1.
Cabinet of Egypt
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The Cabinet of Egypt is the chief executive body of the Arab Republic of Egypt. It consists of the Prime Minister and the cabinet ministers, the government has a leading role in shaping the agenda of the houses of Parliament. It may propose laws to Parliament, as well as amendments during parliamentary meetings and it may make use of some procedures to speed up parliamentary deliberations. The government is only to Parliament, specifically the People’s Assembly. The People’s Assembly may pass a motion of censure, forcing the resignation of the cabinet, ministers have to answer questions from Members of Parliament, both written and oral, this is known as Inquiries to the Government Talebat Ihata. In addition, ministers attend meetings of the two houses of Parliament when laws pertaining to their areas of responsibility are being discussed, the details of the cabinets organisation are set down in articles 153 to 160 of the constitution. Article 155 states that the members of the cabinet have to be sworn in when taking office, directing, co-ordinating and following up the work of the ministries and their different administrations as well as public organizations and institutions. Issuing administrative and executive decisions in accordance with the laws and decrees, preparing the draft of the general budget of the State. Preparing the draft of the State’s overall plan, contracting and granting loans in accordance with the rules of the Constitution. Supervising the implementation of law, maintaining State security and protecting the rights of the citizens, traditionally, the cabinet comprises, in decreasing rank, The Prime Minister, Head of the Egyptian government. Currently there are 39 full ministers in this government, ministers of State, described as ‘junior ministers’, are assigned specific responsibilities or agencies. g. The Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs, chairmen of Departments, who head certain important departments that do not fall under the jurisdiction of any of the ministers and answer directly to the Prime Minister, e. g. The Chairman of the Suez Canal Authority, ministers-Delegate, who assist ministers in areas of their duties and rarely attend cabinet meeting. The following eligibility conditions must be met constitutionally by all ministers, at least 30 years old natural-born Egyptian citizen, enjoying full civil and political rights. A minister may not work in any independent work, commercial, financial or industrial while in office. The interim cabinet of Essam Sharaf was sworn in on Monday 7 March 2011 by Field Marshal Hussein Tantawi, in July 2011, Sharaf fired several ministers although the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces said he didnt have that power. On 21 November 2011, the entire Cabinet offered to resign in the face of the wave of protests. On 24 November 2011, Egypts military rulers appointed former prime minister Kamal Ganzouri to form a new government and his government resigned on 26 June 2012 after the election of Mohamed Morsi as President of Egypt to make way for the new government
2.
Anwar Sadat
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Muhammad Anwar el-Sadat was the third President of Egypt, serving from 15 October 1970 until his assassination by fundamentalist army officers on 6 October 1981. His refusal to reconcile with them over the Palestinian issue resulted in Egypt being suspended from the Arab League from 1979 to 1989, the peace treaty was also one of the primary factors that led to his assassination. Anwar Sadat was born on 25 December 1918 in Mit Abu El Kom, Monufia, Egypt to a poor Nubian family, one of his brothers, Atef Sadat, later became a pilot and was killed in action during the October War of 1973. His father, Anwar Mohammed El Sadat was an Upper Egyptian, thus, they said his mother did not look Egyptian enough and some called him Nassers black poodle. He graduated from the Royal Military Academy in Cairo in 1938 and was appointed to the Signal Corps and he entered the army as a second lieutenant and was posted to Sudan. During the Second World War he was imprisoned by the British for his efforts to help from the Axis Powers in expelling the occupying British forces. Along with his fellow Free Officers, Sadat participated in the coup that launched the Egyptian Revolution of 1952. Sadat was assigned to announce the news of the revolution to the Egyptian people over the radio networks, during the presidency of Gamal Abdel Nasser, Sadat was appointed minister of State in 1954. He was also appointed editor of the newly founded daily Al Gomhuria, in 1959, he assumed the position of Secretary to the National Union. Sadat was the President of the National Assembly and then vice president and he was reappointed as vice president again in December 1969. Sadat succeeded Nasser as president after the death in October 1970. Sadats presidency was widely expected to be short-lived, viewing him as having been little more than a puppet of the former president, Nassers supporters in government settled on Sadat as someone they could manipulate easily. Sadat surprised everyone with a series of political moves by which he was able to retain the presidency. On 15 May 1971, Sadat announced his Corrective Revolution, purging the government, political, Sadat encouraged the emergence of an Islamist movement, which had been suppressed by Nasser. Believing Islamists to be socially conservative he gave them considerable cultural and ideological autonomy in exchange for political support and this peace initiative failed as neither Israel nor the United States of America accepted the terms as discussed then. The Egyptian and Syrian performance in the stages of the war astonished both Israel, and the Arab World. The most striking achievement was the Egyptian militarys advance approximately 15 km into the occupied Sinai Peninsula after penetrating and this line was popularly thought to have been an impregnable defensive chain. As the war progressed, three divisions of the Israeli army led by General Ariel Sharon had crossed the Suez Canal, although agreed upon, the ceasefire was immediately broken
3.
Mohammed Ahmed Sadek
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Mohammed Ahmed Sadek was an Egyptian colonel general who served as defense minister under the rule of President Anwar Sadat. Sadek graduated from the Egypts military academy in 1938 and from the Frunze military academy in the Soviet Union, Sadek joined the army and took part in the Palestine war in 1948 and the Suez campaign in 1956. From 1962 to 1964 he was military attaché at the Egypts embassy in Bonn, then he was made the curricula director of the military academy in 1965 and his term lasted until 1967. He served as the head of intelligence from June 1967 to 1969. In September 1969, he acted as the general secretary of the Pan Arab Organization. He was also named as the chief of the Egyptian army staff by President Gamal Abdel Nasser in September 1969, in 1970, Sadek was promoted to the rank of lieutenant general. Sadek was appointed minister by Anwar Sadat in May 1971 when Mohammed Fawzi resigned from office. Upon his appointment, he was promoted to full general, when Sadek was in office, he also held the job of armed forces commander in chief. In October 1972, Sadek resigned from office, and was put under house arrest, sadeks anti-Soviet approach was cited as the reason for his resignation. He was replaced by Ahmed Ismail Ali as defence minister in October 1972
4.
Mohamed Abdel Ghani el-Gamasy
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Mohamed Abdel Ghani el-Gamasy was an Egyptian Field Marshal and The Commander in Chief of The Armed Forces. El Gamasy was born on 9 September 1921 in Batanoon, Monufia Governorate and he was one of two brothers and five sisters. After high school, El Gamassy joined the Egyptian Military Academy and was commissioned in 1941 in an infantry regiment, as a Major, he was GSO-II of an infantry battalion during the 1948 War. During the War of Attrition, on March 1969, then-President Gamal Abdel Nasser appointed el-Gamasy as commander of the Second Field Army. El-Gamasy later wrote that Nasser should have deconstructed Amers autonomous web of control in the forces following the Egyptian military failure during the Suez Crisis in 1956. El-Gamasy was well known for being the Chief of Operations for all Ground Forces participating in the 1973 October War and he was also appointed by Anwar Sadat as the head of the group that participated in the disengagement talks on 28 October, at Kilometer 101. On 7 June 2003, El Gamasy died in a hospital in Cairo after a battle with illness. El-Gamsy was chosen as one of the best 50 military leaders in the military history
5.
General Intelligence Directorate (Egypt)
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The GID is part of the Egyptian intelligence community, together with the Office of Military Intelligence Services and Reconnaissance and Homeland Security. In July 2013, General Mohammed Ahmed Fareed al-Tohami was appointed head of the Egyptian intelligence apparatus, instead of Mohamed Raafat Shehata, the decision to set up an Egyptian intelligence service was taken by President Gamal Abdel Nasser in 1954, and placed under the command of Zakaria Mohieddin. The agencys importance rose when Nasser assigned its command to Salah Nasr, under Nasrs supervision, the GID relocated to its own building and established separate divisions for Radio, Computer, Forgery and Black Operations. To cover the expenses, Nasr set up Al Nasr Company, ostensibly an import-export firm. He played an important role helping Algeria, Southern Yemen and many Arab. Nasr established good relations with other agencies across the globe. One of his constructions is the Gezeera Tower in Cairo, for several years the name of GID director was a secret only known to high officials and government newspapers chief editors. However, Major-General Omar Suleiman, who was the head of the GID from 1993 to January 2011, was the first one to break this taboo. His name was published before he became a known face in media after being envoyed by former Egyptian president Mubarak to Israel, USA. He was later replaced by Mohamed Raafat Shehata, in July 2013, as result of 2012–13 Egyptian protests, Mohamed Raafat Shehata was sacked by interim president Adly Mansour and was replaced by General Mohamed Ahmed Fareed. The GID states that it managed to plant an Egyptian agent among Jewish immigrants to Israel and that agent, Refaat Al-Gammal, managed to live 18 years in Israel without being discovered. In 1970 the GID managed to hunt an Israeli oil rig while being shipped from Canada to Sinai, clandestine GID agents and frogmen succeeded in tracing the oil rig to Abidjan, Côte dIvoire, and planted sets of explosives, had them detonated and crippled the rig. This operation was published in 1985 under the name Al-Haffar Operation it was supervised at that time by GID director Amin Howeidi, the plan included planting false information and hidden implied data in Egyptian president Sadats speeches and newspapers articles. For example, the GID prepared the military operations and evacuated complete sections of Cairo hospitals to be ready for receiving war casualties and this evacuation that took place few days before the war started, was done after declaring false information that those hospitals were infected with Tetanus. The plan included an operation whose details are still not published. Gumaa Al-Shawan who used to provide the Mossad with false information from 1967 to 1973, he used to get the advanced transmission devices from the Mossad. During the 1973 war with Israel the GID spied on Mossad weeks prior to the attack on the 6 October 1973. The information derived allowed the director and his associates to identify the weakest points on the Israeli front line, a suicide mission to divert the Israeli counter-attack was initiated to halt Israeli movements into mainland Egypt
6.
