1.
Gun
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A gun is a normally tubular weapon or other device designed to discharge projectiles or other material. The projectile may be solid, liquid, gas or energy and may be free, as bullets and artillery shells, or captive as with Taser probes. Alternatively, acceleration via electromagnetic field generation may be employed in case the tube may be dispensed with. The first devices identified as guns appeared in China around CE1000, by the 12th century the technology was spreading through the rest of Asia, and into Europe by the 13th century. The origin of the English word gun is considered to derive from the given to a particular historical weapon. Domina Gunilda was the given to a remarkably large ballista. This name in turn may have derived from the Old Norse womans proper name Gunnhildr which combines two Norse words referring to battle, in any case the term gonne or gunne was applied to early hand-held firearms by the late 14th or early 15th century. The first device identified as a gun, a tube that used gunpowder to fire a spear. The Chinese had previously invented gunpowder in the 9th century, the earliest depiction of a gunpowder weapon is the illustration of a fire-lance on a mid-10th century silk banner from Dunhuang. The Dean Shoucheng Lu, an account of the siege of Dean in 1132, in due course, the proportion of saltpeter in the propellant was increased to maximise its explosive power. To better withstand that explosive power, the paper and bamboo of which fire-lance barrels were originally made came to be replaced by metal, and to take full advantage of that power, the shrapnel came to be replaced by projectiles whose size and shape filled the barrel more closely. English Privy Wardrobe accounts list ribaldis, a type of cannon, in the 1340s, the earliest surviving firearm in Europe has been found from Otepää, Estonia and it dates to at least 1396. Around the late 14th century in Europe, smaller and portable hand-held cannons were developed, in the late 15th century the Ottoman empire used firearms as part of its regular infantry. The first successful rapid-fire firearm is the Gatling Gun, invented by Richard Gatling, the worlds first sub-machine gun able to be maneuvered by a single soldier is the MP18.1, invented by Theodor Bergmann. It was introduced into service in 1918 by the German Army during World War I as the weapon of the Stosstruppen. The first assault rifle was introduced during World War II by the Germans and it was the first firearm which bridges the gap between long range rifles, machine guns, and short range sub-machine guns. Since the mid-20th century guns that fire beams of energy rather than solid projectiles have been developed, most guns use compressed gas confined by the barrel to propel the bullet up to high speed, though devices operating in other ways are sometimes called guns. In firearms the high-pressure gas is generated by combustion, usually of gunpowder and this principle is similar to that of internal combustion engines, except that the bullet leaves the barrel, while the piston transfers its motion to other parts and returns down the cylinder
2.
Projectile
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A projectile is any object thrown into space by the exertion of a force. Although any object in motion through space may be called a projectile, mathematical equations of motion are used to analyze projectile trajectory. Blowguns and pneumatic rifles use compressed gases, while most other guns and cannons utilize expanding gases liberated by sudden chemical reactions, light-gas guns use a combination of these mechanisms. Railguns utilize electromagnetic fields to provide a constant acceleration along the length of the device. Some projectiles provide propulsion during flight by means of an engine or jet engine. In military terminology, a rocket is unguided, while a missile is guided, note the two meanings of rocket, an ICBM is a guided missile with a rocket engine. An explosion, whether or not by a weapon, causes the debris to act as high velocity projectiles. An explosive weapon, or device may also be designed to produce high velocity projectiles by the break-up of its casing. Many projectiles, e. g. shells, may carry a charge or another chemical or biological substance. Aside from explosive payload, a projectile can be designed to cause damage, e. g. fire. Typical kinetic energy weapons are blunt projectiles such as rocks and round shots, pointed ones such as arrows, among projectiles that do not contain explosives are those launched from railguns, coilguns, and mass drivers, as well as kinetic energy penetrators. Other types of weapons are accelerated over time by a rocket engine. In either case, it is the energy of the projectile that destroys its target. Some kinetic weapons for targeting objects in spaceflight are anti-satellite weapons, since in order to reach an object in orbit it is necessary to attain an extremely high velocity, their released kinetic energy alone is enough to destroy their target, explosives are not necessary. For example, the energy of TNT is 4.6 MJ/kg, and this saves costly weight and there is no detonation to be precisely timed. This method, however, requires direct contact with the target, some hit-to-kill warheads are additionally equipped with an explosive directional warhead to enhance the kill probability. With regard to weapons, the Arrow missile and MIM-104 Patriot PAC-2 have explosives, while the Kinetic Energy Interceptor, Lightweight Exo-Atmospheric Projectile. A kinetic projectile can also be dropped from aircraft and this is applied by replacing the explosives of a regular bomb with a non-explosive material, for a precision hit with less collateral damage
3.
Pneumatics
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Pneumatics is a branch of engineering that makes use of gas or pressurized air. Pneumatic systems used in industry are commonly powered by compressed air or compressed inert gases, a centrally located and electrically powered compressor powers cylinders, air motors, and other pneumatic devices. A pneumatic system controlled through manual or automatic solenoid valves is selected when it provides a lower cost, more flexible, pneumatics also has applications in dentistry, construction, mining, and other areas. Pneumatic systems in fixed installations, such as factories, use compressed air because a sustainable supply can be made by compressing atmospheric air, the air usually has moisture removed, and a small quantity of oil is added at the compressor to prevent corrosion and lubricate mechanical components. Factory-plumbed pneumatic-power users need not worry about poisonous leakage, as the gas is usually just air, smaller or stand-alone systems can use other compressed gases that present an asphyxiation hazard, such as nitrogen—often referred to as OFN when supplied in cylinders. Any compressed gas other than air is an asphyxiation hazard—including nitrogen, compressed oxygen would not asphyxiate, but is not used in pneumatically-powered devices because it is a fire hazard, more expensive, and offers no performance advantage over air. Carbon dioxide is an asphyxiant and can be a hazard if vented improperly. The origins of pneumatics can be traced back to the first century when ancient Greek mathematician Hero of Alexandria wrote about his inventions powered by steam or the wind, german physicist Otto von Guericke went a little further. He invented the pump, a device that can draw out air or gas from the attached vessel. He demonstrated the vacuum pump to separate the pairs of copper hemispheres using air pressures, the field of pneumatics has changed considerably over the years. It has moved from small handheld devices to large machines with multiple parts that serve different functions, both pneumatics and hydraulics are applications of fluid power. Pneumatics uses an easily compressible gas such as air or a suitable pure gas—while hydraulics uses relatively incompressible liquid media such as oil, most industrial pneumatic applications use pressures of about 80 to 100 pounds per square inch. Hydraulics applications commonly use from 1,000 to 5,000 psi, simplicity of design and control—Machines are easily designed using standard cylinders and other components, and operate via simple on-off control. Reliability—Pneumatic systems generally have long operating lives and require little maintenance, because gas is compressible, equipment is less subject to shock damage. Gas absorbs excessive force, whereas fluid in hydraulics directly transfers force, compressed gas can be stored, so machines still run for a while if electrical power is lost. Safety—There is a low chance of fire compared to hydraulic oil. Newer machines are usually overload safe, liquid does not absorb any of the supplied energy. Capable of moving much higher loads and providing much higher due to the incompressibility
4.
Compressed air
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Compressed air is air kept under a pressure that is greater than atmospheric pressure. It serves many domestic and industrial purposes, in Europe,10 percent of all industrial electricity consumption is to produce compressed air—amounting to 80 terawatt hours consumption per year. In industry, compressed air is so used that it is often regarded as the fourth utility, after electricity, natural gas. However, compressed air is more expensive than the three utilities when evaluated on a per unit energy delivered basis. Compressed air is used for many purposes, including, Pneumatics, copper, stainless steel and other piping materials that are less corrosive are recommended. If plain carbon steel piping is installed, then rust particles can pass downstream and interfere with the operation of condensate valves, the riser piping should connect to the top of the header piping and be one pipe size larger than the compressor discharge piping and/or overhead header piping. A drip leg with a drain is needed to prevent water flowing back to the compressor. Mount valves in the highest horizontal piping, all of the header main compressed air piping should slope 1/8 to 1/4 per foot down and away from the point of origin. Gravity and airflow will then carry condensate to the low points where a drop leg should be installed to allow for removal at accessible drop legs and drain points. These drops should be installed every 50 to 70 feet in the system, the inlet piping for air dryers should connect to the bottom of the piping headers. Where multiple air compressors are to connect the piping to the top of overhead piping headers. The inlet piping for Air Dryer should connect to the bottom of the piping headers and it is recommended for the inlet pipe to be thermostatically controlled to automatically open and close based on the compressed air room’s temperature. All of the main compressed air piping should slope 1/8 per foot down from the air compressor. Gravity and airflow will then carry condensate to the low points where drop leg should be installed to allow for removal at to accessible drop legs and drain points. For larger plant, as the elevation lowers, a full size tee with a bottom drip leg preceding an elbow turned up to raise the pipe elevation. These drip legs & up turned elbows are typically 200 to 300 feet apart, i. e. the main piping slopes about 1/100 feet, Compressed air should flow through the straight ends of a tee and should never hit the back side of a tee. The air piping drops should connect from the top of the main piping and this prevents any condensate which forms in the main piping from flowing into the branch pipes. Individual shut-off valves should be installed at each drop pipe to isolate it from the rest of the system for maintenance, putting the valve above the header piping in the horizontal section, avoids trapping water on the top side of closed valves in vertical piping
5.
Gas
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Gas is one of the four fundamental states of matter. A pure gas may be made up of atoms, elemental molecules made from one type of atom. A gas mixture would contain a variety of pure gases much like the air, what distinguishes a gas from liquids and solids is the vast separation of the individual gas particles. This separation usually makes a colorless gas invisible to the human observer, the interaction of gas particles in the presence of electric and gravitational fields are considered negligible as indicated by the constant velocity vectors in the image. One type of commonly known gas is steam, the gaseous state of matter is found between the liquid and plasma states, the latter of which provides the upper temperature boundary for gases. Bounding the lower end of the temperature scale lie degenerative quantum gases which are gaining increasing attention, high-density atomic gases super cooled to incredibly low temperatures are classified by their statistical behavior as either a Bose gas or a Fermi gas. For a comprehensive listing of these states of matter see list of states of matter. The only chemical elements which are stable multi atom homonuclear molecules at temperature and pressure, are hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen. These gases, when grouped together with the noble gases. Alternatively they are known as molecular gases to distinguish them from molecules that are also chemical compounds. The word gas is a neologism first used by the early 17th-century Flemish chemist J. B. van Helmont, according to Paracelsuss terminology, chaos meant something like ultra-rarefied water. An alternative story is that Van Helmonts word is corrupted from gahst and these four characteristics were repeatedly observed by scientists such as Robert Boyle, Jacques Charles, John Dalton, Joseph Gay-Lussac and Amedeo Avogadro for a variety of gases in various settings. Their detailed studies ultimately led to a relationship among these properties expressed by the ideal gas law. Gas particles are separated from one another, and consequently have weaker intermolecular bonds than liquids or solids. These intermolecular forces result from interactions between gas particles. Like-charged areas of different gas particles repel, while oppositely charged regions of different gas particles attract one another, transient, randomly induced charges exist across non-polar covalent bonds of molecules and electrostatic interactions caused by them are referred to as Van der Waals forces. The interaction of these forces varies within a substance which determines many of the physical properties unique to each gas. A comparison of boiling points for compounds formed by ionic and covalent bonds leads us to this conclusion, the drifting smoke particles in the image provides some insight into low pressure gas behavior
6.
