu. It is situated between 77°15 and 77°36 east latitude and 8°03 and 8°35 north longitude, the district has borders with Tirunelveli district, the Gulf of Mannar, the Indian Ocean, the Arabian Sea and the state of Kerala. Kanyakumari includes the special grade village of Chinnamuttom, located at the southernmost point of the Indian Subcontinent, for administrative purposes, the district comprises four taluks, Thovalai, Agastheeswaram, Kalkulam, and Vilavancode. At the lower levels of administration, there are 99 village panchayats, the major towns of the district include, Agastheeswaram taluk, Nagercoil, Kanyakumari, Agastheeswaram, Suchindram and Rajakkamangalam. Kalkulam taluk, Padmanabhapuram-Thuckalay, Colachel, Kalkulam, Thiruvithamcode, Kurunthancode, Thiruvattar and Kulasekaram, Vilavancode Taluk, Karungal, Kuzhithurai-Marthandam, Vilavancode, Killiyur, Munchirai, Manjalumoodu Arumanai and Melpuram
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Thamirabarani River
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The Thamirabarani River (Tamil, தாமிரபரணி is a perennial river that originates from the famous Agastyarkoodam peak of Pothigai hills of the Western Ghats, above Papanasam in the Ambasamudram taluk. It flows through Tirunelveli and Tuticorin districts of the Tamil Nadu state of southern India into the Gulf of Mannar and it was called the Tamraparni River in the pre-classical period, a name it lent to the island of Sri Lanka. The old Tamil name of the river is Porunai, from the source to sea, the river is about 185 kilometres long and is the only perennial river in South India. A meaning for the term following its derivation became copper-colored leaf, from the words Thamiram in Tamil/Sanskrit and parani meaning leaf/tree, other name derivations include the Pali term Tambapanni, Tamradvipa of Sanskrit speakers and Taprobana of ancient Greek cartographers. Its many name derivations of Tan Porunai include Tampraparani, Tamraparni, Tamiravaruni, Tan Porunai nathi finds mention by classical Tamil poets in ancient Sangam Tamil literature Purananuru. Recognised as a river in Sanskrit literature Puranas, Mahabharata and Ramayana. One important historical document on the river is the treatise Thamirabarani Mahathmiyam and it has many ancient temples along its banks. In the Mahābhārata the river is mentioned as Listen, O son of Kunti, in that asylum the gods had undergone penances impelled by the desire of obtaining salvation. The Thamirabarani River originates from the peak of the Pothigai hills on the slopes of the Western Ghats at an elevation of 1,725 metres above sea-level. The river is joined by its headwater tributaries Peyar, Ullar, Pambar before it flows into the Kariyar Dam reservoir, the river forms the Vaanatheertham waterfalls,40 metres high, as it enters the Kariyar reservoir. Servalar joins the Thamirabarani before it enters into the Papanasam lower reservoir, the river descends down the mountains near Papanasam, where it forms the Kalyanatheertham falls and Agasthiar falls. The river flows on the plains eastwards from Papanasam, the first tributary to join Thamirabarani in the plains is the Manimuthar River, which originating from Manjolai hills and joins Thamirabarani near Aladiyoor village. The towns Ambasamudram and Kallidaikurichi are located respectively on the left and right banks of Thamiraparani, the Gadananathi is fed by the Jambunathi and Ramanathi Rivers. The Pachaiyar River which originates from the Kalakkadu reserve forests at about 1,300 metres above sea level joins the Thamirabarani near Tharuvai village in Palayamkottai Taluk, the Chittar River runs almost parallel to Thamirabarani till it joins the main river near Sivalaperi. Thamirabarani passes through the taluks of Tirunelveli and Palayamkottai of Tirunelveli district and Srivaikundam, list of major tributaries The river drains into Gulf of Mannar near Punnaikayal in Tiruchendur taluk of Tuticorin district. The river drains with its tributaries an area of about 4,400 square kilometres, as most of its extensive catchment areas lie in the Western Ghats, the river enjoys the full benefit of both the monsoons, which make the river perennial. Since all its tributaries are arising from the Western ghats, the river is prone to heavy floods especially during the northeast monsoon and it flooded again in 2015 with water entering the Kurukuthurai Murugan Temple. It is fed by both the monsoons – the south west and the north-eastern and is seen in full spate twice a year if the monsoons do not fail
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Pilgrimage
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A pilgrimage is a journey or search of moral or spiritual significance. Typically, it is a journey to a shrine or other location of importance to a persons beliefs and faith, a person who makes such a journey is called a pilgrim. As a common experience, pilgrimage has been proposed as a Jungian archetype by Wallace Clift. The Holy Land acts as a point for the pilgrimages of the Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity. Baháulláh decreed pilgrimage to two places in the Kitáb-i-Aqdas, the House of Baháulláh in Baghdad, Iraq, and the House of the Báb in Shiraz, later, Abdul-Bahá designated the Shrine of Baháulláh at Bahji, Israel as a site of pilgrimage. Other pilgrimage places in India and Nepal connected to the life of Gautama Buddha are, Savatthi, Pataliputta, Nalanda, Gaya, Vesali, Sankasia, Kapilavastu, Kosambi, Rajagaha, Varanasi, other famous places for Buddhist pilgrimage include, India, Sanchi, Ellora, Ajanta. Thailand, Sukhothai, Ayutthaya, Wat Phra Kaew, Wat Doi Suthep, tibet, Lhasa, Mount Kailash, Lake Nam-tso. Sri Lanka, Polonnaruwa, Temple of the Tooth, Anuradhapura, malaysia, Kek Lok Si, Cheng Hoon Teng, Maha Vihara Myanmar, Bagan, Sagaing Hill. The Four Sacred Mountains Japan, Shikoku Pilgrimage,88 Temple pilgrimage in the Shikoku island, Japan 100 Kannon, pilgrimage composed of the Saigoku, Bandō and Chichibu pilgrimages. Saigoku 33 Kannon, pilgrimage in the Kansai region, Bandō33 Kannon, pilgrimage in the Kantō region. Chichibu 34 Kannon, pilgrimage in Saitama Prefecture, Chūgoku 33 Kannon, pilgrimage in the Chūgoku region. Christian pilgrimage was first made to sites connected with the birth, life, pilgrimages were, and are, also made to Rome and other sites associated with the apostles, saints and Christian martyrs, as well as to places where there have been apparitions of the Virgin Mary. A popular pilgrimage journey is along the Way of St. James to the Santiago de Compostela Cathedral, in Galicia, Spain, chaucers The Canterbury Tales recounts tales told by Christian pilgrims on their way to Canterbury Cathedral and the shrine of Thomas Becket. According to Karel Werners Popular Dictionary of Hinduism, most Hindu places of pilgrimage are associated with events from the lives of various gods. Almost any place can become a focus for pilgrimage, but in most cases they are sacred cities, rivers, lakes, Hindus are encouraged to undertake pilgrimages during their lifetime, though this practice is not considered absolutely mandatory. Most Hindus visit sites within their region or locale, Kumbh Mela, Kumbh Mela is one of the largest gatherings of humans in the world. The location is rotated among Allahabad, Haridwar, Nashik, Char Dham, The four holy sites Puri, Rameswaram, Dwarka, and Badrinath compose the Char Dham pilgrimage circuit. Kanwar Pilgrimage, The Kanwar is Indias largest annual religious pilgrimage, as part of this phenomenon, millions of participants gather sacred water from the Ganga and carry it across hundreds of miles to dispense as offerings in Śiva shrines
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Agastya