Muhammad Naguib
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Mohamed Naguib was the first President of Egypt, serving from the declaration of the Republic on 18 June 1953 to 14 November 1954. Along with Gamal Abdel Nasser, he was the leader of the Egyptian Revolution of 1952. Naguibs full name was Mohamed Naguib Yousef Qotp Elkashlan, he was born on 19 February 1901 in Khartoum, Sudan and he was the eldest of nine children of an Egyptian, Youssef Naguib, and a Sudanese woman Zohra Ahmed Othman. His family name, Elkashlan, was popular in Egypt at that time, due to well-known scientific personalities such as Saad Elkashlan and he came from a long line of army officers, his father served in the Egyptian army in Sudan. Naguibs favourite game, however, was playing at soldiers with his younger brother, having built a toy fortress in the front yard, Naguib would spend hours conquering inches of land with his toy soldiers. As a result, Naguib first studied to become a translator, and later in his life earned a law degree and he never completed his doctorate because his career in the army, undertaken in defiance of his fathers wishes, by then had begun to take off. Nevertheless, he found the time to polish his skills, learning English, French. While studying in Khartoum, Naguib had often been censured and sometimes even whipped by his British tutors for criticizing Britains occupation of Egypt and Sudan. At this time, Naguib chose Napoleon as a role model, soon, however, Napoleon was replaced in Naguibs affections by Mustafa Kamil, the founder of the National Party, and later he found another mirror in Saad Zaghlul. Some years after he was ousted from power, Naguib also came to somewhat admire Gandhi, after the death of his father in 1916, the family moved to Cairo, while Naguib and Ali finished their studies in Sudan. Naguib worked as a guard in Cairo, but in 1924 and he married in 1927, pursuing his legal studies while continuing a career in the army. By 1931, he was ready to resign from the army, in 1934, he remarried and was transferred to the Coast Guard, where he was employed to chase smugglers across the Sinai desert, mixing with the bedouin and helping treat their illnesses. In 1940, he was again promoted, however, despite generally favorable relations between Naguib and King Farouk, Naguib refused to kiss the kings hand. A brisk hand shake was the best Naguib could offer, any illusions Naguib might have had about the nature of Farouks rule evaporated on 4 February 1942 after a standoff at Abdeen Palace in Cairo between the British and the king. On this occasion, Farouk turned down Naguibs resignation and he again attempted to resign in 1951 when Hussein Serri Amer, widely thought to be corrupt, was made head of the Coast Guard. Meanwhile, Naguib had continued to climb the ladder, serving in Palestine during the Palestine War in 1948. While on active service in Palestine, Naguib would dedicate 30 minutes every morning to reading the Quran, in 1949, Naguib secretly joined the Free Officers movement, and a year later he was promoted to the rank of Major-General. The general is considered one of Egypts few heroes from the war in Palestine, the Free Officers, led by Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser were young members of the military – all under thirty-five and all from peasant or lower-middle-class backgrounds
7.
Gamal Abdel Nasser
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Gamal Abdel Nasser Hussein was the second President of Egypt, serving from 1956 until his death. Nasser led the 1952 overthrow of the monarchy and introduced far-reaching land reforms the following year, Nassers popularity in Egypt and the Arab world skyrocketed after his nationalization of the Suez Canal and his political victory in the subsequent Suez Crisis. Calls for pan-Arab unity under his leadership increased, culminating with the formation of the United Arab Republic with Syria, in 1962, Nasser began a series of major socialist measures and modernization reforms in Egypt. Despite setbacks to his pan-Arabist cause, by 1963 Nassers supporters gained power in several Arab countries and he began his second presidential term in March 1965 after his political opponents were banned from running. Following Egypts defeat by Israel in the 1967 Six-Day War, Nasser resigned, after the conclusion of the 1970 Arab League summit, Nasser suffered a heart attack and died. His funeral in Cairo drew five million mourners and an outpouring of grief across the Arab world, Nasser remains an iconic figure in the Arab world, particularly for his strides towards social justice and Arab unity, modernization policies, and anti-imperialist efforts. His presidency also encouraged and coincided with an Egyptian cultural boom, Gamal Abdel Nasser was born on 15 January 1918 in Bakos, Alexandria, the first son of Fahima and Abdel Nasser Hussein. Nassers father was a postal worker born in Beni Mur in Upper Egypt and raised in Alexandria and his parents married in 1917, and later had two more boys, Izz al-Arab and al-Leithi. Nassers family traveled frequently due to his fathers work, in 1921, they moved to Asyut and, in 1923, to Khatatba, where Nassers father ran a post office. Nasser attended a school for the children of railway employees until 1924, when he was sent to live with his paternal uncle in Cairo. Nasser exchanged letters with his mother and visited her on holidays and he stopped receiving messages at the end of April 1926. Upon returning to Khatatba, he learned that his mother had died giving birth to his third brother, Shawki. Nasser later stated that losing her this way was a shock so deep that time failed to remedy and he adored his mother and the injury of her death deepened when his father remarried before the years end. In 1928, Nasser went to Alexandria to live with his maternal grandfather and it was in Alexandria that Nasser became involved in political activism. After witnessing clashes between protesters and police in Manshia Square, he joined the demonstration without being aware of its purpose. The protest, organized by the ultranationalist Young Egypt Society, called for the end of colonialism in Egypt in the wake of the 1923 Egyptian constitutions annulment by Prime Minister Ismail Sidqi, Nasser was arrested and detained for a night before his father bailed him out. When his father was transferred to Cairo in 1933, Nasser joined him and he took up acting in school plays for a brief period and wrote articles for the schools paper, including a piece on French philosopher Voltaire titled Voltaire, the Man of Freedom. Two protesters were killed and Nasser received a graze to the head from a policemans bullet, the incident garnered his first mention in the press, the nationalist newspaper Al Gihad reported that Nasser led the protest and was among the wounded
8.
Egypt
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Egypt, officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia by a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. Egypt is a Mediterranean country bordered by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Gulf of Aqaba to the east, the Red Sea to the east and south, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west. Across the Gulf of Aqaba lies Jordan, and across from the Sinai Peninsula lies Saudi Arabia, although Jordan and it is the worlds only contiguous Afrasian nation. Egypt has among the longest histories of any country, emerging as one of the worlds first nation states in the tenth millennium BC. Considered a cradle of civilisation, Ancient Egypt experienced some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government. One of the earliest centres of Christianity, Egypt was Islamised in the century and remains a predominantly Muslim country. With over 92 million inhabitants, Egypt is the most populous country in North Africa and the Arab world, the third-most populous in Africa, and the fifteenth-most populous in the world. The great majority of its people live near the banks of the Nile River, an area of about 40,000 square kilometres, the large regions of the Sahara desert, which constitute most of Egypts territory, are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypts residents live in areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria. Modern Egypt is considered to be a regional and middle power, with significant cultural, political, and military influence in North Africa, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Egypts economy is one of the largest and most diversified in the Middle East, Egypt is a member of the United Nations, Non-Aligned Movement, Arab League, African Union, and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Miṣr is the Classical Quranic Arabic and modern name of Egypt. The name is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew מִצְרַיִם, the oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the Akkadian
9.
Kingdom of Egypt
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The Kingdom of Egypt was the independent Egyptian state established under the Muhammad Ali Dynasty in 1922 following the Unilateral Declaration of Egyptian Independence by the United Kingdom. Between 1936-52, the British continued to maintain military presence and political advisors, in line with the change in status from sultanate to kingdom, the Sultan of Egypt, Fuad I, saw his title changed to King. The kingdoms sovereignty was subject to limitations imposed by the British, who retained enormous control over Egyptian affairs. Throughout the kingdoms existence Sudan was formally united with Egypt, however, actual Egyptian authority in Sudan was largely nominal due to Britains role as the dominant power in Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. Other political forces emerging in this included the Communist Party, and the Muslim Brotherhood. King Fuad died in 1936 and Farouk inherited the throne at the age of sixteen, alarmed by Italys recent invasion of Abyssinia, he signed the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty, requiring Britain to withdraw all troops from Egypt, except in the Suez Canal Zone. The kingdom was plagued by corruption, and its citizens saw it as a puppet of the British and this, coupled with the defeat in the 1948-1949 Palestine War, led to the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 by the Free Officers Movement. Farouk abdicated in favour of his infant son Fuad II, in 1953 the monarchy was formally abolished and the Republic of Egypt was established. The legal status of Sudan was only resolved in 1954, when Egypt, in 1914, Khedive Abbas II sided with the Ottoman Empire and the Central Powers in the First World War, and was promptly deposed by the British in favor of his uncle Hussein Kamel. A group known as the Wafd attended the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 to demand Egypts independence, included in the group was political leader, Saad Zaghlul, who would later become Prime Minister. When the group was arrested and deported to the island of Malta, from March to April 1919, there were mass demonstrations that turned into uprisings. This is known in Egypt as the First Revolution, British repression of the anti-occupation riots led to the death of some 800 people. In November 1919, the Milner Commission was sent to Egypt by the British to attempt to resolve the situation, in 1920, Lord Milner submitted his report to Lord Curzon, the British Foreign Secretary, recommending that the protectorate should be replaced by a treaty of alliance. As a result, Curzon agreed to receive an Egyptian mission headed by Zaghlul, the mission arrived in London in June 1920 and the agreement was concluded in August 1920. In February 1921, the British Parliament approved the agreement and Egypt was asked to send another mission to London with full powers to conclude a definitive treaty, Adli Pasha led this mission, which arrived in June 1921. The mission returned to Egypt in disgust, in December 1921, the British authorities in Cairo imposed martial law and once again deported Zaghlul. British influence, however, continued to dominate Egypts political life and fostered fiscal, administrative, Britain retained control of the Canal Zone, Sudan and Egypts external protection. Representing the Wafd Party, Zaghlul was elected Prime Minister in 1924 and he demanded that Britain recognize the Egyptian sovereignty in Sudan and the unity of the Nile Valley
10.