Chemical reaction
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A chemical reaction is a process that leads to the transformation of one set of chemical substances to another. Nuclear chemistry is a sub-discipline of chemistry that involves the reactions of unstable. The substance initially involved in a reaction are called reactants or reagents. Chemical reactions are characterized by a chemical change, and they yield one or more products. Reactions often consist of a sequence of individual sub-steps, the elementary reactions. Chemical reactions are described with chemical equations, which present the starting materials, end products. Chemical reactions happen at a characteristic reaction rate at a given temperature, typically, reaction rates increase with increasing temperature because there is more thermal energy available to reach the activation energy necessary for breaking bonds between atoms. Reactions may proceed in the forward or reverse direction until they go to completion or reach equilibrium, Reactions that proceed in the forward direction to approach equilibrium are often described as spontaneous, requiring no input of free energy to go forward. Non-spontaneous reactions require input of energy to go forward. Different chemical reactions are used in combinations during chemical synthesis in order to obtain a desired product, in biochemistry, a consecutive series of chemical reactions form metabolic pathways. These reactions are catalyzed by protein enzymes. Chemical reactions such as combustion in fire, fermentation and the reduction of ores to metals were known since antiquity, in the Middle Ages, chemical transformations were studied by Alchemists. They attempted, in particular, to lead into gold, for which purpose they used reactions of lead. The process involved heating of sulfate and nitrate minerals such as sulfate, alum. In the 17th century, Johann Rudolph Glauber produced hydrochloric acid and sodium sulfate by reacting sulfuric acid, further optimization of sulfuric acid technology resulted in the contact process in the 1880s, and the Haber process was developed in 1909–1910 for ammonia synthesis. From the 16th century, researchers including Jan Baptist van Helmont, Robert Boyle, the phlogiston theory was proposed in 1667 by Johann Joachim Becher. It postulated the existence of an element called phlogiston, which was contained within combustible bodies. This proved to be false in 1785 by Antoine Lavoisier who found the explanation of the combustion as reaction with oxygen from the air
7.
Firearm
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A firearm is a portable gun - a barreled weapon that launches one or more projectiles, often driven by the action of an explosive force. The first primitive firearms originated in 13th-century China when the fire lance was combined with projectiles. The technology gradually spread through the rest of East Asia, South Asia, older firearms typically used black powder as a propellant, but modern firearms use smokeless powder or other propellants. Most modern firearms have rifled barrels to impart spin to the projectile for improved flight stability, modern firearms can be described by their caliber or in the case of shotguns their gauge, by the type of action employed together with the usual means of deportment. The word firearms usually is used in a sense restricted to small arms, shooters aim firearms at their targets with hand-eye co-ordination, using either iron sights or optical sights. The accurate range of pistols generally does not exceed 100 yards, while most rifles are accurate to 550 yards using iron sights, some purpose-built sniper rifles are accurate to ranges of more than 2,200 yards. The smallest of all firearms is the handgun, there are three common types of handguns, single-shot pistols, revolvers, and semi-automatic pistols. Revolvers have a number of firing chambers or charge holes in a revolving cylinder, semi-automatic pistols have a single fixed firing chamber machined into the rear of the barrel, and a magazine so they can be used to fire more than one round. Each press of the fires a cartridge, using the energy of the cartridge to activate the mechanism so that the next cartridge may be fired immediately. This is opposed to double-action revolvers which accomplish the end using a mechanical action linked to the trigger pull. Prior to the 19th century, virtually all handguns were single-shot muzzleloaders, with the invention of the revolver in 1818, handguns capable of holding multiple rounds became popular. Certain designs of auto-loading pistol appeared beginning in the 1870s and had largely supplanted revolvers in military applications by the end of World War I. By the end of the 20th century, most handguns carried regularly by military, police and civilians were semi-automatic, both designs are common among civilian gun owners, depending on the owners intention. A long gun is any firearm that is larger than a handgun and is designed to be held. Early long arms, from the Renaissance up to the century, were generally smoothbore firearms that fired one or more ball shot. Most modern long guns are either rifles or shotguns, both are the successors of the musket, diverging from their parent weapon in distinct ways. A rifle is so named for the spiral fluting machined into the surface of its barrel. Shotguns are predominantly smoothbore firearms designed to fire a number of shot, shotguns are also capable of firing single slugs, or specialty rounds such as bean bags, tear gas or breaching rounds
8.
Exothermic process
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Its etymology stems from the Greek prefix έξω and the Greek word θερμικός. The term exothermic was first coined by Marcellin Berthelot, the opposite of an exothermic process is an endothermic process, one that absorbs energy in the form of heat. The concept is applied in the physical sciences to chemical reactions. Exothermic describe two types of reactions or systems found in nature, as follows. Simply stated, after a reaction, more energy has been released to the surroundings than was absorbed to initiate. On the other hand, in a reaction or system. Exothermic refers to a transformation in which a system releases energy to the surroundings, when the transformation occurs at constant pressure, one has for the enthalpy ∆H <0, and constant volume, one has for the internal energy ∆U <0. In an adiabatic system, a process results in an increase in temperature of the system. In exothermic chemical reactions, the heat that is released by the reaction takes the form of electromagnetic energy, the transition of electrons from one quantum energy level to another causes light to be released. This light is equivalent in energy to the energy of the energy for the chemical reaction. This light that is released can be absorbed by other molecules in solution to give rise to molecular vibrations or rotations, which gives rise to the classical understanding of heat. In contrast, when endothermic reactions occur, energy is absorbed to place an electron in an energy state. Net energy is absorbed by an endothermic reaction, in an exothermic reaction, the energy needed to start the reaction is less than the energy that is subsequently released, so there is a net release of energy. This is the understanding of exothermic and endothermic reactions. In a thermochemical reaction that is exothermic, the heat may be listed among the products of the reaction, because of historical accident, students encounter a source of possible confusion between the terminology of physics and biology. Http, //chemistry. about. com/b/a/184556. htm Observe exothermic reactions in a simple experiment
9.
Redox
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Redox is a chemical reaction in which the oxidation states of atoms are changed. Any such reaction involves both a process and a complementary oxidation process, two key concepts involved with electron transfer processes. Redox reactions include all chemical reactions in which atoms have their oxidation state changed, in general, the chemical species from which the electron is stripped is said to have been oxidized, while the chemical species to which the electron is added is said to have been reduced. It can be explained in terms, Oxidation is the loss of electrons or an increase in oxidation state by a molecule, atom. Reduction is the gain of electrons or a decrease in state by a molecule, atom. As an example, during the combustion of wood, oxygen from the air is reduced, the reaction can occur relatively slowly, as in the case of rust, or more quickly, as in the case of fire. Redox is a portmanteau of reduction and oxidation, the word oxidation originally implied reaction with oxygen to form an oxide, since dioxygen was historically the first recognized oxidizing agent. Later, the term was expanded to encompass oxygen-like substances that accomplished parallel chemical reactions, ultimately, the meaning was generalized to include all processes involving loss of electrons. The word reduction originally referred to the loss in weight upon heating a metallic ore such as an oxide to extract the metal. In other words, ore was reduced to metal, antoine Lavoisier showed that this loss of weight was due to the loss of oxygen as a gas. Later, scientists realized that the atom gains electrons in this process. The meaning of reduction then became generalized to all processes involving gain of electrons. Even though reduction seems counter-intuitive when speaking of the gain of electrons, it help to think of reduction as the loss of oxygen. Since electrons are charged, it is also helpful to think of this as reduction in electrical charge. The electrochemist John Bockris has used the words electronation and deelectronation to describe reduction and oxidation processes respectively when they occur at electrodes and these words are analogous to protonation and deprotonation, but they have not been widely adopted by chemists. The term hydrogenation could be used instead of reduction, since hydrogen is the agent in a large number of reactions. But, unlike oxidation, which has been generalized beyond its root element, the word redox was first used in 1928. The processes of oxidation and reduction occur simultaneously and cannot happen independently of one another, the oxidation alone and the reduction alone are each called a half-reaction, because two half-reactions always occur together to form a whole reaction
10.
Deflagration
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Deflagration is a term describing subsonic combustion propagating through heat transfer, hot burning material heats the next layer of cold material and ignites it. Most fires found in life, from flames to explosions, are deflagrations. Deflagration is different from detonation, which propagates supersonically through shock waves and this means that when a substance deflagrates, it burns extremely quickly instead of detonating. Black powder is an example of a substance deflagrates, when it is ignited. In engineering applications, deflagrations are easier to control than detonations, consequently, they are better suited when the goal is to move an object with the force of the expanding gas. Deflagration systems and products can also be used in mining, demolition, adding water to a burning hydrocarbon such as oil or wax produces a deflagration. The water boils rapidly and ejects the burning material as a spray of droplets. A deflagration then occurs as the fine mist of oil ignites and these are particularly common in chip pan fires, which are responsible for one in five household fires in Britain. The burning region is referred to as the flame or flame front. In equilibrium, thermal diffusion across the front is balanced by the heat supplied by burning. There are two characteristic timescales which are important here, the first is the thermal diffusion timescale τ d, which is approximately equal to τ d ≃ δ2 / κ, where κ is the thermal diffusivity. For a stationary moving deflagration front, these two timescales must be equal, the heat generated by burning is equal to the heat carried away by heat transfer. This makes it possible to calculate the characteristic width δ of the front, τ b = τ d. Now, the flame front propagates at a characteristic speed S l. This simplified model neglects the change of temperature and thus the burning rate across the deflagration front and this model also neglects the possible influence of turbulence. As a result, this gives only the laminar flame speed -- hence the designation S l. Damage to buildings, equipment and people can result from a large-scale, in free-air deflagrations, there is a continuous variation in deflagration effects relative to the maximum flame velocity. When flame velocities are low, the effect of a deflagration is to release heat, some authors use the term flash fire to describe these low-speed deflagrations
11.