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Agastya is a revered Vedic sage of Hinduism. In the Indian traditions, he is a recluse and an influential scholar in diverse languages of the Indian subcontinent. He and his wife Lopamudra are the authors of hymns 1.165 to 1.191 in the Sanskrit text Rigveda. Agastya is considered by many to be the father of the Tamil language, Agastya is a character in numerous inconsistent mythologies and regional epics including the major Ramayana and Mahabharata. He is also revered in the Puranic literature of Shaktism and Vaishnavism and he is one of the Indian sages found in ancient sculpture and reliefs in Hindu temples of South Asia, and Southeast Asia such as in the early medieval era Shaiva temples on Java Indonesia. He is the figure and Guru in the ancient Javanese language text Agastyaparva. He is also referred to as Mana, Kalasaja, Kumbhaja, the etymological origin of Agastya is unclear and there are several theories. One states that it is derived from a tree called Agati gandiflora. This theory suggests that Agati evolved into Agastih, and favors Dravidian origins of the Vedic sage, a third theory links it to Indo-European origins, through the Iranian word gasta which means sin, foul, and a-gasta would mean not sin, not foul. The word is written as Agasti and Agathiyar. The origins of Agastya are mythical, unlike most Vedic sages, he has neither a human mother nor a father. According to Hindu mythology, his miraculous birth follows a yajna being done by gods Varuna and Mitra and they are overwhelmed by her extraordinary sexuality, and ejaculate. Their semen falls into a mud pitcher, which is the womb in which the fetus of Agastya grows and he is born from this jar, along with his twin sage Vashistha in some mythologies. This mythology gives him the name kumbhayoni, which means he whose womb was a mud pot. Agastya leads a life, educates himself, becoming a celebrated sage. He is not born to Brahmin parents, but is called a Brahmin in many Indian texts because of his learning, in the Tamil traditions, he is considered a form of the Hindu god Shiva, one well versed in Sanskrit and a symbol of Tamil learning. According to inconsistent legends in the Puranic and the epics, the ascetic sage Agastya proposed to Lopamudra and her parents were unwilling to bless the engagement, concerned that she would be unable to live the austere lifestyle of Agastya in the forest. Therewith, Lopamudra becomes the wife of Agastya, Agastya and Lopamudra have a son named Drdhasyu, sometimes called Idhmavaha
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Rishi
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In the Vedas the term Rishi denotes an inspired poet of Vedic hymns. Post-Vedic tradition of Hinduism regards the Rishis as seers or sages, who after intense meditation realized truths and eternal knowledge, according to Indian tradition, the word may be derived from two different meanings of the root rsh. Sanskrit grammarians derive this word from the meaning, to go. V. S. Apte gives this particular meaning and derivation, another form of this root means to flow, to move near by flowing. Monier-Williams also quotes Tārānātha who compiled the great dictionary named ṛṣati jñānena saṃsāra-pāram, more than a century ago, Monier-Williams tentatively suggested a derivation from drś to see. Monier-Wiliams also quotes the Hibernian form arsan and arrach as related to rishi, Monier-Williams also conjectures that the root drish might have given rise to an obsolete root rish meaning to see. However, the root has a close Avestan cognate ərəšiš an ecstatic, yet the Indo-European dictionary of Julius Pokorny connects the word to a PIE root *h3er-s meaning rise, protrude, in the sense of excellent and thus cognate with Ṛta and right and Asha. Some of the earliest lists of Rishi are found in Jaiminiya Brahmana verse 2.218, in the Vedas, the word denotes an inspired poet of Vedic hymns. In particular, Ṛṣi refers to the authors of the hymns of the Rigveda, post-Vedic tradition regards the Rishis as sages or saints, constituting a peculiar class of divine human beings in the early mythical system, as distinct from Asuras, Devas and mortal men. Swami Vivekananda described Rishis as Mantra-drashtas or the seers of thought, the Sama Veda adds Nodha, Akrishtabhasha, Sikatanivavari and Gaupayana. In Mahabharata 12, on the hand, there is the post-Vedic list of Marici, Atri, Angiras, Pulaha, Kratu, Pulastya. The Mahābhārata list explicitly refers to the saptarshis of the first manvantara, each manvantara had a unique set of saptarshi. In Harivamsha 417ff, the names of the Rishis of each manvantara are enumerated, in addition to the Saptarṣi, there are other classifications of sages. In descending order of precedence, they are Brahmarshi, Maharshi, Rajarshi, devarṣi, Paramrṣi, Shrutarṣi and Kāndarṣi are added in Manusmriti iv-94 and xi-236 and in two dramas of Kālidasa. The Chaturvarga-Chintāmani of Hemādri puts riṣi at the place in the eightfold division of Brāhmanas. Amarakosha mentions seven types of riṣis, Shrutarshi, Kāndarshi, Paramarshi, Maharshi, Rājarshi, Brahmarshi and Devarshi, amarakosha strictly distinguishes Rishi from other types of sages, such as sanyāsi, bhikṣu, parivrājaka, tapasvi, muni, brahmachāri, yati, etc. Most medieval era Hindu temples of Java, Indonesia show Rishi Agastya statues or reliefs, some examples include Candi Sambisari and the Prambanan temple near Yogyakarta. Rishi Agastya is known as Phra Reusi Akkhot in Thailand, Ruesi is a hermit sage, the equivalent of Rishi in India
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Saptarishi
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The Saptarishi are the seven rishis who are extolled at many places in the Vedas and Hindu literature. The Vedic Samhitas never enumerate these rishis by name, though later Vedic texts such as the Brahmanas and they are regarded in the Vedas as the patriarchs of the Vedic religion. The late Gopatha Brahmana 1.2.8 has Vashista, Visvamitra, Jamadagni, Gautama, Bharadvaja, Gungu, Agastya, Bhrigu and Kaśyapa. In post-Vedic texts, different lists appear, some of these rishis were recognized as the mind born sons of Brahma, other representations are Mahesha or Shiva as the Destroyer and Vishnu as the Preserver. Since these seven rishis were also among the eight rishis, who were considered to be the ancestors of the Gotras of Brahmins. In some parts of India, people believe these are seven stars of the Big Dipper named Vashista, Marichi, Pulastya, Pulaha, Atri, Angiras, there is another star slightly visible within it, known as Arundhati. Arundhati is the wife of Vashista, the seven Rishis in the next Manvantara will be Diptimat, Galava, Parasurama, Kripa, Drauni or Ashwatthama, Vyasa and Rishyasringa. Sapta Rishis are the Hierarchy working under the guidance of the Highest Creative Intelligence, the present batch of the Sapta Rishis is Bhrigu, Atri, Angirasa Vashista, Pulastya, Pulalaha and Kratu. They bring down to the earth the required Knowledge and Energies to strengthen the processes of Transition and they are naturally the most evolved Light Beings in the Creation and the guardians of the Divine Laws. In post-Vedic religion, Manvantara is the time within an Kalpa, a day of Brahma, like the present Śveta Vārāha Kalpa. The names of the current Saptarshis are, Kashyapa, Atri, Vashista, Vishvamitra, Gautama Maharishi, Jamadagni, the Saptarishis keep changing for every Yuga. As per Hindu Shastras, there are four yugas, Krita Yuga / Sat Yuga, Treta Yuga, Dvapara Yuga and Kali Yuga. We are at present in the Kali Yuga, which will last for 432,000 years, Dvapara Yuga is twice Kali Yuga, Treta Yuga is thrice Kali Yuga, over all,4,320,000 years termed as 1 Chaturyuga. 1000 Chaturyugas make the day of 12 hours for Brahma and during another 12 hours, Brahma takes rest, thus 1 day for Brahma constitutes 1000 Chaturyugas. The valid avatars clan will be named after Ashvamedh, at the end of every four ages there is a disappearance of the Vedas and it is the province of the seven Rishis to come down upon earth from heaven to give them currency again. The Shatapatha Brahmana and Brihadaranyaka Upanishad acknowledge the names of seven rishis as, krishna Yajurveda in the Sandhya-Vandana Mantras has it as, Angiras Atri Bhrigu Gautama Maharishi Kashyapa Kutsa Vashista 3. Mahabharata gives the Seven Rishis names, Marichi Atri Pulaha Pulastya Kratu Vashista Kashyapa etc.4. )They all were sons of King Shri Nandan of Prabhapurnagar, Shri Nandan king took diksha becoming shishya of Omniscient Pritinkar Muniraaj and attained salvation. Because of great tapcharan of these seven digamber munis the Mahamaari disease stopped its evil effect, many idols of these seven munis were made after that event by King Shatrughna in all four directions of city
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Hindu
