1.
Steel
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Steel is an alloy of iron and other elements, primarily carbon, that is widely used in construction and other applications because of its high tensile strength and low cost. Steels base metal is iron, which is able to take on two forms, body centered cubic and face centered cubic, depending on its temperature. It is the interaction of those allotropes with the elements, primarily carbon. In the body-centred cubic arrangement, there is an atom in the centre of each cube. Carbon, other elements, and inclusions within iron act as hardening agents that prevent the movement of dislocations that otherwise occur in the lattices of iron atoms. The carbon in steel alloys may contribute up to 2. 1% of its weight. Steels strength compared to pure iron is possible at the expense of irons ductility. With the invention of the Bessemer process in the mid-19th century and this was followed by Siemens-Martin process and then Gilchrist-Thomas process that refined the quality of steel. With their introductions, mild steel replaced wrought iron, further refinements in the process, such as basic oxygen steelmaking, largely replaced earlier methods by further lowering the cost of production and increasing the quality of the product. Today, steel is one of the most common materials in the world and it is a major component in buildings, infrastructure, tools, ships, automobiles, machines, appliances, and weapons. Modern steel is generally identified by various grades defined by assorted standards organizations, the noun steel originates from the Proto-Germanic adjective stakhlijan, which is related to stakhla. The carbon content of steel is between 0. 002% and 2. 1% by weight for plain iron–carbon alloys and these values vary depending on alloying elements such as manganese, chromium, nickel, iron, tungsten, carbon and so on. Basically, steel is an alloy that does not undergo eutectic reaction. In contrast, cast iron does undergo eutectic reaction, too little carbon content leaves iron quite soft, ductile, and weak. Carbon contents higher than those of steel make an alloy, commonly called pig iron, while iron alloyed with carbon is called carbon steel, alloy steel is steel to which other alloying elements have been intentionally added to modify the characteristics of steel. Common alloying elements include, manganese, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, boron, titanium, vanadium, tungsten, cobalt, and niobium. Additional elements are important in steel, phosphorus, sulfur, silicon, and traces of oxygen, nitrogen, and copper. Alloys with a higher than 2. 1% carbon content, depending on other element content, cast iron is not malleable even when hot, but it can be formed by casting as it has a lower melting point than steel and good castability properties
2.
Aluminium
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Aluminium or aluminum is a chemical element in the boron group with symbol Al and atomic number 13. It is a silvery-white, soft, nonmagnetic, ductile metal, Aluminium metal is so chemically reactive that native specimens are rare and limited to extreme reducing environments. Instead, it is combined in over 270 different minerals. The chief ore of aluminium is bauxite, Aluminium is remarkable for the metals low density and its ability to resist corrosion through the phenomenon of passivation. Aluminium and its alloys are vital to the industry and important in transportation and structures, such as building facades. The oxides and sulfates are the most useful compounds of aluminium, despite its prevalence in the environment, no known form of life uses aluminium salts metabolically, but aluminium is well tolerated by plants and animals. Because of these salts abundance, the potential for a role for them is of continuing interest. Aluminium is a soft, durable, lightweight, ductile. It is nonmagnetic and does not easily ignite, a fresh film of aluminium serves as a good reflector of visible light and an excellent reflector of medium and far infrared radiation. The yield strength of aluminium is 7–11 MPa, while aluminium alloys have yield strengths ranging from 200 MPa to 600 MPa. Aluminium has about one-third the density and stiffness of steel and it is easily machined, cast, drawn and extruded. Aluminium atoms are arranged in a cubic structure. Aluminium has an energy of approximately 200 mJ/m2. Aluminium is a thermal and electrical conductor, having 59% the conductivity of copper. Aluminium is capable of superconductivity, with a critical temperature of 1.2 kelvin. Aluminium is the most common material for the fabrication of superconducting qubits, the strongest aluminium alloys are less corrosion resistant due to galvanic reactions with alloyed copper. This corrosion resistance is reduced by aqueous salts, particularly in the presence of dissimilar metals. In highly acidic solutions, aluminium reacts with water to form hydrogen, primarily because it is corroded by dissolved chlorides, such as common sodium chloride, household plumbing is never made from aluminium
3.