United Arab Republic
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The United Arab Republic, alternatively referred to, mostly in Israel in the 1960s-70s, as the United Arab Commonwealth was a short-lived political union between Egypt and Syria. The union began in 1958 and existed until 1961, when Syria seceded from the union after the 1961 Syrian coup détat, Egypt continued to be known officially as the United Arab Republic until 1971. The president was Gamal Abdel Nasser and it was a member of the United Arab States, a loose confederation with North Yemen which in 1961 dissolved along with the Republic. Pan-Arab sentiment traditionally was very strong in Syria, and Nasser was a popular hero-figure throughout the Arab world following the Suez War of 1956, there was thus considerable popular support in Syria for union with Nassers Egypt. The Arab Socialist Baath Party was the advocate of such a union. This caused the Syrian Crisis of 1957 after which Syrians intensified their efforts to unite with Egypt, according to Abdel Latif Boghdadi, Nasser initially resisted a total union with Syria, favoring instead a federal union. However, Nasser was more afraid of a Communist takeover and agreed on a total merger, Syria had had a democratic government since the overthrow of Adib al-Shishaklis military regime in 1954, and popular pressure for Arab unity was reflected in the composition of parliament. When on 11 January 1958 al-Bizri led a Syrian delegation composed of officers to Cairo. Nassers final terms for the union were decisive and non-negotiable, a plebiscite, the dissolution of parties, while the plebiscite seemed reasonable to most Syrian elites, the latter two conditions were extremely worrisome. They believed it would destroy life in Syria. Despite these concerns, the Syrian officials knew it was too late to turn back. The members of the elite in Syria viewed the merger with Egypt as the lesser of two evils. They believed that Nassers terms were unfair, but given the pressure that their government was undergoing. Egyptian and Syrian leaders signed the protocols, although Azem did so reluctantly, Nasser became the republics president and very soon carried out a crackdown against the Syrian Communists and opponents of the union which included dismissing Bizri and Azem from their posts. Advocates of the believed that Nasser would use the Baath Party for ruling Syria. Unfortunately for the Baathists, it was never Nassers intention to share a measure of power. Nasser gave each of the provinces two vice-presidents, assigning Boghdadi and Abdel Hakim Amer to Egypt and Sabri al-Assali and Akram El-Hourani—a leader of the Baath—to Syria, the new constitution of 1958 was adopted. Though Nasser allowed former Baath Party members to hold prominent political positions, during the winter and the spring of 1959–60, Nasser slowly squeezed prominent Syrians out of positions of influence. In the Syrian Ministry of Industry, for example, seven of the top thirteen positions were filled by Egyptians, in the General Petroleum Authority, four of the top six officials were Egyptian
11.
Egyptian Army
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The Egyptian Army is the largest service branch within the Egyptian Armed Forces, and is the largest army in Africa. The modern army was established during the reign of Muhammad Ali Pasha, the Egyptian army was also engaged heavily in the protracted North Yemen Civil War, and the brief Libyan-Egyptian War in July 1977. As of 2014, the army has a strength of 310,000 soldiers, of which, approximately 90. For most parts of its history, ancient Egypt was unified under one government. The main military concern for the nation was to keep enemies out, the arid plains they wanted to get rid of and deserts surrounding Egypt were inhabited by nomadic tribes who occasionally tried to raid or settle in the fertile Nile river valley. Nevertheless, the expanses of the desert formed a barrier that protected the river valley and was almost impossible for massive armies to cross. The Egyptians built fortresses and outposts along the borders east and west of the Nile Delta, in the Eastern Desert, small garrisons could prevent minor incursions, but if a large force was detected a message was sent for the main army corps. Most Egyptian cities lacked city walls and other defenses, the history of ancient Egypt is divided into three kingdoms and two intermediate periods. During the three kingdoms Egypt was unified under one government, during the intermediate periods government control was in the hands of the various nomes and various foreigners. The geography of Egypt served to isolate the country and allowed it to thrive and this circumstance set the stage for many of Egypts military conquests. They weakened their enemies by using small projectile weapons, like bows and arrows and they also had chariots which they used to charge at the enemy. Following his seizure of power in Egypt, and declaration of himself as khedive of the country, Muhammad Ali Pasha set about establishing a bona fide Egyptian military. Prior to his rule, Egypt had been governed by the Ottoman Empire, to further this aim, he brought in European weapons and expertise, and built an army that defeated the Ottoman Sultan, wresting control from the Porte of the Levant, and Hejaz. Egypt was involved in the long-running 1881–99 Mahdist War in the Sudan, during Muhammad Ali Pashas reign, the Egyptian army became a much more strictly regimented and professional army. The recruits were separated from daily life and a sense of the impersonal of law was imposed. Muhammad Ali Pasha previously attempted to create an army of Sudanese slaves and Mamluks, instead, the Pasha enforced conscription in 1822 and the new military recruits were mostly Egyptian farmers, also known as fellah. Because of harsh military practices, the 130,000 soldiers conscripted in 1822 revolted in the south in 1824, the Pashas goal was to create military order through indoctrination by two new major key practices, isolation and surveillance. In previous times, the wives and family were allowed to follow the army wherever they camped and this was no longer the case
12.
Field marshal
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Field marshal is a very senior military rank, ordinarily senior to the general officer ranks. Usually it is the highest rank in an army, and when it is and it is considered as a five-star rank in modern-day armed forces in many countries. The origin of the dates to the early Middle Ages, originally meaning the keeper of the kings horses. Promotion to the rank of marshal in many countries historically required extraordinary military achievement by a general. However, the rank has also used as a divisional command rank. The traditional attribute distinguishing a field marshal is a baton, the baton nowadays is purely ornamental, and as such may be richly decorated. That said, it is not necessary for the insignia to be a baton, the exact wording of the titles used by field marshals varies, examples include marshal and field marshal general. The air force equivalent in Commonwealth and many Middle Eastern air forces is marshal of the air force. Navies, which usually do not use the nomenclature employed by armies or air forces, use titles such as fleet admiral, Field marshal Mohammad Qasim Fahim was a politician in Afghanistan who served as Vice President from June 2002 until December 2004 and from November 2009 until his death. Between September 2001 and December 2004, he served as Defense Minister under the Afghan Transitional Administration. As military commander of the Northern Alliance, Fahim captured the Afghan capital Kabul in the fall of 2001 from the Taliban government, in 2004 President Hamid Karzai provided Fahim the honorary title Marshal and a year later he became member of the House of Elders. He later became a recipient of the Ahmad Shah Baba Medal, Fahim was a member of Afghanistans Tajik ethnic group. He was affiliated with the Jamiat Islami party of Afghanistan, Sir Thomas Blamey was the first and is the only Australian-born field marshal. He was promoted to the rank on the insistence of the Australian prime minister, Sir Robert Menzies, Blamey was, at the time of his promotion, seriously ill and mostly bed-ridden in the Heidelberg Repatriation Hospital. He was presented with his marshals baton at a ceremony held in the sunroom at the Heidelberg Repatriation Hospital by the Governor-General of Australia. Blameys field marshals baton is on display in the Second World War galleries at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra. Currently, the only Australian field marshal is HRH Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, during Imperial rule in China, different dynasty gave different titles to generals. A very similar title is 司馬 in Eastern Han dynasty, which means master of horse
13.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
14.