Combustibility and flammability
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Combustibility is a measure of how easily a substance will set on fire, through fire or combustion. This is an important property to consider when a substance is used for construction or is being stored and it is also important in processes that produce combustible substances as a by-product. Special precautions are required for substances that are easily combustible. These measures may include installation of fire sprinklers or storage remote from possible sources of ignition, substances with low combustibility may be selected for construction where the fire risk needs to be reduced, such as apartment buildings, houses, or offices. If combustible resources are used there is chance of fire accidents. Fire resistant substances are preferred for building materials and furnishings, for an Authority Having Jurisdiction, combustibility is defined by the local code. BS 476-4,1970 defines a test for combusibility in which 3 specimens of a material are heated in a furnace, otherwise, the material shall be deemed combustible. Various countries have tests for determining noncombustibility of materials, most involve the heating of a specified quantity of the test specimen for a set duration. Usually, the material cannot support combustion and must not undergo a loss of mass. In Canada, for instance, firewalls must be made of concrete, in building construction, buildings are typically divided into combustible and noncombustible ones. Combustible structures have more stringent limits on building height and area. A number of industrial processes produce combustible dust as a by-product, the most common being wood dust. In addition to wood, combustible dusts include metals, especially magnesium, titanium and aluminum, there are at least a 140 known substances that produce combustible dust. While the particles in a combustible dusts may be of any size, as of 2012, the United States Occupational Safety and Health Administration has yet to adopt a comprehensive set of rules on combustible dust. When suspended in air, the particles of combustible dust present a potential for explosions. Accumulated dust, even when not suspended in air, remains a fire hazard, collectors designed to reduce airborne dust account for more than 40 percent of all dust explosions. Other important processes are grinding and pulverizing, transporting powders, filing silos and containers, investigation of 200 dust explosions and fires, between 1980 to 2005, indicated approximately 100 fatalities and 600 injuries. In January 2003, a powder explosion and fire at the West Pharmaceutical Services plant in Kinston, North Carolina resulted in the deaths of six workers
12.
Long gun
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A long gun is a category of firearms and cannons with longer barrels than other classes. Canada has a limit of 18.5 inches for either, in addition, Canada puts a minimum fireable length for long guns with detachable or folding stocks of 26 inches. In the United States, the length for long guns with detachable or folding stocks is 26 inches with the stock in the extended position. Almost all long-arms have front grips and shoulder stocks, which provides the user the ability to hold the firearm more steadily than a handgun. In addition, the barrel of a long gun usually provides a longer distance between the front and rear sights, providing the user with more precision when aiming. The presence of a stock makes the use of a sight or red dot sight easier than with a hand gun. The mass of a gun is usually greater than that of a short gun, making the long gun more expensive to transport. The increased moment of inertia makes the long gun slower and more difficult to traverse and elevate, however, this also results in greater stability in aiming. The greater amount of material in a long gun tends to make it expensive to manufacture. The greater size makes it difficult to conceal, and more inconvenient to use in confined quarters. As long guns include a stock which is braced against the shoulder and this allows better control of aim than handguns, which do not include a stock and thus all their recoil must be transferred to the arms of the user. This is one of the reasons for the use of long guns over handguns - faster or heavier projectiles help with penetration. Shotguns are long guns that are designed to fire small projectiles at once. This makes them effective at close ranges, but with diminished usefulness at long range. In historical navy usage, a gun was the standard type of cannon mounted by a sailing vessel. In informal usage, the length was combined with the weight of shot, yielding terms like long 9s, rail-gun, any of several guns utilizing one or more rails for mobilizing, stability/shot consistency, or accelerating a projectile Supergun, an extraordinarily large artillery piece
13.
Handgun
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A handgun is a firearm designed to be handheld, in either one or both hands. This characteristic differentiates handguns as a class of firearms from long guns such as rifles. Major handgun subtypes are the revolver and pistol, other subtypes include derringers, the words pistol and handgun have overlapping variations, in meaning. Although handgun use often includes bracing with a hand, the essential distinguishing characteristic of a handgun is its facility for one-handed operation. The word pistol is often synonymous with the word handgun, some handgun experts make a technical distinction that views pistols as a subset of handguns. But UK/Commonwealth usage often does not make this distinction, handheld firearms were first made in China where gunpowder was first developed. By the 14th century, they existed in Europe as well, the first handheld firearms that might better be called pistols were made as early as the 15th century, but their creator is unknown. By the 18th century, the term came to be used often to refer to handheld firearms, previously there had been no such differentiation, and in fact Samuel Colts original patent was for a revolving-breech pistol. There is no equivalent for handgun in the Romance languages. The general types of handguns are listed below in their order of historical appearance, each type can be classified into many sub-types. Some of these types can also be classified using the general distinction between muzzle-loading firearms and breech-loading firearms. Single-shot pistols are the simplest possible form of pistols and are known to have existed in AD1365, the earliest handguns were single-shot, muzzle-loading guns with ignition provided by inserting a smoldering match cord into a touch hole. As such, they were nothing more than miniature cannon. Improvements followed in subsequent centuries, as types of locks were invented. In the matchlock, the separate match cord was affixed to a pivot which could be tripped by a trigger. In the wheellock, an analogous to that used in todays cigarette lighters replaced the smoldering match cord. In the 17th century, the flintlock, which strikes a flint against steel, the flintlock remained the standard method of small arms ignition around two hundred years. In the 19th century, percussion caps were developed, followed shortly by modern integrated-primer cartridges, an example of a single-shot pistol is the flare gun
14.
Diabolo
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The diabolo is a juggling or circus prop consisting of an axle and two cups or discs derived from the Chinese yo-yo. This object is spun using an attached to two hand sticks. A large variety, possibly, hundreds, of tricks are possible with the diabolo, including tosses, and various types of interaction with the sticks, string, multiple diabolos can be spun on a single string. Like the Western yo-yo, it maintains its spinning motion through an effect based on conservation of angular momentum. Diabolos evolved from the Chinese yo-yo, which was standardized in the 12th century. Chinese yo-yos have an axle with discs on either end, while the diabolo has a very short axle and larger. Diabolos are made of different materials and come in different sizes and this noisy rattle consists of two hollow cylinders of metal, wood, or bamboo, joined together in the middle by a cross-piece. Each of the cylinders is pierced by a hole in opposite directions, the rope loops around the crossbeam. The diabolo was as part of a presentation of Chinese culture edited by stenographer Jean-Baptiste Joseph Breton in 1811-2, in 1812 the diabolo, was all the rage, and then, enjoyed an ephemeral vogue, until it, finally fell into discredit, some time before 1861. Some consider the toy dangerous, injuries and deaths players and bystanders have been claimed, the term is derived the name from the Greek dia bolo, roughly meaning across throw. In Greek, the term means to throw across. It comes from a combination of dia meaning across or through, the Greek word diabolos, from which many modern languages words for devil derive, is unrelated. The term loriot was used in England, as well as rocket-ball, confusion about the provenance of the name may have arisen from the earlier name the devil on two sticks, although nowadays this often also refers to another circus-based skill toy, the devil stick. In time diabolo was retained for the version of the Chinese stick toy while the hitting version of the stick toy was rendered into English as the Devil Stick. Phillipart claimed Diabolo to be his invention, in reality, he had improved a Napoleonic toy, which in turn had originated long ago in China. However, Charles Parker gained the U. S, another estimate for the fad is 1910 to 1915, while the big fad in Paris is mentioned in Nature in 1893. The Wright brothers became enamored with the toy during a lull in a trip to France they had taken to market their Wright Flyer III airplane, as with the yo-yo, the design of the diabolo has varied through history and across the world. Chinese diabolos have been made of bamboo, wooden diabolos were common in Victorian times in Britain
15.
Pellet (air gun)
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A pellet is a non-spherical projectile designed to be fired from an air gun. It can have a flat, round, hollow or pointed tip, from the waist back, the pellet is hollow, and flares out to full diameter when pressurized by the gun. The head, or solid part in front of the waist, is sized to fit the bore just touching the rifling. This keeps the pellet centred in the bore, while keeping the friction as low as possible, the effect of friction is used in order to keep the pellet stationary until the piston has reached the end of its travel, compressing as much air as is possible. The skirt of the pellet is thin, and made of a material, usually lead or lead alloy. When shot, the skirt will obturate to fit the bore and provide a good seal, in a smoothbore barrel, the skirt will still flare to provide a tight seal, but since there is no rifling, the pellet will not spin, and is less accurate. In most cases of type, the solid head in the front. However, this is not always the case, and some types of this nature will tumble in flight. When this happens the pellet will not leave a clean, round hole in the paper and this phenomenon is known as keyholing. Pellets are designed to travel at subsonic speeds, high velocities can cause light pellets to overly deform, or even break apart in flight. The transition from subsonic to supersonic velocities will cause almost all pellets to tumble, the closer a pellet gets to the speed of sound, the more unstable it becomes. This is a problem for high powered break-barrel and pre-charged pneumatic air rifles, a few companies have addressed this issue by manufacturing heavier than normal pellets for use in these high powered air guns. The heavier weight of these pellets ensure that they travel at speeds well below the sound barrier, resulting in less tumbling. Their weight also makes them susceptible to air resistance, and thus imparts more kinetic energy downrange. Match pellets are used for the 10 metre air rifle and 10 metre air pistol disciplines and these 4.5 mm calibre pellets have wadcutter heads, meaning the front is flat, that leave clean round holes in paper targets for easy scoring. Match pellets are offered in tins and more elaborate packagings that avoid deformation, match pellets are made of soft lead. The antimony content is used to control the hardness of the soft lead alloy and it is a very soft alloy, which makes it easy to process. Since the soft lead alloy is prone to strongly deform when striking a bullet catcher, it loses its kinetic energy
16.
Shot (pellet)
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Shot is a collective term for small balls or pellets, often made of lead. Lead shot is used for a variety of other purposes such as filling cavities with dense material for weight/balance. Some versions may be plated with other metals, lead shot was originally made by pouring molten lead through screens into water, forming what was known as swan shot, and, later, more economically mass-produced at higher quality using a shot tower. The Bliemeister method has supplanted the shot tower method since the early 1960s, the process was patented in 1782. The process was later brought above ground through the building of shot towers, molten lead would be dropped from the top of the tower. Like most liquids, surface tension makes drops of lead become near-spherical as they fall. When the tower is high enough, the droplets will solidify while still dropping. Water is usually placed at the bottom of the tower, causing the lead to be cooled immediately after dropping, roundness of manufactured shot produced from the shot tower process is graded by forcing the newly produced shot to roll accurately down inclined planes. Unround shot will naturally roll to the side, for collection, the unround shot was either re-processed in another attempt to make round shot using the shot tower again, or used for applications which did not require round shot. The hardness of lead shot is controlled through adding variable amounts of tin, antimony and arsenic and this also affects its melting point. Hardness is also controlled by the rate of cooling that is used in manufacturing lead shot, the Bliemeister method, named for inventor Louis W. Bliemeister of Los Angeles, CA, is a process for making lead shot in small sizes from about #7 through about #9. In this process, molten lead is dripped from small orifices and dropped approximately 1 inch into a hot liquid, the roundness of the lead shot depends on the angle of the inclined surfaces as well as the temperature of the liquid coolant. Various coolants have successfully used, ranging from diesel fuel to antifreeze. After the lead shot cools, it is washed, then dried, the process of rapidly chilling lead shot during its manufacturing process causes the shot to become harder than it would otherwise be if allowed to cool more slowly. Soft lead shot is more readily deformed during the firing process by the effects of chokes. The manufacture of non-lead shot differs from that of lead, with compression molding used to some alloys. Shot is available in sizes for different applications. The size of numbered shot decreases as the number increases, in hunting, some sizes are traditionally used for certain game, or certain shooting situations, although there is overlap and subjective preference
17.
