1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
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Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
2.
Budker Institute of Nuclear Physics
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The Budker Institute of Nuclear Physics is one of the major centres of advanced study of nuclear physics in Russia. It is located in the Siberian town Akademgorodok, on Academician Lavrentiev Avenue, the institute was founded by Gersh Itskovich Budker in 1959. Following his death in 1977, the institute was renamed in honour of Academician Budker, despite its name, the centre was not involved either with military atomic science or nuclear reactors— instead, its concentration was on high-energy physics and particle physics. The BINP now employs over 3000 people, and hosts several research groups and facilities. 4-2
Budker Institute of Nuclear Physics
–
The Budker Institute in winter
3.
Russian language
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Russian is an East Slavic language and an official language in Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and many minor or unrecognised territories. Russian belongs to the family of Indo-European languages and is one of the four living members of the East Slavic languages, written examples of Old East Slavonic are attested from the 10th century and beyond. It is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia and the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages and it is also the largest native language in Europe, with 144 million native speakers in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. Russian is the eighth most spoken language in the world by number of native speakers, the language is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Russian is also the second most widespread language on the Internet after English, Russian distinguishes between consonant phonemes with palatal secondary articulation and those without, the so-called soft and hard sounds. This distinction is found between pairs of almost all consonants and is one of the most distinguishing features of the language, another important aspect is the reduction of unstressed vowels. Russian is a Slavic language of the Indo-European family and it is a lineal descendant of the language used in Kievan Rus. From the point of view of the language, its closest relatives are Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Rusyn. An East Slavic Old Novgorod dialect, although vanished during the 15th or 16th century, is considered to have played a significant role in the formation of modern Russian. In the 19th century, the language was often called Great Russian to distinguish it from Belarusian, then called White Russian and Ukrainian, however, the East Slavic forms have tended to be used exclusively in the various dialects that are experiencing a rapid decline. In some cases, both the East Slavic and the Church Slavonic forms are in use, with different meanings. For details, see Russian phonology and History of the Russian language and it is also regarded by the United States Intelligence Community as a hard target language, due to both its difficulty to master for English speakers and its critical role in American world policy. The standard form of Russian is generally regarded as the modern Russian literary language, mikhail Lomonosov first compiled a normalizing grammar book in 1755, in 1783 the Russian Academys first explanatory Russian dictionary appeared. By the mid-20th century, such dialects were forced out with the introduction of the education system that was established by the Soviet government. Despite the formalization of Standard Russian, some nonstandard dialectal features are observed in colloquial speech. Thus, the Russian language is the 6th largest in the world by number of speakers, after English, Mandarin, Hindi/Urdu, Spanish, Russian is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Education in Russian is still a choice for both Russian as a second language and native speakers in Russia as well as many of the former Soviet republics. Russian is still seen as an important language for children to learn in most of the former Soviet republics, samuel P. Huntington wrote in the Clash of Civilizations, During the heyday of the Soviet Union, Russian was the lingua franca from Prague to Hanoi
Russian language
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Russian language street sign in
Russia.
Russian language
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Russian minimarket in
Limassol, Cyprus; translation: "Teremok market. Russian goods. Phone number: 96 74 19 63"
Russian language
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This page from an "ABC" book printed in Moscow in 1694 shows the letter
П.
Russian language
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The
Ostromir Gospels of 1056 is the second oldest
East Slavic book known, one of many medieval
illuminated manuscripts preserved in the
Russian National Library.
4.
Novosibirsk
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Novosibirsk is the third-most populous city in Russia after Moscow and St. Petersburg. It is the most populous city in Asian Russia, with a population of 1,473,754 as of the 2010 Census and it is the administrative center of Novosibirsk Oblast as well as of the Siberian Federal District. It is split into ten districts and occupies an area of 502.1 square kilometers and it superseded nearby Krivoshchekovskaya village, which was founded in 1696. The bridge was completed in the spring of 1897, making the new settlement the regional transport hub, the importance of the city further increased with the completion of the Turkestan-Siberia Railway in the early 20th century. The new railway connected Novonikolayevsk to Central Asia and the Caspian Sea, at the time of the bridges opening, Novonikolayevsk had a population of 7,800 people. Its first bank opened in 1906, and a total of five banks were operating by 1915, in 1907, Novonikolayevsk, now with a population exceeding 47,000, was granted town status with full rights for self-government. During the pre-revolutionary period, the population of Novonikolayevsk reached 80,000, the city had steady and rapid economic growth, becoming one of the largest commercial and industrial centers of Siberia. It developed a significant agricultural processing industry, as well as a station, iron foundry, commodity market, several banks. In 1913, Novonikolayevsk became one of the first places in Russia to institute compulsory primary education, the Russian Civil War took a toll on the city. There were wartime epidemics, especially of typhus and cholera, that thousands of lives. In the course of the war the Ob River Bridge was destroyed, for the first time in the citys history, the population of Novonikolayevsk began to decline. The Soviet Workers and Soldiers Deputies of Novonikolayevsk took control of the city in December 1917, in May 1918, the Czechoslovak Legions rose in opposition to the revolutionary government and, together with the White Guards, captured Novonikolayevsk. The Red Army took the city in 1919, retaining it throughout the rest of the Civil War, Novonikolayevsk began reconstruction in 1921 at the start of Lenins New Economic Policy period. It was a part of Tomsk Governorate and served as its center from December 23,1919 to March 14,1920. Between June 13,1921 and May 25,1925, it served as the center of Novonikolayevsk Governorate. The city was given its present name on September 12,1926, since then, it has served as the administrative center of Novosibirsk Oblast. The Monument to the Heroes of the Revolution was erected in the center of the city and has one of the chief historic sites. Neglect in the 1990s while other areas were redeveloped helped preserve it in the post-Soviet era, during Joseph Stalins industrialization effort, Novosibirsk secured its place as one of the largest industrial centers of Siberia
Novosibirsk
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View of Novosibirsk
Novosibirsk
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St. Alexander Nevsky Cathedral
Novosibirsk
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Novosibirsk Trans-Siberian railway station
Novosibirsk
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Tolmachevo Airport
5.
Russia
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Russia, also officially the Russian Federation, is a country in Eurasia. The European western part of the country is more populated and urbanised than the eastern. Russias capital Moscow is one of the largest cities in the world, other urban centers include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod. Extending across the entirety of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a range of environments. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, the East Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, in 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Rus ultimately disintegrated into a number of states, most of the Rus lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion. The Soviet Union played a role in the Allied victory in World War II. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the worlds first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space. By the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the second largest economy, largest standing military in the world. It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic, the Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015. Russias extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world, making it one of the producers of oil. The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction, Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and has been characterised as a potential superpower. The name Russia is derived from Rus, a state populated mostly by the East Slavs. However, this name became more prominent in the later history, and the country typically was called by its inhabitants Русская Земля. In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it, it is denoted as Kievan Rus by modern historiography, an old Latin version of the name Rus was Ruthenia, mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus that were adjacent to Catholic Europe. The current name of the country, Россия, comes from the Byzantine Greek designation of the Kievan Rus, the standard way to refer to citizens of Russia is Russians in English and rossiyane in Russian. There are two Russian words which are translated into English as Russians
Russia
–
Kievan Rus' in the 11th century
Russia
–
Flag
Russia
–
The
Baptism of Kievans, by
Klavdy Lebedev
Russia
–
Sergius of Radonezh blessing
Dmitry Donskoy in
Trinity Sergius Lavra, before the
Battle of Kulikovo, depicted in a painting by
Ernst Lissner
6.