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Hindu refers to any person who regards themselves as culturally, ethnically, or religiously adhering to aspects of Hinduism. It has historically used as a geographical, cultural, or religious identifier for people indigenous to South Asia. The historical meaning of the term Hindu has evolved with time, by the 16th century, the term began to refer to residents of India who were not Turks or Muslims. The historical development of Hindu self-identity within the Indian population, in a religious or cultural sense, is unclear, competing theories state that Hindu identity developed in the British colonial era, or that it developed post-8th century CE after the Islamic invasion and medieval Hindu-Muslim wars. A sense of Hindu identity and the term Hindu appears in texts dated between the 13th and 18th century in Sanskrit and regional languages. The 14th- and 18th-century Indian poets such as Vidyapati, Kabir and Eknath used the phrase Hindu dharma, the Christian friar Sebastiao Manrique used the term Hindu in religious context in 1649. In the 18th century, the European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus, in contrast to Mohamedans for Mughals, scholars state that the custom of distinguishing between Hindus, Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs is a modern phenomenon. Hindoo is a spelling variant, whose use today may be considered derogatory. At more than 1.03 billion, Hindus are the third largest group after Christians. The vast majority of Hindus, approximately 966 million, live in India, according to Indias 2011 census. After India, the next 9 countries with the largest Hindu populations are, in decreasing order, Nepal, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, United States, Malaysia, United Kingdom and Myanmar. These together accounted for 99% of the worlds Hindu population, the word Hindu is derived from the Indo-Aryan and Sanskrit word Sindhu, which means a large body of water, covering river, ocean. It was used as the name of the Indus river and also referred to its tributaries, the Punjab region, called Sapta Sindhava in the Vedas, is called Hapta Hindu in Zend Avesta. The 6th-century BCE inscription of Darius I mentions the province of Hidush, the people of India were referred to as Hinduvān and hindavī was used as the adjective for Indian in the 8th century text Chachnama. The term Hindu in these ancient records is an ethno-geographical term, the Arabic equivalent Al-Hind likewise referred to the country of India. Among the earliest known records of Hindu with connotations of religion may be in the 7th-century CE Chinese text Record of the Western Regions by the Buddhist scholar Xuanzang, Xuanzang uses the transliterated term In-tu whose connotation overflows in the religious according to Arvind Sharma. The Hindu community occurs as the amorphous Other of the Muslim community in the court chronicles, wilfred Cantwell Smith notes that Hindu retained its geographical reference initially, Indian, indigenous, local, virtually native. Slowly, the Indian groups themselves started using the term, differentiating themselves, the poet Vidyapatis poem Kirtilata contrasts the cultures of Hindus and Turks in a city and concludes The Hindus and the Turks live close together, Each makes fun of the others religion
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Puranas
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The word Puranas literally means ancient, old, and it is a vast genre of Indian literature about a wide range of topics, particularly myths, legends and other traditional lore. Composed primarily in Sanskrit, but also in languages, several of these texts are named after major Hindu deities such as Vishnu, Shiva. The Puranas genre of literature is found in both Hinduism and Jainism, the content is highly inconsistent across the Puranas, and each Purana has survived in numerous manuscripts which are themselves inconsistent. The Hindu Puranas are anonymous texts and likely the work of authors over the centuries, in contrast, most Jaina Puranas can be dated. There are 18 Maha Puranas and 18 Upa Puranas, with over 400,000 verses, the first versions of the various Puranas were likely composed between the 3rd- and 10th-century CE. The Puranas do not enjoy the authority of a scripture in Hinduism and they have been influential in the Hindu culture, inspiring major national and regional annual festivals of Hinduism. The religious practices included in them are considered Vaidika, because they do not preach initiation into Tantra, the Bhagavata Purana has been among the most celebrated and popular text in the Puranic genre, and is of non-dualistic tenor. The Puranic literature wove with the Bhakti movement in India, vyasa, the narrator of the Mahabharata, is hagiographically credited as the compiler of the Puranas. The date of the production of the written texts does not define the date of origin of the Puranas and they existed in an oral form before being written down, and were incrementally modified well into the 16th century. An early occurrence of the term purana is found in the Chandogya Upanishad, translated by Patrick Olivelle as the corpus of histories, importantly, the most famous form of itihāsapurāṇaṃ is the Mahabharata. The term also appears in the Atharvaveda 11.7.24, the extant Puranas, states Coburn, are not identical to the original Puranas. In the 19th century, F. E. Pargiter believed the original Purana may date to the time of the redaction of the Vedas. Wendy Doniger, based on her study of indologists, assigns approximate dates to the various Puranas and she dates Markandeya Purana to c.250 CE, Matsya Purana to c. 250–500 CE, Vayu Purana to c.350 CE, Harivamsa and Vishnu Purana to c.450 CE, 350–950 CE, Vamana Purana to c. 450–900 CE, Kurma Purana to c, 550–850 CE, and Linga Purana to c. Of the many texts designated Puranas the most important are the Mahāpurāṇas or the major Puranas and these are said to be eighteen in number, divided into three groups of six, though they are not always counted in the same way. The difference between Upapuranas and Mahapuranas has been explained by Rajendra Hazra as, a Mahapurana is well known, the Upapuranas are eighteen in number, with disagreement as to which canonical titles belong in that list of eighteen. The Ganesha and Mudgala Puranas are devoted to Ganesha, the Devi-Bhagavata Purana, which extols the goddess Durga, has become a basic text for Devi worshipers
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Puja (Hinduism)
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Pūjā or Poojan is a prayer ritual performed by Hindus to host, honour and worship one or more deities, or to spiritually celebrate an event. Sometimes spelt phonetically as pooja or poojah, it may honour or celebrate the presence of special guest, the word pūjā comes from Sanskrit, and means reverence, honour, homage, adoration, and worship. Puja rituals are held by Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs. In Hinduism, puja is done on a variety of occasions, frequency and settings. It may include daily puja done in the home, to temple ceremonies and annual festivals, to few lifetime events such as birth of a baby or a wedding. The two main areas where puja is performed are in the home and at temples to mark certain stages of life, events or some such as Durga Puja. Puja is not mandatory, it may be a daily affair for some Hindus, periodic ritual for some. In some temples, various pujas may be performed daily at various times of the day, in other temples, Puja varies according to the school of Hinduism. Puja may vary by region, occasion, deity honored, in formal Nigama ceremonies, a fire may be lit in honour of deity Agni, without an idol or image present. In contrast, in Agama ceremonies, an idol or image of deity is present, in both ceremonies, a diya or incense stick may be lit while a prayer is chanted or hymn is sung. Puja is typically performed by a Hindu worshipper alone, though sometimes in presence of a priest who is well versed in procedure, both Nigama and Agama puja are practiced in Hinduism in India. In Hinduism of Bali Indonesia, Agama puja is most prevalent both inside homes and in temples, Puja is sometimes called Sembahyang in Indonesia. Puja is an ancient culture or way of life, with unclear origins, joshi claims the word puja was first used in vedic times when Sūtra were composed, to describe prayers and worship before yajna or homa – fire deity, Agni. Charpentier suggests the origin of the word Puja may lie in the Dravidian languages, two possible Tamil roots have been suggested, Poosai to smear with something and Poochei to do with flowers. According to scholars, one of the earliest mentions of pūjā is in the Grihya Sutras and these Sutras, dated to be about 500 BC, use the term puja to describe the hospitality to honor priests who were invited to one’s home to lead rituals for departed ancestors. As Hindu philosophy expanded and diversified, with such as the bhakti movement. As with vedic times, the concept of puja remained the same. The Puranic corpus of literature, dating from about 6th century CE, deity puja thus melds Vedic rites with devotion to deity in its ritual form
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Neyyar Dam