North African Campaign
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The North African Campaign of the Second World War took place in North Africa from 10 June 1940 to 13 May 1943. It included campaigns fought in the Libyan and Egyptian deserts and in Morocco, the campaign was fought between the Allies and Axis powers, many of whom had colonial interests in Africa dating from the late 19th century. The Allied war effort was dominated by the British Commonwealth and exiles from German-occupied Europe, the United States entered the war in December 1941 and began direct military assistance in North Africa on 11 May 1942. Fighting in North Africa started with the Italian declaration of war on 10 June 1940, on 14 June, the British Armys 11th Hussars crossed the border from Egypt into Libya and captured the Italian Fort Capuzzo. Information gleaned via British Ultra code-breaking intelligence proved critical to Allied success in North Africa, victory for the Allies in this campaign immediately led to the Italian Campaign, which culminated in the downfall of the fascist government in Italy and the elimination of a German ally. On 10 May 1940, the Wehrmacht had started the Battle of France, one month later, it was plain to see that France would have to surrender within two weeks. On 10 June 1940, the Kingdom of Italy aligned itself with Nazi Germany and declared war upon France, British forces based in Egypt were ordered to undertake defensive measures, but to act as non-provocatively as possible. However, on 11 June they began a series of raids against Italian positions in Libya, following the defeat of France on 25 June, Italian forces in Tripolitania—facing French troops based in Tunisia—redeployed to Cyrenaica to reinforce the Italian Tenth Army. Italian dictator Benito Mussolini ordered the Tenth Army to invade Egypt by 8 August, two days later, no invasion having been launched, Mussolini ordered Marshal Graziani that, the moment German forces launched Operation Sea Lion, he was to attack. The battle plan was to advance along the road, while limited armoured forces operated on the desert flank. To counter the Italian advance, Wavell ordered his forces to harass the advancing Italians, falling back towards Mersa Matruh. Positioned on the flank was the 7th Armoured Division, which would strike the flank of the Italian force. By 16 September, the Italian force had advanced to Maktila, around 80 mi west of Mersa Matruh, in response to the dispersed Italian camps, the British planned a limited five-day attack, Operation Compass, to strike at these fortified camps one by one. The British Commonwealth force, totalling 36,000 men, attacked the forward elements of the 10-division-strong Italian army on 9 December, following their initial success, the forces of Operation Compass pursued the retreating Italian forces. In January, the port at Bardia was taken, soon followed by the seizure of the fortified port of Tobruk. Some 40,000 Italians were captured in and around the two ports, with the remainder of the Tenth Army retreating along the coast road back to El Agheila. Richard OConnor sent the 7th Armoured Division across the desert, with a reconnaissance group reaching Beda Fomm some ninety minutes before the Italians. Although desperate attempts were made to overcome the British force at the Battle of Beda Fomm, the Italians were unable to break through, and the remnants of the retreating army surrendered
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Western Desert Campaign
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The Western Desert Campaign, took place in the deserts of Egypt and Libya and was the main theatre in the North African Campaign during the Second World War. The campaign began in September 1940 with the Italian invasion of Egypt, Operation Compass, Benito Mussolini sought help from Adolf Hitler, who responded with a small German force sent to Tripoli under Directive 22. The German Afrika Korps was under nominal Italian command but Italian dependency on Nazi Germany made it the dominant partner. In the spring of 1941, Axis forces under Rommel pushed the British back to Egypt except for the port of Tobruk, the Axis forces were forced to retire to where they had started by the end of the year. In 1942 Axis forces drove the British back again and captured Tobruk after the Battle of Gazala, on the final Axis push to Egypt, the British retreated to El Alamein, where at the Second Battle of El Alamein the Eighth Army defeated the Axis forces. They were driven out of Libya to Tunisia, where they were defeated in the Tunisian Campaign, for Hitler the Eastern Front against the Soviet Union dwarfed the desert war, which was a holding action of secondary importance. The Axis never had sufficient resources or the means to deliver them, the British missed several opportunities to finish the campaign by diverting resources to Greece and the Levant in 1941 and the Far East in 1942. Cyrenaica had been an Italian colony since the Italo-Turkish War, supreme Headquarters had the 5th Army and the 10th Army which in mid-1940 had nine metropolitan divisions of about 13,000 men each, three Blackshirt and two Libyan divisions with 8,000 men each. Italian army divisions had been reorganised in the late 1930s, from three regiments each to two and reservists were recalled in 1939, along with the usual call-up of conscripts, morale was considered to be high and the army had recent experience of military operations. The Italian navy had prospered under the Fascist regime, which had paid for fast, well-built and well-armed ships and a large submarine fleet but the navy lacked experience and training. The air force had been ready for war in 1936 but had stagnated by 1939 and was not considered by the British to be capable of maintaining a high rate of operations. The 5th Army with eight divisions was based in Tripolitania, the half of Libya opposite Tunisia. When war was declared, the 10th Army deployed the 1st Libyan Division Sibelle on the frontier from Giarabub to Sidi Omar and XXI Corps from Sidi Omar to the coast, Bardia, the XXII Corps moved south-west of Tobruk, to act as a counter-attack force. The British had based forces in Egypt since 1882 but these were reduced by the terms of the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936. The small British and Commonwealth force garrisoned the Suez Canal and the Red Sea route, the canal was vital to British communications with its Far Eastern and Indian Ocean territories. In mid-1939, Lieutenant-General Archibald Wavell was appointed General Officer Commanding-in-Chief of the new Middle East Command, over the Mediterranean, until the Franco-Axis armistice, the French divisions in Tunisia faced the Italian 5th Army on the western Libyan border. In Libya, the Royal Army had about 215,000 men and in Egypt, British forces included the Mobile Division, one of only two British armoured training formations, which in mid-1939 was renamed Armoured Division. The HQ of the 6th Infantry Division, which lacked complete, Italian land and air forces in Libya, greatly outnumbered the British in Egypt but suffered from poor morale and were handicapped by some inferior equipment
16.
Suez Crisis
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The Suez Crisis, also named the Tripartite Aggression and the Kadesh Operation or Sinai War, was an invasion of Egypt in late 1956 by Israel, followed by the United Kingdom and France. The aims were to regain Western control of the Suez Canal, after the fighting had started, political pressure from the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Nations led to a withdrawal by the three invaders. The episode humiliated Great Britain and France and strengthened Nasser, on October 29, Israel invaded the Egyptian Sinai. Britain and France issued a joint ultimatum to cease fire, which was ignored, on November 5, Britain and France landed paratroopers along the Suez Canal. The Egyptian forces were defeated, but they did block the canal to all shipping and it later became clear that the Israeli invasion and the subsequent Anglo-French attack had been planned beforehand by the three countries. The three allies had attained a number of their objectives, but the Canal was now useless and heavy political pressure from the United States. U. S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower had strongly warned Britain not to invade, historians conclude the crisis signified the end of Great Britains role as one of the worlds major powers. The Suez Canal was closed from October 1956 until March 1957, Israel fulfilled some of its objectives, such as attaining freedom of navigation through the Straits of Tiran. The Suez Canal was opened in 1869, after ten years of work financed by the French, the canal instantly became strategically important, as it provided the shortest ocean link between the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean. The canal eased commerce for trading nations and particularly helped European colonial powers to gain, in 1875, as a result of debt and financial crisis, the Egyptian ruler was forced to sell his shares in the canal operating company to the British government of Benjamin Disraeli. They were willing buyers and obtained a 44 percent share in the operations for less than £4 million. With the 1882 invasion and occupation of Egypt, the United Kingdom took de facto control of the country as well as the canal proper, the 1888 Convention of Constantinople declared the canal a neutral zone under British protection. In ratifying it, the Ottoman Empire agreed to international shipping to pass freely through the canal, in time of war. The Convention came into force in 1904, the year as the Entente cordiale between Britain and France. Following the Japanese surprise attack on the Russian Pacific Fleet based at Port Arthur, the British denied the Russian fleet use of the canal and forced it to steam around Africa, giving the Japanese forces time to consolidate their position in East Asia. The importance of the canal as an intersection was again apparent during the First World War. The attempt by German and Ottoman forces to storm the canal in February 1915 led the British to commit 100,000 troops to the defense of Egypt for the rest of the war. The canal continued to be strategically important after the Second World War as a conduit for the shipment of oil, petroleum business historian Daniel Yergin wrote of the period, In 1948, the canal abruptly lost its traditional rationale
17.
Six-Day War
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The Six-Day War, also known as the June War,1967 Arab–Israeli War, or Third Arab–Israeli War, was fought between June 5 and 10,1967 by Israel and the neighboring states of Egypt, Jordan, and Syria. Relations between Israel and its neighbours had never fully normalised following the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, in the period leading up to June 1967, tensions became dangerously heightened. In reaction to the mobilisation of Egyptian forces along the Israeli border in the Sinai Peninsula, the Egyptians were caught by surprise, and nearly the entire Egyptian air force was destroyed with few Israeli losses, giving the Israelis air superiority. Simultaneously, the Israelis launched an offensive into the Gaza Strip and the Sinai. After some initial resistance, Egyptian leader Gamal Abdel Nasser ordered the evacuation of the Sinai, Israeli forces rushed westward in pursuit of the Egyptians, inflicted heavy losses, and conquered the Sinai. Nasser induced Syria and Jordan to begin attacks on Israel by using the initially confused situation to claim that Egypt had defeated the Israeli air strike. Israeli counterattacks resulted in the seizure of East Jerusalem as well as the West Bank from the Jordanians, on June 11, a ceasefire was signed. Arab casualties were far heavier than those of Israel, fewer than a thousand Israelis had been killed compared to over 20,000 from the Arab forces. Israels military success was attributed to the element of surprise, an innovative and well-executed battle plan, Israel seized control of the Gaza Strip and the Sinai Peninsula from Egypt, the West Bank and East Jerusalem from Jordan, and the Golan Heights from Syria. Israeli morale and international prestige was greatly increased by the outcome of the war, across the Arab world, Jewish minority communities were expelled, with refugees going to Israel or Europe. After the 1956 Suez Crisis, Egypt agreed to the stationing of a United Nations Emergency Force in the Sinai to ensure all parties would comply with the 1949 Armistice Agreements, in the following years there were numerous minor border clashes between Israel and its Arab neighbors, particularly Syria. In early November 1966, Syria signed a defense agreement with Egypt. Jordanian units that engaged the Israelis were quickly beaten back, King Hussein of Jordan criticized Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser for failing to come to Jordans aid, and hiding behind UNEF skirts. In May 1967, Nasser received false reports from the Soviet Union that Israel was massing on the Syrian border, the right of innocent, maritime passage must be preserved for all nations. On May 30, Jordan and Egypt signed a defense pact, the following day, at Jordans invitation, the Iraqi army began deploying troops and armoured units in Jordan. They were later reinforced by an Egyptian contingent, on June 1, Israel formed a National Unity Government by widening its cabinet, and on June 4 the decision was made to go to war. The next morning, Israel launched Operation Focus, a surprise air strike that was the opening of the Six-Day War. Before the war, Israeli pilots and ground crews had trained extensively in rapid refitting of aircraft returning from sorties and this has contributed to the Arab belief that the IAF was helped by foreign air forces
18.