Koltsovo, Novosibirsk Oblast
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Koltsovo is a Science town of the Russian Federation. The settlement, initially established as the home for the institute was named after famous Soviet biologist, cytologist and geneticist Nikolai Koltsov, on January 17,2003, Koltsovo was granted naukograd status, which it is to retain until the end of 2025. The status is granted to the cities with concentrations of scientific research. Koltsovo received its status by Russian President order no.45 of January 17,2003, within the framework of administrative divisions, Koltsovo is subordinated to Novosibirsky District. As a municipal division, Koltsovo is incorporated separately as Koltsovo Urban Okrug, since its creation Koltsovo has been developing as a center of biotechnology, molecular biology and virology. For instance, Koltsovo’s Institute Vector is one of two places in the world which is a repository of smallpox. The second smallpox store resides at the Center for Diseases Control and Prevention in Atlanta, the science-driven business of the Science town has always been nurtured by research conducted by Vector specialists. The first wave of commercialization of Vector developments took place in the 1990s and was sustained by the Vector director Lev Sandakchiev, not only virology and biotechnology in different aspects attract attention of researchers from Koltsovo. In 2013 the Ministry of Economic Development of the Russian Federation has adopted the creation of a joint BioPharma and IT cluster in Novosibirsk region with the BioPharma centered in Koltsovo. Koltsovo is the least populated naukograd in Russia, but it takes the lead among other naukograds in tax revenue, volume of produced innovation products, residential construction, Koltsovo is located in a picturesque place, surrounded by coniferous and birch trees. The apartment buildings are beautifully alternated by green plantations, since 2006 in Koltsovo 4 new neighborhoods have been constructed and the 5th is planned to be built in the next 5 years. It provides solid population growth as well as birth rate in Koltsovo. Proximity to nature allows residents to enjoy outings, Koltsovo Park offers, among others, downhill skiing in winter and fishing and horse riding in summer. Koltsovo has a stadium, refurbished in 2008, with running tracks, tennis court, the social life thrives with guest performances of Novosibirsk theaters and concerts. The Youth Parliament, which implements social projects, was organized by students living in Koltsovo, the Science town is often visited by business and scientific delegations from European and Asian countries, such as Finland, Germany, the Netherlands, Norway, China, Thailand and others. Koltsovo business often sets on company missions abroad, to countries like Finland, Greece, Germany, the international cooperation is sustained by Municipality of Koltsovo and Innovation center Koltsovo. Закон №200-ОЗ от2 июня2004 г, «О статусе и границах муниципальных образований Новосибирской области», в ред. Закона №548-ОЗ от29 апреля2015 г, Вступил в силу через10 дней со дня официального опубликования
Koltsovo, Novosibirsk Oblast
–
View of Koltsovo
7.
Siberia
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Siberia is an extensive geographical region, and by the broadest definition is also known as North Asia. Siberia has historically been a part of Russia since the 17th century, the territory of Siberia extends eastwards from the Ural Mountains to the watershed between the Pacific and Arctic drainage basins. It stretches southwards from the Arctic Ocean to the hills of north-central Kazakhstan and to the borders of Mongolia. With an area of 13.1 million square kilometres, Siberia accounts for 77% of Russias land area and this is equivalent to an average population density of about 3 inhabitants per square kilometre, making Siberia one of the most sparsely populated regions on Earth. If it were a country by itself, it would still be the largest country in area, the origin of the name is unknown. Some sources say that Siberia originates from the Siberian Tatar word for sleeping land, another account sees the name as the ancient tribal ethnonym of the Sirtya, a folk, which spoke a language that later evolved into the Ugric languages. This ethnic group was assimilated to the Siberian Tatar people. The modern usage of the name was recorded in the Russian language after the Empires conquest of the Siberian Khanate, a further variant claims that the region was named after the Xibe people. The Polish historian Chycliczkowski has proposed that the name derives from the word for north. He said that the neighbouring Chinese, Arabs and Mongolians would not have known Russian and he suggests that the name is a combination of two words, su and bir. The region is of significance, as it contains bodies of prehistoric animals from the Pleistocene Epoch. Specimens of Goldfuss cave lion cubs, Yuka and another woolly mammoth from Oymyakon, a rhinoceros from the Kolyma River. The Siberian Traps were formed by one of the largest known volcanic events of the last 500 million years of Earths geological history. They continued for a million years and are considered a cause of the Great Dying about 250 million years ago. At least three species of human lived in Southern Siberia around 40,000 years ago, H. sapiens, H. neanderthalensis, the last was determined in 2010, by DNA evidence, to be a new species. Siberia was inhabited by different groups of such as the Enets, the Nenets, the Huns, the Scythians. The Khan of Sibir in the vicinity of modern Tobolsk was known as a prominent figure who endorsed Kubrat as Khagan of Old Great Bulgaria in 630, the Mongols conquered a large part of this area early in the 13th century. With the breakup of the Golden Horde, the autonomous Khanate of Sibir was established in the late 15th century, turkic-speaking Yakut migrated north from the Lake Baikal region under pressure from the Mongol tribes during the 13th to 15th century
Siberia
–
Painting of
Chukchi by
Louis Choris, 1816
Siberia
–
Siberian Federal District Geographic Russian Siberia Siberia in its widest definition and historical use
Siberia
–
The tower of a 17th-century
ostrog fort in
Yakutsk
Siberia
–
Siberian
Cossack family in
Novosibirsk
8.
Birch
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A birch is a thin-leaved deciduous hardwood tree of the genus Betula, in the family Betulaceae, which also includes alders, hazels, and hornbeams. It is closely related to the beech-oak family Fagaceae, the genus Betula contains 30 to 60 known taxa of which 11 are on the IUCN2011 Green List of Threatened Species. They are a typically rather short-lived pioneer species widespread in the Northern Hemisphere, particularly in northern temperate, Birch species are generally small to medium-sized trees or shrubs, mostly of northern temperate and boreal climates. The simple leaves are alternate, singly or doubly serrate, feather-veined and they often appear in pairs, but these pairs are really borne on spur-like, two-leaved, lateral branchlets. The fruit is a samara, although the wings may be obscure in some species. They differ from the alders in that the female catkins are not woody and disintegrate at maturity, falling apart to release the seeds, unlike the woody, cone-like female alder catkins. The bark of all birches is characteristically marked with long, horizontal lenticels and its decided color gives the common names gray, white, black, silver and yellow birch to different species. The buds form early and are grown by midsummer, all are lateral, no terminal bud is formed. The wood of all the species is close-grained with satiny texture, staminate aments are pendulous, clustered or solitary in the axils of the last leaves of the branch of the year or near the ends of the short lateral branchlets of the year. They form in autumn and remain rigid during the winter. The scales of the staminate aments when mature are broadly ovate, rounded, yellow or orange color below the middle, each scale bears two bractlets and three sterile flowers, each flower consisting of a sessile, membranaceous, usually two-lobed, calyx. Each calyx bears four short filaments with one-celled anthers or strictly, the pistillate aments are erect or pendulous, solitary, terminal on the two-leaved lateral spur-like branchlets of the year. The pistillate scales are oblong-ovate, three-lobed, pale yellow green often tinged with red and these scales bear two or three fertile flowers, each flower consisting of a naked ovary. The ovary is compressed, two-celled, and crowned with two styles, the ovule is solitary. Each scale bear a small, winged nut that is oval. Betula species are organised into five subgenera, pendula and B. pubescens confused, though they are distinct species with different chromosome numbers. This root is derived from *bʰreh₁ǵ- ‘to shine’, in reference to the birchs white bark. The Proto-Germanic rune berkanan is named after the birch, the generic name betula is from Latin, which is a diminutive borrowed from Gaulish betua
Birch
–
Birch
Birch
–
The front and rear sides of a piece of birch
bark
Birch
–
Birch trees near stream in
Hankasalmi, Finland
Birch
–
A stand of birch trees
9.
Pine
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A pine is any conifer in the genus Pinus, /ˈpiːnuːs/, of the family Pinaceae. Pinus is the genus in the subfamily Pinoideae. The Plant List compiled by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and Missouri Botanical Garden accepts 126 species names of pines as current, together with 35 unresolved species, the modern English name pine derives from Latin pinus, which some have traced to the Indo-European base *pīt- ‘resin’. Before the 19th century, pines were often referred to as firs, the genus is divided into three subgenera, which can be distinguished by cone, seed, and leaf characters, Pinus subg. Pinus, the yellow, or hard pine group, generally harder wood. Ducampopinus, the foxtail or pinyon group Pinus subg, strobus, the white, or soft pine group, generally with softer wood and five needles per fascicle Most regions of the Northern Hemisphere host some native species of pines. One species crosses the equator in Sumatra to 2°S, in North America, various species occur in regions at latitudes from as far north as 66°N to as far south as 12°N. Various species have been introduced to temperate and subtropical regions of both hemispheres, where they are grown as timber or cultivated as ornamental plants in parks, a number of such introduced species have become invasive and threaten native ecosystems. Pine trees are evergreen, coniferous trees growing 3–80 m tall. The smallest are Siberian dwarf pine and Potosi pinyon, and the tallest is a 81.79 m tall ponderosa pine located in southern Oregons Rogue River-Siskiyou National Forest, the bark of most pines is thick and scaly, but some species have thin, flaky bark. The branches are produced in regular pseudo whorls, actually a very tight spiral, the spiral growth of branches, needles, and cone scales are arranged in Fibonacci number ratios. The new spring shoots are sometimes called candles, they are covered in brown or whitish bud scales and point upward at first, then turn green. These candles offer foresters a means to evaluate fertility of the soil, pines are long-lived, and typically reach ages of 100–1,000 years, some even more. The longest-lived is the Great Basin bristlecone pine, Pinus longaeva, one individual of this species, dubbed Methuselah, is one of the worlds oldest living organisms at around 4,600 years old. This tree can be found in the White Mountains of California, an older tree, now cut down, was dated at 4,900 years old. It was discovered in a grove beneath Wheeler Peak and it is now known as Prometheus after the Greek immortal, pines have four types of leaf, Seed leaves on seedlings, born in a whorl of 4–24. Juvenile leaves, which follow immediately on seedlings and young plants, 2–6 cm long, single, green or often blue-green and these are produced for six months to five years, rarely longer. Scale leaves, similar to bud scales, small, brown and non-photosynthetic, needles, the adult leaves, are green and bundled in clusters called fascicles
Pine
–
Pine tree
Pine
–
A
Khasi pine in
Benguet, Philippines
Pine
–
Huangshan pine (Pinus hwangshanensis),
Anhui, China
Pine
–
Ancient
Pinus longaeva,
Nevada, USA
10.