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Neyyar dam is a gravity dam on the Neyyar River in Thiruvananthapuram district of Kerala, South India, located on the foot of the Western Ghats about 30 km from Thiruvananthapuram. It was established in 1958 and is a picnic spot. Lying against the low hills of the Western Ghats, Neyyar Dam has a scenic lake. Neyyar dam is situated at Kallikkad Panchayath of Kattakkada Taluk of Trivandrum district, the peak Agasthya kooodam is very near to Neyyar dam. The dam was built in the land given by an agriculturist known as Karuvachiyil Krishan Panicker, Father of Janaki Thankamma, Maruthummoottil family, one canal of Neyyar flows to western districts of Tamil Nadu. The main river Neyyar flows through Kallikkadu, Ottasekharamangalam, Aryancode, Kezharoor, Perumkadavila, Marayamuttom, Neyyattinkara and Poovar, Kallikkadu panchayath has more cultural and historic heritages. The Travancore King Marthanda Varmas footprints are here and he fought against Ettuveettil Pillais and he had to flee from his palace. He walked through the mountains of Kallikkadu such as Agasthakoodam with the Aborigins and they saved the king and they were rewarded with 36,000 acres of land. After the democratic reign Kanis lost the land and it came under the controle of local land lords, There was a famous strike, Kanipattu Samaram led by Karshaka Sangham. A yoga centre, Sivanantha Ashram, is near to this place, several temples are near Neyyardam, including the Veeranakavu Sreedharma Shastha temple and the Mangara Muttom Siva temple. The Neyyar Dam is a Rubble masonry gravity-type dam with a height of 56 m and its structural volume is 105,000 m3. The dam creates a reservoir of 106,200,000 m3 of which 101,000,000 m3 is active capacity, the reservoirs surface area is 91 km2 and the dams spillway has a 809.40 m3/s maximum discharge capacity. Wild life includes gaur, sloth bear, Nilgiri Tahr, jungle cat and Nilgiri langur, wild elephants, Yoga Neyyar Dam is home to the beautiful and peaceful Sivananda Yoga Vedanta Dhanwanthari Ashram where you can take courses in Yoga and practice meditation. On the journey from Trivandrum you will see rubber plantations and the local harvest of the latex that comes from the trees. Boating Tourists can hire a boat for Rs 250 per head to view the surrounding forests. Crocodile Rehabilitation and Research Centre A crocodile farm was set up in 1977 and it also includes a habitat for otters near the administrative complex. The Crocodile Rehabilitation and Research Centre in Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary was named initially by the Kerala government after the late naturalist Steve Irwin as Steve Irwin National Park. How to Reach Neyyar Dam, There is a regular Bus Service from the city of Thiruvananthapuram, one can also come via the International Thiruvananthapuram Airport to Neyyar Dam, which is just 38 km away
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Bonacaud
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Bonacaud is the base station of the famous peak, Agasthyarkoodam in the Agasthya hills. The Agasthya hill range is famous for its abundance of rare herbs, there is a tea estate in Bonacaud, established by Britishers. The hill resort Ponmudi is near to Bonacaud, Bonacaud is now used as a base camp for trekking to Agasthyakoodam. It has lots of shooting locations including the forests, waterfalls and it is located at 8°45′25″N 77°11′20″E The place has the famous Bona Falls a truly enthralling place with a lot of fauna. Vazuvanchola near Bona falls is also famous for its waterfalls The estate has cardamom, coconut, pepper, the exact name of the place is Bonaccord named by british and it mean good faith. It is believed that around 1850 one estate been established on the top of the hill, due to lack of sun light, many labors fell in ill and died. Later the management has changed the location and came down and established the estate in the present location, the labors been brought from South tamil nadu and their descendants still live there in the estate. Lower priced tea imports following the implementation of General Agreement on Tariffs, the estate was taken over by a bank and the plantation was shut down after the owner failed to replay the loan on the estate. The families were provided with free ration by the State Government, in 2014, the State Government Labour department convinced the estate management to reopen the estate but the employees were neither paid salary nor the free ration after that. Currently the State Government is in the process of taking over the estate, nearest airport, Trivandrum International airport 67 km. Nearest railway station, Trivandrum Central 62 km
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Ponmudi
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Ponmudi is a hill station in the Thiruvananthapuram District of Kerala in India. It is located 55.2 km north-east of Trivandrum City at an altitude of 1100 m and it is a part of the Western Ghats mountain range that runs parallel to the Arabian Sea. Ponmudi is connected to Trivandrum by a winding road offering scenic views on the way to Ponmudi. Ponmudi serves as a base for trekking and hiking, there are also tea gardens in the area. There are 22 hairpin turns along this route which makes the travel a definitely thrilling experience. Other attractions near Ponmudi include Golden Valley and a number of rivulets and rapids, the lush forest area has tropical vegetation. A variety of wildlife inhabit the hills, the Golden Valley offers vistas of the hills and access to the Kallar River. Flowing though an area, it has rounded pebbles, cool water, fish. Some notable tourist attractions located in Ponmudi are Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary, Echo Point, mist-laden valleys, especially Golden Valley near Kallar River, also draw tourists. Travelers can find a park and wood and stone cottages coloured in bright hues while visiting here. Located about 1.5 km from the hill station, is the Ponmudi Falls. Around 3 km from the Ponmudi Resort, is the popular Deer Park, the Meenmutty Falls, another popular attraction of the region, is about 3 km from the Kallar Main Road. Another main attraction in the region is Agasthyarkoodam, one of the highest peaks in the Western Ghats and this peak is famous for its wilderness, and can be accessed only with the Forest Departments permission. Ponmudi is having an importance of biodiversity, which plays a major role in maintaining the ecological balance of the area. Ponmudi is host to 283 species of birds, many of which are endangered and threatened, birds endemic to this region include the painted bush quail, the Malabar grey hornbill, the Wayanad laughing thrush, the broad-tailed grass bird and the Nilgiri pipit. The grasslands of Ponmudi are the grounds of the broad-tailed grass bird. Fifty-nine per cent of the 483 bird species in Kerala are found at Ponmudi, of the 16 species of birds endemic to the Western Ghats,15 are at Ponmudi. Of the 332 species of butterflies in the Western Ghats,195 are found here, of the 37 butterfly species endemic to the Ghats,24 are found at Ponmudi. The spot puffin, a butterfly, has been sighted at the Kulachikarai-Panayam-Merchiston area where ISROs land comes
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Thiruvananthapuram
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Thiruvananthapuram, formerly known as Trivandrum, is the capital and the largest city of the Indian state of Kerala. It is located on the west coast of India near the south of the mainland. Referred to by Mahatma Gandhi as the Evergreen city of India, Thiruvananthapuram was a trading post for spices, sandalwood and ivory. The city was ruled by the Ays and was captured by the rulers of Venad in tenth century A. D, in 1729, Marthanda Varma founded the princely state of Thiruvithamkoor and made Thiruvananthapuram the capital in 1745. It remained as a state ruled by Travancore under the loose governance of the British before joining the Indian Union in 1948. With nearly 80% of the software exports, Thiruvananthapuram is a major IT hub with the Technopark. Indias first and only magic academy, Magic Academy Research Centre run by Merlin award-winning magician Gopinath Muthukad is situated in Thiruvananthapuram, the city is home to animation companies like Toonz India Ltd and Tata Elxsi Ltd. The Kinfra Film and Video Park is one of the most advanced film and it is consistently ranked among the best cities to live in Kerala as well as India. The city was referred to as Trivandrum until 1991, when the government decided to reinstate the citys original name Thiruvananthapuram. Thiruvananthapuram is an ancient region with trading traditions dating back to 1000 BCE, the city was a trading post for spices, sandalwood and ivory. The early rulers of the city were the Ays and after their fall in the 10th century, in 1729, Marthanda Varma founded the princely state of Thiruvithamkoor and Thiruvananthapuram was made the capital in 1745 after shifting the capital from Padmanabhapuram in Tamil Nadu. In the mid-19th century, the city was under the reign of Swathi Thirunal, an observatory was established in 1837 with the Oriental Research Institute & Manuscripts Library and the University College established in 1873. Several colleges were established by Moolam Thirunal, sree Moolam Assembly, established in 1904, was the first democratically elected legislative council in any Indian state. After Indian Independence in 1947, Travancore chose to join the Indian union, in 1949, Thiruvananthapuram became the capital of Travancore-Cochin, the state formed by the integration of Travancore with the Kingdom of Cochin. The king of Travancore, Chitra Thirunal Bala Rama Varma, became the Rajpramukh of the Travancore-Cochin Union from 1 July 1949 until 31 October 1956, when the state of Kerala was formed on 1 November 1956, Thiruvananthapuram became its capital. The city has a population of 752,490 according to the 2011 census, the sex ratio is 1,032 females for every 1,000 males. In October 2010, the number of wards was increased from 86 to 100 post expansion of city limits by adding Sreekaryam, Vattiyoorkavu, Kudappanakunnu, hindus comprise 68. 5% of the population, Christians about 16. 7% and Muslims form 13. 7%. The major languages spoken are Malayalam and English, in Palayam in the city centre, there is a mosque, a temple and a Christian church next to each other as neighbours, establishing the communal harmony of Keralites