BB gun
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BB guns are a type of air gun designed to fire spherical metal projectiles similar to shot pellets of approximately the same size. Modern BB guns usually have a barrel with a caliber of 4.5 mm and are available in many varieties. These guns usually use steel BB shots, plated either with zinc or copper to resist corrosion, some manufacturers still make lead balls around 0.48 to 0.50 g in weight and slightly larger in diameter, which are generally intended for use in rifled barrels. The term BB gun is often used to describe a pellet gun. Although in many cases a steel BB can be fired in a pellet gun, similarly, the term is also often used incorrectly to address airsoft guns, which shoot plastic balls that are larger but much less dense. The term BB originated from the nomenclature of the size of steel used in a shotgun. Size BB shots were normally 0.180 inches, but tended to vary considerably in size due to the loose tolerances in shotgun shells. They called these round shots, but the BB name was well established, and most users continued calling their guns BB guns. Subsequently, the term BB became generic, referring to any small spherical projectiles of various calibers and this includes bearing balls often utilized by anti-personnel mines.177 caliber lead/steel shots used by air guns, plastic round balls, small marbles and many others. It has become ubiquitous to refer to any ball, such as a BB. However, BBs should not be confused with a ball bearing, BB guns can use any of the operating mechanisms used for air guns. However, due to the inherent limited accuracy and short range of the BB, only the simpler and less expensive mechanisms are generally used for guns designed to fire only BBs. Because the strength of the steel BB does not allow it to be swaged with the low energies used to accelerate it through the barrel and this limits accuracy because little spin is imparted on the BB. It also limits range, because some of the air used to accelerate it is lost around the BB. Since a BB will easily roll unhindered down the barrel, it is common to find guns that use a magnet in the mechanism to hold the BB at the rear of the barrel until it is fired. The traditional, and still most common powerplant for BB guns is the spring piston, the lever-action rifle was the first type of BB gun, and still dominates the inexpensive youth BB gun market. The Daisy Model 25, modeled after a shotgun with a trombone pump-action mechanism. Lever-action models generally have very low velocities, around 84 m/s, the Daisy Model 25 typically achieved the highest velocities of its day, ranging from 114 to 145 m/s
18.
Flechette
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A flechette /flɛˈʃɛt/ fleh-SHET is a pointed steel projectile, with a vaned tail for stable flight. The name comes from French fléchette, little arrow or dart, in World War I, darts, also known as flechettes were dropped from aircraft to attack infantry. Small-arms makers are attracted by the ballistic performance and armor-piercing potential of flechettes. A number of attempts have been made to field flechette-firing small arms, the initial work was with the nerve agent VX, which had to be thickened to deliver a reliable dose. Eventually this was replaced by a particulate carbamate, the US Biological Program also had a microflechette to deliver either botulinum toxin A or saxitoxin, the M1 biodart, which resembled a 7.62 mm rifle cartridge. Several underwater firearms were experimented with using flechettes, during the Vietnam War the United States employed 12 gauge combat shotguns that were used with flechette loads that consisted of around 20 flechettes per shell. The USSR/Russian federation had the AO-27 rifle as well as the APS amphibious rifle, a number of prototype flechette-firing weapons were developed as part of the long-running Special Purpose Individual Weapon project. Some of these showed up as entries in the Advanced Combat Rifle project as well, a variation of the flechette addressing its difficulties is the SCMITR, developed as part of the Close Assault Weapon System, or CAWS, project. Selective-fire shotguns were used to fire flechettes designed to retain the exterior ballistics and penetration of the standard flechette and they were used in the Vietnam War by 105 mm howitzer batteries and tanks to defend themselves against massed infantry attacks. There was also a round for the M40 recoilless rifle. Heavier artillery, including 155 mm howitzers, 8-inch howitzers, and 175 mm guns, the 70 mm Hydra 70 rocket currently in service with the US Armed forces can be fitted with an anti-personnel warhead containing 96 flechettes. They are carried by attack helicopters such as the AH-64 Apache, the Israel Defense Forces have been accused of using 105 and 120 mm flechette shells during the occupation of southern Lebanon and later in the 2009 and 2014 incursions into the Gaza Strip. The Israel Defense Forces had drawn criticism for their use of tank-fired flechettes in urban areas, in 2008, a flechette round from an Israeli tank fired at Reuters cameraman Fadel Shanaa killed him along with two adjacent civilians. According to the Palestinian Centre for Human Rights, IDF tanks fired six anti-personnel munitions at the town of Khuza on July 17, kinetic energy penetrator Lazy Dog How flechettes work The Guardian newspaper. Pictures of air dropped flechette, from World War I through the 1970s
19.
Arrow
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An arrow is a shafted projectile that is shot with a bow. It predates recorded history and is common to most cultures, an arrow usually consists of a shaft with an arrowhead attached to the front end, with fletchings and a nock at the other. The oldest evidence of stone-tipped projectiles, which may or may not have been propelled by a bow, dating to c.64,000 years ago, were found in Sibudu Cave, South Africa. The oldest evidence of the use of bows to shoot arrows dates to about 10,000 years ago and they had shallow grooves on the base, indicating that they were shot from a bow. The oldest bow so far recovered is about 8,000 years old, archery seems to have arrived in the Americas with the Arctic small tool tradition, about 4,500 years ago. Arrow sizes vary greatly across cultures, ranging from eighteen inches to five feet, however, most modern arrows are 75 centimetres to 96 centimetres, most war arrows from an English ship sunk in 1545 were 76 centimetres. Very short arrows have been used, shot through a guide attached either to the bow or to the archers wrist and these may fly farther than heavier arrows, and an enemy without suitable equipment may find himself unable to return them. The shaft is the structural element of the arrow, to which the other components are attached. Traditional arrow shafts are made from wood, bamboo or reeds, while modern shafts may be made from aluminium, carbon fibre reinforced plastic. Such shafts are made from an aluminium core wrapped with a carbon fibre outer. The stiffness of the shaft is known as its spine, referring to how little the shaft bends when compressed, hence, an arrow which bends less is said to have more spine. In order to strike consistently, a group of arrows must be similarly spined, center-shot bows, in which the arrow passes through the central vertical axis of the bow riser, may obtain consistent results from arrows with a wide range of spines. Higher draw-weight bows will generally require stiffer arrows, with more spine to give the amount of flex when shot. The weight of a shaft can be expressed in GPI. The length of a shaft in inches multiplied by its GPI rating gives the weight of the shaft in grains, for example, a shaft that is 30 inches long and has a GPI of 9.5 weighs 285 grains, or about 18 grams. This does not include the elements of a finished arrow. Sometimes a shaft will be made of two different types of wood fastened together, resulting in what is known as a footed arrow, known by some as the finest of wood arrows, footed arrows were used both by early Europeans and Native Americans. Footed arrows will typically consist of a length of hardwood near the head of the arrow
20.
Bottled gas
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In the last case the bottle is constructed with an inner and outer shell separated by a vacuum so that the low temperature can be maintained by evaporative cooling. The substance remains a gas at temperature and increased pressure. Examples include, air argon fluorine helium hydrogen krypton nitrogen oxygen The substance liquefies at standard temperature, examples include, ammonia butane carbon dioxide chlorine nitrous oxide propane sulfur dioxide The substance is dissolved at standard temperature in a solvent. Examples include, acetylene Note, Acetylene cylinders contain an inert packing material, which may be agamassan, the acetylene is pumped into the cylinder and it dissolves in the solvent. When the cylinder is opened the acetylene comes back out of solution and this is a workaround to acetylenes property to explode when pressurized above 200 kPa or liquified. Carbon dioxide in the form of a soft drink The substance is liquefied at reduced temperature and these are also referred to as cryogenic gases. Normal high pressure gas cylinders or bottles will hold from 200 to 400 atmosphere s, the atmosphere units pressure held by the bottle is equivalent to the number of volumes of standard temperature and pressure of the gas held by the bottle for an ideal gas. Because the contents are high pressure and are sometimes hazardous. These include chaining bottles to prevent falling and breaking, proper ventilation to prevent injury or death in case of leaks, in the United States, the Compressed Gas Association sells a number of booklets and pamphlets on safe handling and use of bottled gases. The European Industrial Gases Association and the British Compressed Gases Association provide similar facilities in Europe, in the United States, bottled gas typically refers to liquefied petroleum gas. Bottled gas is used in medical supply, especially for portable oxygen tanks. Packaged industrial gases are frequently called cylinder gas, though bottled gas is sometimes used, the United Kingdom and other parts of Europe more commonly refer to bottled gas when discussing any usage whether industrial, medical or liquefied petroleum. Within Europe gas cylinders colours are being standardised according to EN 1089-3, in the United States, colour-coding is not regulated by law. The user should not rely on the colour of a cylinder to indicate what it contains, the label or decal should always be checked for product identification. The colours below are specific shades, defined in the European Standard in terms of RAL coordinates and this should not be confused with industrial gases, where a yellow shoulder means chlorine. Diving cylinder Gas blending Industrial gas ISO32, Gas cylinders for medical use—Marking for identification of content, CEN EN 1089-3, Transportable gas cylinders, Part 3 - Colour Coding. Virtual Anesthesia Machine -6 different color codes for medical gas cylinders, hoses, air Products – European Gas Cylinder Identification Chart. Compressed Gas Association Gases and Welding Distributors Association European Industrial Gases Association British Compressed Gases Association
21.
Kunitomo Ikkansai
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It was of the Gregorian type. Kunitomos telescope had a magnification of 60, and allowed him to make detailed studies of sun spots. Four of his telescopes remain to this day, kunimoto also developed manufacturing methods for guns, and also created an air gun based on rangaku knowledge acquired from the Dutch in Dejima. 6100 Kunitomoikkansai, a main belt asteroid discovered in 1991, is named after Kunitomo Ikkansai
22.