Novosibirsk Reservoir
–
Novosibirsk Reservoir or Novosibirskoye Reservoir, informally called the Ob Sea, is the largest artificial lake in Novosibirsk Oblast and Altai Krai, Russian Federation. It was created by a 33 m high dam on the Ob River near Novosibirsk. The dam, built in 1956, is for generating hydroelectric power, the reservoir is 200 km long and up to 17 km wide. Its area is 1,070 km2 and its volume is 8.8 km3 and its average depth is 8.3 m. The design hydroelectric power output is 460 MW, the energy production is 1,687 GWh per year. During the summer, the lake is one of the most popular destinations for Novosibirsk residents, with many yachts and boats dotting the surface, and the beaches teeming with people. The Karakan Pine Forest is situated on the eastern coast of the reservoir, while most of the towns, the larger towns bordering the reservoir are Novosibirsk, Kamen-na-Obi and Berdsk. Berdsk was severely impacted by the construction, its historical centre having been submerged by the water. Several smaller villages nearby met with the same fate, listing on WaytoRussia. net Photographs Ob Sea Ob sea,5 km into the open
Novosibirsk Reservoir
–
Novosibirsk Reservoir
11.
Reservoir (water)
–
A reservoir is a storage space for fluids. These fluids may be water, hydrocarbons or gas, a reservoir usually means an enlarged natural or artificial lake, storage pond or impoundment created using a dam or lock to store water. Reservoirs can be created by controlling a stream that drains a body of water. They can also be constructed in river valleys using a dam, alternately, a reservoir can be built by excavating flat ground or constructing retaining walls and levees. Tank reservoirs store liquids or gases in storage tanks that may be elevated, at grade level, tank reservoirs for water are also called cisterns. Underground reservoirs are used to store liquids, principally either water or petroleum, a dam constructed in a valley relies on the natural topography to provide most of the basin of the reservoir. Dams are typically located at a part of a valley downstream of a natural basin. The valley sides act as walls, with the dam located at the narrowest practical point to provide strength. In many reservoir construction projects, people have to be moved and re-housed, construction of a reservoir in a valley will usually need the river to be diverted during part of the build, often through a temporary tunnel or by-pass channel. In hilly regions, reservoirs are constructed by enlarging existing lakes. Sometimes in such reservoirs the new top water level exceeds the height on one or more of the feeder streams such as at Llyn Clywedog in Mid Wales. In such cases additional side dams are required to contain the reservoir, where water is pumped or siphoned from a river of variable quality or quantity, bank-side reservoirs may be built to store the water. Such reservoirs are usually formed partly by excavation and partly by building a complete encircling bund or embankment, the water stored in such reservoirs may stay there for several months, during which time normal biological processes may substantially reduce many contaminants and almost eliminate any turbidity. The use of reservoirs also allows water abstraction to be stopped for some time. Service reservoirs store fully treated potable water close to the point of distribution, many service reservoirs are constructed as water towers, often as elevated structures on concrete pillars where the landscape is relatively flat. Other service reservoirs can be almost entirely underground, especially in hilly or mountainous country. In the United Kingdom, Thames Water has many underground reservoirs, sometimes called cisterns, built in the 1800s. A good example is the Honor Oak Reservoir in London, constructed between 1901 and 1909, when it was completed it was said to be the largest brick built underground reservoir in the world and it is still one of the largest in Europe
Reservoir (water)
–
The
Junghua Dam and reservoir on the
Dahan Creek in
Taoyuan City,
Taiwan.
Reservoir (water)
–
Lake Vyrnwy Reservoir. The dam spans the
Vyrnwy Valley and was the first large stone dam built in the
United Kingdom.
Reservoir (water)
–
The
East Branch Reservoir, part of the
New York City water supply system, is formed by impounding the
eastern tributary of the
Croton River.
Reservoir (water)
–
Haweswater in the
Lake District, UK supplies water to
Manchester.
12.
Ob River
–
The Ob River, also Obi, is a major river in western Siberia, Russia and is the worlds seventh-longest river. It forms at the confluence of the Biya and Katun Rivers which have their origins in the Altay Mountains and it is the westernmost of the three great Siberian rivers that flow into the Arctic Ocean. The Gulf of Ob is the worlds longest estuary, the Ob is known to the Khanty people as the As, Yag, Kolta and Yema, to the Nenets people as the Kolta or Kuay, and to the Siberian Tatars as the Umar or Omass. Possibly from Proto-Indo-Iranian *ap-, river, water, the Ob forms 25 km southwest of Biysk in Altai Krai at the confluence of the Biya and Katun rivers. Both these streams have their origin in the Altay Mountains, the Biya issuing from Lake Teletskoye, the Obs entire main course is within Russia, though its tributaries extend into Kazakhstan, China and Mongolia. The river splits into more than one arm, especially after joining the large Irtysh tributary at about 69° E, from the source of the Irtysh to the mouth of the Ob, the river flow is the longest in Russia at 5,410 kilometres. Other noteworthy tributaries are, from the east, the Tom, Chulym, Ket, Tym and Vakh rivers, and, from the west and south, the Vasyugan, Irtysh, and Sosva Rivers. The combined Ob-Irtysh system, the fourth-longest river system of Asia, is 5,410 kilometres long, the river basin of the Ob consists mostly of steppe, taiga, swamps, tundra, and semi-desert topography. The floodplains of the Ob are characterized by many tributaries and lakes. The Ob is ice-bound at southern Barnaul from early in November to near the end of April, the Ob River crosses several climatic zones. The upper Ob valley, in the south, grows grapes, melons and watermelons, the most comfortable climate for the rest on the Ob are Biysk, Barnaul, and Novosibirsk. The Ob is used mostly for irrigation, drinking water, hydroelectric energy, the navigable waters within the Ob basin reach a total length of 15,000 km. Until the early 20th century, an important western river port was Tyumen, located on the Tura River. In the eastern reaches of the Ob basin, Tomsk on the Tom River was an important terminus, Tyumen had its first steamboat in 1836, and the middle reaches of the Ob have been navigated by steamboats since 1845. Steamboats started operating on the Yenisei in 1863, on the Lena, in 1916 there were 49 steamers on the Ob,10 on the Yenesei. The Trans-Siberian Railway, once completed, provided for more direct, but the Ob river system still remained important for connecting the huge expanses of Tyumen Oblast and Tomsk Oblast with the major cities along the Trans-Siberian route, such as Novosibirsk or Omsk. A dam was built near Novosibirsk in 1956, which created the then-largest artificial lake in Siberia, the project never left the drawing board, abandoned in 1986 due to economic and environmental considerations. In its early years of operation, the Mayak plant released vast quantities of contaminated water into several small lakes near the plant
Ob River
–
Near
Barnaul
Ob River
–
Yenisei and Ob (right) flow into Kara Sea
Ob River
–
The Ob River in
Barnaul
Ob River
–
A section of the Ob River
13.