Internal combustion engine
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An internal combustion engine is a heat engine where the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid flow circuit. In an internal combustion engine the expansion of the high-temperature and high-pressure gases produced by combustion applies direct force to some component of the engine, the force is applied typically to pistons, turbine blades, rotor or a nozzle. This force moves the component over a distance, transforming chemical energy into mechanical energy. The first commercially successful internal combustion engine was created by Étienne Lenoir around 1859, firearms are also a form of internal combustion engine. Working fluids can be air, hot water, pressurized water or even liquid sodium, ICEs are usually powered by energy-dense fuels such as gasoline or diesel, liquids derived from fossil fuels. While there are many applications, most ICEs are used in mobile applications and are the dominant power supply for vehicles such as cars, aircraft. Typically an ICE is fed with fossil fuels like natural gas or petroleum products such as gasoline, there is a growing usage of renewable fuels like biodiesel for compression ignition engines and bioethanol or methanol for spark ignition engines. Hydrogen is sometimes used, and can be made from fossil fuels or renewable energy. Various scientists and engineers contributed to the development of internal combustion engines, in 1791, John Barber developed a turbine. In 1794 Thomas Mead patented a gas engine, also in 1794 Robert Street patented an internal combustion engine, which was also the first to use liquid fuel, and built an engine around that time. In 1798, John Stevens built the first American internal combustion engine, in 1807, Swiss engineer François Isaac de Rivaz built an internal combustion engine ignited by electric spark. In 1823, Samuel Brown patented the first internal combustion engine to be applied industrially, in 1860, Belgian Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir produced a gas-fired internal combustion engine. In 1864, Nikolaus Otto patented the first atmospheric gas engine, in 1872, American George Brayton invented the first commercial liquid-fuelled internal combustion engine. In 1876, Nikolaus Otto, working with Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach, patented the compressed charge, in 1879, Karl Benz patented a reliable two-stroke gas engine. In 1892, Rudolf Diesel developed the first compressed charge, compression ignition engine, in 1926, Robert Goddard launched the first liquid-fueled rocket. In 1939, the Heinkel He 178 became the worlds first jet aircraft, at one time, the word engine meant any piece of machinery — a sense that persists in expressions such as siege engine. A motor is any machine that produces mechanical power, traditionally, electric motors are not referred to as Engines, however, combustion engines are often referred to as motors. In boating an internal combustion engine that is installed in the hull is referred to as an engine, reciprocating piston engines are by far the most common power source for land and water vehicles, including automobiles, motorcycles, ships and to a lesser extent, locomotives
4.
Radiator
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Radiators are heat exchangers used to transfer thermal energy from one medium to another for the purpose of cooling and heating. The majority of radiators are constructed to function in automobiles, buildings, despite the name, most radiators transfer the bulk of their heat via convection instead of thermal radiation, though the term convector is used more narrowly, see radiation and convection, below. The Roman hypocaust, a type of radiator for building heating, was described in 15 AD. The heating radiator was invented by Franz San Galli, a Prussian-born Russian businessman living in St. Petersburg, in practice, the term radiator refers to any of a number of devices in which a liquid circulates through exposed pipes. The term convector refers to a class of devices in which the source of heat is not directly exposed, radiators are commonly used to heat buildings. To cool down the engine, a coolant is passed through the engine block, the hot coolant is then fed into the inlet tank of the radiator, from which it is distributed across the radiator core through tubes to another tank on the opposite end of the radiator. The fins then release the heat to the ambient air, fins are used to greatly increase the contact surface of the tubes to the air, thus increasing the exchange efficiency. The cooled coolant is fed back to the engine, and the cycle repeats, normally, the radiator does not reduce the temperature of the coolant back to ambient air temperature, but it is still sufficiently cooled to keep the engine from overheating. This coolant is usually water-based, with the addition of glycols to prevent freezing, however, the coolant may also be an oil. The first engines used thermosiphons to circulate the coolant, today, however, all, up to the 1980s, radiator cores were often made of copper and brass. Starting in the 1970s, use of aluminium increased, eventually taking over the vast majority of vehicular radiator applications, the main inducements for aluminium are reduced weight and cost. However, the cooling properties of Copper-Brass over Aluminium makes it preferential for high performance vehicles or stationary applications. In particular MW-class installations, copper-brass constructions are still dominant, since air has a lower heat capacity and density than liquid coolants, a fairly large volume flow rate must be blown through the radiator core to capture the heat from the coolant. Radiators often have one or more fans that blow air through the radiator, to save fan power consumption in vehicles, radiators are often behind the grille at the front end of a vehicle. Ram air can give a portion or all of the cooling air flow when the coolant temperature remains below the systems designed maximum temperature. As electronic devices become smaller, the problem of dispersing waste heat becomes more difficult, tiny radiators known as heat sinks are used to convey heat from the electronic components into a cooling air stream. Radiators are found as components of some spacecraft and these radiators work by radiating heat energy away as light because in the vacuum of space neither convection nor conduction can work to transfer heat away. On the International Space Station these can be seen clearly as large white panels attached to the main truss and they can be found on both manned and unmanned craft
5.