Stockholm
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The city is spread across 14 islands on the coast in the southeast of Sweden at the mouth of Lake Mälaren, by the Stockholm archipelago and the Baltic Sea. The area has settled since the Stone Age, in the 6th millennium BC. It is also the capital of Stockholm County, Stockholm is the cultural, media, political, and economic centre of Sweden. The Stockholm region alone accounts for over a third of the countrys GDP and it is an important global city, and the main centre for corporate headquarters in the Nordic region. The city is home to some of Europes top ranking universities, such as the Stockholm School of Economics, Karolinska Institute and it hosts the annual Nobel Prize ceremonies and banquet at the Stockholm Concert Hall and Stockholm City Hall. One of the citys most prized museums, the Vasa Museum, is the most visited museum in Scandinavia. The Stockholm metro, opened in 1950, is known for its decoration of the stations. Swedens national football arena is located north of the city centre, Ericsson Globe, the national indoor arena, is in the southern part of the city. The city was the host of the 1912 Summer Olympics, and hosted the equestrian portion of the 1956 Summer Olympics otherwise held in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. Stockholm is the seat of the Swedish government and most of its agencies, including the highest courts in the judiciary, and the official residencies of the Swedish monarch and the Prime Minister. The government has its seat in the Rosenbad building, the Riksdag is seated in the Parliament House, and the Prime Ministers residence is adjacent at the Sager House. After the Ice Age, around 8,000 BCE, there were already a number of people living in the present-day Stockholm area. Thousands of years later, as the ground thawed, the climate became tolerable, at the intersection of the Baltic Sea and lake Mälaren is an archipelago site where the Old Town of Stockholm was first built from about 1000 CE by Vikings. They had a positive impact on the area because of the trade routes they created. Stockholms location appears in Norse sagas as Agnafit, and in Heimskringla in connection with the legendary king Agne, the earliest written mention of the name Stockholm dates from 1252, by which time the mines in Bergslagen made it an important site in the iron trade. The first part of the name means log in Swedish, although it may also be connected to an old German word meaning fortification, the second part of the name means islet, and is thought to refer to the islet Helgeandsholmen in central Stockholm. Stockholms core, the present Old Town was built on the island next to Helgeandsholmen from the mid 13th century onward. The city originally rose to prominence as a result of the Baltic trade of the Hanseatic League, Stockholm developed strong economic and cultural linkages with Lübeck, Hamburg, Gdańsk, Visby, Reval, and Riga during this time
23.
Caliber
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In guns, particularly firearms, caliber or calibre is the approximate internal diameter of the barrel, or the diameter of the projectile it fires, in hundredths or sometimes thousandths of an inch. For example, a 45 caliber firearm has a diameter of.45 of an inch. Barrel diameters can also be expressed using metric dimensions, as in 9mm pistol, when the barrel diameter is given in inches, the abbreviation cal can be used. Good performance requires a bullet to closely match the diameter of a barrel to ensure a good seal. While modern cartridges and cartridge firearms are referred to by the cartridge name. Firearm calibers outside the range of 17 to 50 exist, but are rarely encountered. Larger calibers, such as.577.585.600.700, the.950 JDJ is the only known cartridge beyond 79 caliber used in a rifle. Referring to artillery, caliber is used to describe the length as multiples of the bore diameter. A 5-inch 50 calibre gun has a diameter of 5 in. The main guns of the USS Missouri are 1650 caliber, makers of early cartridge arms had to invent methods of naming the cartridges, since no established convention existed then. One of the early established cartridge arms was the Spencer repeating rifle, later various derivatives were created using the same basic cartridge, but with smaller-diameter bullets, these were named by the cartridge diameter at the base and mouth. The original No.56 became the. 56-56, and the smaller versions. 56-52. 56-50, the. 56-52, the most common of the new calibers, used a 50-cal bullet. Optionally, the weight in grains was designated, e. g. 45-70-405. Variations on these methods persist today, with new cartridges such as the.204 Ruger, metric diameters for small arms refer to cartridge dimensions and are expressed with an × between the bore diameter and the length of the cartridge case, for example,7. 62×51 NATO. This indicates that the diameter is 7. 62mm, loaded in a case 51mm long. Similarly, the 6. 5×55 Swedish cartridge has a diameter of 6.5 mm. An exception to rule is the proprietary cartridge used by U. S. maker Lazzeroni. The following table lists commonly used calibers where both metric and imperial are used as equivalents
24.
Deer
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Deer are the ruminant mammals forming the family Cervidae. The two main groups are the Cervinae, including the muntjac, the deer and the chital, and the Capreolinae, including the elk, reindeer, the Western roe deer. Female reindeer, and male deer of all species, grow, in this they differ from permanently horned antelope, which are in the same order, Artiodactyla. The musk deer of Asia and water chevrotain of tropical African and Asian forests are not usually regarded as true deer and form their own families, Moschidae and Tragulidae, respectively. Deer appear in art from Palaeolithic cave paintings onwards, and they have played a role in mythology, religion and their economic importance includes the use of their meat as venison, their skins as soft, strong buckskin, and their antlers as handles for knives. Deer hunting has been a sport since at least the Middle Ages. Deer live in a variety of biomes, ranging from tundra to the tropical rainforest, while often associated with forests, many deer are ecotone species that live in transitional areas between forests and thickets and prairie and savanna. The majority of deer species inhabit temperate mixed deciduous forest, mountain mixed coniferous forest, tropical seasonal/dry forest. Clearing open areas within forests to some extent may actually benefit deer populations by exposing the understory and allowing the types of grasses, weeds, additionally, access to adjacent croplands may also benefit deer. However, adequate forest or brush cover must still be provided for populations to grow, however, fallow deer have been introduced to South Africa. There are also species of deer that are highly specialized, and live almost exclusively in mountains, grasslands, swamps. Some deer have a distribution in both North America and Eurasia. Examples include the caribou that live in Arctic tundra and taiga and moose that inhabit taiga, huemul deer of South Americas Andes fill the ecological niches of the ibex and wild goat, with the fawns behaving more like goat kids. Mountain slope habitats vary from moist coniferous/mixed forested habitats to dry forests with alpine meadows higher up. The foothills and river valleys between the mountain provide a mosaic of cropland and deciduous parklands. The rare woodland caribou have the most restricted range living at altitudes in the subalpine meadows. Elk and mule deer both migrate between the alpine meadows and lower coniferous forests and tend to be most common in this region, elk also inhabit river valley bottomlands, which they share with White-tailed deer. They also live in the aspen parklands north of Calgary and Edmonton, the adjacent Great Plains grassland habitats are left to herds of elk, American bison, and pronghorn antelope
25.
Wild boar
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The wild boar, also known as the wild swine or Eurasian wild pig, is a suid native to much of Eurasia, North Africa, and the Greater Sunda Islands. Human intervention has spread its range further, making the one of the widest-ranging mammals in the world. Its wide range, high numbers, and adaptability mean that it is classed as least concern by the IUCN, the animal probably originated in Southeast Asia during the Early Pleistocene, and outcompeted other suid species as it spread throughout the Old World. As of 1990, up to 16 subspecies are recognised, which are divided into four regional groupings based on skull height, the species lives in matriarchal societies consisting of interrelated females and their young. Fully grown males are solitary outside the breeding season. The grey wolf is the boars main predator throughout most of its range except in the Far East and the Lesser Sunda Islands. It has a history of association with humans, having been the ancestor of most domestic pig breeds. As true wild boars became extinct in Britain before the development of modern English, the English boar stems from the Old English bar, which is thought to be derived from the West Germanic *bairaz, of unknown origin. Boar is sometimes used specifically to refer to males, and may also be used to refer to male domesticated pigs, the young may be called piglets. The animals specific name scrofa is Latin for sow, the earliest fossil finds of the species come from both Europe and Asia, and date back to the Early Pleistocene. Its closest wild relative is the pig of Malacca and surrounding islands. These subspecies are typically high-skulled, with thick underwool and poorly developed manes, Indian, Includes S. s. davidi and S. s. cristatus. These subspecies have sparse or absent underwool, with long manes and prominent bands on the snout, while S. s. cristatus is high-skulled, S. s. davidi is low-skulled. Eastern, Includes S. s. sibiricus, S. s. ussuricus, S. s. leucomystax, S. s. riukiuanus, S. s. taivanus, and S. s. moupinensis. These subspecies are characterised by a streak extending from the corners of the mouth to the lower jaw. With the exception of S. s. ussuricus, most are high-skulled, the underwool is thick, except in S. s. moupinensis, and the mane is largely absent. It is the most basal of the four groups, having the smallest relative brain size, more primitive dentition, with the exception of domestic pigs in Timor and Papua New Guinea, the wild boar is the ancestor of most pig breeds. Remains of pigs have been dated to earlier than 11,400 BC in Cyprus and those animals must have been introduced from the mainland, which suggests domestication in the adjacent mainland by then
26.
Girandoni air rifle
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The Girardoni air rifle was an airgun designed by Tyrolian inventor Bartholomäus Girardoni circa 1779. The weapon was known as the Windbüchse. One of the more famous associations is its use on the Lewis and Clark Expedition to explore. The Girardoni air rifle was in service with the Austrian army from 1780 to around 1815, the advantages of a high rate of fire, no smoke from propellants, and low muzzle report granted it initial acceptance, but it was eventually removed from service for several reasons. While the detachable air reservoir was capable of around 30 shots it took nearly 1,500 strokes of a pump to fill those reservoirs. Later, a pump was provided. The reservoirs, made from hammered sheet iron held together with rivets and sealed by brazing, in addition, the weapon was very delicate and a small break in the reservoir could make it inoperable. Finally, it was different from any other weapon of the time. The Lewis and Clark Expedition used the rifle in the demonstrations that they performed for nearly every Native American tribe they encountered on the expedition, the rifle was 4 ft long and weighed 10 lb, about the same basic size and weight as other muskets of the time. It fired a.46 caliber ball and it had a tubular and this gravity operated design was such that the rifle had to be pointed upwards in order to drop each ball into the breech block. The rifleman then could roll back into position to fire, allowing the rifleman to keep a low profile, equipment not carried attached to the rifle was held in a special leather knapsack. It was also necessary to keep the leather gaskets of the reservoir moist in order to maintain a good seal, the air reservoir was in the club-shaped butt. With a full air reservoir, the Girardoni air rifle had the capacity to shoot 30 shots at useful pressure and these balls were effective to approximately 125 yd on a full air reservoir. The power declined as the air reservoir was emptied, the Girardoni air rifle was an important first. It was the first repeating rifle of any kind to see military service and it was one of the first uses of a tubular magazine. Weapons of the Austro-Hungarian Empire Beemans History on Austrian Large Bore Airguns I Benemeriti Di Cortina D’Ampezzo Die Windbüchse Girandoni air rifle as used by Lewis, a National Firearms Museum Treasure Gun
27.
Matchlock
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The matchlock was the first mechanism, or lock, invented to facilitate the firing of a hand-held firearm. The classic European matchlock gun held a burning slow match in a clamp at the end of a curved lever known as the serpentine. The flash from the primer travelled through the touch hole igniting the charge of propellant in the gun barrel. On release of the lever or trigger, the spring-loaded serpentine would move in reverse to clear the pan, for obvious safety reasons the match would be removed before reloading of the gun. Both ends of the match were usually kept alight in case one end should be accidentally extinguished. Earlier types had only an S-shaped serpentine pinned to the stock either behind or in front of the flash pan, most matchlock mechanisms mounted the serpentine forward of the flash pan. The serpentine dipped backward, toward the firer, to ignite the priming and this is the reverse of the familiar forward-dipping hammer of the flintlock and later firearms. A later addition to the gun was the rifled barrel and this made the gun much more accurate at longer distances but did have drawbacks, the main one being that it took much longer to reload because the bullet had to be pounded down into the barrel. As the match was often extinguished after its relatively violent collision with the pan, this type fell out of favour with soldiers. An inherent weakness of the matchlock was the necessity of keeping the match constantly lit, the match was steeped in potassium nitrate to keep the match lit for extended periods of time. Being the sole source of ignition for the powder, if the match was not lit when the gun needed to be fired, the mechanism was useless, and this was chiefly a problem in wet weather, when damp match cord was difficult to light and to keep burning. Another drawback was the match itself. At night, the match would glow in the darkness, possibly revealing the carriers position, the distinctive smell of burning match-cord was also a giveaway of a musketeers position. It was also dangerous when soldiers were carelessly handling large quantities of gunpowder with lit matches present. This was one reason why soldiers in charge of transporting and guarding ammunition were amongst the first to be issued self-igniting guns like the wheellock, the matchlock was also uneconomical to keep ready for long periods of time. To maintain a single sentry on guard duty with a matchlock. The matchlock first appeared in Europe, in the mid-15th century, the first dated illustration of a matchlock mechanism dates to 1475 and by the 16th century they were universally used. During this time the latest tactic in using the matchlock was to line up and this volley would be much more effective than single soldiers trying to hit individual targets
28.