Yom Kippur War
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The fighting mostly took place in the Sinai and the Golan Heights, territories that had been occupied by Israel since the Six-Day War of 1967. Egyptian President Anwar Sadat wanted also to reopen the Suez Canal, neither specifically planned to destroy Israel, although the Israeli leaders could not be sure of that. Egyptian and Syrian forces crossed ceasefire lines to enter the Sinai Peninsula, both the United States and the Soviet Union initiated massive resupply efforts to their respective allies during the war, and this led to a near-confrontation between the two nuclear superpowers. The war began with a massive and successful Egyptian crossing of the Suez Canal, after crossing the cease-fire lines, Egyptian forces advanced virtually unopposed into the Sinai Peninsula. After three days, Israel had mobilized most of its forces and halted the Egyptian offensive, resulting in a military stalemate, the Syrians coordinated their attack on the Golan Heights to coincide with the Egyptian offensive and initially made threatening gains into Israeli-held territory. Within three days, however, Israeli forces had pushed the Syrians back to the ceasefire lines. The Israel Defense Forces then launched a four-day counter-offensive deep into Syria, within a week, Israeli artillery began to shell the outskirts of Damascus. He therefore ordered the Egyptians to go back on the offensive, on October 22 a United Nations–brokered ceasefire quickly unraveled, with each side blaming the other for the breach. By October 24, the Israelis had improved their positions considerably and completed their encirclement of Egypts Third Army and this development led to tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union. As a result, a ceasefire was imposed cooperatively on October 25 to end the war. These changes paved the way for the subsequent peace process, the 1978 Camp David Accords that followed led to the return of the Sinai to Egypt and normalized relations—the first peaceful recognition of Israel by an Arab country. Egypt continued its drift away from the Soviet Union and left the Soviet sphere of influence entirely, the war was part of the Arab–Israeli conflict, an ongoing dispute that included many battles and wars since 1948, when the state of Israel was formed. During the Six-Day War of 1967, Israel had captured Egypts Sinai Peninsula, roughly half of Syrias Golan Heights, and the territories of the West Bank which had been held by Jordan since 1948. On June 19,1967, shortly after the Six-Day War, the Israeli government voted to return the Sinai to Egypt, the Arab position, as it emerged in September 1967 at the Khartoum Arab Summit, was to reject any peaceful settlement with the state of Israel. Prior to that, King Hussein of Jordan had stated that he could not rule out a possibility of a real, permanent peace between Israel and the Arab states. Armed hostilities continued on a limited scale after the Six-Day War and escalated into the War of Attrition, a ceasefire was signed in August 1970. President Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt died in September 1970 and he was succeeded by Anwar Sadat. A peace initiative led by both Sadat and UN intermediary Gunnar Jarring was tabled in 1971 and it resembled a proposal independently made by Moshe Dayan
19.
Arabic
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Arabic is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is also the language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six languages of the United Nations. The modern written language is derived from the language of the Quran and it is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic, which is the language of 26 states. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the standards of Quranic Arabic. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-Quranic era, Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics. As a result, many European languages have borrowed many words from it. Many words of Arabic origin are found in ancient languages like Latin. Balkan languages, including Greek, have acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has also borrowed words from languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times. Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages, the Ancient South Arabian languages, the Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include, The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation into a past tense, the conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms, the development of an internal passive. These features are evidence of descent from a hypothetical ancestor. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family were spoken and it is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages, in Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested
20.
Suez Canal
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The Suez Canal is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea through the Isthmus of Suez. It was constructed by the Suez Canal Company between 1859 and 1869, after 10 years of construction, it was officially opened on November 17,1869. It extends from the terminus of Port Said to the southern terminus of Port Tewfik at the city of Suez. Its length is 193.30 km, including its northern and southern access channels, in 2012,17,225 vessels traversed the canal. The original canal was a waterway with passing locations in the Ballah Bypass. It contains no locks system, with seawater flowing freely through it, in general, the canal north of the Bitter Lakes flows north in winter and south in summer. South of the lakes, the current changes with the tide at Suez, the canal is owned and maintained by the Suez Canal Authority of Egypt. Under the Convention of Constantinople, it may be used in time of war as in time of peace, by every vessel of commerce or of war, without distinction of flag. In August 2014, construction was launched to expand and widen the Ballah Bypass for 35 km to speed the canals transit time, the expansion was planned to double the capacity of the Suez Canal from 49 to 97 ships a day. At a cost of $8.4 billion, this project was funded with interest-bearing investment certificates issued exclusively to Egyptian entities, the New Suez Canal, as the expansion was dubbed, was opened with great fanfare in a ceremony on 6 August 2015. On 24 February 2016, the Suez Canal Authority officially opened the new side channel and this side channel, located at the northern side of the east extension of the Suez Canal, serves the East Terminal for berthing and unberthing vessels from the terminal anytime of day and night. Ancient west–east canals were built to travel from the Nile River to the Red Sea. One smaller canal is believed to have been constructed under the auspices of Senusret II or Ramesses II. Another canal, probably incorporating a portion of the first, was constructed under the reign of Necho II, the legendary Sesostris may have started work on an ancient canal joining the Nile with the Red Sea. In his Meteorology, Aristotle wrote, One of their kings tried to make a canal to it, so he first, and Darius afterwards, stopped making the canal, lest the sea should mix with the river water and spoil it. Strabo wrote that Sesostris started to build a canal, and Pliny the Elder wrote,165. Later the Persian king Darius had the idea, and yet again Ptolemy II. This proved to be the canal made by the Persian king Darius I
21.
Operation Badr (1973)
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Operation Badr or Plan Badr was the code name for the Egyptian military operation to cross the Suez Canal and seize the Bar-Lev Line of Israeli fortifications on October 6,1973. Launched in conjunction with a Syrian assault on the Golan Heights, Operation Badr was preceded by training exercises starting in 1968, operational planning from 1971 onwards and a deception operation. Egyptian infantry assaulted the Bar-Lev fortifications and were counterattacked by Israeli armor, the attack surprised the Israelis, and by October 7 the crossing was complete, and the east bank of the canal was occupied by five Egyptian infantry divisions. The infantry proceeded to establish positions in bridgeheads spanning the 160 kilometres front. Following a lull in the fighting on October 7, Israeli armor reserves arrived at the front, the Egyptian forces were successful in employing anti-tank weapons to repel the Israeli armor and advanced once more. By the end of October 8, Egypt occupied a strip of territory along the entire east bank of the canal to a depth of approximately 15 kilometres, in addition to the canal crossing, Egypt laid a successful naval blockade against Israel in the Red Sea and Mediterranean Sea. The 1973 war is commemorated in a special Egyptian museum, the 6th of October Panorama in Cairo, at the end of the Six Day War, Israel held the entire Sinai peninsula, with the exception of Port Fouad. Israels victory in the Six Day War brought about a sense of security within Israel, Israeli Prime Minister Golda Meir aimed to maintain the status quo and believed that her countrys military strength would secure peace with Arab nations on their terms. Egypt, on the hand, refused to recognize Israel or even negotiate with directly. The 1967 war severely depleted Egypts military strength, as most of their air force, the War of Attrition began with Egyptian artillery barrages and commando raids into the Sinai, which were countered by deep-striking Israeli airstrikes and heli-borne raids into Egypt. The defensive upgrades incurred increasing Israeli air losses, leading to an August 1970 ceasefire that lasted until 1973, nasser died in September 1970 and was succeeded by Anwar Sadat. President Sadat believed that Egypts economic, political, social and military problems were a result of the Six Day War and he believed the solution to these problems lay with erasing the humiliation of the 1967 defeat, which required regaining the Sinai. In 1971 Sadat began the political and military groundwork to achieve this. In return Egypt would sign a treaty with Israel and reestablish relations with the United States. However Israeli insistence on retention of territory necessary for its security ended diplomatic efforts and he publicly stated his desire to go to war and marked 1971 the year of decision. However, the Soviets failed to deliver the supplies. As 1971 drew to a close, Sadats threats were dismissed as hollow Arab rhetoric, added to their already weak political position, Arab leaders reached a consensus in 1972 that a diplomatic solution to the conflict was hopeless. American mediation steadily declined, ceasing entirely by mid-1973, by 1972 the United States and the Soviet Union were focused on détente
22.
Allies of World War II
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The Allies of World War II, called the United Nations from the 1 January 1942 declaration, were the countries that together opposed the Axis powers during the Second World War. The Allies promoted the alliance as seeking to stop German, Japanese, at the start of the war on 1 September 1939, the Allies consisted of France, Poland and the United Kingdom, and dependent states, such as the British India. Within days they were joined by the independent Dominions of the British Commonwealth, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Poland was a minor factor after its defeat in 1939, France was a minor factor after its defeat in 1940. China had already been into a war with Japan since the Marco Polo Bridge Incident of 1937. The alliance was formalised by the Declaration by United Nations, from 1 January 1942, however, the name United Nations was rarely used to describe the Allies during the war. The leaders of the Big Three – the UK, the Soviet Union, in 1945, the Allied nations became the basis of the United Nations. The origins of the Allied powers stem from the Allies of World War I, Germany resented signing Treaty of Versailles. The new Weimar republics legitimacy became shaken, by the early 1930s, the Nazi Party led by Adolf Hitler became the dominant revanchist movement in Germany and Hitler and the Nazis gained power in 1933. The Nazi regime demanded the cancellation of the Treaty of Versailles and made claims to German-populated Austria. The likelihood of war was high, and the question was whether it could be avoided through strategies such as appeasement, in Asia, when Japan seized Manchuria in 1931, the League of Nations condemned it for aggression against China. Japan responded by leaving the League of Nations in March 1933, after four quiet years, the Sino-Japanese War erupted in 1937 with Japanese forces invading China. The League of Nations condemned Japans actions and initiated sanctions on Japan, the United States, in particular, was angered at Japan and sought to support China. In March 1939, Germany took over Czechoslovakia, violating the Munich Agreement signed six months before, Britain and France decided that Hitler had no intention to uphold diplomatic agreements and responded by preparing for war. On 31 March 1939, Britain formed the Anglo-Polish military alliance in an effort to avert a German attack on the country, also, the French had a long-standing alliance with Poland since 1921. The Soviet Union sought an alliance with the powers. The agreement secretly divided the independent nations of eastern Europe between the two powers and assured adequate oil supplies for the German war machine, on 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland, two days later Britain and France declared war on Germany. Then, on 17 September 1939, the Soviet Union invaded Poland from the east, a Polish government-in-exile was set up and it continued to be one of the Allies, a model followed by other occupied countries. After a quiet winter, Germany in April 1940 invaded and quickly defeated Denmark, Norway, Belgium, Britain and its Empire stood alone against Hitler and Mussolini
23.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
24.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
25.