Closed city
–
A closed city or closed town is a settlement where travel or residency restrictions are applied so that specific authorization is required to visit or remain overnight. They may be sensitive military establishments or secret research installations which require more space or freedom than is available in a conventional military base. There may also be a variety of permanent residents including close family members of workers or trusted traders who are not directly connected with its clandestine purposes. Closed cities are a feature of heavily militarized countries and secretive regimes, in modern Russia, such places are officially known as closed administrative-territorial formations. Sometimes closed cities may only be represented on classified maps which are not available to the general public, in some cases there may be no road signs or directions to closed cities, and they are usually omitted from railroad time tables and bus routes. Sometimes closed cities may be indicated obliquely as an insignificant village. For mail delivery, a city is usually named as the nearest large city. The actual settlement can be distant from its namesakes, for instance, Sarov, designated Arzamas-16, is in the federal republic of Mordovia. People not dwelling in a city were subject to document checks and security checkpoints. To relocate to the city, one would need security clearance by the Organization running it. The closed city was guarded by a security perimeter with barbed wire and towers. The very fact of such an existence was often classified. This lack of freedom was often compensated by better housing conditions, also, in the USSR, people working with classified information received a salary bonus. They fell into two distinct categories, the first category comprised relatively small communities with sensitive military, industrial, or scientific facilities, such as arms plants or nuclear research sites. Examples are the towns of Ozyorsk with a plutonium production plant, and Sillamäe. Even Soviet citizens were not allowed access to places without proper authorization. In addition to this, some cities were closed for unauthorized access to foreigners. These included cities like Perm, a center for Soviet tank production, and Vladivostok, the second category consisted of border cities which were closed for security purposes
Closed city
–
Central entry checkpoint to the closed city of
Seversk, Tomsk Oblast, Russia
Closed city
–
A view of
Zelenogorsk, Krasnoyarsk Krai, Russia
Closed city
–
A checkpoint in the closed city of
Zheleznogorsk, in
Krasnoyarsk Krai,
Russia
Closed city
–
A view of
Severomorsk, Murmansk Oblast, Russia
14.
Novosibirsk State University
–
Novosibirsk State University is among the most famous universities in Russia, although is somewhat young. NSU is one of top three Russian schools present in top ratings, as of 2016, the university is located right in the middle of the country, in the suburb area of Novosibirsk, a cultural and industrial center of Siberia. The total number of students is 7131 as of 2016, Novosibirsk State University alumni mainly known in engineering, research and IT. Siberia possessed copious natural resources but lacked large research institutions which would promote economic development, in 1958, the idea was implemented with the establishment of the Siberian Division of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union near the large industrial city of Novosibirsk. A new academic town, Akademgorodok, started to grow rapidly, thus, in May 1959 the USSR Higher Education Ministry issued a decree to begin studies in Novosibirsk State University on September 1,1959 with Ilia N. Vekua as rector. 139 first-year students were admitted as students and 119 as part-time students. In addition, the best students from other Soviet universities were selected as second-year students, the applicants for chemistry and physics accounted for eight and five persons per vacancy respectively, with three persons for mathematics, mechanics and geology. The official opening of the University took place on September 26,1959 at the Concert Hall of the Opera, at first, the only department of the University, the Department of Natural Sciences, combined Mathematics, Physics, Mechanics, Biology, Chemistry and Geology. Between 1960 and 1967 new departments began to separate into their own disciplines, in December 1963 the first graduates of the Novosibirsk State University, including 26 physicists,24 mathematicians and ten researchers in mechanics, received diplomas. The Department of Mathematics and Mechanics, the Department of Physics, therefore, historically, its curriculum inherited a significant load of Physics and Mathematics courses, which is quite unusual for typical Russian Chemistry and Biology majors. Another reason for this emphasis in exact sciences was that the first deans of the department were prominent soviet physical chemists Vladislav Voevodskii and Dmitrii Knorre, the Department of Natural Sciences offers majors in Chemistry and Biology. In five years of training the graduates receive a Specialists degree, the training program includes two years of research practice in a specific area of Chemistry and Biology with writing a thesis. From 1992 to 2000 a major in Environmental Chemistry was offered based on a 2-level training system, the program was based on the Chemistry major curriculum with addition of extra mathematics, informatics and biology courses. Since 1995 a major in Medical Biology has been offered, the aim of this enterprise was to begin training Research Doctors of Medicine in the department. A state license allowing the training of general practitioners was obtained in 2002, finally, in 2004 another new department, the Department of Medicine sprung from the Department of Natural Sciences. The Department of Mechanics and Mathematics was founded in 1961, since 1976, the Department of Mechanics and Mathematics has conducted training in applied mathematics as well. The founders of the Department of Mechanics and Mathematics were such distinguished scientists as Academicians M. A. Lavrentev, I. N. Vekua, A. I. Maltsev, and S. L. Sobolev. In the spring of 1991, the Academic Council of the Department came to the decision to accept a 2-level system of training, about half of the graduates have the opportunity to continue their education at 2-year postgraduate courses leading to a masters degree
Novosibirsk State University
–
Novosibirsk State University's main building during InterWeek 2006 festival
15.
Library
–
A library is a collection of sources of information and similar resources, made accessible to a defined community for reference or borrowing. It provides physical or digital access to material, and may be a building or room, or a virtual space. Libraries range in size from a few shelves of books to several million items, in Latin and Greek, the idea of a bookcase is represented by Bibliotheca and Bibliothēkē, derivatives of these mean library in many modern languages, e. g. French bibliothèque. The first libraries consisted of archives of the earliest form of clay tablets in cuneiform script discovered in Sumer. Private or personal libraries made up of books appeared in classical Greece in the 5th century BC. In the 6th century, at the close of the Classical period. A library is organized for use and maintained by a body, an institution. In addition to providing materials, libraries also provide the services of librarians who are experts at finding and organizing information, Libraries often provide quiet areas for studying, and they also often offer common areas to facilitate group study and collaboration. Libraries often provide facilities for access to their electronic resources. Modern libraries are increasingly being redefined as places to get unrestricted access to information in many formats, the first libraries consisted of archives of the earliest form of writing—the clay tablets in cuneiform script discovered in temple rooms in Sumer, some dating back to 2600 BC. These archives, which consisted of the records of commercial transactions or inventories, mark the end of prehistory. Things were much the same in the government and temple records on papyrus of Ancient Egypt, the earliest discovered private archives were kept at Ugarit, besides correspondence and inventories, texts of myths may have been standardized practice-texts for teaching new scribes. There is also evidence of libraries at Nippur about 1900 BC, philosopher Laozi was keeper of books in the earliest library in China, which belonged to the Imperial Zhou dynasty. Also, evidence of catalogues found in some destroyed ancient libraries illustrates the presence of librarians, the Library of Alexandria, in Egypt, was the largest and most significant great library of the ancient world. It flourished under the patronage of the Ptolemaic dynasty and functioned as a center of scholarship from its construction in the 3rd century BC until the Roman conquest of Egypt in 30 BC. The library was conceived and opened either during the reign of Ptolemy I Soter or during the reign of his son Ptolemy II, an early organization system was in effect at Alexandria. The Library of Celsus in Ephesus, Anatolia, now part of Selçuk, Turkey was built in honor of the Roman Senator Tiberius Julius Celsus Polemaeanus by Celsus’ son, the library was built to store 12,000 scrolls and to serve as a monumental tomb for Celsus. Private or personal libraries made up of books appeared in classical Greece in the 5th century BC
Library
–
Library at
Melk Abbey in Austria
Library
–
St. Florian Library at
Melk Abbey in Austria
Library
–
Tablet from the
Library of Ashurbanipal containing part of the
Epic of Gilgamesh
Library
–
Artistic rendering of the
Library of Alexandria, based on some archaeological evidence
16.
