1.
Orly Airport
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Paris Orly Airport is an international airport located partially in Orly and partially in Villeneuve-le-Roi,7 NM south of Paris, France. Prior to the construction of Charles de Gaulle Airport, Orly was the airport of Paris. Orly Airport covers 15.3 square kilometres of land, originally known as Villeneuve-Orly Airport, the facility was opened in the southern suburbs of Paris in 1932 as a secondary airport to Le Bourget. Before this two huge airship hangars had been built there by the engineer Eugène Freyssinet from 1923 on, the 50th Fighter Group flew P-47 Thunderbolt fighter-bomber aircraft from the airport until September, then liaison squadrons used the airfield until October 1945. The USAAF diagram from March 1947 shows the 6140-foot 27/207 runway with 5170-foot 81/261 runway crossing it at its north end. The November 1953 Aeradio diagram shows four runways, all 197 feet wide, 03L7874 ft, 03R6069 ft, 08L5118 ft. The American United States Army Air Forces 1408th Army Air Force Base Unit was the operator at Orly Field until March 1947 when control was returned to the French Government. The Americans left in 1967 as a result of Frances withdrawal from NATOs integrated military command, in May 1958 Pan Am DC-7Cs flew to Los Angeles in 21 hr 56 min, TWA, Air France and Pan Am flew nonstop to New York in 14 hrs 10-15 min. Air France flew to Tokyo in 31 hr 5 min via Anchorage or 44 hr 45 min on a seven-stop 1049G via India, Air Frances ten flights a day to London were almost all Viscounts, the only other London flight was Alitalias daily DC-6B. Paris-Orly Airport features two passenger terminal buildings, Terminal Sud and Terminal Ouest, The brick-style southern terminal building consists of six floors. The airside area and departure gates are located on the upper level 1, the waiting area, which features several shops as well, houses gates A1-A10 and A40-A42 and is furthermore connected to the gate areas Hall A and Hall B to each side of the building. 15 of the departure gates are equipped with jet-bridges, some of them are able to handle wide-body aircraft. The western terminal has a different layout than Terminal Sud, consisting of two floors and a area of four fingers rather than a brick-style layout. The ground level 0 features the arrivals facilities including 8 baggage reclaim belts as well as several service facilities, the departures area is located on level 1 with more stores and restaurants located here. This central departures area is connected to four areas named halls 1-4 which contain departure gates 10A-10P, 20A-20L, 31A-31F. 23 stands at this terminal are equipped with jet-bridges, with several of them able to handle wide-body aircraft. AOM French Airlines had its office in Orly Airport Building 363 in Paray-Vieille-Poste. After AOM and Air Liberté merged in 2001, the new airline, Air Lib, Orly Airport is connected to the RER B train line at Antony train station by the Orlyval automatic shuttle
2.
Spatial disorientation
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Spatial disorientation, spatial unawareness is the inability of a person to correctly determine his/her body position in space. This phenomenon refers especially to aircraft pilots and underwater divers, spatial disorientation is a condition in which an aircraft pilots perception of direction does not agree with reality. Under these conditions the pilot may be deprived of a visual horizon. A pilot who enters such conditions will quickly lose spatial orientation if there has no training in flying with reference to instruments. Approximately 80% of the pilots in the United States do not have an instrument rating. During the abnormal acceleratory environment of flight, the vestibular and proprioceptive systems do not respond truthfully, however, prolonged rotation results in a cessation of semicircular output, and cessation of rotation thereafter can even result in the perception of motion in the opposite direction. The result of various visual and nonvisual illusions is spatial disorientation. Various models have developed to yield quantitative predictions of disorientation associated with known aircraft accelerations. Once an aircraft enters conditions under which the pilot cannot see a visual horizon. Errors in the rate of turn about any axis can build up at a rate of 0.2 to 0.3 degrees per second. During the entire time, leading up to and well into the maneuver, the 20th pilot also lost control of his aircraft, but in another maneuver. The average time between onset of instrument conditions and loss of control was 178 seconds, spatial disorientation can also affect instrument-rated pilots in certain conditions. A powerful tumbling sensation can be set up if the pilot moves his or her head too much during instrument flight and this is called the Coriolis illusion. Pilots are also susceptible to spatial disorientation during night flight over featureless terrain, spatial orientation is the ability to maintain body orientation and posture in relation to the surrounding environment at rest and during motion. Humans have evolved to maintain spatial orientation on the ground, the three-dimensional environment of flight is unfamiliar to the human body, creating sensory conflicts and illusions that make spatial orientation difficult and sometimes impossible to achieve. Statistics show that between 5% and 10% of all aviation accidents can be attributed to spatial disorientation, 90% of which are fatal. Good spatial orientation on the ground relies on the use of visual, vestibular, changes in linear acceleration, angular acceleration, and gravity are detected by the vestibular system and the proprioceptive receptors, and then compared in the brain with visual information. Spatial-D and G-induced loss of consciousness are two of the most common causes of death from human factors in military aviation, spatial orientation in flight is difficult to achieve because numerous sensory stimuli vary in magnitude, direction, and frequency
3.
Pilot error
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Pilot error is a term used to describe a decision, action or inaction by a pilot or crew of an aircraft determined to be a cause or contributing factor in an accident or incident. The term includes mistakes, oversights, lapses in judgment, gaps in training, adverse habits, accounting for the way human factors influence the actions of pilots is now considered standard practice by accident investigators when examining the chain of events that led to an accident. Usually in an accident caused by error, it is assumed that the pilot in command makes an error unintentionally. However, a disregard for a standard operating procedure is still considered to be a pilot error. Pilot error is a decision or action mistake by pilots when there is an emergency, as the commander of the aircraft, the pilot is always regarded to be one of the most important factors. The decisions of the pilot determine everything on the craft, analyses of accident patterns can have value for the improvement of passengers safety. The pilot may be a factor even during adverse weather conditions if the investigating body deems that the pilot did not exercise due diligence. The responsibility for the accident in such a case would depend whether the pilot could reasonably know of the danger and whether he or she took reasonable steps to avoid the weather problem. Some weather phenomena are difficult to avoid, especially if the aircraft involved is the first aircraft to encounter the phenomenon in an area at a certain time. Placing pilot error as a cause of an accident has often been controversial. Attorneys for the co-pilot, who was killed in the crash, modern accident investigators avoid the words pilot error, as the scope of their work is to determine the cause of an accident, rather than apportion blame. Furthermore, any attempt to blame pilots does not consider that they are part of a broader system, ICAO and its member states therefore adopted the Reason Model in 1993 in an effort to better understanding the role of human factors in aviation accidents. Thus, pilot error is a cause of air accidents. During 2004, pilot error was pointed to be the reason of 78. 6% of disastrous GA accidents. Pilot errors are related to multiple causes, decision errors can be caused by several factors such as tendencies, biases as well as breakdowns when human proceeds the information coming in. For pilot in aviation, these errors are highly to produce not only errors, pilots work in complex environments and are routinely exposed to high amounts of situational stress in the workplace, inducing pilot error which may result in a threat to flight safety. While aircraft accidents are infrequent, they are visible and often involve massive loss of life. For this reason, research on causal factors and methodologies of mitigating risk associated with pilot error is exhaustive, pilot error results from physiological and psychological limitations inherent in humans
4.
Arabian Sea
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The Arabian Sea is a region of the northern Indian Ocean bounded on the north by Pakistan and Iran, on the west by northeastern Somalia and the Arabian Peninsula, and on the east by India. Historically the sea has been known by names including the Erythraean Sea. Its total area is 3,862,000 km2 and its depth is 4,652 metres. The Gulf of Aden is in the southwest, connecting the Arabian Sea to the Red Sea through the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, the Arabian Sea has been crossed by important marine trade routes since the third or second millennium BCE. Major seaports include Jawaharlal Nehru Port in Mumbai, the Port of Karachi and the Gwadar Port in Pakistan, other important ports include in India, Kandla Port, and Mormugao in Goa. The largest islands in the Arabian Sea include Socotra, Masirah Island, Astola Island, the Arabian Seas surface area is about 3,862,000 km2. The maximum width of the Sea is approximately 2,400 km, the biggest river flowing into the Sea is the Indus River. There are also the gulfs of Khambhat and Kutch on the Indian coast, the countries with coastlines on the Arabian Sea are Somalia, Djibouti, Yemen, Oman, United Arab Emirates, Iran, Pakistan, India and the Maldives. There are several cities on the seas coast including Mumbai, Surat, Karachi, Gwadar, Pasni, Ormara, Aden, Muscat, Keti Bandar, Salalah, Duqm. International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Arabian Sea as follows, the Eastern limit of the Gulf of Aden. A line joining Ràs al Hadd, East point of Arabia, a line running from the South extremity of Addu Atoll, to the Eastern extreme of Ràs Hafun. The Western limit of the Laccadive Sea, by the time of Julius Caesar, several well-established combined land-sea trade routes depended upon water transport through the Sea around the rough inland terrain features to its north. Each major route involved transhipping to pack animal caravan, travel through country and risk of bandits. Later the kingdom of Axum arose in Ethiopia to rule a mercantile empire rooted in the trade with Europe via Alexandria, Jawaharlal Nehru Port in Mumbai is the largest port in the Arabian Sea, and the largest container port in India. The Port of Karachi is Pakistans largest and busiest seaport, handling about 60% of the nations cargo and it is located between the Karachi towns of Kiamari and Saddar, close to the main business district and several industrial areas. The geographic position of the places it in close proximity to major shipping routes such as the Strait of Hormuz. The history of the port is intertwined with that of the city of Karachi, several ancient ports have been attributed in the area including Krokola, Morontobara, Barbarikon (the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, and Debal. It warns sailors about whirlpools and advises them to safety in Kaurashi harbour if they found themselves drifting dangerously
5.
Mumbai
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Mumbai is the capital city of the Indian state of Maharashtra. It is the most populous city in India and the ninth most populous agglomeration in the world, Mumbai lies on the west coast of India and has a deep natural harbour. In 2008, Mumbai was named a world city. It is also the wealthiest city in India, and has the highest GDP of any city in South, West, Mumbai has the highest number of billionaires and millionaires among all cities in India. The seven islands that came to constitute Mumbai were home to communities of fishing colonies, during the mid-18th century, Bombay was reshaped by the Hornby Vellard project, which undertook reclamation of the area between the seven islands from the sea. Along with construction of roads and railways, the reclamation project, completed in 1845. Bombay in the 19th century was characterised by economic and educational development, during the early 20th century it became a strong base for the Indian independence movement. Upon Indias independence in 1947 the city was incorporated into Bombay State, in 1960, following the Samyukta Maharashtra movement, a new state of Maharashtra was created with Bombay as the capital. Mumbai is the financial, commercial and entertainment capital of India and it is also home to some of Indias premier scientific and nuclear institutes like BARC, NPCL, IREL, TIFR, AERB, AECI, and the Department of Atomic Energy. The city also houses Indias Hindi and Marathi film and television industry, Mumbais business opportunities, as well as its potential to offer a higher standard of living, attract migrants from all over India, making the city a melting pot of many communities and cultures. The oldest known names for the city are Kakamuchee and Galajunkja, in 1508, Portuguese writer Gaspar Correia used the name Bombaim, in his Lendas da Índia. This name possibly originated as the Old Portuguese phrase bom baim, meaning good little bay, in 1516, Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa used the name Tana-Maiambu, Tana appears to refer to the adjoining town of Thane and Maiambu to Mumbadevi. Other variations recorded in the 16th and the 17th centuries include, Mombayn, Bombay, Bombain, Bombaym, Monbaym, Mombaim, Mombaym, Bambaye, Bombaiim, Bombeye, Boon Bay, and Bon Bahia. After the English gained possession of the city in the 17th century, Ali Muhammad Khan, imperial diwan or revenue minister of the Gujarat province, in the Mirat-i-Ahmedi referred to the city as Manbai. By the late 20th century, the city was referred to as Mumbai or Mambai in the Indian statewise official languages of Marathi, Konkani, Gujarati, Kannada and Sindhi, the Government of India officially changed the English name to Mumbai in November 1995. According to Slate magazine, they argued that Bombay was a corrupted English version of Mumbai, Slate also said The push to rename Bombay was part of a larger movement to strengthen Marathi identity in the Maharashtra region. A resident of Mumbai is called mumbaikar in the Marathi language, the term has been in use for quite some time but it gained popularity after the official name change to Mumbai. Mumbai is built on what was once an archipelago of seven islands, Bombay Island, Parel, Mazagaon, Mahim, Colaba, Worli and it is not exactly known when these islands were first inhabited
6.