War of Attrition
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The War of Attrition involved fighting between Israel and Egypt, Jordan, PLO and their allies from 1967 to 1970. Following the 1967 Six-Day War, no diplomatic efforts tried to resolve the issues at the heart of the Arab–Israeli conflict. In September 1967, the Arab states formulated the three nos policy, barring peace, recognition or negotiations with Israel and these initially took the form of limited artillery duels and small-scale incursions into Sinai, but by 1969 the Egyptian Army judged itself prepared for larger-scale operations. On March 8,1969, Nasser proclaimed the launch of the War of Attrition, characterized by large-scale shelling along the Suez Canal, extensive aerial warfare. Hostilities continued until August 1970 and ended with a ceasefire, the remaining the same as when the war began. Israels victory in the Six-Day War left the entirety of the Egyptian Sinai Peninsula up to the bank of the Suez Canal under Israeli control. Egypt was determined to regain Sinai, and also sought to mitigate the severity of its defeat, sporadic clashes were taking place along the cease-fire line, and Egyptian missile boats sank the Israeli destroyer INS Eilat on October 21 of the same year. Israel responded with aerial bombardments, airborne raids on Egyptian military positions, the international community and both countries attempted to find a diplomatic solution to the conflict. Fearing the escalation of the conflict into an East vs, in August 1970, Israel, Jordan, and Egypt agreed to an in place ceasefire under the terms proposed by the Rogers Plan. The plan contained restrictions on missile deployment by both sides, and required the cessation of raids as a precondition for peace and these plans would materialize three years later in the 1973 Yom Kippur War. Ultimately, Israel would return Sinai to Egypt after the two signed a peace treaty. Various military historians have commented on the war with differing opinions, chaim Herzog notes that Israel withstood the battle and adapted itself to a hitherto alien type of warfare. Zeev Schiff notes that though Israel suffered losses, she was able to preserve her military accomplishments of 1967. The Egyptian Air Force and Air Defense Forces performed poorly, Egyptian pilots were rigid, slow to react and unwilling to improvise. According to U. S. intelligence estimates, Egypt lost 109 aircraft, most in air-to-air combat and it took a salvo of 6 to 10 SA-2 Egyptian anti-aircraft missiles to obtain a better than fifty percent chance of a hit. An Israeli armored infantry company attacks the Egyptian force, the Israeli company drives off the Egyptians but loses 1 dead and 13 wounded. However, another claims that an Israeli attack on Port Fuad was repulsed. July 2,1967, The Israeli Air Force bombs Egyptian artillery positions that had supported the commandos at Ras Al-Ish, july 4,1967, Egyptian Air Force jets strike several Israeli targets in Sinai
26.
Hussein Refki Pasha
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Hussein Refki Pasha Ahmed Hafez Mohammed Hafez was an Egyptian military general and politician who served as Egypts 25th Minister of War and Marine. Hussein Refki Pasha served as Egypts Minister of War and Marine from December 1937 to April 1938, Refki later became a senator in the Egyptian Senate, the upper-house of the Egyptian Parliament. Prior to his career, Refki served in the royal court as Chief Aide-de-Camp to kings Fuad I. As Chief Aide-de-Camp, Refki commanded the Kings Military Household, which included the royal guard, a street is named for Refki in the Sarayat El-Quba neighbourhood of Heliopolis, Cairo. Refkis father, Ahmed Hafez Pasha, and his brothers Major-Generals Hassan Hafez Pasha and Mohammed Hafez Pasha, the family has also produced several eminent Egyptian judges. Refkis only child, Chancellor Hafez Refky, was a member of Egypts Supreme Judicial Council, refkis nephew, Chancellor Fouad Hafez, was President of the Egyptian Court of Appeals in Cairo. Hussein Refki Pasha is related to the Muhammad Ali dynasty of Egypt through his mother, since the 1930s Refki and his patrilineal descendants have used the surname Refky or Refki
27.
Hassan Sabry Pasha
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Hassan Sabry Pasha was an Egyptian politician who briefly served as prime minister of Egypt in 1940. Following his graduation with a degree and a law degree. Then he taught at Al Azhar University, in 1926, he became a member of the Chamber of Deputies, representing Gharbiyya. In 1931, he was elected to the Senate, from 1933 to 1934 he served as finance minister. In 1934, he was appointed Egypts ambassador to the United Kingdom, following his return to Egypt he was made commerce and communications minister and then war or defense minister. He was appointed by King Farouk to form a cabinet in June 1940. He succeeded Ali Mahir Pasha as prime minister and served as the Prime Minister of Egypt from 28 June 1940 to 14 November 1940 and he died on the floor of Parliament as he gave a speech accepting the Grand Cordon of Mohammed Ali, the highest honor Egypt can bestow. He was succeeded by Hussein Sirry Pasha
28.
Ismail Chirine
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Ismail Hussein Chirine was a royal Egyptian diplomat. He served as commander in chief of the Egyptian army and his ancestors had relations to Muhammad Ali Dynasty. Chirine was born in Alexandria on 17 October 1919 to Hussein Chirine and his mother was a Turkish Circassian. She died in an accident near Rome, remarried Ali Rateb from Alexandria. His uncle was the governor of Cairo, from the age of 12, Chirine preferred to live with his aunt Zeinab Chirine, wife of Haidar Pasha. He was educated at Victoria College in Alexandria, Great Chesterfield College, Chirine assumed different public posts in Egypt. When Chirine returned from the United Kingdom he firstly worked for the Bank El Ahly El Masry, later he became an officer in the army, where his English language was useful during negotiations in 1948, together with Rahmani Bey who later became ambassador to Czechoslovakia. Chirine became colonel and field marshal in the army and he was a member of Egypts Rhodes delegation. In 1948, he served as secretary of Egyptian delegation to the United Nations, then he acted as aide-de-champ of King Farouk. In 1949 he served as the officer for the cabinet. He briefly became minister of Egypt just before the Egyptian Revolution in 1952. Chirine married Princess Fawzia, the sister of King Farouk, in March 1949, the wedding ceremony was held in Koubba Palace. Following the wedding they lived in a owned by the Princess in Maadi. They also resided in a villa in Smouha and they had two children, Nadia and Hussein. Their daughter, Nadia, wed to Egyptian actor Youssed Shabaan and he lived the rest of his life in Alexandria, tending his property in the South of Egypt and spending summers in Switzerland, to allow his wife to meet her eldest daughter, Princess Shahnaz Pahlavi. Chirine died at hospital in Alexandria on 14 June 1994
29.
Mohammed Naguib
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Mohamed Naguib was the first President of Egypt, serving from the declaration of the Republic on 18 June 1953 to 14 November 1954. Along with Gamal Abdel Nasser, he was the leader of the Egyptian Revolution of 1952. Naguibs full name was Mohamed Naguib Yousef Qotp Elkashlan, he was born on 19 February 1901 in Khartoum, Sudan and he was the eldest of nine children of an Egyptian, Youssef Naguib, and a Sudanese woman Zohra Ahmed Othman. His family name, Elkashlan, was popular in Egypt at that time, due to well-known scientific personalities such as Saad Elkashlan and he came from a long line of army officers, his father served in the Egyptian army in Sudan. Naguibs favourite game, however, was playing at soldiers with his younger brother, having built a toy fortress in the front yard, Naguib would spend hours conquering inches of land with his toy soldiers. As a result, Naguib first studied to become a translator, and later in his life earned a law degree and he never completed his doctorate because his career in the army, undertaken in defiance of his fathers wishes, by then had begun to take off. Nevertheless, he found the time to polish his skills, learning English, French. While studying in Khartoum, Naguib had often been censured and sometimes even whipped by his British tutors for criticizing Britains occupation of Egypt and Sudan. At this time, Naguib chose Napoleon as a role model, soon, however, Napoleon was replaced in Naguibs affections by Mustafa Kamil, the founder of the National Party, and later he found another mirror in Saad Zaghlul. Some years after he was ousted from power, Naguib also came to somewhat admire Gandhi, after the death of his father in 1916, the family moved to Cairo, while Naguib and Ali finished their studies in Sudan. Naguib worked as a guard in Cairo, but in 1924 and he married in 1927, pursuing his legal studies while continuing a career in the army. By 1931, he was ready to resign from the army, in 1934, he remarried and was transferred to the Coast Guard, where he was employed to chase smugglers across the Sinai desert, mixing with the bedouin and helping treat their illnesses. In 1940, he was again promoted, however, despite generally favorable relations between Naguib and King Farouk, Naguib refused to kiss the kings hand. A brisk hand shake was the best Naguib could offer, any illusions Naguib might have had about the nature of Farouks rule evaporated on 4 February 1942 after a standoff at Abdeen Palace in Cairo between the British and the king. On this occasion, Farouk turned down Naguibs resignation and he again attempted to resign in 1951 when Hussein Serri Amer, widely thought to be corrupt, was made head of the Coast Guard. Meanwhile, Naguib had continued to climb the ladder, serving in Palestine during the Palestine War in 1948. While on active service in Palestine, Naguib would dedicate 30 minutes every morning to reading the Quran, in 1949, Naguib secretly joined the Free Officers movement, and a year later he was promoted to the rank of Major-General. The general is considered one of Egypts few heroes from the war in Palestine, the Free Officers, led by Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser were young members of the military – all under thirty-five and all from peasant or lower-middle-class backgrounds
30.