Russian literature
–
The roots of Russian literature can be traced to the Middle Ages, when epics and chronicles in Old Russian were composed. By the Age of Enlightenment, literature had grown in importance, romanticism permitted a flowering of poetic talent, Vasily Zhukovsky and later his protégé Alexander Pushkin came to the fore. The first great Russian novelist was Nikolai Gogol, then came Ivan Turgenev, who mastered both short stories and novels. Leo Tolstoy and Fyodor Dostoyevsky soon became internationally renowned, in the second half of the century Anton Chekhov excelled in short stories and became a leading dramatist. The beginning of the 20th century ranks as the Silver Age of Russian poetry, after the Revolution of 1917, Russian literature split into Soviet and white émigré parts. While the Soviet Union assured universal literacy and a highly developed book printing industry, in the 1930s Socialist realism became the predominant trend in Russia. Its leading figure was Maxim Gorky, who laid the foundations of this style, Nikolay Ostrovskys novel How the Steel Was Tempered has been among the most successful works of Russian literature. Alexander Fadeyev achieved success in Russia, some writers dared to oppose Soviet ideology, like Nobel Prize-winning novelist Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, who wrote about life in the gulag camps. The Khrushchev Thaw brought some fresh wind to literature and poetry became a cultural phenomenon. This thaw did not last long, in the 1970s, some of the most prominent authors were banned from publishing, the end of the 20th century was a difficult period for Russian literature, with few distinct voices. Among the most discussed authors of this period were Victor Pelevin, who gained popularity with stories and novels, novelist and playwright Vladimir Sorokin. In the 21st century, a new generation of Russian authors appeared, differing greatly from the postmodernist Russian prose of the late 20th century, which lead critics to speak about new realism. Leading new realists include Ilja Stogoff, Zakhar Prilepin, Alexander Karasyov, Arkadi Babchenko, Vladimir Lorchenkov, Alexander Snegiryov, Russian authors have significantly contributed to numerous literary genres. Russia has five Nobel Prize in literature laureates, as of 2011, Russia was the fourth largest book producer in the world in terms of published titles. A popular folk saying claims Russians are the worlds most reading nation, Old Russian literature consists of several masterpieces written in the Old Russian language. The main type of Old Russian historical literature were chronicles, most of them anonymous, anonymous works also include The Tale of Igors Campaign and Praying of Daniel the Immured. Hagiographies formed a genre of the Old Russian literature. Life of Alexander Nevsky offers a well-known example, other Russian literary monuments include Zadonschina, Physiologist, Synopsis and A Journey Beyond the Three Seas
Russian literature
–
Chekhov and
Tolstoy, 1901
Russian literature
–
Alexander Sumarokov
Russian literature
–
Gavrila Derzhavin
Russian literature
–
Denis Fonvizin
17.
American literature
–
American literature is the literature written or produced in the area of the United States and its preceding colonies. For more specific discussions of poetry and theater, see Poetry of the United States, during its early history, America was a series of British colonies on the eastern coast of the present-day United States. Therefore, its literary tradition begins as linked to the tradition of English literature. However, unique American characteristics and the breadth of its production usually now cause it to be considered a separate path, the New England colonies were the center of early American literature. The revolutionary period contained political writings by Samuel Adams, Benjamin Franklin, in the post-war period, Thomas Jeffersons United States Declaration of Independence solidified his status as a key American writer. It was in the late 18th and early 19th centuries that the nations first novels were published, in 1836, Ralph Waldo Emerson started a movement known as Transcendentalism. Henry David Thoreau wrote Walden, which urges resistance to the dictates of organized society, the political conflict surrounding abolitionism inspired the writings of William Lloyd Garrison and Harriet Beecher Stowe in her world-famous Uncle Toms Cabin. Nathaniel Hawthorne is notable for his masterpiece, The Scarlet Letter, Hawthorne influenced Herman Melville who is notable for the books Moby-Dick and Billy Budd. Americas two greatest 19th-century poets were Walt Whitman and Emily Dickinson, American poetry reached a peak in the early-to-mid-20th century, with such noted writers as Wallace Stevens, T. S. Eliot, Robert Frost, Ezra Pound, Hart Crane, and E. E. Cummings. Mark Twain was the first major American writer to be away from the East Coast. Henry James was notable for novels like The Turn of the Screw, at the beginning of the 20th century, American novelists included Edith Wharton, Stephen Crane, Theodore Dreiser, and Jack London. Experimentation in style and form is seen in the works of Gertrude Stein, American writers expressed disillusionment following WW I. The stories and novels of F. Scott Fitzgerald capture the mood of the 1920s, ernest Hemingway became notable for The Sun Also Rises and A Farewell to Arms, in 1954, he won the Nobel Prize in Literature. William Faulkner is notable for novels like The Sound and the Fury, American drama attained international status only in the 1920s and 1930s, with the works of Eugene ONeill, who won four Pulitzer Prizes and the Nobel Prize. In the middle of the 20th century, American drama was dominated by the work of playwrights Tennessee Williams and Arthur Miller, Depression era writers included John Steinbeck, notable for his novel The Grapes of Wrath. Henry Miller assumed a place in American Literature in the 1930s when his semi-autobiographical novels were banned from the US. From the end of World War II up until, roughly, Americas involvement in World War II influenced the creation of works such as Norman Mailers The Naked and the Dead, Joseph Hellers Catch-22 and Kurt Vonnegut Jr. s Slaughterhouse-Five. John Updike was notable for his novel Rabbit, Run, Philip Roth explores Jewish identity in American society
American literature
–
Washington Irving and his friends at
Sunnyside
American literature
–
Edgar Allan Poe portrait.
American literature
–
Ralph Waldo Emerson.
American literature
–
Nathaniel Hawthorne.
18.
British literature
–
British literature is literature in the English language from the United Kingdom, Isle of Man, and Channel Islands. There is also some discussion of major figures who wrote in Scots. The article Literature in the languages of Britain focusses on the literatures written in the other languages that are. There are also articles on these various literatures, Latin literature in Britain, Anglo-Norman, Cornish, Guernésiais, Jèrriais, Latin, Manx, Scottish Gaelic, Welsh, for some this includes works by authors from Northern Ireland. The nature of British identity has changed over time, the island that contains, England, Scotland, and Wales, has been known as Britain from the time of the Roman Pliny the Elder. Though the original inhabitants spoke mainly various Celtic languages, English as the language had its beginnings with the Anglo-Saxon invasion of c.450 A. D. The various constituent parts of the present United Kingdom joined at different times, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Acts of Union of 1536 and 1542. However, it was not until 1707 with a treaty between England and Scotland, that the Kingdom of Great Britain came into existence and this merged in January 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Works written in the English language by Welsh writers, especially if their subject matter relates to Wales, has been recognised as a distinctive entity since the twentieth-century, the need for a separate identity for this kind of writing arose because of the parallel development of modern Welsh-language literature. Various Celtic languages were spoken by many of British people at time and among the most important written works that have survived are Y Gododdin i. From the 8th to the 15th centuries, Vikings and Norse settlers and their descendents colonised parts of what is now modern Scotland. 450, after the withdrawal of the Romans, and ending soon after the Norman Conquest in 1066, that is, c. These works include such as epic poetry, hagiography, sermons, Bible translations, legal works, chronicles, riddles. In all there are about 400 surviving manuscripts from the period, oral tradition was very strong in early English culture and most literary works were written to be performed. Epic poems were very popular, and some, including Beowulf, have survived to the present day. Beowulf, is the most famous work in Old English and has achieved national status in England. Cædmon is the earliest English poet whose name is known, Cædmons only known surviving work is Cædmons Hymn, which probably dates from the late 7th century. Chronicles contained a range of historical and literary accounts, and an example is the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. The poem Battle of Maldon also deals with history and this is the name given to a work, of uncertain date, celebrating the real Battle of Maldon of 991, at which the Anglo-Saxons failed to prevent a Viking invasion
British literature
–
A
facsimile page of
Y Gododdin c. 1275
British literature
–
First page facsimile of
Beowulf
British literature
–
Sir Bedivere casts
King Arthur 's sword
Excalibur back to the
Lady of the Lake. The
Arthurian Cycle has influenced British literature across languages and down the centuries.
British literature
–
Wace, the earliest known Jersey poet, developed the
Arthurian legend and chronicled the Dukes of Normandy
19.