Boeing 747
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The Boeing 747 is an American wide-body commercial jet airliner and cargo aircraft, often referred to by its original nickname, Jumbo Jet. Its distinctive hump upper deck along the part of the aircraft makes it among the worlds most recognizable aircraft. First flown commercially in 1970, the 747 held the passenger capacity record for 37 years, as of January 2017, the 747 has been involved in 60 hull losses, resulting in 3722 fatalities. The four-engine 747 uses a configuration for part of its length. It is available in passenger, freighter and other versions, the 747 was expected to become obsolete after 400 were sold, but it exceeded critics expectations with production passing the 1,000 mark in 1993. By February 2017,1,528 aircraft had been built, the 747-400, the most common passenger version in service, has a high-subsonic cruise speed of Mach 0. 85–0.855 with an intercontinental range of 7,260 nautical miles. The newest version of the aircraft, the 747-8, is in production, deliveries of the 747-8F freighter version began in October 2011, deliveries of the 747-8I passenger version began in May 2012. In 1963, the United States Air Force started a series of projects on a very large strategic transport aircraft. The payload bay had to be 17 feet wide by 13.5 feet high and 100 feet long with access doors at the front. Featuring only four engines, the design required new engine designs with greatly increased power and better fuel economy. After a downselect, Boeing, Douglas, and Lockheed were given study contracts for the airframe, along with General Electric. All three of the airframe proposals shared a number of features, as the CX-HLS needed to be able to be loaded from the front, a door had to be included where the cockpit usually was. In 1965 Lockheeds aircraft design and General Electrics engine design were selected for the new C-5 Galaxy transport, the nose door and raised cockpit concepts would be carried over to the design of the 747. The 747 was conceived while air travel was increasing in the 1960s, the era of commercial jet transportation, led by the enormous popularity of the Boeing 707 and Douglas DC-8, had revolutionized long-distance travel. In 1965, Joe Sutter was transferred from Boeings 737 development team to manage the design studies for a new airliner, Sutter initiated a design study with Pan Am and other airlines, to better understand their requirements. At the time, it was thought that the 747 would eventually be superseded by supersonic transport aircraft. Boeing responded by designing the 747 so that it could be adapted easily to carry freight, in the freighter role, the clear need was to support the containerized shipping methodologies that were being widely introduced at about the same time. Standard containers are 8 ft square at the front and available in 20 and 40 ft lengths and this meant that it would be possible to support a 2-wide 2-high stack of containers two or three ranks deep with a fuselage size similar to the earlier CX-HLS project
7.
Ashoka
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Ashoka was an ancient Indian emperor of the Maurya Dynasty who ruled almost all of the Indian subcontinent from c. 268 to 232 BCE. One of Indias greatest emperors, Ashoka reigned over a realm that stretched from the Hindu Kush mountains in Afghanistan to the state of Bangladesh in the east. It covered the entire Indian subcontinent except parts of present-day Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, the empires capital was Pataliputra, with provincial capitals at Taxila and Ujjain. In about 260 BCE, Ashoka waged a destructive war against the state of Kalinga. He conquered Kalinga, which none of his ancestors had done and he embraced Buddhism after witnessing the mass deaths of the Kalinga War, which he himself had waged out of a desire for conquest. Ashoka reflected on the war in Kalinga, which reportedly had resulted in more than 100,000 deaths and 150,000 deportations, Ashoka converted gradually to Buddhism beginning about 263 BCE. He was later dedicated to the propagation of Buddhism across Asia, Ashoka regarded Buddhism as a doctrine that could serve as a cultural foundation for political unity. Ashoka is now remembered as a philanthropic administrator, in the Kalinga edicts, he addresses his people as his children, and mentions that as a father he desires their good. Ashokas name Aśoka means painless, without sorrow in Sanskrit, in his edicts, he is referred to as Devānāmpriya, and Priyadarśin. His fondness for his names connection to the Saraca asoca tree, along with the Edicts of Ashoka, his legend is related in the 2nd-century CE Ashokavadana, and in the Sri Lankan text Mahavamsa. The emblem of the modern Republic of India is an adaptation of the Lion Capital of Ashoka, Ashoka was born to the Mauryan emperor, Bindusara and a relatively lower ranked wife, Subhadrangī. Ashoka became a great emperor despite having an appearance that was unfavorable to his father. He was the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya, founder of the Mauryan dynasty, since, according to Roman historian Appian, Ashokas grandfather Chandragupta had made a marital alliance with Seleucus, there is a possibility that Ashoka had a Seleucid Greek grandmother. The Avadana texts mention that his mother was queen Subhadrangī, according to the Ashokavadana, she was the daughter of a Brahmin from the city of Champa. Though a palace intrigue kept her away from the emperor, this eventually ended and it is from her exclamation I am now without sorrow, that Ashoka got his name. The Divyāvadāna tells a story, but gives the name of the queen as Janapadakalyānī. Ashoka had several siblings, all of whom were his half-brothers from the other wives of Bindusara. His fighting qualities were apparent from an age and he was given royal military training
8.
Air India
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Air India is the flag carrier airline of India and the third-largest airline in India in terms of passengers carried, after IndiGo and Jet Airways. It is owned by Air India Limited, a Government of India enterprise and it is headquartered in New Delhi. Air India has its hub at Indira Gandhi International Airport, New Delhi. Air India became the 27th member of Star Alliance on 11 July 2014, after World War II, it became a public limited company and was renamed as Air India. On 21 February 1960, it took delivery of its first Boeing 707–420 named Gauri Shankar, in 2000–01, attempts were made to privatise Air India and from 2006 onwards, it suffered losses after its merger with Indian Airlines. Air India also operates flights to domestic and Asian destinations through its subsidiaries Alliance Air and Air India Express, Air India uses the Airbus A320 family and Boeing 787 aircraft for selected domestic routes while long distance services use the Boeing 777-300ER, Boeing 777-200LR,747 and 787 aircraft. Air Indias mascot is the Maharajah and the logo consists of a swan with the wheel of Konark inside it. Air India had its origin in Tata Sons, founded by J. R. D. Tata, in April 1932, Tata won a contract to carry mail for Imperial Airways and the aviation department of Tata Sons was formed with two single-engine de Havilland Puss Moths. On 15 October 1932, Tata flew a Puss Moth carrying air mail from Karachi to Bombay and the continued to Madras piloted by Nevill Vintcent. The airline fleet consisted of a Puss Moth aircraft and a Leopard Moth, initial service included weekly airmail service between Karachi and Madras via Ahmedabad and Bombay. In its first year of operation, the airline flew 160,000 miles, carrying 155 passengers and 9.72 tonnes of mail, later, the airline launched a domestic flight from Bombay to Trivandrum with a six-seater Miles Merlin. In 1938, it was re-christened as Tata Air Services and later as Tata Airlines, Delhi and Colombo were added to the destinations in 1938. During the Second World War, the airline helped the Royal Air Force with troop movements, shipping of supplies, rescue of refugees and maintenance of planes. After World War II, regular service was restored in India. After the Indian independence in 1947, 49% of the airline was acquired by the Government of India in 1948, on 8 June 1948, a Lockheed Constellation L-749A named Malabar Princess took off from Bombay bound for London Heathrow marking the airlines first international flight. In 1953, the Government of India passed the Air Corporations Act, the company was renamed as Air India International Limited and the domestic services were transferred to Indian Airlines as a part of restructuring. From 1948 to 1950, the airline introduced services to Nairobi in Africa and to major European destinations Rome, Paris, the airline took delivery of its first Lockheed Constellation L-1049 named Rani of Jhansi and inaugurated services to Bangkok, Hong Kong, Tokyo and Singapore. On 21 February 1960, Air India International inducted its first Boeing 707–420 named Gauri Shankar, the airline inaugurated services to New York on 14 May 1960
9.
Aircraft registration
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In accordance with the Convention on International Civil Aviation, all civil aircraft must be registered with a national aviation authority using procedures set by each country. Every country, even those not party to the Chicago Convention, has a NAA whose functions include the registration of civil aircraft, an aircraft can only be registered once, in the one jurisdiction. The registration identifier must be displayed prominently on the aircraft, most countries also require the registration identifier to be imprinted on a permanent fireproof plate mounted on the fuselage in case of a post-fire/post-crash aircraft accident investigation. Military aircraft typically use tail codes and serial numbers, although each aircraft registration identifier is unique, some countries allow it to be re-used when the aircraft has been sold, destroyed or retired. For example, N3794N is assigned to a Mooney M20F and it had been previously assigned to a Beechcraft Bonanza. Also note that an aircraft may be assigned different registrations during its existence. This can be because the aircraft ownership, jurisdiction of registration. The first use of aircraft registrations was based on the radio callsigns allocated at the London International Radiotelegraphic Conference in 1913, the format was a single letter prefix followed by four other letters. The major nations operating aircraft were allocated a letter prefix. Smaller countries had to share a single letter prefix, but were allocated exclusive use of the first letter of the suffix and this was modified by agreement by the International Bureau at Berne and published on April 23,1913. The agreement stipulated that the nationality marks were to be followed by a then a group of four letters that must include a vowel. This system operated until the adoption of the system in 1928. The International Radiotelegraph Convention at Washington in 1927 revised the list of markings and these were adopted from 1928 and are the basis of the currently used registrations. The markings have been amended and added to over the years, upon registration, the aircraft receives its unique registration, which must be displayed prominently on the aircraft. Annex 7 to the Chicago Convention describes the definitions, location, the aircraft registration is made up of a prefix selected from the countrys callsign prefix allocated by the International Telecommunication Union and the registration suffix. Depending on the country of registration, this suffix is a numeric or alphanumeric code, a supplement to Annex 7 provides an updated list of approved nationality and common marks used by various countries. When painted on the fuselage, the prefix and suffix are usually separated by a dash, when entered in a flight plan, the dash is omitted. In some countries use a number suffix rather than letters, like the United States, South Korea, and Japan
10.
Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport
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Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport, formerly known as Sahar International Airport, is the primary international airport serving the Mumbai Metropolitan Area, India.68 million passengers. The airport is the second busiest in the country in terms of cargo traffic also, the airport has three operating terminals spread over an operational area of 750 hectares and handles about 850 aircraft movements per day. It handled a record 51 movements in one hour on 16 September 2014 and it won the 2015 ASQ Best Airport Award in the 25-40 million passengers per annum category by Airports Council International. It has also won the Best Airport in India and Central Asia award at the Skytrax 2016 World Airport Awards and it is one of the three airports in India to have implemented Airport Collaborative Decision Making to ensure timely takeoffs and landings. The new integrated terminal T2 was inaugurated on 10 January 2014, a dedicated six lane, elevated road connecting the new terminal with the main arterial Western Express Highway was also opened to the public the same day. The airport is named after the 17th-century Maratha emperor, Chhatrapati Shivaji and it was re-renamed Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj International Airport, adding Maharaj to the name, by the Government of Maharashtra on 8 December 2016. CSIAs IATA airport code – BOM – is derived from Bombay and it is situated across the suburbs of Santacruz, Vile Parle and Sahar village in Andheri with the PIN code 400099. RAF Santacruz was set up in 1942 and it was a bigger airfield than Juhu and was home to several RAF squadrons during World War II from 1942 to 1947. The Airport covered an area of about 1,500 acres, one hangar was used as a domestic terminal and the other for international traffic. It had counters for customs and immigration checks on either side, Air India handled its passengers in its own terminal adjoining the two hangars. In its first year, it handled six civilian services a day, named after the neighbourhood in which it stood and initially under the aegis of the Public Works Department, the new airport was subsequently run by the Ministry of Civil Aviation. A major fire gutted the International section of the building on 21 September 1979. A temporary departure extension or Gulf Terminal was made functional in October that year until the terminal was repaired, with the dawning of the Jumbo Jet era in the 1970s, Santacruz, despite several extensions, began suffering from insufficient operational capacity. The Tata committee, set up in 1967 to examine the issues concerning the airport, had recommended the construction of a new terminal to meet the requirements of traffic in the seventies. The Santa Cruz terminal was to be used for domestic traffic alone, accordingly, construction of the new International terminal at Sahar to the north-east of Santacruz in Andheri was taken up at an estimated cost of ₹110 million. AAI had been considering the modernisation of Mumbai airport in 1996 although the AAI board approved a proposal only in 2003. By then, Mumbai and Delhi airports were handling 38% of the aircraft movement. At that time, Mumbai airport handled 13.3 million passengers, the airport faced severe congestion for both aircraft and passengers as it was handling twice as many aircraft movements per day than it was originally designed for
11.
Dubai International Airport
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Dubai International Airport is the primary airport serving Dubai, United Arab Emirates and is the worlds busiest airport by international passenger traffic. In 2016, DXB handled 83.6 million passengers,2.59 million tonnes of cargo, Dubai International is situated in the Al Garhoud district,2.5 nautical miles east of Dubai and spread over an area of 2,900 hectares of land. The airport is operated by the Dubai Airports Company and is the base of Dubais international airlines, Emirates. The Emirates hub is the largest airline hub in the Middle East, Emirates handles around 65% of all passenger traffic, Dubai Airport is also the base for low-cost carrier flydubai which handles 11. 6% of passenger traffic and 25% of aircraft movements at DXB. The airport consists of three terminals and has a capacity of 90 million passengers annually. Terminal 3 is the second largest building in the world by floor space, as of January 2016, there are over 7,700 weekly flights operated by 140 airlines to over 270 destinations across all six inhabited continents. The Empire Flying Boats also started operating once a week flying east to Karachi and west to Southampton, by February 1938, there were four flying boats a week. In the 1940s, flying from Dubai was by flying boats operated by British Overseas Airways Corporation, construction of the airport was ordered by the ruler of Dubai, Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum, in 1959. It officially opened in 1960 with its first airfield, at time it was able to handle aircraft the size of a Douglas DC-3 on a 1,800 m long runway made of compacted sand. Three turning-areas, an apron and small terminal completed the airport that was constructed by Costain, in May 1963, construction of a 9,200 ft asphalt runway started. The installation of the system continued after official opening and was completed in August of that year. During the second half of the 1960s several extensions, equipment upgrades like a VHF omnidirectional range, by 1969, the airport was served by 9 airlines serving some 20 destinations. The inauguration was on 15 May 1966 and was marked by the visits of the first big jets of Middle East Airlines, the construction of a new terminal building consisting of a three-story building 110 m long and included an enclosed floor area of 13,400 m2. A new 28 m control tower was also constructed, expansion continued in the early 1970s including ILS Category II equipment, lengthening existing runway to 12,500 ft, installation of a non-directional beacon, diesel generators, taxiways, etc. This work made handling the Boeing 747 and Concorde possible, several runway and apron extensions were carried out through the decade to meet growing demand. 1971 saw the new precision category 2 Approach and Runway Lighting System being commissioned, the construction of the Airport Fire Station and the installation of the generators were completed in December of that year and was fully operational in March 1972. The ruler also commissioned and inaugurated the Long-range Surveillance System on 19 June 1973, with the expansion of the Airport Fire Services it was necessary to find more suitable accommodation and a hangar style building was made available to them at the end of 1976. This was located midway between the ends to facilitate efficient operations
12.
Dubai
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Dubai is the largest and most populous city in the United Arab Emirates. It is located on the southeast coast of the Persian Gulf and is the capital of the Emirate of Dubai, Abu Dhabi and Dubai are the only two emirates to have veto power over critical matters of national importance in the countrys legislature. The city of Dubai is located on the northern coastline. Dubai will host World Expo 2020, Dubai has emerged as a global city and business hub of the Middle East. It is also a transport hub for passengers and cargo. By the 1960s, Dubais economy was based on revenues from trade and, to an extent, oil exploration concessions. Oil revenue first started to flow in 1969, Dubais oil revenue helped accelerate the early development of the city, but its reserves are limited and production levels are low, today, less than 5% of the emirates revenue comes from oil. The emirates Western-style model of business drives its economy with the main revenues now coming from tourism, aviation, real estate, Dubai was recently named the best destination for Muslim travellers by Salam Standard. Dubai has recently attracted attention through many innovative large construction projects and sports events. The city has become iconic for its skyscrapers and high-rise buildings, in particular the worlds tallest building, Dubai has been criticised for human rights violations concerning the citys largely South Asian and Filipino workforce. As of 2012, Dubai was the 22nd most expensive city in the world, in 2014, Dubais hotel rooms were rated as the second most expensive in the world, after Geneva. Dubai was rated as one of the best places to live in the Middle East by U. S. global consulting firm Mercer, Many theories have been proposed as to the origin of the word Dubai. One theory suggests the word was used to describe the souq, another theory states that the name came from a word meaning money, as people from Dubai were commonly believed to be rich due to the thriving trading centre of the location. An Arabic proverb says Daba Dubai, meaning They came with a lot of money, according to Fedel Handhal, a scholar on the UAEs history and culture, the word Dubai may have come from the word daba, referring to the slow flow of Dubai Creek inland. The poet and scholar Ahmad Mohammad Obaid traces it to the same word, an inhabitant or native of the city is a Dubaian. Although stone tools have been found at archaeological sites, little is known about the UAEs early inhabitants as only a few settlements have been found. Many ancient towns in the area were trading centres between the Eastern and Western worlds, the remnants of an ancient mangrove swamp, dated at 7000 BC, were discovered during the construction of sewer lines near Dubai Internet City. The area was covered with sand about 5,000 years ago as the coast retreated inland, pre-Islamic ceramics have been found from the 3rd and 4th centuries
13.
Flight instruments
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Flight instruments are the instruments in the cockpit of an aircraft that provide the pilot with information about the flight situation of that aircraft, such as altitude, airspeed and direction. They improve safety by allowing the pilot to fly the aircraft in level flight, visual flight rules require an airspeed indicator, an altimeter, and a compass or other suitable magnetic direction indicator. Instrument flight rules require a gyroscopic pitch-bank, direction and rate of turn indicator, plus a slip-skid indicator, adjustable altimeter. Flight into Instrument meteorological conditions require radio navigation instruments for precise takeoffs, the term is sometimes used loosely as a synonym for cockpit instruments as a whole, in which context it can include engine instruments, navigational and communication equipment. Many modern aircraft have electronic flight instrument systems, most regulated aircraft have these flight instruments as dictated by the US Code of Federal Regulations, Title 14, Part 91. They are grouped according to system, compass systems. It is adjustable for local barometric pressure which must be set correctly to obtain accurate altitude readings, as the aircraft ascends, the capsules expand and the static pressure drops, causing the altimeter to indicate a higher altitude. The opposite effect occurs when descending, with the advancement in aviation and increased altitude ceiling the altimeter dial had to be altered for use both at higher and lower altitudes. This modification was introduced in the early sixties after the recurrence of air caused by the confusion in the pilots mind. At higher altitudes the window will disappear, the airspeed indicator shows the aircrafts speed relative to the surrounding air. It works by measuring the pressure in the aircrafts Pitot tube relative to the ambient static pressure. The Indicated airspeed must be corrected for pressure and temperature in order to obtain the True airspeed. The instrument is color coded to indicate important airspeeds such as the speed, never-exceed airspeed. The VSI senses changing air pressure, and displays that information to the pilot as a rate of climb or descent in feet per minute, the compass shows the aircrafts heading relative to magnetic north. Errors include Variation, or the difference between magnetic and true direction, and Deviation, caused by the wiring in the aircraft. Additionally, the compass is subject to Dip Errors, while reliable in steady level flight it can give confusing indications when turning, climbing, descending, or accelerating due to the inclination of the Earths magnetic field. For this reason, the indicator is also used for aircraft operation. The attitude indicator shows the relation to the horizon
14.
Air India Flight 182
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Air India Flight 182 was an Air India flight operating on the Vancouver–Toronto–Montreal–London–Delhi route. On 23 June 1985, the Boeing 747-237B serving the flight was destroyed by a bomb at an altitude of 31,000 feet and it crashed into the Atlantic Ocean while in Irish airspace. It was the first bombing of a 747 jumbo jet, a total of 329 people were killed, including 268 Canadian citizens,27 British citizens and 24 Indian citizens. The incident was the largest mass murder in Canadian history and it was the deadliest terrorist attack involving an airplane until the September 11,2001, attacks. It is also the deadliest aircraft bombing, the bombing of Air India 182 occurred at the same time as the Narita Airport bombing. Investigators believe that the two plots were linked, and that those responsible were aiming for a double bombing, however, the bomb at Narita exploded before it could be loaded onto the plane. Canadian law enforcement determined that the suspects in the bombing were members of the Sikh militant group Babbar Khalsa. Though a handful of members were arrested and tried, Inderjit Singh Reyat, Singh pleaded guilty in 2003 to manslaughter. He was sentenced to 15 years in prison for building the bombs that exploded aboard Flight 182, the subsequent investigation and prosecution lasted almost twenty years and was the most expensive trial in Canadian history, costing nearly CAD130 million. The Governor General-in-Council in 2006 appointed the former Supreme Court Justice John Major to conduct a commission of inquiry and his report was completed and released on 17 June 2010. During the 1970s, during and following the deaths and social disruption due to the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971. These included men who became the leaders and members of the Babbar Khalsa, such as Talwinder Singh Parmar, Ajaib Singh Bagri, Ripudaman Singh Malik, by the 1980s, the area around Vancouver, British Columbia had become the largest center of Sikh population outside India. They carried with them rivalries and sectarian tensions from India and Pakistan, the founders of this Panthic group vowed to avenge the deaths of Sikhs. Talwinder Singh Parmar led the militant wing of AKJ, which became the Babbar Khalsa and they had been cleared by the Punjab government of wrongdoing. On 24 April 1980 Gurbachan Singh, the Baba of the Nirankaris, was killed, on 19 November 1981, Parmar was among the militants who escaped from a shootout in which two Punjab Police officers were gunned down outside the house of Amarjit Singh Nihang in Ludhiana district. This added to the notoriety of Babbar Khalsa and its leader, in 1982, India issued a warrant for Parmars arrest for six charges of murder stemming from the killing of the police officers. India notified Canada that Parmar was a wanted terrorist in 1981, Canada denied the request in July 1982. After an Interpol alert, Parmar was arrested attempting to enter Germany
15.