Abdel Latif Boghdadi (politician)
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Abdel Latif Boghdadi or Abd el-Latif el-Baghdadi was an Egyptian politician, senior air force officer, and judge. An original member of the Free Officers Movement which overthrew the monarchy in Egypt in the 1952 Revolution, the French author Jean Lacouture called Boghdadi a robust manager who only lacked stature comparable to Nassers. Boghdadi was born in El Mansoura on 20 September 1917 and he is known to have excelled at Egypts military academy in 1938 and, later on, its air force academy. Boghdadi later became one of the ten members of the Free Officers Movement. During the 1952 revolution led by the Free Officers, Boghdadi commanded jet fighter units to circle around Cairo to prevent possible outside interference in the coup against King Farouk, Boghdadi also became a member of the Egyptian Revolutionary Command Council. In 1953, he was appointed inspector-general of the revolutions first political organization, when Naguib was removed from his post and arrested in late 1954, Nasser was still prime minister and transferred Boghdadi to municipal affairs minister. During this time, he was responsible for the construction of the Nile Corniche road in Cairo, for this reason Boghdadi was sometimes referred to sarcastically by his rivals as Abdel Rassif al-Boghdadi, rassif meaning pavement in Arabic. Nasser refused and put Boghdadi in charge of organizing Egyptian resistance along the canal, after the Suez War, he was appointed general administrator for reconstruction of the canal area and according to author Said Aburish, performed admirably. Boghdadi was elected as Speaker of the First National Assembly, Boghdadi accompanied Nasser on his trip to Damascus on 24 February 1958, after the unification of Syria and Egypt to form the United Arab Republic. His role in the new republic was, along with Amer, in this period in the early 1960s Boghdadi held the additional post of planning minister. In 1962, shortly after the UARs collapse, Nasser adopted a more Soviet -style economic system for Egypt to which Boghdadi disapproved and he was utterly opposed to the extensive socialist measures and the new system altogether. He declared his resignation, claiming Nassers behavior amounted to a loss of direction, Boghdadi also preferred closer relations with the United States, rather than the USSR. Boghdadi submitted his resignation again on 16 May 1964, after disagreeing with Nassers decision to send Egyptian troops to North Yemen to support Nassers partisans in the civil war and he referred to the war as Nassers Vietnam. Boghdadi also wanted a more circumspect policy of Egypt first, in response to his resignation, Nasser put Boghdadis brother Saad under house arrest and prevented his brother-in-law from traveling to the United Kingdom to complete his doctorate. Nasser also claimed Boghdadi was implicated in illegal Muslim Brotherhood activities, as a result of the fallout, Boghdadi withdrew from political life, although the rift between him and Nasser was reconciled before 1970. According to Nassers close associates, Nasser requested Boghdadi rejoin the government, due to Boghdadis previous resignation concerning the close relationship to the USSR, he asked Nasser at first hand the nature of the new Egypt-Soviet informal alliance. They both agreed that Boghdadi visit the USSR alone to ensure there were not any differences in perception of what the new relationship between the two countries meant, Boghdadi opposed Sadats peace treaty with Israel in 1978, as did all the other then-living former RCC members. On 8 September 1999 Boghdadi was hospitalized for complications from liver cancer and he was pronounced dead at the age of 81 the next day
31.
Hussein el-Shafei
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Born in Tanta in 1918, el-Shafei graduated from the Egyptian Military Academy in 1938. El-Shafei was appointed minister of war in 1954 and served as Egypts minister of labor and he served as vice-president under Gamal Abdel Nasser in 1961. During his tenure as minister of social affairs, el-Shafei introduced social insurance reforms considered radical at the time and his Winter Charity campaign provided Egypts poor with basic necessities. Some Egyptian celebrities took part in the trains which delivered the goods. Anwar Sadat appointed el-Shafei as vice-president of Egypts new government in 1971, el-Shafei died on 18 November 2005. Mubarak was among the officials at el-Shafeis state funeral. Malaysia, Honorary Grand Commander of the Order of the Defender of the Realm 1952 Revolution
32.
Abdel Hakim Amer
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Mohamed Abdel Hakim Amer was an Egyptian general and political leader. Amer was born in Astal, Samallot, in the Al Minya Governorate on 11 December 1919, after finishing grade school, he attended the Cairo Military Academy and graduated in 1938. He was commissioned into the Egyptian Army in 1939, Amer served in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, took part in the 1952 Revolution and commanded the Egyptian Army in the Suez Crisis, the North Yemen Civil War and the Six-Day War. Amer played a role in the military coup that overthrew King Farouk in 1952. The following year, Amer was made Egypts Chief-of-Staff, bypassing four military ranks, in 1956, Amer was appointed commander-in-chief of the joint military command established by Egypt and Syria. He also led Egyptian forces against both Israeli and allied British-French forces during the 1956 Suez war, after the fighting ended, Amer accused Nasser of provoking an unnecessary war and then blaming the military for the result. As Nassers representative in Syria, Amer was detained by rebels during the 1961 Syrian coup détat, in March 1964, Amer was made first vice-president to Nasser and deputy supreme commander, with the power to rule for 60 days if the president was incapacitated. Amers distinguished career came to an end after Egypts crushing defeat by Israel in the Six-Day War of June 1967. Many historians have stated that much the Egyptian militarys failures in the 1967 war can be laid at the feet of Amer, when Amer heard of the fall of Abu Ageila to Israel, he panicked and ordered all units in the Sinai to retreat. This order effectively meant the defeat of Egypt, shortly after the Six Day War ended, he was relieved of all his duties and forced into early retirement. In August that year, Amer, along with over 50 Egyptian military officers and he was kept under house arrest at his villa in Giza. After surviving and being taken home the day, he managed to evade his guards. Later, Cairo radio announced his burial in his village of Astal. Amer chose the option and received a full military burial. Anwar Al Sadat, who later became President of Egypt, expressed his opinion if he was in Amers position. In September 2012, Amers family filed a case to investigate his death and they claimed that he was murdered. Abdel Hakim Amer was awarded the title Hero of the Soviet Union on 13 May 1964, malaysia, Honorary Grand Commander of the Order of the Defender of the Realm
33.
Shams Badran
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Shams Al Din Badran was one of the defense ministers of Egypt during Gamal Abdel Nassers era. He was among the figures in Egypt before the 1970s. He attended military academy and graduated in 1948, Badran was the head of the military security services in the mid 1960s. He also served as the manager of then-Field Marshal Abdul Hakim Amer under the Nassers rule. He was one of the top aides of Amer, then Badran was appointed minister of defense in Fall 1966 shortly before the 1967 War or Six Day War, replacing Abdel Wahab Al Bishri in the post. Badran was also named as the chief of Nassers cabinet the same year, on 25 May 1967, Badran visited Moscow and met senior Soviet officials, including then prime minister Alexei Kosygin, to secure their support regarding Israeli threat. He resigned from office during the war, and was replaced by Amin Howeidi as defense minister in June 1967, Badran along with other senior officials, including Amer, was detained on 25 August 1967 due to the accusations of plotting against Nasser. However, they were tried about their roles in cease fire in the six day war in 1968, in fact, Badran was twice tried. He and Salah Nasr, former chief of intelligence and also part of Amers faction, were convicted and sentenced to labor due to their roles in the defeat. Badran left Egypt and began to live in London and his wife whom he divorced worked at the American University in Cairo
34.
Mohamed Fawzi (general)
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Mohamed Fawzi was an Egyptian general and politician who served as minister of defense. Fawzi was born in Abbasiya, Cairo, on 5 March 1915 and he attended the Egyptian Royal Military Academy and graduated in 1936. He also held a degree, which he received from the same institution in 1952. During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Fawzi first met Gamal Abdel Nasser, in 1957, Fawzi was appointed by then president Nasser as commandant of the Military Academy. In 1961, Fawzi headed the Egypts military mission as part of the UN forces in Congo, Fawzi became military secretary-general of the Arab League in March 1964. He was also chief of staff that month, a post he occupied until the Six Day War in June 1967. After the war, Fawzi resigned from his post, and was replaced by Abdel Moneim Reiad, on 11 June he was appointed general commander, replacing Abdel Hakim Amer. Amer and his allies protested the move and immediately afterward,600 officers loyal to Amer besieged army headquarters demanding Amers reinstatement, tensions between Amer, who was a plotting a coup to be launched on 27 August, and Nasser mounted. A plan to apprehend Amer was made and Nasser managed to convince him to meet in his home, while Amer was Nassers home, Fawzi led an army takeover of Amers villa, confiscating all of thirteen truckloads of his weapons. In January 1968, Fawzi was appointed defense minister and he also became one of the members of the Supreme Executive Committee of Egypt the same year. Fawzi continued to serve as minister during the era of next president Anwar Sadat. However, Fawzi and six other ministers resigned from office in May 1971, mohammed Sadek replaced Fawzi as defense minister. Immediately after his resignation, Fawzi was arrested due to his role in a coup plot. In May 1971, Sadat announced that Fawzi had been under house arrest, Fawzi was tried and sentenced to life imprisonment. His sentence was reduced to 15 years at hard labor by Sadat in December 1971, Fawzi was later pardoned in 1974 due to health concerns and his military background. In his later years, Fawzi published books on military affairs and he joined Arab Democratic Nasserist Party, being a member of its political bureau. Fawzi died in February 2000 in Heliopolis
35.