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Trivandrum International Airport
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Trivandrum International Airport is in Thiruvananthapuram and is the first airport in the state of Kerala, India. It was the international airport of India declared by then Prime Minister of India. The airport is a base for Air India Express operations and is a focus city for Air India, Jet Airways, SpiceJet. There are flights to Middle eastern and South eastern countries from here, Trivandrum International Airport operates two terminals. Terminal 1 handles domestic operations and Terminal 2 handles all international flight operations as well as all domestic flights by Air India. In addition to operations, Trivandrum Airport caters to the Indian Air Force. IAF have an apron to handle all their operations. Trivandrum airport also caters to the Rajiv Gandhi Academy for Aviation Technology which carries out training activities. The airport was established in 1932 as part of the Royal Flying Club under the initiative of Colonel Goda Varma Raja, Consort Prince of HRH Queen Karthika Thirunal of Travancore Kingdom. Col G. V Raja, a pilot, felt the need an airport to accommodate Travancore in the aviation map of India. A detailed report was made and presented to the King by Consort Prince in this regard, in 1935, on royal patronage of H. H Maharaja Chithira Thirunal, Tata Airlines made its maiden flight to the airport using DH. The first flight took off on 1 November 1935, carrying mails of Royal Anchal to Bombay, in 1938, the Royal Government of Travancore acquired a Dakota as Maharajas private aircraft and placed the first squadron of Royal Indian Air Force for protection of state from aerial attacks. After Independence, the airstrip was used for flights with construction of a domestic terminal. International operations were initiated by Air India to cities in the Arabian Peninsula in the late 1970s using Boeing 707, by early 80s, the then Indian Airlines started service to Colombo, followed by service to Male. Later, SriLankan Airlines and Air Maldives, the cargo warehouse is on the airport premises. It has a capacity to import 21000 MT and export 27000 MT per annum, in 2010-11, the airport achieved MT of import cargo and MT of export cargo. Major cargo jets such as Emirates has begun flights to Trivandrum International Airport, the air traffic control tower is 18 m tall. There are plans to build a new 43m tall ATC tower for Trivandrum airport near the new international terminal. The airport has an instrument landing system using distance measuring equipment, the Instrument Landing System allows aircraft landings in reduced visibility
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Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve
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The Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve was created in 1988 by combining Kalakad Wildlife Sanctuary and Mundanthurai Wildlife Sanctuary, both established in 1962. Notification of 77 km² of parts of Veerapuli and Kilamalai Reserve Forests in adjacent Kanyakumari district, a 400 km2 core area of this reserve has been proposed as a national park. The continuation of Project Tiger in Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve for fiscal year 2010-2011,19433,000, was approved by the National Tiger Conservation Authority on 28 August 2010. The reserve is located between latitude 8°25 and 8°53 N and longitude 77°10 and 77°35 E, about 45 km west of Tirunelveli Town, seven major dams—Karaiyar, Lower Dam, Servalar, Manimuthar, Ramanadi, Gadananathi River and Kodaiyar—owe their existence to these rivers. The reserve spans a range of 40 to 1,800 m in elevation, agasthiyamalai is in the core zone of the reserve. KMTR forms part of the inter-state Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve and this part of Agastya Mala hills in the core of KMTR is considered one of the five centres of biodiversity and endemism in India by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. Agasthya, the KMTR newsletter, includes updates on projects and staff activities at KMTR. and Tea, Tiger. Tigers are also protected in Tamil Nadu at Mudumalai National Park, Indira Gandhi National Park and Wildlife Sanctuary, Mukurthi National Park, KMTR has at least 150 endemic plants,33 fish,37 amphibians,81 reptiles,273 birds and 77 mammal species. Habitat use by the grey junglefowl at Mundanthurai plateau, Tamil Nadu, was investigated from December 1987 to March 1988, the continuation of Project Tiger in Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve for fiscal year 2010-2011, at the cost of Rs. 19,433,000, was approved by the National Tiger Conservation Authority on 28 August 2010, bombay Burmah Trading Corporation has a 33.88 km² land in the core area of the reserve leased from singampatti zamin valid until 2028. The Company has tea and coffee plantations and three factories, and employs about 10,000 workers in the reserve, there are several small estates and five Kani Tribal habitations, consisting of about 102 families. About 145 hamlets situated within 5 km of the 110 km eastern boundary of the reserve are inhabited by 100,000 people. There are about 50,000 cattle grazing out of these villages, with a small number of cattle owned by the tea estate workers
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Karamana River
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Karamana is a river flowing through the city of Thiruvananthapuram in Kerala, India. The river starts near the tip of the Western Ghats at Agastyar Koodam. The river flows 66 km westward and merges with the Arabian Sea at Panathura near Kovalam, the river gets its name from Karamana, a suburb of Thiruvananthapuram city, through which it flows. The catchment area is forested, command area is under mixed dry land crops such as coconut, tapioca, pepper, plantain, rice. The Karamana rises in the vicinity of the Agasthiarkoodam about 1600 m above the sea level, the peaks of origin of the river are today known as Chemmunji Motta and Aathiramala and its upper tributary rivers are the Kaaviyaar, Attayaar, Vaiyappadyaar and Thodayaar. The river flows for 66 kilometers in a south - south west direction before flowing into the Arabian Sea, the largest tributary of the Karamana is the Killiyar, which flows for a distance of 24 kilometres. It has five anicuts on it which regulates the flow of water, part of the water is diverted into the Kochar channel which in turn feeds the Padmatheertham pond outside the Padmanabhaswamy Temple. There are several temples located along the Killiyars banks, the most famous of which is the Attukal Temple, the Killiyar drains the Nedumangad forest and its basin is rich in avian fauna. The river merges with the Arabian Sea through the Pozhikkara estuary, in its final lap, the river runs parallel to the sea and the river here is known as the Edayar. The Karamana river has two important dams on it and these are the Aruvikkara Dam, built in the 1930s and the Peppara Dam which lies further upstream and was built in 1983. The Aruvikkara Dam was completed with the aim of providing piped drinking water to the city, the Trivandrum Water Works, inaugurated by and named after Lord Willingdon in 1933, is in charge of receiving and distributing the Karamanas waters to the city even today. A JICA funded project is under way to augment the water network in the city. The Peppara Dam regulates the flow of water into the Aruvikkara Dam by unifying all the tributaries of the Karamana river. The Peppara Dam has played a role in eliminating the floods that once used to characterized the Karamana. There is also a 3 MW hydel power station at Peppara, the Karamana river has several bridges across it. The largest is at Karamana itself, where the NH-47 crosses it and this was built by Lt Col. Horsley, the author of the earliest English treatise on history of Travancore, and inaugurated in 1853. Other important bridges are at Thrikkunnapuram, Mangattu Kadavu, Kundamon Kadavu, Vellaikadavu, Aruvikkara, the Karamana river basin supports a range of plants that are typical of the tropics. These include the cane, bamboo, mangroves, water lilies
36.