Charkhi Dadri mid-air collision
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The Charkhi Dadri mid-air collision occurred on 12 November 1996 over the village of Charkhi Dadri, to the west of New Delhi, India. SVA763 departed Delhi at 18,32 local time, KZA1907 was, at the same time, descending to land at Delhi. Both flights were controlled by approach controller VK Dutta, the crew of SVA763 consisted of Captain Khalid Al Shubaily, First Officer Nazir Khan, and Flight Engineer Edris. On KZA1907, Gennadi Cherepanov served as the pilot and Egor Repp served as the radio operator. About eight minutes later, around 18,40, KZA1907 reported having reached its altitude of 15,000 feet but it was actually lower, at 14,500 feet. At this time, Dutta advised the flight, Identified traffic 12 oclock, when the controller called KZA1907 again, he received no reply. He warned of the other flights distance, but it was too late, the two aircraft had collided, the tail of KZA1907 cut through SVA763s left wing and horizontal stabiliser. The crippled Boeing quickly lost control and went into a descending spiral with fire trailing from the wing. The Boeing broke up before crashing into the ground at 1,135 km/h, the Ilyushin remained structurally intact as it went in a steady but rapid and uncontrolled descent until it crashed in a field. Rescuers discovered four critically injured passengers from the Ilyushin, but they all died soon afterwards, two passengers from the Saudia flight survived the crash, still strapped to their seats, only to die of internal injuries soon after. In the end, all 312 people on board SVA763 and all 37 people on KZA1907 were killed, Captain Timothy J. Place, a pilot for the United States Air Force, was the sole eyewitness to the event. He was making an approach in a Lockheed C-141B Starlifter when he saw that a large cloud lit up with an orange glow. The collision took place about 100 kilometres west of Delhi, the wreckage of the Saudi aircraft crashed near Dhani village, Bhiwani District, Haryana. The wreckage of the Kazakh aircraft hit the ground near Birohar village, Rohtak District, the captain of the flight, aged 45, was a veteran pilot with more than 9,800 flying hours to his credit. The article also stated that 40 Nepalis and three Americans boarded the Saudi flight, twelve of the crew members, including five anti-terrorism officials, were Saudi citizens. The 44-year-old captain of Flight 1907 was also experienced, with more than 9,200 flight hours under his belt. A company from Kyrgyzstan chartered the flight, and the passenger manifest mostly included ethnic Russian Kyrgyz citizens planning to go shopping in India, thirteen Kyrgyz traders boarded the flight. The crash was investigated by the Lahoti Commission, headed by then-Delhi High Court judge Ramesh Chandra Lahoti, depositions were taken from the Air Traffic Controllers Guild and the two airlines
16.
Pilot in command
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The pilot in command of an aircraft is the person aboard the aircraft who is ultimately responsible for its operation and safety during flight. This would be the captain in a typical two- or three-pilot aircrew, the PIC must be legally certificated to operate the aircraft for the specific flight and flight conditions, but need not be actually manipulating the controls at any given moment. The PIC is the person legally in charge of the aircraft and its safety and operation. The strict legal definition of PIC may vary slightly from country to country, the International Civil Aviation Organization, a United Nations agency, definition is, The pilot responsible for the operation and safety of the aircraft during flight time. This would normally include taxiing, which involves the operation to and from the runway. The U. S. CFR Title 14, Part 1, under U. S. FAA FAR91.3, Responsibility and authority of the pilot in command, the FAA declares, U. S. FAA FAR121. ICAO and other countries equivalent rules are similar, in Annex 2, Rules of the Air, under par. 2.4 Authority of pilot-in-command of an aircraft, ICAO adds, both FAR91.3 and ICAO Annex 2, par. 2.3.1, specifically empower the PIC to override any other regulation in an emergency and this provision mirrors the authority given to the captains of ships at sea, with similar justifications. It essentially gives the PIC the final authority in any situation involving the safety of a flight, under U. S. FAA FAR14 CFR61.51, logging flight time as a PIC is different and distinct from acting as the legal PIC for a flight. Aircrew Pilot flying Craig, Paul A
17.
First officer (aeronautics)
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In commercial aviation, the first officer is the second pilot of an aircraft. The first officer is second-in-command of the aircraft to the captain, in the event of incapacitation of the captain, the first officer will assume command of the aircraft. Even when the first officer is the pilot, however, the captain remains ultimately responsible for the aircraft, its passengers. In typical day-to-day operations, the job tasks remain fairly equal. Many airlines promote by seniority only within their own company, as a consequence, an airline first officer may be older and/or have more flight experience than a captain, by virtue of having experience from other airlines or the military. Traditionally, the first officer sits on the side of a fixed-wing aircraft. Other airlines may designate the senior of two first officers operating a long-haul sector together with a captain in an enlarged crew as the senior first officer. The senior first officer will then sit in the seat when the captain takes his rest. In the rank of senior first officer the pilot will also sit in the right hand seat, the pilot is therefore on hold as a senior first officer until a position as captain becomes available, when they will receive their command line check. Aircrew Captain Second officer Third officer Citations Bibliography Harris, Tom, how Airline Crews Work, HowStuffWorks. com website, June 14,2001. Patrick Smiths Ask The Pilot, When a Pilot Dies in Flight, AskThePilot. com website,2013, cockpit Confidential, Everything You Need to Know About Air Travel, Questions, Answers, and Reflections, Sourcebooks,2013, ISBN1402280912, ISBN 978-1402280917. Flying the World in Clipper Ships at flightjournal. com,2007
18.
Indian Air Force
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The Indian Air Force is the air arm of the Indian armed forces. It is the fourth largest air force in terms of both personnel and aircraft. Its primary responsibility is to secure Indian airspace and to conduct aerial warfare during a conflict and it was officially established on 8 October 1932 as an auxiliary air force of the British Empire and the prefix Royal was added in 1945 in recognition of its services during World War II. After India became independent from the United Kingdom in 1947, the Royal Indian Air Force served the Dominion of India, since independence, the IAF has been involved in four wars with neighbouring Pakistan and one with the Peoples Republic of China. Other major operations undertaken by the IAF include Operation Vijay, Operation Meghdoot, Operation Cactus, apart from conflicts, the IAF has been an active participant in United Nations peacekeeping missions. The President of India serves as Supreme Commander of the IAF, the Chief of Air Staff, an air chief marshal, is a four-star officer and commands the Air Force. There is never more than one serving ACM at any time in the IAF. The IAF provides close air support to the Indian Army troops in the battlefield and also provides strategic, IAF also provides infantry and artillery transportations or secondary Airlift for the Indian Army. The IAF provided extensive assistance to relief operations during natural calamities such as the Gujarat cyclone in 1998, the IAF also provides assistance to other countries during relief activities such as Operation Rainbow in Sri Lanka. On 1 April 1933, the IAF commissioned its first squadron, No.1 Squadron, with four Westland Wapiti biplanes, the Indian pilots were led by RAF Commanding officer Flight Lieutenant Cecil Bouchier. During World War II, the IAF played a role in blocking the advance of the Japanese army in Burma. It also carried out missions against the Japanese airbases at Mae Hong Son, Chiang Mai. The IAF was mainly involved in Strike, Close Air Support, Aerial reconnaissance, Bomber Escort, RAF Pilots were embedded in IAF units and vice versa to gain combat experience. IAF pilots participated in air operations in Europe as part of the RAF, during the war, the IAF went through a phase of steady expansion. New aircraft, including the US built Vultee Vengeance, Douglas DC-3, in recognition of the services rendered by the IAF, King George VI conferred the prefix Royal in 1945. Thereafter the IAF was referred to as the Royal Indian Air Force, in 1950, when India became a republic, the prefix was dropped and it reverted to being the Indian Air Force. After it became independent from the British Empire in 1947, British India was partitioned into the new states of the Dominion of India, along the lines of the geographical partition, the assets of the air force were divided between the new countries. The RIAF Roundel was changed to an interim Chakra roundel derived from the Ashoka Chakra, around the same time, conflict broke out between them over the control of the princely state of Jammu & Kashmir
19.
Flight engineer
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A flight engineer, also sometimes called an air engineer, is the member of an aircrafts flight crew who monitors and operates its complex aircraft systems. In the early era of aviation, the position was referred to as the air mechanic. Flight engineers can still be found on some larger fixed-wing airplanes, a similar crew position exists on some spacecraft. Later three- and four-engine jets were designed with sufficient automation to eliminate the position, piston engines on an airplane required a great deal of attention throughout the flight with their multitude of gauges and indicators. Inattention or a missed indication could result in engine or propeller failure, in order to dedicate a person to monitoring the aircrafts engines and its other critical flight systems, the position of flight engineer was created. The FE did not actually fly the airplane, instead, the FEs position had a control panel allowing for the monitoring. The FE is therefore a member of the flight deck crew who works in close coordination with the two pilots during all phases of flight. Traditionally, the FE station has been placed on the main flight deck just aft of the pilot and copilot. On the Do X the FE operated a large and complex engineering station similar to large transport aircraft to monitor the twelve engines. The first commercial airplane to include a flight engineering station was the Boeing 307 Stratoliner. During the war the Avro Lancaster and Handley Page Halifax bombers employed FEs, the first Allied military operation during the Second World War involving FEs occurred in February 1941 with a Short Stirling, it was the first four-engined bomber-raid of the war by the RAF. The flight engineer is concerned with the operation and monitoring of all aircraft systems, and is required to diagnose. On airplanes where the FEs station is located on the flight deck just aft of the two pilots, they also monitor an aircrafts flight path, speed, and altitude. A significant portion of their time is spent cross checking pilot selections, the FE is the systems expert of the airplane with an extensive mechanical and technical knowledge of aircraft systems and aircraft performance. On the Tupolev Tu-134 the FE sits in the nose of the aircraft, on other western military airplanes, such as on the Lockheed P-3 Orion and Lockheed C-130H Hercules, FEs sit between, slightly aft of the pilots. In some militaries, the aircrafts FE is also authorised to make and this can eliminate the need for technical repair crews to accompany the aircraft on short deployments. The FEs seat on modern aircraft has a range of motion to accommodate the many positions required to monitor. The captain and FE together review and carry out the actions required to contain
20.
Flight recorder
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The flight data recorder is a device that preserves the recent history of the flight through the recording of dozens of parameters collected several times per second. The cockpit voice recorder preserves the recent history of the sounds in the including the conversation of the pilots. The two recorders give a testimony, narrating the aircrafts flight history, to assist in any later investigation. The FDR and CVR may be combined in a single unit, for this reason, they are typically specified to withstand an impact of 3400 g and temperatures of over 1,000 °C as required by EUROCAE ED-112. They have been required in commercial aircraft in the US since 1967, the latent image was made by a thin ray of light deviated by a mirror tilted according to the magnitude of the data to record. A pre-production run of 25 HB recorders was ordered in 1941, in 1947, Hussenot founded the Société Française des Instruments de Mesure with Beaudouin and another associate, so as to market his invention, which was also known as the hussenograph. This company went on to become a supplier of data recorders, used not only aboard aircraft but also trains. SFIM is today part of the Safran group and is present on the flight recorder market. The advantage of the technology was that it could be easily developed afterwards and provides a durable. On the other hand, unlike magnetic bands or later flash memory-based technology, a photographic film cannot be erased and recycled, and so it must be changed periodically. As such, this technology was reserved for one-shot uses, mostly during planned test flights, also, the cockpit conversation was not recorded. Another form of data recorder was developed in the UK during World War II. Len Harrison and Vic Husband developed a unit that could withstand a crash and this unit used copper foil as the recording medium with various styli indicating various instruments / aircraft controls which indented the copper foil. The copper foil was periodically advanced at set periods of time giving a history of the instruments / control settings of the aircraft. This unit was developed at Farnborough for the Ministry of Aircraft Production, at the wars end the Ministry got Harrison and Husband to sign over their invention to them and the Ministry patented it under British patent 19330/45. This unit was the forerunner of todays black boxes being able to withstand conditions that aircrew could not, the first modern flight recorder, called Mata Hari, was created in 1942 by Finnish aviation engineer Veijo Hietala. The Mata Hari black box is displayed in the Vapriikki Museum in Tampere, in 1953, Australian engineer David Warren conceived a device that would record not only the instruments reading, but also the cockpit voices, when working with the Australian Research Laboratories. He built the first prototype in 1958, the first coupled FDR / CVR prototype designed with civilian aircraft in mind, for explicit post-crash examination purposes, was produced in 1958
21.