French literature
–
This article is a general introduction to French literature. For detailed information on French literature in specific periods, see the separate historical articles in the template to the right. Literature written in French language, by citizens of nations such as Belgium, Switzerland, Canada, Senegal, Algeria, Morocco. As of 2006, French writers have been awarded more Nobel Prizes in Literature than novelists, poets and essayists of any other country, France itself ranks first in the list of Nobel Prizes in literature by country. French literature has been for French people an object of pride for centuries. The French language is a dialect derived from Latin and heavily influenced principally by Celtic. Today, French schools emphasize the study of novels, theater, the literary arts are heavily sponsored by the state and literary prizes are major news. The Académie française and the Institut de France are important linguistic and artistic institutions in France, Literature matters deeply to the people of France and plays an important role in their sense of identity. As of 2006, French literary people have been awarded more Nobel Prizes in Literature than novelists, poets and essayists of any other country, a writer must refuse to allow himself to be transformed into an institution, even if it takes place in the most honorable form. For most of the 20th century, French authors had more Literature Nobel Prizes than those of any other nation. M. G, le Clézio 2014 – Patrick Modiano Grand Prix de Littérature Policière – created in 1948, for crime and detective fiction. Grand Prix du roman de lAcadémie française – created 1918, Prix Décembre – created in 1989. Prix Femina – created 1904, decided each year by an exclusively female jury, Prix Goncourt – created 1903, given to the author of the best and most imaginative prose work of the year. Prix Goncourt des Lycéens – created in 1987, Prix Littéraire Valery Larbaud – created in 1957. Prix Médicis – created 1958, awarded to an author whose fame does not yet match their talent, Prix Renaudot – created in 1926. Prix Tour-Apollo Award – 1972–1990, given to the best science fiction published in French during the preceding year. Prix des Deux Magots – created in 1933, a short history of French literature Burgwinkle, William, Nicholas Hammond, and Emma Wilson, eds. The Cambridge history of French literature Cobb, Richard, Promenades, an appreciation of modern French literature Harvey, Paul. The Oxford companion to French literature Denis Hollier, ed, a New History of French Literature, Harvard University Press,1989,1150 pp. France, Peter
French literature
–
Samuel Beckett Walk, Paris (France). Nobel Prize 1969.
French literature
–
Seminar with Claude Simon, Cerisy (France). Nobel Prize 1985.
20.
German literature
–
German literature comprises those literary texts written in the German language. This includes literature written in Germany, Austria, the German parts of Belgium and Switzerland, Liechtenstein, South Tyrol in Italy and to a lesser extent works of the German diaspora. German literature of the period is mostly in Standard German. The Old High German period is reckoned to run until about the mid-11th century, the most famous works are the Hildebrandslied, Middle High German starts in the 12th century, the key works include The Ring and the poems of Oswald von Wolkenstein and Johannes von Tepl. The Baroque period was one of the most fertile times in German literature, modern literature in German begins with the authors of the Enlightenment. The Sensibility movement of the 1750s-1770s ended with Goethes best-selling Die Leiden des jungen Werther, the Sturm und Drang and Weimar Classicism movements were led by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Johann Christoph Friedrich von Schiller. German Romanticism was the dominant movement of the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Biedermeier refers to the literature, music, the visual arts, under the Nazi regime, some authors went into exile and others submitted to censorship. Periodization is not a science but the following list contains movements or time periods typically used in discussing German literature. The closer one nears the present, the more debated the periodizations become, the Old High German period is reckoned to run until about the mid-11th century, though the boundary to Early Middle High German is not clear-cut. The most famous work in OHG is the Hildebrandslied, a piece of Germanic alliterative heroic verse which besides the Muspilli is the sole survivor of what must have been a vast oral tradition. Another important work, in the dialect of Old Saxon, is a life of Christ in the style of a heroic epic known as the Heliand. This was the period of the blossoming of MHG lyric poetry, one of the most important of these poets was Walther von der Vogelweide. The same sixty years saw the composition of the most important courtly romances and these are written in rhyming couplets, and again draw on French models such as Chrétien de Troyes, many of them relating Arthurian material, for example, Parzival by Wolfram von Eschenbach. These high medieval heroic epics are written in rhymed strophes, not the verse of Germanic prehistory. Therefore, the literature of the late 14th and the early 15th century falls, as it were, the Volksbuch tradition which would flourish in the 16th century also finds its origin in the second half of the 15th century. Sebastian Brant Thomas Murner Philipp Melanchthon Sebastian Franck The Baroque period was one of the most fertile times in German literature, many writers reflected the horrible experiences of the Thirty Years War, in poetry and prose. Grimmelshausens adventures of the young and naïve Simplicissimus, in the eponymous book Simplicius Simplicissimus, martin Opitz established rules for the purity of language, style, verse and rhyme
German literature
–
The
Frankfurt Book Fair
German literature
–
Thomas Mann (1875–1955)
German literature
21.
Polish literature
–
Polish literature is the literary tradition of Poland. According to Czesław Miłosz, for centuries Polish literature focused more on drama, the reasons were manifold, but mostly rested on historical circumstances of the nation. The period of Polish Enlightenment began in the 1730s–40s and peaked in the half of the 18th century. One of the leading Polish Enlightenment authors included Ignacy Krasicki and Jan Potocki, Polish Romanticism, unlike Romanticism elsewhere in Europe, was largely a movement for independence against the foreign occupation. Early Polish Romantics were heavily influenced by other European Romantics, notable writers included Adam Mickiewicz, Seweryn Goszczyński, Tomasz Zan and Maurycy Mochnacki. In the second period, many Polish Romantics worked abroad, influential poets included Adam Mickiewicz, Juliusz Słowacki and Zygmunt Krasiński. In the aftermath of the failed January Uprising, the new period of Polish Positivism began to advocate skepticism, the modernist period known as the Young Poland movement in visual arts, literature and music, came into being around 1890, and concluded with the Polands return to independence. Notable authors included Kazimierz Przerwa-Tetmajer, Stanisław Przybyszewski and Jan Kasprowicz, the neo-Romantic era was exemplified by the works of Stefan Żeromski, Władysław Reymont, Gabriela Zapolska, and Stanisław Wyspiański. In 1905 Henryk Sienkiewicz received a Nobel Prize in literature for his patriotic Trilogy inspiring a new sense of hope, Literature of the Second Polish Republic encompasses a short, though exceptionally dynamic period in Polish literary consciousness. The socio-political reality has changed radically with Polands return to independence, new avant-garde writers included Tuwim, Witkacy, Gombrowicz, Miłosz, Dąbrowska and Nałkowska. In the years of German and Soviet occupation of Poland, all life was dramatically compromised. Out of 1,500 clandestine publications in Poland, about 200 were devoted to literature, much of Polish literature written during the Occupation of Poland appeared in print only after the conclusion of World War II, including books by Nałkowska, Rudnicki, Borowski and others. The situation began to worsen dramatically around 1949–1950 with the introduction of the Stalinist doctrine by minister Sokorski, Poland had three Nobel Prize winning authors in the later 20th century, Isaac Bashevis Singer, Czesław Miłosz and Wisława Szymborska. Almost nothing remains of Polish literature prior to the countrys Christianization in 966, within the Polish literary tradition, it is customary to include works that have dealt with Poland, even if not written by ethnic Poles. This is the case with Gallus Anonymus, the first historian to have described Poland in his work entitled Cronicae et gesta ducum sive principum Polonorum, Gallus was a foreign monk who accompanied King Bolesław III Wrymouth in his return from Hungary to Poland. The first recorded sentence in the Polish language reads, Day ut ia pobrusa, the work, in which this phrase appeared, reflects the culture of early Poland. The sentence was written within the Latin language chronicle Liber fundationis from between 1269 and 1273, a history of the Cistercian monastery in Henryków, Silesia and it was recorded by an abbot known simply as Piotr, referring to an event almost a hundred years earlier. The sentence was uttered by a Bohemian settler, Bogwal
Polish literature
–
Title page of the 1834 edition of
Pan Tadeusz by
Adam Mickiewicz, the most notable poet among the
leading bards of Romanticism
Polish literature
Polish literature
Polish literature
22.