Siddha
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Siddha is a term that is used widely in Indian religions and culture. It means one who is accomplished and it refers to perfected masters who have achieved a high degree of physical as well as spiritual perfection or enlightenment. In Jainism, the term is used to refer the liberated souls, Siddha may also refer to one who has attained a siddhi, paranormal capabilities. Siddhas may broadly refer to siddhars, naths, ascetics, sadhus, the Svetasvatara presupposes a Siddha body. In Jainism, the siddha is used to refer the liberated souls who have destroyed all karmas and have obtained moksha. They are free from the cycle of birth and death and are above Arihantas. Siddhas do not have a body, they are soul in its purest form and they reside in the Siddhashila, which is situated at the top of the Universe. They are formless and have no passions and therefore are free from all temptations and they do not have any karmas and they do not collect any new karmas. According to Jains, Siddhas have eight specific characteristics or qualities, ancient Tamil Jain Classic Choodamani Nigandu describes the eight characteristics in a poem, which is given below. The following table summarizes the eight qualities of a liberated soul. Because of the quality of Sūksmatva, the soul is beyond sense-perception and its knowledge of the substances is direct, without the use of the senses. The quality of avagāhan means that the soul does not hinder the existence of other such souls in the same space. A soul after attaining Siddhahood goes to the top of the loka, Siddhas are formless and dwell in Siddhashila with the above mentioned eight qualities. Thiruvalluvar in his Tamil book Thirukural refers to the eight qualities of God, in Hinduism, the first usage of the term Siddha occurs in the Maitreya Upanishad in chapter Adhya III where the writer of the section declares I am Siddha. In Tamil Nadu, South India, a siddha refers to a being who has achieved a degree of physical as well as spiritual perfection or enlightenment. The ultimate demonstration of this is that siddhas allegedly attained physical immortality, thus siddha, like siddhar, refers to a person who has realised the goal of a type of sadhana and become a perfected being. Siddha were said to have special powers including flight and these eight powers are collectively known as attamasiddhigal. In Hindu cosmology, Siddhaloka is a world where perfected beings take birth
37.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
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Murti
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A Murti literally means any form, embodiment or solid object, and typically refers to an image, statue or idol of a deity or person in Indian culture. By the Prana Pratishtha ceremony, the idol becomes identical with the deity, murtis are also found in some nontheistic Jainism traditions, where they serve as symbols of revered persons inside Jain temples, and are worshipped in Murtipujaka rituals. A Murti is typically made by carving stone, wood working, medieval era texts describing their proper proportions, positions and gestures include the Puranas, Agamas and Samhitas. The expressions in a Murti vary in diverse Hindu traditions, ranging from Ugra symbolism to express destruction, fear and violence, as well as Saumya symbolism to express joy, knowledge, Saumya images are most common in Hindu temples. Other Murti forms found in Hinduism include the Linga, a Murti is an embodiment of the divine, the Ultimate Reality or Brahman to some Hindus. In religious context, they are found in Hindu temples or homes, in other occasions, it serves as the center of attention in annual festive processions and these are called Utsava Murti. Murti is sometimes referred to as murthi, or vigraha or pratima, Murti literally means any solid body or form with definite shape or limits produced from material elements. It contrasts with mind, thought and the immaterial in ancient Indian literature, the term also refers to any embodiment, manifestation, incarnation, personification, appearance, image, idol or statue of a deity. For example, the Maitrayaniya Upanishad uses the term to mean a form, non-Time is indivisible, Time is divisible, and the Maitri Upanishad then asserts that Year is the Murti of time. Robert Hume translates the discussion of Murti of time, in verse 6.14 of the Maitri Upanishad, as form. Most scholars, such as Jan Gonda, Max Muller, PV Kane and Stephanie Jamison, the Vedic Hinduism rituals were directed at nature and abstract deities called during yajna with hymns. However, there isnt universal consensus, with such as AC Das. This word may refer to Deva who is fixed or Deva who is foolish, one of the earliest firm textual evidence of Deva images, in the sense of Murti, is found in Jivikarthe Capanye by the Sanskrit grammarian Pāṇini who lived about 4th century BCE. He mentions Acala and Cala, with former referring to images in a shrine, in ancient Sanskrit texts that follow Paninis work, numerous references are found to divine images with terms such as Devagrha, Devagara, Devakula, Devayatana and others. These texts, states Noel Salmond, strongly suggest that temples, recent archaeological evidence confirms that the knowledge and art of sculpture was established in India by the Maurya Empire period. The term Murti has been a generic term referring to an idol or statue of anyone, either a deity, of any human being. Pratima includes Murti as well as painting of any non-anthropomorphic object, in contrast, Bera or Bimba meant idol of god only, and Vigraha was synonymous with Bimba. A Murti in contemporary usage is any image or statue and it may be found inside or outside a temple or home, installed to be moved with a festive procession, or just be a landmark
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Agastya Mala
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Agasthyarkoodam is a 1, 868-metre -tall peak within Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala in the Western Ghats of South India. The peak lies inside Kerala near the border with Tamil Nadu and this peak is a part of the Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve which lies on the border between the Indian states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. The perennial Thamirabarani River originates from the side of the range. Agasthyarkoodam is a centre for devotees of the Hindu sage Agastya. The Tamil language is considered to be a boon from Agasthya, there is a full-sized statue of Agathiyar at the top of the peak and the devotees can offer pujas themselves. Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve is among 20 new sites added by UNESCO to its World Network of Biosphere Reserves in March 2016, Agasthyarkoodam is 32 km from Neyyar Dam and 23 km from Bonacaud, near Ponmudi. The major city and airport nearest to Agasthyarkoodam is Thiruvananthapuram and its Trivandrum International Airport, the nearest railway station is Ambasamudram, Tirunelveli District, Tamil Nadu. The trekking path, nearly 35 km, is from Bonacaud, Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve is part of the Agasthyarkoodam range. Part of the peak can be seen from the Upper Kodayar region, the peak of Agasthyarkoodam can be reached only by trekking up to it. Trekking is allowed based on strict guidelines and is open to pilgrims during January to mid-March, trekking passes are issued by Kerala Forest Department from the district office at Trivandrum. The trekking route starts from Bonacaud, the route Neyyar-Agasthyakoodam is not open to the public. Vehicles reach only till Bonacaud which is around 50 km from Thiruvananthapuram, the trek to the peak is 28 km long from Bonacaud and requires two days. The first part of the trek can be started from the base station Bonacaud in the morning and is 20 km through the forest to the camp. Elephants and wild bulls are in abundance in this part especially in the evenings, the final part i. e. the 8 km long trek can be done from the camp to the top of Agathyakoodam mountain on the second day. The lower elevations of this peak are known for their abundance of rare herbs, around 2,000 medicinal plants used in Ayurvedic treatments are found here. Europeans, particularly those from England, were the first to establish tea gardens around the stations of the mountain at Brimore, Bonacaud. The Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve harbours rare flora and fauna, tourists are permitted to the area only with permission from the forest department of Kerala. Annual trekking passes to the peak are issued from the forest department during January–February only, between elevations ranging from 1000 to 1500 metres, the Manjolai area is set deep within the Western Ghats within the Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve in the Tirunelveli District