Attitude indicator
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It indicates pitch and bank and is a primary instrument for flight in instrument meteorological conditions. The essential components of the indicator are, miniature airplane, horizontal lines with a dot between them representing the wings and nose of the aircraft. The center horizon bar separating the two halves of the display, with the top half usually blue in color to represent sky, degree indices marking the bank angle. They run along the edge of the dial, on a typical indicator, there is a zero angle of bank index, there may be 10 and 20 degree indices, with additional indices at 30,60 and 90 degrees. If the symbolic aircraft dot is above the line the aircraft is nose up. If the symbolic aircraft dot is below the line the aircraft is nose down. A45 degree bank turn is made by placing the indicator equidistant between the 30 and 60 degree marks, a 45 degree bank turn is usually referred to as a steep turn. The pitch angle is relative to the horizon. g, most Russian-built aircraft have a somewhat different design. The background display is colored as in a Western instrument, but moves up, a symbol representing the aircraft rolls left or right to indicate bank angle. It was proposed that a version of the Western and Russian artificial horizon systems be developed that would be more intuitive than either. Traditional, self-contained attitude indicators use a gyroscope to establish an inertial platform, the gyroscope is geared to a display that has two degrees of freedom, simultaneously displaying pitch and bank. The display may be colored to indicate the horizon as the division between the two colored segments, and is intended to be intuitive to use, the actual bank angle is calibrated around the circumference of the instrument. The pitch angle is indicated by a series of calibration lines and these errors develop very slowly and are not significant in normal flying. Some attitude indicators can only tolerate a range of bank angles. If the aircraft too steeply or achieves an extreme pitch attitude — while performing aerobatics, for example — the attitude indicator can tumble. For this reason, some attitude indicators are fitted with a caging mechanism, some attitude indicators can be manually erected once the airplane is in level flight using the caging mechanism. Most modern instruments are designed to tolerate 360 degrees of rotation in pitch and roll without tumbling, attitude and Heading Reference Systems are able to provide three-axis information that can be shared with multiple devices in the aircraft, such as glass cockpit primary flight displays. Rather than using a rotor for the horizon reference, modern AHRS use 3-dimension magnetometers and accelerometers to detect the airplanes pitch
22.
Turn and slip indicator
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In aviation, the turn and slip indicator and the turn coordinator variant are essentially two aircraft flight instruments in one device. One indicates the rate of turn, or the rate of change in the aircrafts heading, the turn and slip indicator can be referred to as the turn and bank indicator, although the instrument does not respond directly to bank angle. Neither does the turn coordinator, but it does respond to roll rate, the turn indicator is a gyroscopic instrument that works on the principle of precession. The gyro is mounted in a gimbal, the gyros rotational axis is in-line with the lateral axis of the aircraft, while the gimbal has limited freedom around the longitudinal axis of the aircraft. As the aircraft yaws, a force is applied to the gyro around the vertical axis, due to aircraft yaw. The gyro spins on an axis that is 90 degrees relative to the direction of the yaw torque force. The gyro and gimbal rotate with limited freedom against a calibrated spring, the torque force against the spring reaches an equilibrium and the angle that the gimbal and gyro become positioned is directly connected to the display needle, thereby indicating the rate of turn. In the turn coordinator, the gyro is canted 30 degrees from the horizontal so it responds to roll as well as yaw, the display contains hash marks for the pilots reference during a turn. When the needle is lined up with a mark, the aircraft is performing a standard rate turn which is defined as three degrees per second, known in some countries as rate one. This translates to two minutes per 360 degrees of turn, the supersonic Concorde jet aircraft and many military jets are examples of aircraft that use 4 min. The hash marks are called dog houses, because of their distinct shape on various makes of turn indicators. Under instrument flight rules, using these figures allows a pilot to perform timed turns in order to conform with the air traffic patterns. For a change of heading of 90 degrees, a turn lasting 30 seconds would be required to perform a standard rate or rate one turn, coordinated flight indication is obtained by using an inclinometer, which is recognized as the ball in a tube. An inclinometer contains a ball sealed inside a glass tube. The original form of the indicator is in effect a level with the tube curved in the opposite direction. In some early aircraft the indicator was merely a pendulum with a dashpot for damping, the ball gives an indication of whether the aircraft is slipping, skidding or in balanced flight. The balls movement is caused by the force of gravity and the centripetal acceleration. When the ball is centered in the middle of the tube, if the ball is on the inside of a turn, the aircraft is slipping
23.
Aircraft flight control system
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Aircraft engine controls are also considered as flight controls as they change speed. The fundamentals of aircraft controls are explained in flight dynamics and this article centers on the operating mechanisms of the flight controls. The basic system in use on aircraft first appeared in a recognizable form as early as April 1908. Throttle controls to control engine speed or thrust for powered aircraft, the control yokes also vary greatly amongst aircraft. Centre sticks also vary between aircraft, some are directly connected to the control surfaces using cables, others have a computer in between which then controls the electrical actuators. Flight control has long been taught in such fashion for decades, as popularized in ab initio instructional books such as the 1944 work Stick. In some aircraft, the surfaces are not manipulated with a linkage. In ultralight aircraft and motorized hang gliders, for example, there is no mechanism at all, instead, the pilot just grabs the lifting surface by hand and moves it. In addition to the flight controls for roll, pitch. Other secondary flight control systems may be available, including slats, spoilers, air brakes, mechanical or manually operated flight control systems are the most basic method of controlling an aircraft. They were used in aircraft and are currently used in small aircraft where the aerodynamic forces are not excessive. Turnbuckles are often used to adjust control cable tension, the Cessna Skyhawk is a typical example of an aircraft that uses this type of system. Gust locks are used on parked aircraft with mechanical systems to protect the control surfaces and linkages from damage from wind. Some aircraft have gust locks fitted as part of the control system and this arrangement can be found on bigger or higher performance propeller aircraft such as the Fokker 50. Some mechanical flight control systems use servo tabs that provide aerodynamic assistance, servo tabs are small surfaces hinged to the control surfaces. The flight control mechanisms move these tabs, aerodynamic forces in turn move and this arrangement was used in early piston-engined transport aircraft and in early jet transports. The Boeing 737 incorporates a system, whereby in the event of total hydraulic system failure. The complexity and weight of mechanical flight control systems increase considerably with the size, hydraulically powered control surfaces help to overcome these limitations
24.
Boeing
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The Boeing Company is an American multinational corporation that designs, manufactures, and sells airplanes, rotorcraft, rockets, and satellites worldwide. The company also provides leasing and product support services, Boeing stock is a component of the Dow Jones Industrial Average. The Boeing Companys corporate headquarters are located in Chicago and the company is led by President, Boeing is organized into five primary divisions, Boeing Commercial Airplanes, Boeing Defense, Space & Security, Engineering, Operations & Technology, Boeing Capital, and Boeing Shared Services Group. Boeing bought Heaths shipyard in Seattle on the Duwamish River, which became his first airplane factory. Boeing was incorporated in Seattle by William Boeing, on July 15,1916, Boeing was later incorporated in Delaware, the original Certificate of Incorporation was filed with the Secretary of State of Delaware on July 19,1934. Boeing, who studied at Yale University, worked initially in the timber industry and this knowledge proved invaluable in his subsequent design and assembly of airplanes. The company stayed in Seattle to take advantage of the supply of spruce wood. William Boeing founded his company a few months after the June 15 maiden flight of one of the two B&W seaplanes built with the assistance of George Conrad Westervelt, a U. S. Navy engineer. Boeing and Westervelt decided to build the B&W seaplane after having flown in a Curtiss aircraft, Boeing bought a Glenn Martin Flying Birdcage seaplane and was taught to fly by Glenn Martin himself. Boeing soon crashed the Birdcage and when Martin informed Boeing that replacement parts would not become available for months, Westervelt agreed to build a better airplane and soon produced the B&W Seaplane. This first Boeing airplane was assembled in a hangar located on the northeast shore of Seattles Lake Union. Many of Boeings early planes were seaplanes, on April 6,1917, the U. S. declared War on Germany and later in the year entered World War I. On May 9,1917, the became the Boeing Airplane Company. With the U. S. entering the war, Boeing knew that the U. S. Navy needed seaplanes for training, so Boeing shipped two new Model Cs to Pensacola, Florida, where the planes were flown for the Navy. The Navy liked the Model C and ordered 50 more, the company moved its operations to a larger former shipbuilding facility known as Boeing Plant 1, located on the lower Duwamish River, Washington state. Others, including Boeing, started selling other products, Boeing built dressers, counters, and furniture, along with flat-bottom boats called Sea Sleds. In 1919 the Boeing B-1, flying boat made its first flight and it accommodated one pilot and two passengers and some mail. Over the course of eight years, it made international airmail flights from Seattle to Victoria, on May 24,1920, the Boeing Model 8 made its first flight
25.
Rockwell Collins
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Arthur Collins founded Collins Radio Company in 1933 in Cedar Rapids, Iowa. It designed and produced both shortwave radio equipment and equipment for the burgeoning AM Broadcast industry, Collins was solicited by the military, the scientific community and by the larger AM radio stations for special equipment. Collins supplied the equipment to establish a link with the South Pole expedition of Rear Admiral Richard Byrd in 1933. In 1936, Collins had begun production of the 12H audio console, 12X portable field announcers box, throughout World War II, the 212A1 and 212B1 replaced the 12H design. Collins became the supplier of radio and navigation equipment used in the military. In the post war years, the Collins Radio Company expanded its work in all phases of the field while broadening its technology. This moved Arthur Collins into an active role as CEO guiding department leaders holding significant responsibilities. New developments such as flight instruments, radio communication devices. Collins communications equipment was used for Projects Mercury, Gemini and Apollo, in 1973, the U. S. Skylab Program used Collins equipment to provide communication from the astronauts to earth. After facing financial difficulties, the Collins Radio Company was purchased by Rockwell International in 1973, in 2001 the avionics division of Rockwell International was spun off to form the current Rockwell Collins, Inc. retaining its name. Rockwell Collins is highly concentrated in the defense and commercial avionics markets, the Collins mechanical filter is still in production and does, however, find consumer and commercial use. On December 20,2000, Rockwell Collins expanded its services to commercial, on April 28,2000, Rockwell International Corp and its Rockwell Collins unit agreed to acquire Sony Corps Sony Trans Com for undisclosed terms. The company has acquired companies, including Hughes-Avicoms in-flight entertainment business, Sonys in-flight entertainment business. NLX in 2003, portions of Evans & Sutherland, TELDIX GmbH, IP Unwired, Air Routing International in 2010, Computing Technologies for Aviation in 2011, and ARINC in 2014. The company is among the suppliers of in-flight entertainment on board aircraft. Rockwell Collins key competitors in this industry include Panasonic Avionics Corporation, Thales Group, as of 2010, the company employs over 20,000 people and has an annual turnover of 4.665 billion US dollars. Its non-executive chairman is Anthony Carbone following the retirement of Clayton M. Jones, in September 2012, Kelly Ortberg was appointed as president of the company. In August 2013, Kelly Ortberg was appointed CEO of Rockwell Collins, in 2016, Rockwell Collins entered the cabin interiors market through acquisition of B/E Aerospace for $8.3 billion
26.