Flintlock
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Flintlock is a general term for any firearm that uses a flint striking ignition mechanism. The true flintlock continued to be in use for over two centuries, replaced by percussion cap and, later, the cartridge-based systems in the early-to-mid 19th century. Although long superseded by modern firearms, flintlock weapons enjoy continuing popularity with black-powder shooting enthusiasts, french court gunsmith Marin le Bourgeoys made a firearm incorporating a flintlock mechanism for King Louis XIII shortly after his accession to the throne in 1610. However, firearms using some form of flint ignition mechanism had already been in use for half a century. Le Bourgeoys fitted these various features together to create what became known as the flintlock or true flintlock, the new flintlock system quickly became popular, and was known and used in various forms throughout Europe by 1630, although older flintlock systems continued to be used for some time. Examples of early flintlock muskets can be seen in the painting Marie de Medici as Bellona by Rubens, various breech-loading flintlocks were developed starting around 1650. The most popular action has a barrel which was unscrewed from the rest of the gun, obviously this is more practical on pistols because of the shorter barrel length. This type is known as a Queen Anne pistol because it was during her reign that it became popular, another type has a removable screw plug set into the side or top or bottom of the barrel. A large number of sporting rifles were made with this system, as it allowed easier loading compared with muzzle loading with a tight fitting bullet, one of the more successful was the system built by Isaac de la Chaumette starting in 1704. The barrel could be opened by 3 revolutions of the triggerguard, the plug stayed attached to the barrel and the ball and powder were loaded from the top. This system was improved in the 1770s by Colonel Patrick Ferguson and 100 experimental rifles used in the American Revolutionary War, the only two flintlock breechloaders to be produced in quantity were the Hall and the Crespi. The first was invented by John Hall and patented c and it was issued to the U. S. Army as the Model 1819 Hall Breech Loading Rifle. The Hall rifles and carbines were loaded using a paper cartridge inserted into the upward tilting breechblock. Hall rifles leaked gas from the often poorly fitted action, the same problem affected the muskets produced by Giuseppe Crespi and adopted by the Austrian Army in 1771. Nonetheless, the Crespi System was experimented with by the British during the Napoleonic Wars, Flintlock weapons were commonly used until the mid 19th century, when they were replaced by percussion lock systems. Even though they have long considered obsolete, flintlock weapons continue to be produced today by manufacturers such as Pedersoli, Euroarms. Flintlocks may be any type of arm, long gun or pistol, smoothbore or rifle. Flintlock pistols were used as weapons and as a military arm
29.
Musket
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A musket is a muzzle-loaded, smoothbore firearm, fired from the shoulder. Muskets were designed for use by infantry, a soldier armed with a musket had the designation musketman or musketeer. The musket replaced the arquebus, and was in turn replaced by the rifle. By the end of the 17th century, a version of the musket had edged out the arquebus, and the addition of the bayonet edged out the pike. In the 18th century, improvements in ammunition and firing methods allowed rifling to be practical for use. In the 19th century, rifled muskets became common, combining the advantages of rifles, about the time of the introduction of cartridge, breechloading, and multiple rounds of ammunition just a few years later, muskets fell out of fashion. Musket calibers generally ranged from 0.50 to 0.90 in, rifled muskets of the mid-19th century, like the Springfield Model 1861, were significantly more accurate, with the ability to hit a man sized target at a distance of 500 yards or more. However, in the Italian War of 1859, French forces were able to defeat the longer range of Austrian rifle muskets by aggressive skirmishing and rapid bayonet assaults during close quarters combat. According to the Etymology Dictionary, firearms were often named after animals, and the word derived from the French word mousquette. An alternative theory is that derives from the 16th century French mousquet, -ette, from the Italian moscetto, -etta, the Italian moscetto is a diminutive of mosca, a fly. Hand cannons arrived in Europe from Asia sometime in the early 14th century and they were more commonly used by the early 15th century, particularly in the Hussite wars. It is possible that the noise was at least as important as the missile and these were very short ranged, inaccurate and difficult to load and fire. Hand cannons had a handle, or no handle at all. A wooden stock was added, allowing the weapon to be easily held. The hand cannon evolved into the arquebus by the mid 15th century, the matchlock mechanism was a simple solution to this problem, and placed the match in a clamp on the end of a lever. When a trigger was pulled, the lever would rotate and allowed the match to come in contact with the touch hole, the first European usage of firearms in large ratios was in Hungary under king Matthias Corvinus. Every third soldier in the Black Army of Hungary had an arquebus, gradual advances in the empirical understanding of the corning of gunpowder made possible a more powerful explosive. The cost of gunpowder also gradually fell, by the 16th century the handheld firearm became commonplace, replacing the crossbow and longbow in all advanced armies, and known as the arquebus
30.
Muzzleloader
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A muzzleloader is any firearm into which the projectile and usually the propellant charge is loaded from the muzzle of the gun. This is distinct from the popular modern designs of breech-loading firearms. The term muzzleloader applies to both rifled and smoothbore type muzzleloaders, and may refer to the marksman who specializes in the shooting of such firearms. The firing methods, paraphernalia and mechanism further divide both categories as do caliber, modern mortars use a shell with the propelling charge and primer attached at the base. Both the modern mortar and the mortar were used for high angle fire. However, the fact that the mortar is not loaded in separate steps may make its definition as a muzzleloader a matter of opinion, muzzleloading can apply to anything from cannons to pistols but in modern parlance the term most commonly applies to black powder small arms. It usually, but not always, involves the use of a propellant and projectile. The gunpowder used is typically black powder or black powder substitutes like Pyrodex, typically two types of gunpowder were needed, as the priming powder for the pan was finer than the coarse powder used for the main charge behind the ball. Wadding, is made from felt, paper, cloth or card and has different uses. In smooth bore muskets and most rifles used prior to cartridges being introduced in the late nineteenth century. On most naval cannons, one piece of wadding was used to hold the powder in place, another was used to act as a plug to stop the shot rolling out because of the swaying of the ship. The measuring stage for the charge of gunpowder could be avoided by carrying a number of pre-measured charges in small containers of wood, metal or cloth. These were known by names, including chargers or apostles as 12 were often carried. For most of the time muzzleloaders were in use, a round ball, the shooter would bite off the end of the paper cartridge with his teeth and pour the powder into the barrel followed by the ball encased in the paper wrapping. The projectiles and wads were then pushed down into the breech with a ramrod until they were seated on the propellant charge. Priming powder was carried in a separate priming flask and poured into the priming pan. After the gunpowder and projectile or shot charge were placed in the barrel a ramrod was used to pack everything down at the base of the barrel. Muzzleloading firearms generally use round balls, cylindrical conical projectiles, in some types of rifles firing round ball, a lubricated patch of fabric is wrapped around a ball which is slightly smaller than the barrel diameter
31.
Sniper
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Sniping requires the development of basic infantry skills to a high degree of skill. A snipers training incorporates a variety of subjects designed to increase value as a force multiplier. The art of sniping requires learning and repetitively practicing these skills until mastered, a sniper must be highly trained in long range rifle marksmanship and field craft skills to ensure maximum effective engagements with minimum risk. The verb to snipe originated in the 1770s among soldiers in British India in reference to shooting snipe, the agent noun sniper appears by the 1820s. The term sniper was first attested in 1824 in the sense of the word sharpshooter, a somewhat older term is sharp shooter, a calque of 18th-century German Scharfschütze, in use in British newspapers as early as 1801. According to figures released by the United States Department of Defense, the average number of rounds expended by U. S. military snipers to kill one enemy soldier is 1.3 rounds. According to the United States Army, the soldier will hit a man-sized target 10 percent of the time at 300 meters using the M16A2 rifle. Graduates of the United States Army Sniper School are expected to achieve 90 percent first-round hits at 600 meters, different countries use different military doctrines regarding snipers in military units, settings, and tactics.50 BMG, like the Barrett M82, McMillan Tac-50, and Denel NTW-20. Soviet- and Russian-derived military doctrines include squad-level snipers, snipers have increasingly been demonstrated as useful by US and UK forces in the recent Iraq campaign in a fire support role to cover the movement of infantry, especially in urban areas. Military snipers from the US, UK, and other countries that adopt their military doctrine are typically deployed in two-man sniper teams consisting of a shooter and spotter, a common practice is for a shooter and a spotter to take turns in order to avoid eye fatigue. A sniper team would be armed with its long weapon. Sniper rifles are classified as crew-served, as the term is used in the United States military, a sniper team consists of a combination of one or more shooters with force protection elements and support personnel, such as a spotter or a flanker. Both spotter and flanker carries additional ammunition and associated equipment, the spotter detects, observes, and assigns targets and watches for the results of the shot. Using a spotting scope and/or rangefinder, the spotter will also read the wind by using physical indicators and it is not unusual for the spotter to be equipped with a notepad and a laptop computer specifically for performing these calculations. Law enforcement snipers, commonly called police snipers, and military snipers differ in ways, including their areas of operation. A police sharpshooter is part of an operation and usually takes part in relatively short missions. Police forces typically deploy such sharpshooters in hostage scenarios and this differs from a military sniper, who operates as part of a larger army, engaged in warfare. Sometimes as part of a SWAT team, police snipers are deployed alongside negotiators and an assault team trained for close quarters combat
32.
German Tyrol
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German Tyrol is a historical region in the Alps now divided between Austria and Italy. It includes largely ethnic German areas of historical County of Tyrol, the Austrian state of Tyrol, however, South Tyrol had been promised as spoils of war to Italy by the Entente powers in the Treaty of London. The remainder of German Tyrol became the Austrian federal state of Tyrol, the status of Tyrol was definitively settled by the 1919 Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye that established the division of the region that remains to this day. German Austria History of Tyrol Euroregion Tyrol-South Tyrol-Trentino
33.