Russian Academy of Sciences
–
Headquartered in Moscow, the Academy is considered a civil, self-governed, non-commercial organization chartered by the Government of Russia. It combines the members of RAS and scientists employed by institutions, the Academy currently includes around 650 institutions and 55,000 scientific researchers. There are three types of membership in the RAS, full members, corresponding members, and foreign members, Academicians and corresponding members must be citizens of the Russian Federation when elected. However, some academicians and corresponding members were elected before the collapse of the USSR and are now citizens of other countries, Members of RAS are elected based on their scientific contributions – election to membership is considered very prestigious. In the years 2005–2012, the academy had approximately 500 full and 700 corresponding members, but in 2013, after the Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences and the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences became incorporated into the RAS, a number of the RAS members accordingly increased. As of November 2016, after the last elections, there were 944 full members and 1159 corresponding members in the renewed Russian Academy of Sciences, the RAS consists of 13 specialized scientific divisions, three territorial divisions, sometimes called branches, and 15 regional scientific centers. The Academy has numerous councils, committees, and commissions, all organized for different purposes, Siberian Division of the Russian Academy of Sciences The Siberian Division was established in 1957, with Mikhail Lavrentyev as founding chairman. Research centers are in Novosibirsk, Tomsk, Krasnoyarsk, Irkutsk, Yakutsk, Ulan-Ude, Kemerovo, Tyumen, as of 2005, the Division employed over 33,000 employees,58 of whom were members of the Academy. Ural Division of the Russian Academy of Sciences The Ural Division was established in 1932, research centers are in Yekaterinburg, Perm, Cheliabinsk, Izhevsk, Orenburg, Ufa and Syktyvkar. As of 2007, the Division employed 3,600 scientists,590 full professors,31 full members, started with just three members, The RSSI now has 3,100 members, including 57 from the largest research institutions. Russian universities and technical institutes are not under the supervision of the RAS, the Academy is also increasing its presence in the educational area. In 1990 the Higher Chemical College of the Russian Academy of Sciences was founded, the Academy gives out a number of different prizes, medals and awards among which, Lomonosov Gold Medal Lobachevsky Prize Demidov Prize Kurchatov Medal Pushkin Prize S. V. Expeditions to explore parts of the country had Academy scientists as their leaders or most active participants. A separate organization, called the Russian Academy, was created in 1783 to work on the study of the Russian language, presided over by Princess Yekaterina Dashkova, the Russian Academy was engaged in compiling the six-volume Academic Dictionary of the Russian Language. The Russian Academy was merged into the Imperial Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences in 1841, in December 1917, Sergey Fedorovich Oldenburg, a leading ethnographer and political activist in the Kadet party, met with Vladimir Lenin to discuss the future of the Academy. They agreed that the expertise of the Academy would be applied to addressing questions of state construction, in 1925 the Soviet government recognized the Russian Academy of Sciences as the highest all-Union scientific institution and renamed it the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. The Soviet Sciences Academy would be affected like all universities by the rules imposed particularly those pertaining to censorship, the Soviet Science Academy ended up with a leader of the philosophy department who was placed there simply to keep the man out of trouble. The government decided to not execute or send the famous writer to the gulag because he had won the Stalin award, doing this would have discredited the Stalin award and thus Stalin the leader of the Communist party himself
Russian Academy of Sciences
–
Moscow headquarters of the Russian Academy of Sciences
Russian Academy of Sciences
–
The building of the Imperial Academy of Sciences in Saint Petersburg on
Universitetskaya Embankment
Russian Academy of Sciences
–
Original headquarters of the Imperial Academy of Sciences - the
Kunstkamera in
Saint Petersburg
23.
USSR
–
The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
USSR
–
Vladimir Lenin addressing a crowd with Trotsky, 1920
USSR
–
Flag
USSR
–
Stalin and
Nikolai Yezhov, head of the
NKVD. After Yezhov was executed, he was
edited out of the image.
USSR
24.
Mikhail Lavrentyev
–
Mikhail Alekseevich Lavrentyev or Lavrentiev was a Soviet mathematician and hydrodynamicist. Lavrentiev was born in Kazan, where his father was an instructor at a college, Lavrentiev entered Kazan University, and, when his family moved to Moscow in 1921, he transferred to the Department of Physics and Mathematics of Moscow University. He continued his studies in the university in 1923-26 as a student of Nikolai Luzin. In 1927 Lavrentiev spent half a year in France, collaborating with French mathematicians, later he became a member of the staff of the Steklov Institute. His main contributions relate to conformal mappings and partial differential equations, mstislav Keldysh was one of his students. One of Lavrentievs scientific interests was the physics of explosive processes, Mikhail Lavrentiev was one of the main organizers and the first Chairman of the Siberian Division of the Russian Academy of Sciences from its founding in 1957 to 1975. The foundation of the Siberias Academic Town Akademgorodok remains his most widely known achievement, six months after the decision to found the Siberian Division of the USSR Academy of Sciences Novosibirsk State University was established. The Decree of the Council of Ministers of the USSR was signed January 9,1958, from 1959 to 1966 he was a professor at Novosibirsk State University. Lavrentyev was also a founder of the Institute of Hydrodynamics of the Siberian Division of the Russian Academy of Sciences which since 1980 has been named after Lavrentiev. Lavrentiev was awarded the title of Hero of the Socialist Labour, a Lenin Prize and USSR State Prize. He was elected a member of several world-renowned academies, and a citizen of Novosibirsk. Mikhail A. Lavrentievs son, also named Mikhail, a mathematician in his own right, was a member of the leadership of Akademgorodok. Mikhail Lavrentyev at the Mathematics Genealogy Project OConnor, John J. Robertson, Edmund F. Mikhail Lavrentyev, MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, Mikhail Lavrentievs biography, at the site of Lavrentiev Hydrodynamics Institute
Mikhail Lavrentyev
–
Mikhail A. Lavrentyev
25.
Brezhnev
–
Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev was the General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, presiding over the country from 1964 until his death in 1982. His eighteen-year term as General Secretary was second only to that of Joseph Stalin in duration, during Brezhnevs rule, the global influence of the Soviet Union grew dramatically, in part because of the expansion of the Soviet military during this time. His tenure as leader was marked by the beginning of an era of economic, Brezhnev was born in Kamenskoye into a Russian workers family in 1906. After graduating from the Dniprodzerzhynsk Metallurgical Technicum, he became an engineer in the iron and steel industry. He joined Komsomol in 1923, and in 1929 became a member of the CPSU. He was drafted into military service during World War II. While at the helm of the USSR, Brezhnev pushed for détente between the Eastern and Western countries. However, in December 1981 he decided not to intervene in Poland, instead allowing the countrys government to impose martial law. After years of declining health, Brezhnev died on 10 November 1982 and was succeeded in his post as General Secretary by Yuri Andropov. Brezhnev had fostered a cult of personality, although not nearly to the degree as Stalin. Mikhail Gorbachev, who would lead the USSR from 1985 to 1991, denounced his legacy, in spite of this, opinion polls in Russia show Brezhnev to be the most popular Russian leader of the 20th century. Brezhnev was born on 19 December 1906 in Kamianske in Ukraine, to metalworker Ilya Yakovlevich Brezhnev and his wife and his parents used to live in Brezhnevo before moving to Kamenskoe. Brezhnevs ethnicity was specified as Ukrainian in some documents, including his passport, like many youths in the years after the Russian Revolution of 1917, he received a technical education, at first in land management where he started as a land surveyor and then in metallurgy. He graduated from the Dniprodzerzhynsk Metallurgical Technicum in 1935 and became an engineer in the iron. Brezhnev joined the Communist Party youth organisation, the Komsomol, in 1923, in 1935 and 1936, Brezhnev served his compulsory military service, and after taking courses at a tank school, he served as a political commissar in a tank factory. Later in 1936, he director of the Dniprodzerzhynsk Metallurgical Technicum. In 1936, he was transferred to the center of Dnipropetrovsk and, in 1939, he became Party Secretary in Dnipropetrovsk. As a survivor of Stalins Great Purge of 1937–39, he was able to quickly as the purges created numerous openings in the senior and middle ranks of the Party
Brezhnev
–
Brezhnev in
East Berlin in 1967
Brezhnev
–
Young Brezhnev with his wife
Victoria
Brezhnev
–
Brezhnev with
Nikita Khrushchev during the war
Brezhnev
–
Khrushchev in 1963, one year before his ousting
26.