Sensory illusions in aviation
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These illusions can be extremely dangerous for pilots. The vestibular system consists of the organs and the semicircular canals. Illusions in aviation are caused when the brain cannot reconcile the vestibular, stimulation of the semicircular canals occurs when movement of the endolymph inside the canals causes movement of the crista ampullaris and the hair cells within them. Stimulation of the otolith organs occurs when gravitational forces or linear accelerations cause movement of the membrane, the otoliths. Somatogyral illusions occur as a result of angular accelerations stimulating the semicircular canals, somatogravic illusions, on the other hand, occur as a result of linear accelerations stimulating the otolith organs. These include the leans, the spin and spiral. This is the most common illusion during flight, and can be caused by a return to wings-level flight following a gradual application of bank that had gone unnoticed by the pilot. Rolling wings-level from such an attitude may cause an illusion that the aircraft is banking in the opposite direction. In response to such an illusion, a pilot will tend to back in the direction of the original bank in a corrective attempt to regain the perception of a level attitude. The graveyard spin is an illusion that can occur to a pilot who enters a spin, for example, a pilot who enters a spin to the left will initially have a sensation of spinning in the same direction. However, if the spin continues the pilot will have the sensation that the spin is progressively decreasing. At this point, if the pilot applies right rudder to stop the left spin, if the pilot believes that the airplane is spinning to the right, the response will be to apply left rudder to counteract the sensation of a right spin. However, by applying left rudder the pilot will unknowingly re-enter the original left spin, if the pilot cross-checks the turn indicator, he would see the turn needle indicating a left turn while he senses a right turn. This creates a conflict between what the pilot sees on the instruments and what the pilot feels. If the pilot believes the body instead of trusting the instruments. If enough altitude is lost before this illusion is recognized and corrective action is not taken, the graveyard spiral is more common than the graveyard spin, and it is associated with a return to level flight following a prolonged bank turn. For example, a pilot who enters a turn to the left will initially have a sensation of a turn in the same direction. If the left turn continues, the pilot will experience the sensation that the airplane is no longer turning to the left
27.
John F. Kennedy Jr. plane crash
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On July 16,1999, John F. Kennedy Jr. died when the airplane he was piloting crashed into the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Marthas Vineyard, Massachusetts. The two passengers on board, Kennedys wife Carolyn Bessette and her sister Lauren, were also killed, Kennedy did not hold an instrument rating and was therefore only certified to fly under visual flight rules. However, at the time of the accident the weather and light conditions were such that all basic landmarks were obscured, making visual flight challenging, although legally still permissible. On the evening of July 16,1999, John F. Kennedy Jr. piloted a Piper Saratoga to attend the wedding of his cousin Rory Kennedy, the plane also carried his wife, Carolyn Bessette, and sister-in-law, Lauren Bessette. Kennedy had purchased his plane three months before his death, the Bessette sisters were seated in the second row of seats, which faced the rear of the plane and were back-to-back with the pilots seat. Kennedy checked in with the air control tower of Marthas Vineyard Airport before departure. At 8,39 p. m. on July 16, at 2,15 a. m. the next day, the Kennedy family reported to the local Coast Guard Air Station that the plane had not arrived. At 4 a. m, the U. S. Coast Guard began a search, Kennedys cousin, Anthony Stanislas Radziwill, told the press that if Kennedy was still alive hell find a way to get out. He possesses the will to survive, enough will for all three of them, officials were not optimistic about finding Kennedy alive after several pieces of debris from his plane were recovered in the Atlantic Ocean. There is always hope, Coast Guard Lt. Gary Jones said on July 17, but unfortunately, when you find certain pieces of evidence, you have to be prepared for anything. That same day, President Bill Clinton spoke with Kennedys older sister, Caroline, Clinton also spoke with Andrew Cuomo, who at the time was married to Kennedys cousin, Kerry. He wanted to let them know he was thinking about them, that well do everything we can, Clinton ordered warships of the U. S. Navy to assist in the search for Kennedys plane. Critics argued that this was an abuse of taxpayer dollars, as no ordinary citizen would receive similar treatment, Clinton said that afternoon that the Kennedys had suffered much, and given more. He also called for the Kennedys to feel the strength of God, the love of their friends, on July 19, NOAA vessel Rude located fragments of Kennedys plane using side-scan sonar. The Rude captured high-resolution images which were used to create a map of the ocean floor. At 11,30 p. m. the next day, Navy divers found parts of the plane strewn over a broad area of seabed 120 feet below the surface. Late on the afternoon of July 21, the recovered the bodies of Kennedy. Divers found Carolyns and Laurens bodies near the fuselage, while Kennedys body was still strapped in the pilots seat, Coast Guard Admiral Richard M. Larrabee said that all three bodies were near and under the fuselage, still strapped in
28.
Pan Am Flight 816
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Flight PA816 was an international flight from Auckland, New Zealand, to San Francisco, United States, via Tahiti, French Polynesia and Los Angeles, United States. It was operated by a Pan Am Boeing 707-321B bearing the registration N417PA, on July 22,1973, at 10,06 P. M. local time, the Boeing 707 took off from Faaā International Airport in Papeete. Thirty seconds after takeoff, the airliner carrying 79 passengers and crew crashed into the sea, when the aircraft had reached an altitude of 300 ft, it began to descend, banking to the left. The increasingly excessive bank caused the 707 to crash into the sea, because the turn was made towards the sea at night, no visual references were available. The cockpit voice recorder and flight data recorder are believed to have sunk to a depth of about 2,300 ft, although no official cause was determined, it is believed that an instrument failure during a turn may have contributed to the accident. Neil Campbell, the survivor, was a Canadian citizen. At the time he said he had no memory of the actual crash, many private vessels sortied from Papeete harbor that night with more joining at first light to aid in the search for survivors. The bodies of several of the attendants were the only ones recovered. Speculation at the time at Pan Am on the cause of the accident also considered a catastrophic windshield failure, no conclusive cause was ever determined
29.
Flash Airlines Flight 604
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Flash Airlines Flight 604 was a charter flight operated by Egyptian charter company Flash Airlines. The findings of the investigation are controversial, with accident investigators from the different countries involved not agreeing on the cause. Flight 604s death toll was the highest of any accident in Egypt until the crash of Metrojet Flight 9268 nearly twelve years later. It remains the deadliest accident involving a Boeing 737-300, and the deadliest involving the Boeing 737 classic series, the accident airplane was a Boeing model 737-3Q8 airplane and was equipped two CFM56-3 engines. It was built and delivered to TACA International Airlines as N373TA in October 1992 and it had been operated by Flash Airlines since June 2001. At the time of the accident it had accumulated 25603 flight hours and 17976 cycles of takeoffs and he was 53 years of age and was a highly respected pilot with almost 7,500 flight hours under his belt. Amr Al-Shaafei served as the first officer and he was 25 years old with fewer than 800 hours of flying experience. Ashraf Abdelhamid, who also held Canadian and US citizenship, was training as a first officer and had experience flying corporate jets, most of the passengers were French tourists who originated from the Paris metropolitan area. FRAM, a French travel agency, sold most of the tickets to the flight, a provisional passenger list dated 5 January 2004 stated that twelve entire French families had boarded the flight. Members of seventeen families appeared at Charles de Gaulle Airport to take passengers from the flight, one of the passengers that was supposed to be on the flight was French citizen Pascal Mercier and his family. He cancelled their reservation because he didnt like the early morning departure time since he had young children, initially, it was thought that terrorists might have been involved, as fear of aviation terrorism was high. The British Prime Minister at the time, Tony Blair, was vacationing in the Sharm El Sheikh area. A group in Yemen said that it destroyed the aircraft as a protest against a new law in France banning headscarves in schools, the wreckage sank to a depth of 1,000 m, making recovery of the flight data recorder and cockpit voice recorder difficult. However two weeks after the accident, both devices were located by a French salvage vessel and recovered by a ROV, the accident investigators examined the recorders while in Cairo. The maintenance records of the aircraft had not been duplicated, they were destroyed in the crash, the MCA released its final report into the accident on 25 March 2006. The report did not conclude with a cause, listing instead four possible causes. The NTSB and the BEA concluded that the pilot suffered spatial disorientation, furthermore, according to the NTSB and BEA, both officers were insufficiently trained. The NTSB stated that the voice recorder showed that 24 seconds passed after the airliner banked before the pilot began corrective manoeuvres
30.
Viasa Flight 897
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There were no survivors among the 61 occupants of the aircraft. Named Fridtjof Nansen, the involved in the accident was a Douglas DC-8-53, registration PH-DCL, owned by KLM. With constructors number 45615/131, the airframe was the newest one of the type in KLMs fleet at the time the accident took place, it had accumulated 209 flight hours. The crash of Viasa Flight 897 occurred on the leg of a trip that originated in Rome, Italy and was scheduled to conclude in Caracas. Intermediate stops were to be made in Madrid, Spain, Lisbon, at the time the airliner lifted off from Lisbon at 01,15 UTC, the nighttime sky had a cloud base of 3,700 feet. A few minutes after take off the DC-8 entered a dive to the left shortly after sending two short messages to Air Traffic Control. The pilot over-corrected to the right and the aircraft struck the sea with an angle of approximately 25° nose down. The cause for the crash of Viasa Flight 897 was never determined by either Portuguese or Dutch authorities, at the time it occurred, Flight 897 was the third fatal crash of a big jetliner since they were introduced into service in 1958. It was the worst civilian aviation incident ever to place in Portugal until the crash of TAP Portugal Flight 425 in 1977
31.
Korean Air Cargo Flight 8509
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The aircraft crashed into Hatfield Forest near the village of Great Hallingbury, close to but clear of some houses. All four crew on board were killed, the aircraft involved was a Boeing 747-200F freighter registered HL7451. Built on 4 April 1980, the aircraft had completed 15,451 flights with a flight time of 83,011 hours before its fatal flight on 22 December 1999. The first officers ADI and a backup ADI were correct, a comparator alarm called attention to the discrepancy, the ADIs input selector was switched to the other INU and the correct indications returned. At Stansted, the engineers who attempted to repair the ADI did not have the correct Fault Isolation Manual available, one of them identified and repaired a damaged connecting plug on the ADI. When the ADI responded correctly to its Test button, they believed the fault had been corrected, although this button only tested the ADI, the ADIs input selector was left in the normal position. The flight crew consisted of 57-year-old Captain Park Duk-kyu, 33-year-old First Officer Yoon Ki-sik, 38-year-old Flight Engineer Park Hoon-kyu, the first officer, in contrast, was relatively inexperienced with just 195 hours of flying experience on the 747 and a total of 1,406 flight hours. The flight engineer, like the captain, had a lot of experience flying 747s –4,511 out of his 8,301 total flight hours were accrued in them and it was dark when the plane took off from London Stansted Airport, with the captain flying. When the captain tried to bank the plane to turn left, his ADI showed it not banking, the first officer, whose instrument would have shown the true angle of bank, said nothing, although the flight engineer called out bank. The captain made no response and continued banking farther and farther left, korean Air has not had a single fatal crash since this accident in 1999. The AAIB interim report – BBC – Friday 24 December 1999 AAIB Bulletin S2/2000 SPECIAL, – The Chosun Ilbo KAL Team Joins Flight KE-8509 Investigation
32.