Stock (firearms)
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Stocks are also found on crossbows though a crossbow stock would be more properly referred to as a tiller. The stock provides a means for the shooter to support the device. The stock also transmits recoil into the shooters body, the term stock in reference to firearms dates to 1571 is derived from the Germanic word stoc, meaning tree trunk, referring to the wooden nature of the gunstock. Early hand cannons used a simple stick fitted into a socket in the end to provide a handle. The modern gunstock shape began to evolve with the introduction of the arquebus, a matchlock with a longer barrel and an actual lock mechanism, unlike the hand-applied match of the hand cannon. Firing a hand cannon requires careful application of the match while simultaneously aiming, with both hands available to aim, the arquebus could be braced with the shoulder, giving rise to the basic gunstock shape that has survived for over 500 years. This greatly improved the accuracy of the arquebus, to a level that would not be surpassed until the advent of rifled barrels, techniques for gunstock hand weapons are being revived by martial arts such as Okichitaw. A gunstock is broadly divided into two parts, the rear portion is the butt and front portion is the fore-end. The butt is further divided into the comb, heel, toe, the stock pictured is a thumbhole style. The most basic breakdown of types is into one-piece and two piece stocks. A one piece stock is a unit from butt to fore-end. Two piece stocks use a piece for the butt and fore-end, such as that commonly found on break open shotguns. Traditionally, two stocks were easier to make, since finding a wood blank suitable for a long one piece stock is harder than finding short blanks for a two piece stock. The grip area is one that varies widely, the semi-grip stock is perhaps the most common sporting stock, with a steeper angle cut into the stock to provide a more diagonal angle for the trigger hand. Modern target style stocks have moved towards a fuller, more vertical grip, though built into the rather than made as a separate piece. Anschütz stocks, for example, use a vertical grip. Sliding or folding stocks are often seen on military-grade weapons and their civilian-derived arms, a collapsible stock makes the weapon more compact for storage or transport, but is usually deployed before shooting for better control. These stocks are used on combat shotguns like the Franchi SPAS-12 to allow the stock to collapse when not in use
34.
Magazine (firearms)
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A magazine is an ammunition storage and feeding device within or attached to a repeating firearm. Magazines can be removable or integral to the firearm, the magazine functions by moving the cartridges stored in the magazine into a position where they may be loaded into the chamber by the action of the firearm. The detachable magazine is often referred to as a clip, although this is technically inaccurate, magazines come in many shapes and sizes, from those of bolt-action express rifles that hold only a few rounds to drum magazines for self-loading rifles that can hold one hundred rounds or more. Various jurisdictions ban what they define as high-capacity magazines, with the increased use of semi-automatic and automatic firearms, the detachable box magazine became increasingly common. Soon after the adoption of the M1911 pistol, the magazine was settled on by the military and firearms experts. The defining difference between clips and magazines is the presence of a mechanism in a magazine, typically a spring-loaded follower. Use of the clip to refer to detachable magazines is a point of strong disagreement. The first mass-produced repeater was the Volcanic Rifle which used a bullet with the base filled with powder and primer fed into the chamber from a spring-loaded tube called a magazine. It was named after a building or room used to store ammunition, the anemic power of the Rocket Ball ammunition used in the Volcanic doomed it to limited popularity. The Henry repeating rifle is a lever-action, breech-loading, tubular magazine fed rifle, designed by Benjamin Tyler Henry in 1860, it was one of the first firearms to use self-contained metallic cartridges. The Henry was introduced in the early 1860s and produced through 1866 in the United States by the New Haven Arms Company and it was adopted in small quantities by the Union in the Civil War and favored for its greater firepower than the standard issue carbine. Many later found their way West and was famed both for its use at the Battle of the Little Bighorn, and being the basis for the iconic Winchester rifle which are made to this day. The Henry and Winchester rifles would go on to see service with a number of militaries including Turkey, switzerland and Italy adopted similar designs. The first magazine-fed firearm to achieve success was the Spencer repeating rifle. The Spencer used a magazine located in the butt of the gun instead of under the barrel. The Spencer was successful, but the rimfire ammunition did occasionally ignite in the magazine tube and it could also injure the user. The new bolt-action rifles began to favor with militaries in the 1880s and were often equipped with tubular magazines. The Mauser Model 1871 was originally a single-shot action that added a magazine in its 1884 update
35.
.45 ACP
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The.45 ACP, or.45 Auto is a handgun cartridge designed by John Browning in 1905, for use in his prototype Colt semi-automatic pistol. After successful military trials it was adopted along with the Browning.45 Colt handgun as the.45 M1911 cartridge, the handgun was designated M1911 handgun. The U. S. Cavalry had been buying and testing various handguns in the late 1890s, the.45 Colt Single Action Army had largely been replaced, even by some double-action versions of the same caliber. The Army had fielded some double-action revolvers in.38 Long Colt and they determined the.38 caliber round was significantly less effective than the.45 Colt against determined opponents such as the Moro juramentado warriors encountered in the Moro Rebellion. This experience, and the Thompson–LaGarde Tests of 1904 led the Army and they noted, however, training was critical to make sure a soldier could score a hit in a vulnerable part of the body. The result from Colt was the Model 1905 and the new.45 ACP cartridge. The resulting. 45-caliber cartridge, named the.45 ACP, was similar in performance to the.45 Schofield cartridge, by 1906, bids from six makers were submitted, among them Brownings design, submitted by Colt. Only DWM, Savage, and Colt made the first cut, DWM, which submitted two Parabellum P08s chambered in.45 ACP, withdrew from testing after the first round of tests, for unspecified reasons. In the second round of evaluations in 1910, the Colt design passed the testing with no failures. The Colt pistol was adopted as the Model 1911, the cartridge/pistol combination was quite successful but not satisfactory for U. S. military purposes. The very first production, at Frankford Arsenal, was marked F A811, the cartridge was designed by John Browning for Colt, but the most influential person in selecting the cartridge was Army Ordnance member Gen. John T. Thompson. Thompson insisted on a real man stopper pistol, following the showing of the Armys.38 Long Colt pistols during the Philippine–American War. The.45 ACP has 1.62 ml cartridge case capacity.45 ACP maximum C. I. P. The common rifling twist rate for this cartridge is 406 mm,6 grooves, Ø lands =11.23 mm, Ø grooves =11.43 mm, land width =3.73 mm and the primer type is large pistol. The cartridge headspaces on the mouth of the case at the L3 datum reference, according to Commission Internationale Permanente pour lEpreuve des Armes à Feu Portatives rulings, the.45 ACP cartridge case can handle up to 131.000 MPa Pmax piezo pressure. In CIP-regulated countries every pistol cartridge combination has to be proofed at 130% of this maximum CIP pressure to certify for sale to consumers and this means that.45 ACP chambered arms in C. I. P. Regulated countries are proof tested at 170.30 MPa PE piezo pressure. The SAAMI pressure limit for the.45 ACP is set at 21,000 psi piezo pressure, while the SAAMI pressure limit for the.45 ACP +P is set at 23,000 psi, piezo pressure
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Rangaku
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Altogether, thousands of such books were published, printed, and circulated. In the large cities some shops, open to the general public, the first phase of Rangaku was quite limited and highly controlled. After the relocation of the Dutch trading post to Dejima, trade as well as the exchange of information, Western books were prohibited, with the exemption of books on nautical and medical matters. Initially, a group of hereditary Japanese–Dutch translators labored in Nagasaki to smooth communication with the foreigners. The Dutch were requested to give updates of world events and to supply novelties to the Shogun every year on their trips to Edo. Finally, the Dutch factories in Nagasaki, in addition to their official work in silk. A small, lucrative market for Western curiosities thus developed, focused on the Nagasaki area, with the establishment of a permanent post for a surgeon at the Dutch trading post Dejima, high-ranking Japanese officials started to ask for treatment in cases when local doctors were of no help. One of the most important surgeons was Caspar Schamberger, who induced a continuing interest in books, instruments, pharmaceuticals. Although most Western books were forbidden from 1640, rules were relaxed under Shogun Tokugawa Yoshimune in 1720, one example is the 1787 publication of Morishima Chūryō’s Sayings of the Dutch, recording much knowledge received from the Dutch. Between 1804 and 1829, schools opened throughout the country by the Bakufu as well as terakoya helped spread the new ideas further, by that time, Dutch emissaries and scientists were allowed much more free access to Japanese society. The German physician Philipp Franz von Siebold, attached to the Dutch delegation and he invited Japanese scientists to show them the marvels of Western science, learning, in return, much about the Japanese and their customs. In 1824, von Siebold began a school in the outskirts of Nagasaki. Soon this Narutaki-juku grew into a place for about fifty students from all over the country. While receiving a medical education they helped with the naturalistic studies of von Siebold. The Rangaku movement became involved in Japans political debate over foreign isolation. The Rangaku increasingly disseminated contemporary Western innovations, the incident was provoked by actions such as the Morrison Incident, in which an unarmed American merchant ship was fired upon under the Edict to Repel Foreign Ships. The edict was eventually repealed in 1842, Rangaku ultimately became obsolete when Japan opened up during the last decades of the Tokugawa regime. Students were sent abroad, and foreign employees came to Japan to teach and advise in large numbers, leading to an unprecedented and this openness could partly explain Japan’s success in its radical and speedy modernization following the opening of the country to foreign trade in 1854
37.
Netherlands
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The Netherlands, also informally known as Holland is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously
38.
Dejima
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Dejima, in old Western documents latinized as Decima, Desjima, Dezima, Disma, or Disima, was a small fan-shaped artificial island built in the bay of Nagasaki in 1634 by local merchants. This island, which was formed by digging a canal through a peninsula, remained as the single place of direct trade. Dejima was built to constrain foreign traders as part of sakoku, originally built to house Portuguese traders, it was used by the Dutch as a trading post from 1641 until 1853. Covering an area of 120 m ×75 m or 9,000 m2, in 1922, Dejima Dutch Trading Post was designated a Japanese national historic site. In 1543, the history of contacts between Japan and Europe began with the arrival of storm-blown Portuguese merchants on Tanegashima. Six years later the Jesuit missionary Francis Xavier landed in Kagoshima, at first Portuguese traders were based in Hirado, but they moved in search of a better port. In 1570 daimyō Ōmura Sumitada converted to Catholicism and made a deal with the Portuguese to develop Nagasaki, in 1580 Sumitada gave the jurisdiction of Nagasaki to the Jesuits, and the Portuguese obtained the de facto monopoly on the silk trade with China through Macau. The shogun Iemitsu ordered the construction of the island in 1634, to accommodate the Portuguese traders living in Nagasaki. This was one of the many edicts put forth by Iemitsu between 1633 and 1639 moderating contact between Japan and other countries, however, in response to the uprising of the predominantly Christian population in the Shimabara-Amakusa region, the Tokugawa government decided to expel the Portuguese. This left the Dutch employees of the Dutch East India Company as the sole Western nation with access to Japanese trade, since 1609, the Dutch had run a trading post on the island of Hirado. For 33 years they were allowed to relatively freely. At its maximum the Hirado trading post covered a large area, in 1637 and 1639 stone warehouses were constructed within the ambit of this Hirado trading post. Christian-era year dates were used on the stonework of the new warehouses, in 1639, the last Portuguese were expelled from Japan. Dejima had become an investment and without the annual trading with Portuguese ships from Macau. From 1641 on, only Chinese and Dutch ships were allowed to come to Japan, on the administrative level, the island of Dejima was part of the city of Nagasaki. The 25 local Japanese families who owned the land received a rent from the Dutch. Dejima was an island,120 by 75 metres, linked to the mainland by a small bridge. It contained houses for about twenty Dutchmen, warehouses, and accommodation for Japanese officials, the Dutch were watched by a number of Japanese officials, gatekeepers, night watchmen, and a supervisor with about fifty subordinates
39.