Raw water
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Raw water is natural water found in the environment and has not been treated, nor have any minerals, ions, particles or living organisms removed. Raw water includes rainwater, ground water, water from infiltration wells and these characteristics can vary greatly depending on environmental conditions. Pollution can also effect raw water content, without treatment, raw water can be used for farming, construction or cleaning purposes. Farmers use it for watering their crops or give to livestock to drink, construction industries can use raw water for making cement or for damping down unsealed roads to prevent dust rising. Raw water can also be used for flushing toilets and washing cars, Water in this form is considered raw, as opposed to water which has been treated before consumption, such as drinking water or water which has been used in an industrial process, such as waste water. Contaminants usually make raw water unsafe for drinking by humans without treatment, however, millions of people in developing countries rely on untreated raw water for their water supply, sometimes purifying it by boiling. Raw water flushing is a method of conservation where raw water is used for flush toilets. These occur in peat and soil and may cause discolouration of water, most common are carbonates of calcium and magnesium. Microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, protozoa and their cysts, vibrio cholerae is an example of an infectious bacteria found in contaminated water. Dissolved air molecules, especially oxygen Salt, which makes water brackish, having more salinity than fresh water, other, less common, contaminants of raw water include, Natural radioactive particles. Perfluorinated alkyl acids, such as acid, which are group of pollutants that have been found in wastewater throughout Europe. There are concerns these chemicals could contaminate raw water sources that are used for drinking water. Endocrine disruptor compounds, chemicals that can interfere with the system causing cancerous tumors, birth defects. These contaminants can be harmful to humans if they drink raw water containing them, the contaminants can also have an effect on the local ecosystem. For example, endocrine disrupting chemicals can have effects on fish populations living in natural lakes. However, due to the contaminants, raw water must be treated before it is allowed for human consumption or industrial use. There are several steps involved in the treatment of raw water, reverse osmosis has been used for the production of demineralised water for over 30 years. Many contaminants, including iron, manganese, ammonium, traces of pesticides and medicines, organic micro pollutants and this efficiency has made reverse osmosis the primary method of water purification, often being used in combination with other methods, as a final treatment
6.
Inboard motor
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An inboard motor is a marine propulsion system for boats. The first marine craft to utilize inboard motors were steam engines going back to 1805 and the Clermont, harbour tugs, and small steam launches had inboard steam engines. In the 1880s the naphtha engine made its appearance and a few boat engines appeared and they were dangerous and difficult to run. The gasoline engine pioneer Gottlieb Daimler and Maybach built a boat engine. Sintz in America built several commercially available engines from 1893, about 1895 the inboard oil engine emerged for small boats. Two-stroke engines were popular for years, however, the parallel development of the auto engine, with their many cylinders. Chrysler, Ford, Packard, and Hudson also made marine engines, inboard motors may be of several types, suitable for the size of craft they are fitted to. Boats can use one cylinder to v12 engines, depending if they are used for racing or trolling, for pleasure craft, such as sailboats and speedboats, diesel, gasoline and electric engines are used. Many inboard motors are derivatives of automobile engines, known as automobile engines. The advent of the stern drive propulsion leg improved design so that auto engines could easily power boats, for larger craft, including ships the propulsion system may include many types, such as diesel, gas turbine, or even fossil-fuel or nuclear-generated steam. Some early models used coal for steam-driven ships, some inboard motors are freshwater cooled, while others have a raw water cooling system where water from the lake, river or sea is pumped by the engine to cool it. However, as seawater is corrosive, and can damage engine blocks and cylinder heads, some seagoing craft have engines which are indirectly cooled via a heat exchanger
7.