Copa Airlines Flight 201
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Copa Airlines Flight 201 was a regularly scheduled passenger flight from Tocumen International Airport in Panama City, Panama to Alfonso Bonilla Aragón International Airport in Cali, Colombia. On 6 June 1992, the Boeing 737-204 Advanced operating the route flipped, disintegrated in mid-air, the in-flight break-up was caused by faulty instrument readings and several other contributing factors, including incomplete training. Flight 201 was particularly disturbing to the public because it was the deadliest accident in Panamanian aviation history, the aircraft was a 12-year-old twin-engined Boeing 737-200 Advanced, registration HP-1205CMP, piloted by Captain Rafael Carlos Chial,53, and First Officer Cesareo Tejada. The flight attendants on the flight were Iris Karamañites, Flor Díaz, Vanessa Lewis, Xenia Guzmán, Copa 201 was carrying 40 passengers and 7 crew. The jet was manufactured in 1980 and entered service with Britannia Airways bearing tail number G-BGYL. Flight 201 took off from runway 21L at Tocumen International Airport in Panama City at 20,37 local time as a passenger flight to Cali, Colombia, with 40 passengers. Among the passengers were Colombian merchants conducting business in Panama, at 20,47, about 10 minutes after takeoff, Capt. Chial contacted Panama City air traffic control, requesting weather information. The controller reported that there was an area of bad weather 30–50 miles from their position. At 20,48, Capt. Chial made another radio contact requesting permission from Panama City ATC to fly a different route due to the severe weather ahead, the new route would take the plane over Darién Province. Despite the attempts by Capt. Chial and the co-pilot, Tejada, to level off, most of the bodies had their clothes torn off and were thrown away from the aircraft. Flight 201 crashed into an area within the Darien Gap at 486 knots. After several unsuccessful attempts to contact the lost plane, Tocumen ATC finally declared an emergency in the airport. At dawn the next day, search aircraft were sent to Flight 201s last known position, after eight hours, searchers spotted the first pieces of wreckage in the jungle of the Darien Gap. Because of the remoteness of the area and the difficulty of access, because the bodies of the victims and various parts of the aircraft’s fuselage were scattered in a radius of 10 km, the recovery process was extensively difficult. After investigators reached the site, the investigation to find the cause of the crash began. The aircraft was carrying 47 people,40 passengers and a crew of seven, fatalities included 36 Colombians, eight Panamanians, two Americans, and one Italian. The cockpit voice recorder was recovered and flown to Panama City, then to the United States, however, NTSB analysts discovered that the tape was broken due to a maintenance error. Crash investigators had better luck with the data recorder, which showed the plane was in a high-speed dive before breaking up
33.
Birgenair Flight 301
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On 6 February 1996, the Boeing 757–225 operating the route crashed shortly after take-off from Puerto Platas Gregorio Luperón International Airport. The cause was a tube that investigators believe was blocked by a wasp nest that was built inside it. The aircraft had sat unused for twenty five days without the required pitot tube covers in place, the crew consisted of 11 Turks and 2 Dominicans. The captain was Ahmet Erdem, one of Birgenairs most senior pilots, the first officer was Aykut Gergin. He had 3,500 hours of flying experience, the relief pilot was Muhlis Evrenesoğlu. He had 15,000 flight hours to his credit, the passengers consisted mainly of Germans, along with a few Poles including two Members of Parliament, Zbigniew Gorzelańczyk, and Marek Wielgus. Most passengers had booked Caribbean package holidays with Öger Tours, Birgenair held 10% of Öger Tours, in terms of passenger deaths, Flight 301 has the highest death toll of any aviation accident involving a Boeing 757. During takeoff roll at 11,42 p. m, the found that his air speed indicator was not working properly. While the plane was climbing through 4,700 feet, the airspeed indicator read 350 knots. The autopilot reached the limits of its programming and disengaged, after checking their circuit breakers for the source of the warnings, the crew then reduced thrust to lower the speed. This immediately triggered the 757s stick-shaker stall alert, warning the confused pilots that the aircraft was flying dangerously slow, the left engine flamed out, which caused the right engine, still at full power, to throw the aircraft into a spin. At 11,47 p. m. the Ground Proximity Warning System sounded an audio warning, all 13 crew members and 176 passengers were killed. Investigations later showed that the plane was travelling at 220 knots at the time. The investigation concluded that one of three tubes, used to measure airspeed, was blocked. No tubes were recovered so investigators were unable to determine for certain what caused the blockage, according to the final report, section 2. Later, Birgenair refuted section 2.3 of the final report, according to Birgenair, the aircraft was not on the ground for 20 days, but only for 12 days prior to the ill-fated flight. The pitot-tubes were covered prior to an engine test run took place 2 days prior to the ill-fated flight. It was known by the BIRGENAIR mechanics that the airplane should be returned to Turkey in a flight within the next 3 days
34.
Adam Air Flight 574
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A national investigation was launched into the disaster. It was the fatal accident for Adam Air in the 5-year history of the company. Adam Air was subsequently banned from flying by the Indonesian government, the aircraft involved, Boeing 737-4Q8 serial number 24070, registration PK-KKW, was manufactured in 1989. Prior to service with Adam Air, owned by ILFC the aircraft had been leased to seven airlines, Dan-Air, British Airways, GB Airways, Transaero, WFBN, Air One and Jat Airways. The plane had around 50,000 hours flying and was last evaluated and declared airworthy by the Indonesian transport ministry on 25 December 2005 and it was due to be checked again in late January 2007. The Surabaya airport duty manager said that there were no problems with the aircraft prior to departure. The captain was 47-year-old Refri Agustian Widodo from Sidoarjo, Indonesia, the first officer was 36-year-old Yoga Susanto, an employee of Adam Air since 2006. Captain Widodo, a veteran, had logged more than 13,300 hours of flying time. As pilot-in-command of Boeing 737 aircraft, he had more than 3,800 hours of experience, first Officer Susanto had 4,200 total flying hours and he had almost 1,000 hours logged as a Boeing 737 first officer. On 1 January 2007, at 12,59 local time, the passenger list was composed mainly of Indonesian nationals, the only foreigners were an American family of three. The last known position was detected by a Singaporean satellite. The altitude of the plane was shown as 35,000 feet on the radar screen, although the Juanda Airport operator, PT Angkasa Pura I, had given warnings to the pilot concerning the weather condition, the plane had departed as scheduled. The plane ran into crosswinds of more than 70 knots over the Makassar Strait, west of Sulawesi, no calls for help were sent by the aircraft. Initial reports indicated that the plane had been located in the region of Sulawesi around 20 kilometres from Polewali town. This led to the mobilisation of an Indonesian Air Force plane carrying hundreds of search, however the team found no sign of aircraft wreckage at the reported crash site. It later turned out that the 12 reported survivors were actually from the MV Senopati Nusantara, a search and rescue team 3,600 members strong was mobilised. The Indonesian sonar-equipped ship Pulau Rengat, capable of detecting underwater metallic objects later joined the team and it searched the sea for five days between 3 and 8 January, without success. Naval ships combed the Makassar Strait while military personnel went through jungles, the search in the two areas was due to twin signals, each carrying different emergency locator transmitter frequencies, received by the Singaporean satellite and an Indonesian military air base
35.
Air France Flight 447
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Air France Flight 447 was a scheduled passenger flight from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil to Paris, France, which crashed on 1 June 2009. The accident was the deadliest in the history of Air France and it was also the Airbus A330s second and deadliest accident, and its first in commercial passenger service. The aircraft left Brazilian Atlantic radar surveillance at 01,49 UTC, the Airbus A330 is designed to be flown by a crew of two pilots. With three pilots on board, each of them can take a rest during the flight, and for purpose the A330 has a rest cabin. In accordance with practice, the captain had sent one of the co-pilots for the first rest period with the intention of taking the second break himself. At 01,55 UTC, he woke the second pilot, hes going to take my place. After having attended the briefing between the two co-pilots, the left the cockpit to rest at 02,01,46 UTC. At 02,06 UTC, the pilot warned the crew that they were about to enter an area of turbulence. Probably two to three minutes after this the airplane encountered icing conditions and ice started to accumulate in the pitot tubes. The pilots turned the aircraft slightly to the left and decreased its speed from Mach 0.82 to Mach 0.8. At 02,10,05 UTC the autopilot disengaged because the blocked pitot tubes were no longer providing valid airspeed information, the engines auto-thrust systems disengaged three seconds later. Without the auto-pilot, the aircraft started to roll to the due to turbulence. One consequence of the change to alternate law was an increase in the sensitivity to roll. During the next 30 seconds, the aircraft rolled alternately left, at the same time he made an abrupt nose-up input on the side-stick, an action that was unnecessary and excessive under the circumstances. The aircrafts stall warning sounded briefly twice due to the angle of attack tolerance being exceeded, the aircrafts angle of attack increased, and the aircraft started to climb. By the time the pilot had control of the aircrafts roll, the icing event had lasted for just over a minute. The pilot continued making nose-up inputs, the trimmable horizontal stabilizer moved from three to 13 degrees nose-up in about one minute, and remained in that latter position until the end of the flight. At 02,11,10 UTC, the aircraft had climbed to its altitude of around 38,000 feet
36.
William Langewiesche
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William Langewiesche is an American author and journalist who was also a professional airplane pilot for many years. Since 2006 he has been the correspondent for Vanity Fair magazine. William Langewiesche is currently the correspondent for the magazine Vanity Fair. Prior to that, he was the correspondent for The Atlantic Monthly magazine where he was nominated for eight consecutive National Magazine Awards. Langewiesche grew up in Princeton, New Jersey, and attended college in California and he spent much of his time on various jobs flying airplanes, a skill he had acquired because of his family background. After college Langewiesche moved to New York City and went to work as a writer for Flying, while there he wrote technical reports on the flight characteristics of various airplanes, and profiles of people. In his mid-twenties, he quit the job in order to write books—one non-fiction and he continued to travel and write, supporting himself by flying airplanes. The travels eventually took Langewiesche to the most remote parts of the Sahara desert and this became the subject of a cover story for The Atlantic Monthly, in 1991, and later of a book titled Sahara Unveiled. The Atlantic sent Langewiesche to many parts of the world and increasingly into conflict zones, in 2006, while living in Baghdad to cover the Iraq war, Langewiesche left The Atlantic and went to work for Vanity Fair. After the attacks of 9/11, Langewiesche was the only journalist given full unrestricted access to the World Trade Center site and he stayed there for nearly six months and produced American Ground, a serialized report in The Atlantic Monthly. American Ground became a New York Times national bestselling book, langewiesches 2007 article Jungle Law involved him in the controversy surrounding Chevron Corporation and Steven R. Donziger. Langewiesche is the son of Wolfgang Langewiesche, author of Stick and he lives in New York and France. Sahara Unveiled, A Journey Across the Desert, inside the Sky, A Meditation on Flight. American Ground, Unbuilding the World Trade Center, the Outlaw Sea, A World of Freedom, Chaos, and Crime. The Atomic Bazaar, The Rise of the Nuclear Poor, New York, Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Fly by Wire, The Geese, the Glide, the Miracle on the Hudson, New York, Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Aloft, Thoughts on the Experience of Flight, finding the Devil, Darkness, Light, and the Untold Story of the Chilean Mine Disaster. Riding the Mali Express to Dakar, American Ground, Unbuilding the World Trade Center, Part III, The Dance of the Dinosaurs
37.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
38.