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Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education
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The Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education is an autonomous organisation or governmental agency under the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India. Headquartered in Dehradun, its functions are to conduct research, transfer the technologies developed to the states of India and other user agencies. The council has 9 research institutes and 4 advanced centres to cater to the needs of different bio-geographical regions. These are located at Dehradun, Shimla, Ranchi, Jorhat, Jabalpur, Jodhpur, Bangalore, Coimbatore, Allahabad, Chhindwara, Aizawl, Hyderabad, ICFRE is the largest organisation responsible for forestry research in India. ICFRE was created in 1986, under the Ministry of Environment and Forests, to direct and manage research, ICFRE is headed by a Director General with headquarters at Dehradun. ICFRE became a council under the Ministry in 1991. The mandate of the ICFRE is to organise, direct and manage research and education in the sector, including in cooperation with FORTIP, UNDP. ICFRE established a National Bureau of Forest Genetic Resources Conservation, protection, regeneration, rehabilitation, revegetation of barren, waste, marginal and mined lands. Enhancing productivity of wood and non-wood forest produce per unit of area per unit time by application of scientific, Research on improved utilisation, recovery and processing of forest produce for value addition and employment generation. Ecological rehabilitation of all ecosystems, such as mountains, mangroves. Socio-economic and policy research for developing strategies towards attracting peoples participation in forest management, official website Ministry of Environment and Forests India. gov. in/moef National Portal of India dehradun. nic. in Indian Institute of Forest Management
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Tirunelveli
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Tirunelveli pronunciation ), also known as Nellai and historically as Tinnevelly, is a city in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It is the headquarters of the Tirunelveli District. It is the sixth-largest municipal corporation in the state, Tirunelveli is located 700 km southwest of the state capital, Chennai and 58 km away from Thoothukudi. The city is located on the west bank of the Thamirabarani River, the Polygar War, involving Palaiyakkarars led by Veerapandiya Kattabomman and forces of the British East India Company, was waged on the citys outskirts from 1797 to 1801. Tirunelveli has a number of monuments, the Nellaiappar Temple being the most prominent. Industries in Tirunelveli include administrative services, agricultural trading, tourism, banking, agricultural machinery, Tirunelveli is administered by a municipal corporation, established in 1994 by the Municipal Corporation Act. The city covers an area of 169.9 km2, and had a population of 1,473,637 in 2011, Tirunelveli is well-connected by road and rail with the rest of Tamil Nadu. Tirunelveli was known in Sambandars seventh-century Saiva canonical work Tevaram as Thirunelveli, Nellaiappar temple inscriptions indicate that Shiva descended in the form of a hedge and roof to save the paddy crop of a devotee. In Hindu legend, the place was known as Venuvana due to the presence of bamboo in the temple under which the deity is believed to have appeared, the word Tirunelveli is derived from three Tamil words, thiru, nel and veli, meaning sacred paddy hedge. The history of Tirunelveli was researched by Robert Caldwell, a Christian missionary who visited the area, Tirunelveli was under the rule of Pandya kings as their secondary capital, Madurai was the empires primary capital. The Pandya dynasty in the dates to several centuries before the Christian era from inscriptions by Ashoka and mention in the Mahavamsa, the Brihat-Samhita. The province came under the rule of Cholas under Rajendra Chola I in 1064 CE, however, Tirunelveli remained under control of the Cholas until the early 13th century, when the second Pandyan empire was established with Madurai as its capital. The Nellaiappar temple was the shrine of the later Pandyas during the 13th and 14th centuries. After the death of Kulasekara Pandian, the region was occupied by Vijayangara rulers, the Maravars occupied the western foothills and the Telugas, and the Kannadigas settled in the black-soil-rich eastern portion. Tirunelveli was the capital of the Madurai Nayaks, under Viswanatha Nayak. Inscriptions from the Nellaiappar temple indicate generous contributions to the temple, Nayak rule ended in 1736, and the region was captured by Chanda Sahib, Arcot Nawab and Muhammed Yusuf Khan during the mid-18th century. In 1743 Nizam-ul-mulk, lieutenant of the Deccan Plateau, displaced most of the Marathas from the region, the original power lay in the hands of the polygars, who were originally military chiefs of the Nayaks. The city was the commercial town during the Nawab and Nayak era
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Papanasam
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Papanasam is a panchayat town in Thanjavur district in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It is located 25 kilometres from Thanjavur and 15 kilometres from Kumbakonam, the name literally translates to Destruction of Sins in the Tamil language. Papanasam is located at 10. 9333°N79. 2833°E /10.9333,79.2833 and has an elevation of 22 metres. Köppen-Geiger climate classification system classifies its climate as wet and dry. As of 2001 India census, Papanasam had a population of 16,397, males constitute 50% of the population and females 50%. Papanasam has an literacy rate of 76%, higher than the national average of 59. 5%, male literacy is 82%. In Papanasam, 11% of the population is under 6 years of age, there are three major temples, Pallaivanatha Swamy temple constructed by the Cholas, Srinivasa Perumal Temple and 108 Sivalayam temple. A granary measuring 86 feet in width and 36 feet in height constructed by Nayaks between 1600–1634 has been declared by the State Archaeological Department as a protected monument, Papanasam railway station is situated between Thanjavur and Kumbakonam. Papanasam assembly constituency is part of Mayiladuturai Lok Sabha constituency, Papanasam Sivan, classical singer Sri Sri Ravishankar, spiritual leader
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Anamudi