Lewis and Clark Expedition
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It began near St. Louis, made its way westward, and passed through the continental divide to reach the Pacific coast. The Corps of Discovery comprised a group of U. S. Army volunteers under the command of Captain Meriwether Lewis and his close friend, Second Lieutenant William Clark. The campaigns secondary objectives were scientific and economic, to study the plants, animal life, and geography. With maps, sketches, and journals in hand, the returned to St. Louis to report its findings to Jefferson. According to Thomas Jefferson himself, one goal was to find the most direct and practicable water communication across this continent, Jefferson also placed special importance on declaring U. S. The expedition made notable contributions to science, but scientific research was not the goal of the mission. During the 19th century, references to Lewis and Clark scarcely appeared in history books even during the United States Centennial in 1876, Lewis and Clark began to gain new attention around the start of the 20th century. Both the 1904 Louisiana Purchase Exposition, in St. Louis, in 2004, a complete and reliable set of the expeditions journals was compiled by Gary E. Moulton. In the 2000s, the bicentennial of the expedition further elevated popular interest in Lewis, as of 1984, no U. S. exploration party was more famous, and no American expedition leaders are more instantly recognizable by name. In the 1780s, while Minister to France, Jefferson met John Ledyard in Paris, like Captain Cook, Jefferson also wished to discover a practical route through the Northwest to the Pacific coast. Alexander Mackenzie had already charted a route in his quest for the Pacific, Mackenzie and his party then became the first on record to cross America north of Mexico to the Pacific, when he arrived near Bella Coola in 1793—a dozen years before Lewis and Clark. Two years into his presidency, Jefferson asked Congress to fund an expedition through the Louisiana territory to the Pacific Ocean and he did not attempt to hide the Lewis and Clark expedition itself from Spanish, French, and British officials, but rather claimed different reasons for the venture. He used a message to ask for funding due to poor relations with the opposition party in Congress. In 1803, Jefferson commissioned the Corps of Discovery, and named U. S. Army Captain Meriwether Lewis its leader, Lewis demonstrated remarkable skills and potential as a frontiersman. As the expedition was gaining approval and funding, Jefferson made efforts to him for the long journey ahead. All the latter qualifications Capt. Lewis has, in 1803, Jefferson sent Lewis to Philadelphia to study medicinal cures under Benjamin Rush, a physician and humanitarian. Jefferson also arranged for Lewis to be educated by Andrew Ellicott. Lewis, however, was not ignorant of science and had demonstrated to Jefferson a marked capacity to learn, at Monticello, Jefferson possessed the largest library in the world on the subject of the geography of the North American continent, and Lewis had full access to that library
40.
Gun barrel
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A gun barrel is a part of firearms and artillery pieces. The hollow interior of the barrel is called the bore, a gun barrel must be able to hold in the expanding gas produced by the propellants to ensure that optimum muzzle velocity is attained by the projectile as it is being pushed out by the expanding gas. Modern small arms barrels are made of known and tested to withstand the pressures involved. Artillery pieces are made by various techniques providing reliably sufficient strength, early firearms were muzzle-loading, with powder, and then shot loaded from the muzzle, capable of only a low rate of fire. During the 19th century effective mechanical locks were invented that sealed a breech-loading weapon against the escape of propellant gases, the early Chinese, the inventors of gunpowder, used bamboo, a naturally tubular stalk, as the first barrels in gunpowder projectile weapons. Early European guns were made of iron, usually with several strengthening bands of the metal wrapped around circular wrought iron rings. The Chinese were the first to master cast-iron cannon barrels, early cannon barrels were very thick for their caliber. Bore evacuator Bore snake Cannon Muzzle Polygonal rifling Rifling Slug barrel Smoothbore
41.
Plymouth, Michigan
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Plymouth is a city in Wayne County in the U. S. state of Michigan. The population was 9,132 at the 2010 census, the City of Plymouth is landlocked, being entirely surrounded by the Charter Township of Plymouth. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 2.22 square miles. It is located 15.6 miles east of Ann Arbor and 26.3 miles west of Detroit, just south of the M-14 highway, the city of Plymouth has a variety of shops and restaurants surrounding Kellogg Park, the de facto center of town. The Inn at St. Johns, a conference center. The city offers more than fifty recreation programs for all age groups, the Barefoot Productions theater company is located on Main Street. The Plymouth Ice Spectacular, the largest and oldest ice carving festival in North America, is every year in Plymouth in late January. Since 2008, Plymouth has been home to the Green Street Fair, featuring green-themed exhibitors and activities, the event has become a yearly tradition. In 2011, the event was attended by about 90,000 visitors, Plymouths Art in the Park is Michigans second largest art fair. Visitors have enjoyed Plymouth Art in the Park since its inaugural event in 1980, Plymouth Art in the Park, founded, directed and managed by mother and daughter team Dianne Quinn and Raychel Rork, celebrated its 33rd show in 2012. The event hosts over 450 artists and 300,000 attendees each year, another very popular community tradition/event is Plymouths Fall Festival. This annual event is held the weekend after Labor Day, the Fall Festival is an event for all ages with numerous rides and other attractions. Other events include Plymouths Music in the Air, held every Friday night June through September, beginning at approximately 7,00 pm, showcasing a number of bands performing a wide variety of music. The Historic Old Village hosts events such as Bumpers Bikes and Bands, the Old Village Restaurant Crawl, the Old Village is located on Plymouths north side and borders Hines Park. Plymouth was first settled in 1825, incorporated as a village in 1867, the first settlers to come to what is now known as Plymouth, Michigan, were Keziah and William Starkweather. Farmers from Preston, Connecticut, they purchased 240 acres of land from the United States government on March 11,1825, for $1.25 per acre. The Starkweather clan had lived in Preston at least as early as 1694, according to records of a gift in which Captain John Masons gave land to Robert Starkweather. The first home was a lean-to, and was replaced by a log cabin
42.
Daisy Outdoor Products
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Daisy Outdoor Products was formed in 1888 to manufacture windmills. As a sales promotion, they started providing air guns with the purchase of each windmill, with the popularity of the air guns, they began producing them for sale. In the 21st century, Daisy is known as a company that makes and sells entry and novice level BB guns and other air guns. Their Red Ryder BB Gun is perhaps their best known and longest production item which has featured in many TV shows. Daisy was started in 1882 as Plymouth Iron Windmill Company in Plymouth, in 1886 the company started to give away BB guns with purchases of windmills. The gun was so popular the company started to sell guns instead of windmills, the gun received its name when General Manager Lewis Cass Hough fired one and enthusiastically said Its a Daisy. In 1958, the moved the corporate offices and manufacturing facilities from Plymouth to Rogers. In 1993, Daisy was acquired by the equity firm Charter Oak Partners. The Plymouth factory was demolished in 2005 and replaced with a complex called Daisy Square. One wall of the building remained in front of the complex until its demolition on November 18,2013. The wall had been free-standing since the factory was torn down, and was supposed to be built into an apartment building, the Daisy Administration building, on Main Street, is still standing and has become an office complex and restaurant. In 2016, Daisy was sold by Charter Oak to another private equity firm, Bruckmann, Rosser, Daisy is best known for their inexpensive youth BB guns, modeled after lever-action rifles. Perhaps the most famous of these is the Red Ryder model and these simple smoothbore, spring-air BB guns fire at low velocities, and are marketed to children ages 10 and over. In addition to the spring air BB guns, Daisy also markets a line of multi-pump pneumatic rifles capable of firing pellets or BBs to the age group. Production of the Daisy Model 25 was restarted in 2009, featuring a spring feed mechanism and modeled after a pump-action shotgun with pumped cocking, the Model 25 dominated the low-price, higher-performance airgun market for over 50 years. The Powerline models are Daisys more powerful, more accurate line of airguns, marketed to ages 16, the Powerline rifles include multi-pump pneumatics and spring-piston break barrels, have rifled barrels designed for shooting pellets, and are capable of greater velocities than Daisys Youth Rifles. Powerline pistols are multishot double-action designs, powered by CO2 powerlets, BB models are smoothbore, while pellet models have rifled barrels. The Avanti line consists of Daisys target guns, some of the Avanti line are pellet guns, either single-stroke pneumatic or CO2-powered, with high-quality sights and built to much higher standards
43.
Birmingham
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Birmingham is a major city and metropolitan borough of West Midlands, England lying on the River Rea, a small river that runs through Birmingham. It is the largest and most populous British city outside London, the city is in the West Midlands Built-up Area, the third most populous urban area in the United Kingdom, with a population of 2,440,986 at the 2011 census. Birminghams metropolitan area is the second most populous in the UK with a population of 3.8 million and this also makes Birmingham the 8th most populous metropolitan area in Europe. By 1791 it was being hailed as the first manufacturing town in the world, perhaps the most important invention in British history, the industrial steam engine, was invented in Birmingham. From the summer of 1940 to the spring of 1943, Birmingham was bombed heavily by the German Luftwaffe in what is known as the Birmingham Blitz. The damage done to the infrastructure, in addition to a deliberate policy of demolition and new building by planners, led to extensive demolition. Today Birminghams economy is dominated by the service sector and its metropolitan economy is the second largest in the United Kingdom with a GDP of $121. 1bn, and its six universities make it the largest centre of higher education in the country outside London. Birmingham is the fourth-most visited city in the UK by foreign visitors, Birminghams sporting heritage can be felt worldwide, with the concept of the Football League and lawn tennis both originating from the city. Its most successful football club Aston Villa has won seven league titles, people from Birmingham are called Brummies, a term derived from the citys nickname of Brum. This originates from the citys name, Brummagem, which may in turn have been derived from one of the citys earlier names. There is a distinctive Brummie accent and dialect, Birminghams early history is that of a remote and marginal area. The main centres of population, power and wealth in the pre-industrial English Midlands lay in the fertile and accessible river valleys of the Trent, the Severn and the Avon. The area of modern Birmingham lay in between, on the upland Birmingham Plateau and within the wooded and sparsely populated Forest of Arden. Birmingham as a settlement dates from the Anglo-Saxon era, within a century of the charter Birmingham had grown into a prosperous urban centre of merchants and craftsmen. By 1327 it was the third-largest town in Warwickshire, a position it would retain for the next 200 years, by 1700 Birminghams population had increased fifteenfold and the town was the fifth-largest in England and Wales. The importance of the manufacture of goods to Birminghams economy was recognised as early as 1538. Equally significant was the emerging role as a centre for the iron merchants who organised finance, supplied raw materials. The 18th century saw this tradition of free-thinking and collaboration blossom into the phenomenon now known as the Midlands Enlightenment
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