Aviation accidents and incidents
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If the aircraft is destroyed or severely damaged so that it must be written off, it is further defined as a hull loss accident. Annex 13 further defines an aviation incident as an occurrence, other than an accident,583, The Tenerife airport disaster, which occurred on March 27,1977, remains the accident with the highest number of airliner passenger fatalities. 583 people died when a KLM Boeing 747 attempted to take off without clearance, there were no survivors from the KLM aircraft,61 of the 396 passengers and crew on the Pan Am aircraft survived. Pilot error was the cause, as the KLM captain began his takeoff run without obtaining air traffic control clearance. A contributing factor was the dense fog, the KLM flight crew could not see the Pan Am aircraft on the runway until immediately before the collision. The accident had a influence on the industry, particularly in the area of communication. An increased emphasis was placed on using standardized phraseology in air traffic control communication by controllers and pilots alike. Furthermore, all members of the crew are now able to question the captains judgment concerning the safety of the airliner. 520, The crash of Japan Airlines Flight 123 on August 12,1985, is the disaster with the highest number of fatalities,520 people died on board a Boeing 747. Pilots were able to keep the plane flying for 32 minutes after the mechanical failure before crashing into a mountain, all 15 crew members and 505 of the 509 passengers on board died. The death toll was exacerbated by delays in the rescue operation, although a number of people survived the impact, by the time the Japanese rescue teams arrived at the crash site all but four had succumbed to their injuries. 349, On November 12,1996, the worlds deadliest mid-air collision was the Charkhi Dadri mid-air collision involving Saudia Flight 763 and Kazakhstan Airlines Flight 1907 over Charkhi Dadri, the collision was mainly the result of the Kazakh pilot flying lower than the assigned clearance altitude. All 349 passengers and crew on both aircraft died. The Ramesh Chandra Lahoti Commission, empowered to study the causes, recommended the creation of the semi-circular rule,346, On March 3,1974, Turkish Airlines Flight 981, a McDonnell Douglas DC-10, crashed in a forest northeast of Paris, France. The London-bound plane crashed shortly after taking off from Orly airport and it was later determined that the cargo door detached, which caused an explosive decompression, this caused the floor just above to collapse. The collapsed floor severed the control cables, which left the pilots without control of the elevators, the plane entered a steep dive and crashed. It was the deadliest plane crash of all time until the Tenerife disaster in 1977,329, On June 23,1985, Air India Flight 182, a Boeing 747-237B crashed off the southwest coast of Ireland when a bomb exploded in the cargo hold. All 307 passengers and 22 crew members died, one passenger had checked in as M. Singh
39.
1978 British Army Gazelle downing
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The IRA unit was involved in a gun battle with a Green Jackets observation post deployed in the area, and the helicopter was sent in to support the ground troops. The helicopter crashed after the pilot lost control of the aircraft whilst evading ground fire, lieutenant-Colonel Ian Douglas Corden-Lloyd, 2nd Battalion Green Jackets commanding officer, died in the crash. The incident was overshadowed by the La Mon restaurant bombing, which took place just hours later near Belfast, by early 1978, the British Army forces involved in Operation Banner had recently replaced their ageing Bell H-13 Sioux helicopters for the more versatile Aérospatiale Gazelles. The introduction of the new machines increased the area covered on a reconnaissance sortie as well as the time spent in airborne missions. The Royal Green Jackets had been in South Armagh since December 1977, just a few days after arrival, two mortar rounds hit the C Company base at Forkhill, injuring a number of soldiers. In the aftermath of the attack, two Royal Ulster Constabulary officers were wounded while recovering the lorry where the tubes were mounted. Two days later, a patrol near the border suffered a bomb and gun attack, the sergeant was picked up from the scene by helicopter. He was later invalided from the British Army as a result of his injuries, the soldiers returned fire, but the short distance to the border and the open ground prevented them from advancing. While hovering over the scene of the engagement, the pilot lost control of the aircraft during a turn at speed to avoid the ground fire. The Gazelle hit a wall and crashed on a field, some 2 km from Jonesborough, Corden-Lloyd was killed and the other two passengers were wounded. The machine came to rest on its right side, the pilot remained trapped inside the wreckage, but he survived thanks to his helmet. The IRA claimed they had shot at the helicopter with an M60 machine gun, the IRA unit vanished into the Dromad woods to the Republic of Ireland. Some Gardaí witnessed the attack from the side of the border. The gun battle and Gazelle shootdown was displaced from the headlines by the deaths of civilians in the La Mon restaurant bombing on the same day. The death of Corden-Lloyd, a former Special Air Service officer, was deeply regretted by the British Army and he was awarded a posthumous mention in dispatches in recognition of gallant and distinguished service in Northern Ireland. 1990 British Army Gazelle shootdown Battle of Newry Road 1994 British Army Lynx shootdown Provisional IRA South Armagh Brigade Chronology of Provisional Irish Republican Army actions Barzilay, the British Army in Ulster, Volumen 3. Robert Rinehart Publishers, ISBN 1-879373-99-8 Dewar, Michael, the British Army in Northern Ireland
40.
Continental Airlines Flight 603
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Continental Airlines Flight 603 was a scheduled McDonnell Douglas DC-10 flight between Los Angeles International Airport and Honolulu International Airport. On March 1,1978, it crashed during an aborted takeoff, the aircraft involved in the accident was a McDonnell Douglas DC-10-10, registered N68045, which had made its first flight in 1972. The aircraft began its take-off from Los Angeles International Airport at approximately 9,25 am, during that take-off roll, the recapping tread of the No.2 tire on the left main landing gear separated from the tire and the resulting overload caused that tire to blow out. That in turn, imposed an overload on the No.1 tire on the same axle, shrapnel from the rims of the failed tires then damaged the No.5 tire on the left main gear, causing it to also blow out. Although the captain initiated the procedure at 4 knots below V1 speed. That was the result of the partial loss of braking power following the failure of the three tires on the left main gear, and also because the runway was wet. About 100 feet beyond the end of the runway, the main gear broke through the non-load bearing pavement. Portions of the failed gear punctured fuel tanks in the left wing, the plane slid to a stop approximately 664 feet beyond the departure end of the runway. Of the 186 passengers and 14 crew on board, two passengers were burned to death during evacuation, moreover,28 passengers and three crew members were seriously injured during the evacuation, of whom two died about three months later of their injuries. Continental flight 603 was to be the last flight of Captain Eugene Hersche, during its investigation, the NTSB found the #2 tire failed because it threw off its tread. Then, the #1 tire failed because it was overloaded and had fatigue in its ply structure, then, the #5 tire failed, because it was hit with shrapnel from the rim of either the #2 or the #1 tire. After the investigation of this accident was completed, the FAA mandated changes to the design of evacuation slides to make them have more capacity and inflate at a quicker speed
41.
1978 Balkan Bulgarian Tupolev Tu-134 crash
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On departure from Sofia, the aircraft was climbing to 8,850 metres, but at 4,900 m it turned on a heading of 050. It turned again to 270 then began an abnormal descent, the aircraft crashed near the village of Gabare,130 km northeast of Sofia. It was never established what the nature of the emergency was or if the aircraft was under control at the moment of impact, UK CAA Document CAA429 World Airline Accident Summary Accident description at the Aviation Safety Network
42.
Korean Air Lines Flight 902
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Soviet Air Defence Forces initially identified it as part of the US air reconnaissance force, which carried out thousands of flights along Soviet borders annually at the time. Captain Alexander Bosov, pilot of the Sukhoi Su-15 that brought down Flight 902, saw Asian logogram characters on the tail of the Korean aircraft, the Su-15 opened fire, forcing the plane to descend, and killing two of the 109 passengers and crew members aboard Flight 902. The plane made a landing on the frozen Korpiyarvi lake near the Finnish border. Flight 902 departed from Paris, France on a course to Seoul, the plane’s only scheduled stop was in Anchorage, Alaska, USA where it would refuel and proceed to Seoul, avoiding Soviet airspace. As the plane passed over Alert on Ellesmere Island — located about 800 km from the North Pole — flight captain Kim Chang Ky suddenly changed his course, the aircraft was not fitted with an inertial navigation system, and GPS navigation was not available at the time. Due to an error in calculating magnetic declination, the plane flew in an enormous and it flew southeast over the Svalbard archipelago and the Barents Sea, past northern Scandinavia and into Soviet airspace. Soviet air defence radar spotted the plane approximately 400 kilometres away from Soviet territorial waters, at first, the Soviets assumed the plane was a naval aircraft that was returning from a mission, having forgotten to change its IFF transponder code. When the Korean aircraft passed over the Kola Peninsula at 21,19, Bosov incorrectly identified the plane as a United States Air Force reconnaissance RC-135. When reporting back to Tsarkov, Bosov said he could see a maple leaf on the planes tail, after a few moments, he corrected himself, stating that he could see Chinese characters and the maple leaf was actually a red stork with wings spread. According to Kims account of the attack, the interceptor approached his aircraft from the side rather than the left as required by International Civil Aviation Organization regulation. Kim decreased his speed and turned on the lights, indicating that he was ready to follow the Soviet fighter for landing. According to Soviet reports, the intruder repeatedly ignored commands to follow the interceptor, Bosov tried to convince his superiors that the plane was not a military threat, but after receiving orders to shoot it down he fired a pair of R-60 missiles. The first missile flew past the target, the second one hit the left wing, knocking off approximately four meters of its length. The missile also punctured the fuselage, causing rapid decompression and jamming one of the four turbines. After being hit, the airliner quickly descended from an altitude of 9,000 m and it fell into a cloud, disappearing from Soviet air defence radars. Soviets mistook the part of the wing that had fallen off Flight 902 for a winged missile, anatoly Kerefov, another Soviet pilot, replaced Bosov because his aircraft was running low on fuel. For the next 40 minutes, Flight 902 flew across the whole Kola Peninsula at a low altitude, after several unsuccessful attempts at landing, Kim brought the plane down on the ice of the frozen Korpiyarvi lake in Karelian ASSR, located approximately 140 kilometres from the Finnish border. Finnish sources state that Soviet air defense did not have any information on the planes whereabouts after it disappeared from the radar, however, Tsarkov stated that Kerefov located Flight 902 and led it to the Afrikanda air base
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National Airlines Flight 193
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National Airlines Flight 193, registration N4744, Donna, was a Boeing 727-235 en route from Miami, Florida to Pensacola on May 8,1978. It was scheduled with stops at Melbourne, Florida, Tampa, New Orleans, Louisiana and Mobile, the accident occurred at night in low visibility from fog. During the descent into Pensacola Regional Airport it impacted Escambia Bay, the instrument landing system for runway 16 had been out of service since January of that year for runway reconstruction. A non-precision approach to runway 25 was available instead, prior to initiating the approach a twin engine Beechcraft reported breaking out of the overcast at 450 feet. The minimum descent altitude for this approach was 480 feet and this concerned the first officer who informed the captain in his opinion that plane had made an illegal approach. An Eastern Air Lines jet ahead of them reported briefly having the runway in sight before losing it in the clouds, while established on the approach the first officer neglected to make altitude and approach fix call outs. The ground proximity alarm sounded and the first officer checked his altimeter and he read it as 1,500 feet and turned off the alarm. The flight data recorder would later show their actual altitude at this point was only 500 feet, the flight crew may have been distracted by the alarm and failed to realize they passed through the minimum descent altitude. Shortly after this they impacted Escambia Bay, barge traffic in the area assisted in the evacuation. Three passengers drowned attempting to exit the aircraft, the aircraft was intact after the accident and was removed to a hangar at Naval Air Station Pensacola but written off due to extensive sea water corrosion. The airframe was subsequently disassembled and removed from the air base to a scrapping location, contributing to the crash was poor preparation on the part of the flight crew. While the captain and first officer were aware that runway 16 was closed, an additional contributing factor to the crash was an error on the part of the radar controller. Procedure for runway 25 was to direct flights to intercept the approach at 8 nmi. The NTSB report concludes the controller created a situation that would make it impossible for the captain to configure his aircraft in the manner specified in the flight manual, a reluctance to declare a missed approach pervaded the descent. Radar controller, captain, first officer and flight engineer all had indications of an out of the approach, producing a rushed. Similarly, the first officer never made the required 1, 000-ft callout, because he never got to 1,000 ft mentally, in addition, each person chose not to ask for or offer additional assistance or warnings, including recommended announcements and acknowledgments. The lack of communication and a no problem here attitude resulted in false awareness of altitude. The aircraft was not equipped with, nor was it required to be equipped with, liferafts, twenty-four passengers and the crew believed that the seat cushions were flotation devices