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Anamudi or Anai Mudi or ആനമുടി is a mountain located in the Indian state of Kerala. It is the highest peak in the Western Ghats and South India, at an elevation of 2,695 metres, the name Anamudi literally translates to elephants forehead, a reference to the resemblance of the mountain to an elephants head. The first recorded ascent of Anamudi was by General Douglas Hamilton of the Madras Army on May 4,1862, Anamudi is the highest peak in the Western Ghats in India, having an elevation of 2,695 metres. Anamudi is also the highest point in South India, the peak is the highest point of the Periyar river basin. The peak is not exceptionally dramatic in term of steepness or local relief and is a Fault-block mountain and it is located in the southern region of Eravikulam National Park at the junction of the Cardamom Hills, the Anaimalai Hills and the Palani Hills. The nearest town is Munnar,13 kilometres, the easiest route to the summit of Anamudi is a technically easy hike on grass slopes, starting from a rolling hill plateau with a base elevation of about 2,000 metres. The north and south slopes are gentle, while the east and west slopes are steeper, Anamudi and the Eravikulam National Park surrounding it is home to the largest surviving population of the Nilgiri tahr. Asian elephants, gaur, Bengal tigers, and the Nilgiri marten are some of the species of animals found here, the Anamudi peak area is also habitat of a unique frog Raorchestes resplendens. This newly discovered species is located in the Eravikulam National Park and is restricted to less than three km2 on the summit of Anamudi, the summit of the Anamudi is vegetated with patches of stunted Arundinaria densifolia and Gaultheria fragrantissima, Anaphalis sp. Impatiens and some species of Eriocaulon, Eravikulam National Park Munnar Pallivasal Hunter, William Wilson, The Imperial Gazetteer of India, BiblioBazaar, LLC, ISBN 1-110-35940-3. Hunter, William Wilson, James Sutherland Cotton, Richard Burn, William Stevenson Meyer, archived from the original on 16 December 2008. Beautiful natural sound of flowing water on Anamudi slope near peak
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Tourism in Thiruvananthapuram
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Tourism in Thiruvananthapuram district in the Indian state of Kerala promotes the areas hill stations, back waters, beaches, lagoons, and wildlife sanctuaries. The area is a tourism destination and receives chartered flights for medical tourism, as there are more than hundred recognised Ayurveda centres in. This is primarily due to Ayurvedas popularity in foreign countries, medical tourism is further promoted by modern medicine hospitals in the city. Recuperation facilities are available at five star resorts and hill stations nearby. Tradition says that the great sage Agasthya lived on this peak, noted for its abundant ayurvedic herbs, the cone shaped mountain is a centre of pilgrimage for Hindus because of Agastya, who was a confirmed bachelor. Hence, the aborigines dislike the presence of women on the hill, agasthyavanam Biological Park offers trekking opportunities. Agasthyarkoodam is 70 kilometres from Thiruvananthapuram and is home to the Neelakurinji, a forest pass has to be obtained from the Wildlife Warden at the Forestry Department for trekking. Vehicles reach only till Bonacaud which is around 50 km from Thiruvananthapuram, the trek to the peak is 28 km long from Bonacaud and requires 2 days. The first part of the trek can be started from the base station Bonacaud in the morning and is 20 km through the forest to the camp. Elephants and wild bulls are in abundance in this part especially in the evenings, the final part i. e. the 8 km long trek can be done from the camp to the top of Agathyakoodam mountain on the second day. Situated 60 km away from Thiruvananthapuram and 4 km from Bonacaud, Bona falls in the district is only by trekking and with a permission from Department of Forests. Situated 40 km north of Thiruvananthapuram city, along the sea coast and it was here that the first settlement of the English East India Company was established in 1864 AD. Historically, the limits of area where five coconut palms stood was given on lease to the Company by the King of Travancore for trade purposes, the remains of the old English Fort, which had withstood many a siege, can be seen here even today. There is an ancient Christian church in Mampally in the name of Holy Spirit and it was built in the 15th century by St. Francis Xavier, the airforce station is located here, as well. From here one can sail across the river to Veli by boat, a local boat club providing vessels is a popular tourist attraction. Arippa forests and Kambakom located 60 km from Thiruvananthapuram is an excellent trekking destination, bird watching, cottages and camping facilities are also provided. Sixteen km north of Thiruvananthapuram city, gifted with lavish scenic beauty is Aruvikkara, Thiruvananthapuram city gets its water supply from the Aruvikkara reservoir. There is an ancient temple dedicated to Durga, on the banks of the river, the place is about seven km from Neyyattiankara. A Siva temple founded by Sree Narayana Guru attracts a large number of worshippers during the Sivarathri festival
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Bhadra River
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The Bhadra River is a river in Karnataka state in southern India. It flows through the towns of Kudremukh, Kalasa, Horanadu, Balehonnur, Balehole, a dam is built across the river near Lakkavalli which forms the Bhadra reservoir. From here the river continues its journey through the city of Bhadravathi, the Bhadra meets the Tunga River at Koodli, a small town near Shivamogga. The combined river continues east as the Tungabhadra, a tributary of the Krishna. Flood Every year in season due to heavy rain in Western Ghats the Bhadra Dam will reach to its peak. Map of Bhadra River Noisy scenes at meeting of Bhadra farmers, officials Jabir bhr Assessing Irrigation Performance of Rice-Based Bhadra Project in India Crocodiles are abundant in the Bhadra river
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Bhavani River
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Bhavani is a major river in Kongu Nadu region of Tamil Nadu, India. It is the second longest river in Tamil Nadu and a tributary of the Kaveri River. Bhavani river originates from Nilgiri hills of the Western Ghats, enters the Silent Valley National Park in Kerala, the Bhavani is a 217-kilometre long perennial river fed mostly by the southwest monsoon and supplemented by the northeast monsoon. Its watershed drains an area of 0.62 million hectares spread over Tamil Nadu, Kerala, the main river courses majorly through Coimbatore district and Erode district in Tamil Nadu. About 90 per cent of the water is used for agriculture irrigation. Twelve major rivulets including West and East Varagar rivers join Bhavani draining the southern Nilgiri slopes, at Mukkali, Bhavani takes an abrupt 120-degree turn towards the northeast and flows for another 25 kilometres through Attappady plateau. It gets reinforced by the Kunda river coming from the north, siruvani river, a perennial stream and the Kodungarapallam river, flowing from the south and southeast respectively join the Bhavani at Kerala-Tamil Nadu border. The river then flows east along the base of Nilgiris and enters the plains near Bathra Kaliamman temple at Mettupalayam after joining with Coonoor river coming from northwest, after the Moyar it is blocked by the Lower Bhavani Dam, feeding Lower Bhavani Project Canal near Sathyamangalam in Erode District. A small barrage across the river was built by Kalingarayan in 1283 AD to feed the 90-kilometre Kalingarayan irrigation canal, the river joins Kaveri at Kooduthurai near Sangameswarar Temple, Bhavani where it is believed that the mystic Sarasvati River also joins the confluence. Bhavanisagar Bhavanisagar dam is located on the Bhavani river in Erode district, Tamil Nadu, the dam is one of the largest earthen dams in the world. The dam is situated some 16 km west of Sathyamangalam and 35 km from Gobichettipalayam, the Lower Bhavani Project was the first major irrigation project initiated in India after independence in 1948. It was completed by 1955 and opened for use in 1956, the dam was constructed at a cost of ₹210 million. The dam is 8 km long and 40 m high, the full reservoir level is 120 ft and the dam has a capacity of 32. 8×10^9 cu ft. The dam has two power stations, one on the east bank canal and the other on the Bhavani river. Each has a capacity of 16 megawatts for a capacity of 32 megawatts. Kodiveri Kodiveri dam is located on the Bhavani River near Gobichettipalayam in Western Tamil Nadu, the dam is situated along the State Highway 15 about 15 km from Gobichettipalayam towards Sathyamangalam. It was constructed by Kongalvan in the year 1125 AD, industrial, municipal and agricultural pollution of the river results in poor water quality and negative impacts on the health of people, plants and animals dependent on the river water