Motor oil
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Motor oil, engine oil, or engine lubricant is any of various substances are often used for lubrication of internal combustion engines. Motor oils are derived from petroleum-based and non-petroleum-synthesized chemical compounds, motor oils today are mainly blended by using base oils composed of hydrocarbons, polyalphaolefins, and polyinternal olefins, organic compounds consisting entirely of carbon and hydrogen. The base oils of some high-performance motor oils contain up to 20% by weight of esters, on September 6,1866 American John Ellis founded the Continuous Oil Refining Company. While studying the healing powers of crude oil, Dr. Ellis was disappointed to find no real medicinal value. He made his breakthrough when he developed an oil that worked effectively in high temperatures and this meant no more gummed valves, corroded cylinders or leaking seals. In 1873 Ellis officially renamed the company to Valvoline after the engine valves the product lubricated. Motor oil is a lubricant used in combustion engines, which power cars, motorcycles, lawnmowers, engine-generators. In engines, there are parts which move against each other, and it also wears away those parts, which could lead to lower efficiency and degradation of the engine. This increases fuel consumption, decreases power output, and can lead to engine failure, in petrol engines, the top piston ring can expose the motor oil to temperatures of 160 °C. In diesel engines the top ring can expose the oil to temperatures over 315 °C, motor oils with higher viscosity indices thin less at these higher temperatures. Coating metal parts with oil also keeps them from being exposed to oxygen, corrosion inhibitors may also be added to the motor oil. Many motor oils also have detergents and dispersants added to keep the engine clean. The oil is able to trap soot from combustion in itself and it is a combination of this, and some singeing that turns used oil black after some running. Rubbing of metal engine parts produces some microscopic metallic particles from the wearing of the surfaces. Such particles could circulate in the oil and grind against moving parts, because particles accumulate in the oil, it is typically circulated through an oil filter to remove harmful particles. An oil pump, a vane or gear pump powered by the engine, pumps the oil throughout the engine, Oil filters can be a full flow or bypass type. In the crankcase of an engine, motor oil lubricates rotating or sliding surfaces between the crankshaft journal bearings, and rods connecting the pistons to the crankshaft. The oil collects in an oil pan, or sump, at the bottom of the crankcase
8.
Motorcycle
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A motorcycle is a two- or three-wheeled motor vehicle. Motorcycle design varies greatly to suit a range of different purposes, long travel, commuting, cruising, sport including racing. Motorcycling is riding a motorcycle and related social activity such as joining a motorcycle club, in 1894, Hildebrand & Wolfmüller became the first series production motorcycle, and the first to be called a motorcycle. In 2014, the three top motorcycle producers globally by volume were Honda, Yamaha, and Hero MotoCorp, in developing countries, motorcycles are overwhelmingly utilitarian due to lower prices and greater fuel economy. Of all the motorcycles in the world, 58% are in the Asia-Pacific and Southern and Eastern Asia regions, according to the United States Department of Transportation the number of fatalities per vehicle mile traveled was 37 times higher for motorcycles than for cars. The term motorcycle has different legal definitions depending on jurisdiction, there are three major types of motorcycle, street, off-road, and dual purpose. Within these types, there are many sub-types of motorcycles for different purposes, there is often a racing counterpart to each type, such as road racing and street bikes, or motocross and dirt bikes. Street bikes include cruisers, sportbikes, scooters and mopeds, off-road motorcycles include many types designed for dirt-oriented racing classes such as motocross and are not street legal in most areas. Dual purpose machines like the style are made to go off-road but include features to make them legal. Each configuration offers either specialised advantage or broad capability, and each design creates a different riding posture, the first internal combustion, petroleum fueled motorcycle was the Daimler Reitwagen. It was designed and built by the German inventors Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach in Bad Cannstatt, instead, it relied on two outrigger wheels to remain upright while turning. The inventors called their invention the Reitwagen and it was designed as an expedient testbed for their new engine, rather than a true prototype vehicle. The first commercial design for a cycle was a three-wheel design called the Butler Petrol Cycle. He exhibited his plans for the vehicle at the Stanley Cycle Show in London in 1884, the vehicle was built by the Merryweather Fire Engine company in Greenwich, in 1888. The engine was liquid-cooled, with a radiator over the driving wheel. Speed was controlled by means of a valve lever. No braking system was fitted, the vehicle was stopped by raising and lowering the rear driving wheel using a foot-operated lever, the driver was seated between the front wheels. It wasnt, however, a success, as Butler failed to find sufficient financial backing, many authorities have excluded steam powered, electric motorcycles or diesel-powered two-wheelers from the definition of a motorcycle, and credit the Daimler Reitwagen as the worlds first motorcycle
9.