Kamal Hassan Aly
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General Kamal Hassan Aly was an Egyptian politician and military hero. Aly was born in Cairo on 18 September 1921 and he attended medical school, but did not finish it and joined military academy. He was commissioned as an engineering officer in 1942. He was involved in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War and as Engineer-in-Chief the Yom Kippur War, between 1973 and 1975, he was commander of the Central Military Zone. He was head of the Egyptian Intelligence Service from 1975 to 1978, after that, he served as minister of defense and military production under president Anwar Sadat. Aly also played a role in negotiations between Egypt and Israel, resulting in a treaty in 1979. From 1980 to 1984, he was the deputy prime minister and he was the Prime Minister of Egypt from 17 July 1984 to 4 September 1985. Then he became the chairman of the Egyptian-Gulf Bank in 1986 and he was head of the Egyptian General Intelligence Directorate from 1986 to 1989. Kamal Hassan Aly was married to Amal Khairy and had three children and he died in Cairo on 27 March 1993 at the age of 71 and was buried with a military funeral
36.
Abd al-Halim Abu Ghazala
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The USA did not allow exporting certain materials used for making missile heads to the Egyptian military. He was born in Zuhur Al Omara Village, Dilingat, Behera governorate and his family descended from Awlad Aly tribe. After completing his education, he joined the Egyptian Royal Military Academy. He also graduated from Nasser Academy for higher military education, on the civilian studies side, he received a bachelors degree from the faculty of commerce, Cairo University. Abu Ghazala received the diploma of honor from the National War College in the U. S. thus being the first non-American to receive such an award, field Marshal Abd al-Halim Abu Ghazala was the artillery commander in chief during October War of 1973. He did not participate in the Six Day War of 1967 as he was serving in the Western Desert and he was also involved with Gust Avrakotos and Charlie Wilson in supplying weapons to the Afghan Mujahideen during the Soviet Afghan war. The CIA bought the weapons and passed them through Pakistans ISI to the Afghan rebel groups, items included.303 ammo for Lee–Enfield rifles, limpet mines, and urban terrorist devices like bicycle bombs. There were also a number of rockets that some believe was the Katyusha, the project T is part of the tri-national program with Argentina, and Iraq to develop a two-stage solid and liquid propellant missile with a range of 900 kilometres. This program was referred to in Argentina as the Condor 2, the Project T missile is a Scud-B variant, whose payload was probably reduced in order to extend its range. Mobarak did not like this, and an argument happened between him and aboughazala, in which told him that he has had enough and redesigned. Throughout his tenure as Minister of Defense, Abu Ghazala was widely perceived as the second-most powerful man in Egypt, and his removal from office, and subsequent disappearance from public life, were seen as politically motivated. In 2005, Abu Ghazala was briefly rumored to be a candidate for the powerful. He finally did not run, and the Muslim Brotherhood did not field a candidate in the first contested Egyptian presidential elections, the Muslim Brotherhood offered him to run as their presidential candidate, but he refused due to their different ideological backgrounds. Abu Ghazala died on 6 September 2008 at El-Galla Military Hospital in Cairo at the age of 78, from throat cancer
37.
Mohamed Hussein Tantawi
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Mohamed Hussein Tantawi Soliman is an Egyptian field marshal and former statesman. Tantawi served in the government as Minister of Defence and Military Production from 1991 until Morsi ordered Tantawi to retire on 12 August 2012. Tantawi, who is of Nubian origin, joined the Egyptian Military Academy in 1952, later that year he took part in the Suez War as an infantry platoon commander. He was promoted to Major in 1961 and commanded a company in Yemen during the North Yemen Civil War. Later in his career he was involved in the Six-Day War of 1967 as a Lt. Colonel and Battalion commander, the War of Attrition of 1967–1970, and the October or Yom Kippur War of 1973. During the Yom Kippur War he was a Colonel and the operations officer GSO-I of the 16th Infantry Brigade of the Second Field Army. He held various command and staff appointments including both the Chief of Staff and then Commander of the Egyptian Second Army between 1986 and 1989. Additionally he has served as the military attaché to Pakistan between 1983 and 1985, an important role given the two political and military links. Tantawi served as Commander of the Republican Guard between 1989 and 1991, and later Chief of the Operations Authority of the Armed Forces. In 1991, he commanded an Egyptian Army unit in the U. S. -led Gulf War against Iraq to force Iraq to withdraw from Kuwait. He was also appointed as field marshal and it is believed that Tantawi would have succeeded Mubarak as president of Egypt, had the assassination attempt in June 1995 been successful. Early in 2011, Tantawi was seen as a contender for the Egyptian presidency. Robert Springborg wrote that Foreign military professionals, liken Tantawi to the CEO of the largest corporate conglomerate in Egypt because his primary concern was the economic well-being of the military, not the performance of its nominal tasks and duties. He opted to leave most public speeches and press releases to other members in the council, he also appointed Prime Minister Essam Sharaf. Tantawi also received a number of officials, including British Prime Minister David Cameron. On 12 August 2012, Egypts president Mohamed Morsi ordered Tantawi to retire as head of the armed forces, criticism of Tantawi in Egypt has been manyfold, including many chants in Tahrir for him to leave. Chants against Tantawi have included Tantawi stripped your women naked, come join us, according to The Telegraph, protesters have also demanded the execution of Tantawi. Nabeel Rajab, the head of Bahrain Centre for Human Rights, criticized Tantawi for his reception for king of Bahrain and this is a very bad message from the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces to the international community, the Egyptian and Bahraini people, he said
38.
Abdel Fattah el-Sisi
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Abdel Fattah Saeed Hussein Khalil el-Sisi, is the sixth and incumbent President of Egypt, in office since 2014. Sisi was born in Cairo and after joining the military, held a post in Saudi Arabia before enrolling in the Egyptian Armys Command and Staff College. In 1992 Sisi trained at the Joint Services Command and Staff College in the United Kingdom, Sisi served as a mechanized infantry commander and then as directory of military intelligence. After the Egyptian revolution of 2011 and election of Mohamed Morsi to the Egyptian presidency, as chief-of-staff of the Egyptian Armed Forces, Sisi launched the 2013 Egyptian coup détat that deposed President Morsi on July 3,2013, in response to earlier mass protests on June 30. Morsi was replaced by a president, Adly Mansour, who appointed a new cabinet. The government cracked down on the Muslim Brotherhood and its Islamist supporters in the months that followed, on 14 August 2013, the Sisi-backed government carried out the August 2013 Rabaa massacre, which led to international criticism. On 26 March 2014, in response to calls from anti Muslim Brotherhood protesters, Sisi resigned from his military career, Sisi was sworn into office as President of Egypt on 8 June 2014. El-Sisi was born in Zagazig in Old Cairo on 19 November 1954, to parents Said Hussein Khalili al-Sisi, Sisi would later enroll in the Egyptian Military Academy, and upon graduating he held various command positions in the Egyptian Armed Forces and served as Egypts military attaché in Riyadh. In 1987 he attended the Egyptian Command and Staff College, in 1992 he continued his military career by enrolling in the British Command and Staff College, and in 2006 enrolled in the United States Army War College in Carlisle, Pennsylvania. Sisi was the youngest member of the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces during the Egyptian Revolution of 2011 and he was later chosen to replace Mohamed Hussein Tantawi and serve as the commander-in-chief and Minister of Defence and Military Production on 12 August 2012. Sisis family originated from Monufia Governorate and he is the second of eight siblings. His father, a conservative but not radical Muslim, had an antiques shop for tourists in the historic bazaar of Khan el-Khalili. He and his siblings studied at the library at al-Azhar University. They were married upon el-Sisis graduation from the Egyptian Military Academy in 1977 and he became Commander of the Northern Military Region-Alexandria in 2008 and then Director of Military Intelligence and Reconnaissance. El-Sisi was the youngest member of the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces of Egypt, while a member of the Supreme Council, he made controversial statements regarding allegations that Egyptian soldiers had subjected detained female demonstrators to forced virginity tests. He was the first member of the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces to admit that the tests had been carried out. On 12 August 2012, Egyptian President Mohamed Morsi made a decision to replace Mohamed Hussein Tantawi and he also promoted him to the rank of colonel general. Sisi was then described by the website of FJP as a Defense minister with revolutionary taste
39.
Sedki Sobhy
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Sedki Sobhy Sayyid Ahmad is an Egyptian Colonel General who has been Ministers of Defence of Egypt since 2014. Sobhy previously served as the Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces from August 2012 to March 2014 and he also commanded the Third Army for a time. He was sworn in as Minister of Defence in March 2014 after Abdul Fattah al-Sisi resigned so he could stand for the presidency, mechanized Infantry Division, Chief of Staff. In 2004-5 Sedki Sobhy studied for a Masters Degree in Strategic Studies at the US Army War College in Carlisle, while there he wrote a paper recommending that the United States withdraw its military from the Middle East and concentrate instead on socio-economic aid for the region. The paper was posted on a US Department of Defense website, after the 2013 Egyptian coup, Sedki Sobhy spoke by telephone on 4 July 2013 with Martin Dempsey, US Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and had spoken twice with him by 8 July
Kingdom of Egypt
United Arab Republic
Egypt
Egyptian Army
Field Marshal