Tatra 815
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Tatra T815 is a truck family, produced by Czech company Tatra. It uses the traditional concept of rigid backbone tube and swinging half-axles giving independent suspension. The vehicles are available in 4x4, 6x6, 8x8, 10x8, 10x10, 12x8, There are both air-cooled and liquid-cooled engines available with power ranging from 230–440 kilowatts. As a successor to Tatra T813 it was designed for extreme off-road conditions. The T815 and its descendant models brought the Czech truck racer Karel Loprais to victory six times in the Dakar Rally, designed to eventually replace T148 the prototype T157 was introduced in 1970 and several more prototypes were designed between 1970 and 1974 period but no production resulted. In 1989 Tatra modernized T815 series and introduced new T815-2 which received further upgrade in 1994, another facelift followed in 2000 where changes included among others new instrument panel and cab attachment and for the first time there is an option for fitment of liquid-cooled engines. The latest facelift of cabin came in July 2010, due to emission requirements changes in 2003 Tatra developed all new V8 engine T3C to comply with Euro III where it followed the tradition once again with its air cooling design. The further developed T3D engine was introduced in 2006 with its SCR, the principle consists in a central load-carrying tube with independently suspended swinging half-axles bolted as one whole. This gives Tatra vehicles outstanding driving qualities in the most difficult terrains, the concept allows higher off-road speed compared to classical rigid axle design. The primary structural feature of Tatra trucks is the load carrying tube. All other parts of the truck are mounted to this rigid assembly, the inherently high torsional and flexural rigidity of this layout protects superstructures from the motions and forces on the axles. Torque distribution to the axles is also carried within the backbone, Tatra differentials are a unique design that uses two opposing spiral bevel gears instead of the usual single set. The differential gears are part of the drive shaft rather than between the output axles as in a conventional differential. All versions of the Tatra differential have locking pins that can force the differential gears to rotate together and this arrangement had two distinct advantages. The first is that the dual output bevel gears allow the axles to swing around the drive axle without the need for universal couplings, the second is that the input drive shaft goes essentially straight through the differential housing, allowing simple coupling to a second set of swing axles. This modular design enables configurations of 2,3,4,5, the whole assembly is part of the backbone frame. Mechanical suspension of load capacity up to 8 tons per axle by torsion bars – for versions with one steered front axle or by leaf springs – for versions with two steered axles. Air-bellows, with a capacity of 9 tons per axle
10.
Franklin (automobile)
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The Franklin Automobile Company was an American manufacturer of automobiles in the United States between 1902 and 1934 in Syracuse, New York. Herbert H. Franklin founded the H. H. Franklin Manufacturing Company in 1893 and, in 1901, in 1902, the Franklin automobile was introduced. Because he was the investor, Franklin assumed control of the company. As president, he managed the finances and business administration. Wilkinson was named chief engineer and granted control of the engineering and manufacturing operation, throughout its history, Franklin was a luxury brand and competed with other upscale automobiles of the day. As such, it fell victim to the Great Depression along with many car manufacturers. The company sold about 150,000 cars over the course of more than 30 years in existence, the Franklin motor car was invented by the engineer John Wilkinson and manufactured by the industrialist Herbert H. Franklin and marketed under his name. Franklin worked as a publisher, real estate agent and Columbia Bicycle shop owner in Coxsackie. After he quit the business in 1893, he relocated to Syracuse. Franklin was presented with an opportunity to buy a patent for the process of die-casting, later, he accurately predicted that we are developing a process that will revolutionize the metal manufacturing business. The company was incorporated on December 12,1895, the die-casting business was split into a subsidiary called Franklin Die-Casting Corp. In 1926 H. H. Franklin Manufacturing Company reabsorbed the die-casting subsidiary and, consequently, John Wilkinson was born on February 11,1868. He was a native of Syracuse and a member of one of the prominent families. His grandfather, John Wilkinson, Sr. was one of the settlers in Syracuse. As a young man, Wilkinson Sr. took inspiration from a poem about an ancient city and he was also an early city planner and laid out and named the village streets. He earned a degree in engineering in 1889 and found a job with a local manufacturer of bicycles — then a mode of transportation very much in vogue. He went on to become a champion cyclist while developing a keen interest in the inner-workings of internal combustion engines, before he met Herbert Franklin, Wilkinson designed and built two prototype vehicles. In the summer of 1898 he tinkered with a one-cylinder air-cooled gasoline engine and by January 1,1900, though Wilkinsons designs caught the attention of a group of New York businessmen, they failed to put Wilkinsons car into production