Penury
–
It depends not only on income but also on access to services. In 2008, extreme poverty widely refers to earning below the poverty line of $1. 25/day. This measure is the equivalent to earning $1.00 a day in 1996 US prices, hence the widely used expression, living on less than a dollar a day. The vast majority of those in extreme poverty – 96% – reside in South Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, The West Indies, East Asia, the reduction of extreme poverty and hunger was the first Millennium Development Goal, as set by 189 United Nations Member States in 2000. Specifically, MDG1 set a target of reducing the poverty rate in half by 2015. Extreme poverty is defined by the International Community as earning less than a $1.25 a day, originally, the international poverty line was set at earning a $1 a day when the Millennium Development Goals were first published. However, in 2008, the World Bank pushed the line to $1.25 to recognize higher price levels in developing countries than previously estimated. As of September 2010, according to the UN, roughly 1.2 billion people remain in extreme poverty based on this metric.9 billion. On September 23,2015 the UK-based Financial Times reported that the World Bank intends to revise its income-based benchmark upward, as differences in the cost of living across the world evolve, the global poverty line has to be periodically updated to reflect these changes. The new global poverty line uses updated price data to paint a more accurate picture of the costs of food, clothing. In other words, the value of $1.90 in 2011’s prices is the same as $1.25 was in 2005. Though widely used by most international organizations, the $1. 25/day extreme poverty line has come under scrutiny from a variety of factors, not to mention the fact that there may be missing data from the poorest and most fragile countries which may muddle the picture even further. Thus, the 2010 Human Development Report introduced the Multidimensional Poverty Index, which not only income. Using this tool, the United Nations Development Programme estimated that roughly 1.5 billion people remained in poverty as opposed to the conventional figure of 1.2 billion. As this figure is considered more holistic, it may shed new light on relative deprivation within a country, for example, in Ethiopia, 39% of the population is considered extremely poor under conventional measures, but 90% are in multidimensional poverty. This tool is useful as development officials, using the M0 measure of the method, in contrast, data from the Chhukha District of Bhutan reveals that income is a much larger contributor to poverty as opposed to other dimensions within the region. Using the World Bank definition of $1. 25/day, as of September 2013, nearly half live in India and China, with more than 85% living in just 20 countries. Since the mid-1990s, there has been a decline in both the worldwide poverty rate and the total number of extreme poor
Penury
–
An example of urban poverty in this
slum in
Jakarta,
Indonesia
Penury
–
Children of the
Depression -era migrant workers, Arizona, 1937
Penury
–
An early morning outside the Opera Tavern in Stockholm, with a gang of beggars waiting for delivery of the scraps from the previous day.
Sweden, 1868.
Penury
–
A
Somali boy receiving treatment for malnourishment at a health facility.
27.
IBM
–
International Business Machines Corporation is an American multinational technology company headquartered in Armonk, New York, United States, with operations in over 170 countries. The company originated in 1911 as the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company and was renamed International Business Machines in 1924, IBM manufactures and markets computer hardware, middleware and software, and offers hosting and consulting services in areas ranging from mainframe computers to nanotechnology. IBM is also a research organization, holding the record for most patents generated by a business for 24 consecutive years. IBM has continually shifted its business mix by exiting commoditizing markets and focusing on higher-value, also in 2014, IBM announced that it would go fabless, continuing to design semiconductors, but offloading manufacturing to GlobalFoundries. Nicknamed Big Blue, IBM is one of 30 companies included in the Dow Jones Industrial Average and one of the worlds largest employers, with nearly 380,000 employees. Known as IBMers, IBM employees have been awarded five Nobel Prizes, six Turing Awards, ten National Medals of Technology, in the 1880s, technologies emerged that would ultimately form the core of what would become International Business Machines. On June 16,1911, their four companies were amalgamated in New York State by Charles Ranlett Flint forming a fifth company, the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company based in Endicott, New York. The five companies had 1,300 employees and offices and plants in Endicott and Binghamton, New York, Dayton, Ohio, Detroit, Michigan, Washington, D. C. and Toronto. They manufactured machinery for sale and lease, ranging from commercial scales and industrial time recorders, meat and cheese slicers, to tabulators and punched cards. Thomas J. Watson, Sr. fired from the National Cash Register Company by John Henry Patterson, called on Flint and, Watson joined CTR as General Manager then,11 months later, was made President when court cases relating to his time at NCR were resolved. Having learned Pattersons pioneering business practices, Watson proceeded to put the stamp of NCR onto CTRs companies and his favorite slogan, THINK, became a mantra for each companys employees. During Watsons first four years, revenues more than doubled to $9 million, Watson had never liked the clumsy hyphenated title of the CTR and in 1924 chose to replace it with the more expansive title International Business Machines. By 1933 most of the subsidiaries had been merged into one company, in 1937, IBMs tabulating equipment enabled organizations to process unprecedented amounts of data, its clients including the U. S. During the Second World War the company produced small arms for the American war effort, in 1949, Thomas Watson, Sr. created IBM World Trade Corporation, a subsidiary of IBM focused on foreign operations. In 1952, he stepped down after almost 40 years at the company helm, in 1957, the FORTRAN scientific programming language was developed. In 1961, IBM developed the SABRE reservation system for American Airlines, in 1963, IBM employees and computers helped NASA track the orbital flight of the Mercury astronauts. A year later it moved its headquarters from New York City to Armonk. The latter half of the 1960s saw IBM continue its support of space exploration, on April 7,1964, IBM announced the first computer system family, the IBM System/360
IBM
–
"THINK"
IBM
–
NACA researchers using an IBM type 704 electronic data processing machine in 1957
IBM
–
IBM's
Blue Gene supercomputers were awarded the
National Medal of Technology and Innovation by
U.S. President Barack Obama on September 18, 2009
IBM
–
IBM showing their various innovations at
CeBIT 2010 in Hanover, Germany
28.
US$
–
The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
US$
–
Series of 1917
$1 United States bill
US$
–
Federal Reserve Notes
US$
–
Spanish silver real or
peso of 1768
US$
–
Obverse of rare 1934 $500 Federal Reserve Note, featuring a portrait of President
William McKinley.
29.
Intel
–
Intel Corporation is an American multinational corporation and technology company headquartered in Santa Clara, California that was founded by Gordon Moore and Robert Noyce. It is the worlds largest and highest valued semiconductor chip makers based on revenue, and is the inventor of the x86 series of microprocessors, Intel supplies processors for computer system manufacturers such as Apple, Lenovo, HP, and Dell. Intel Corporation was founded on July 18,1968, by semiconductor pioneers Robert Noyce and Gordon Moore, the companys name was conceived as portmanteau of the words integrated and electronics. The fact that intel is the term for intelligence information made the name appropriate. Intel was a developer of SRAM and DRAM memory chips. Although Intel created the worlds first commercial microprocessor chip in 1971, during the 1990s, Intel invested heavily in new microprocessor designs fostering the rapid growth of the computer industry. The Open Source Technology Center at Intel hosts PowerTOP and LatencyTOP, and supports other projects such as Wayland, Intel Array Building Blocks, and Threading Building Blocks. Client Computing Group – 55% of 2016 revenues – produces hardware components used in desktop, data Center Group – 29% of 2016 revenues – produces hardware components used in server, network, and storage platforms. Internet of Things Group – 5% of 2016 revenues – offers platforms designed for retail, transportation, industrial, buildings, non-Volatile Memory Solutions Group – 4% of 2016 revenues – manufactures NAND flash memory products primarily used in solid-state drives. Intel Security Group – 4% of 2016 revenues – produces software, particularly security, programmable Solutions Group – 3% of 2016 revenues – manufactures programmable semiconductors. In 2016, Dell accounted for 15% of Intels total revenues, Lenovo accounted for 13% of total revenues, in the 1980s, Intel was among the top ten sellers of semiconductors in the world. In 1991, Intel became the biggest chip maker by revenue and has held the position ever since, other top semiconductor companies include TSMC, Advanced Micro Devices, Samsung, Texas Instruments, Toshiba and STMicroelectronics. Competitors in PC chip sets include Advanced Micro Devices, VIA Technologies, Silicon Integrated Systems, however, the cross-licensing agreement is canceled in the event of an AMD bankruptcy or takeover. Some smaller competitors such as VIA Technologies produce low-power x86 processors for small factor computers, however, the advent of such mobile computing devices, in particular, smartphones, has in recent years led to a decline in PC sales. Since over 95% of the worlds smartphones currently use processors designed by ARM Holdings, ARM is also planning to make inroads into the PC and server market. Intel has been involved in disputes regarding violation of antitrust laws. Intel was founded in Mountain View, California in 1968 by Gordon E. Moore, a chemist, and Robert Noyce, arthur Rock helped them find investors, while Max Palevsky was on the board from an early stage. Moore and Noyce had left Fairchild Semiconductor to found Intel, Rock was not an employee, but he was an investor and was chairman of the board
Intel
–
Headquarters in
Santa Clara,
California
Intel
–
The current logo, used since December 2005.
Intel
–
Andy Grove,
Robert Noyce and
Gordon Moore (1978)
Intel
–
Federico Faggin, the designer of Intel 4004.
30.
Schlumberger
–
Schlumberger Limited is the worlds largest oilfield services company. Schlumberger employs approximately 100,000 people representing more than 140 nationalities working in more than 85 countries, Schlumberger has four principal executive offices located in Paris, Houston, London, and the Hague. Schlumberger is incorporated in Willemstad, Curaçao as Schlumberger N. V. and trades on the New York Stock Exchange, Euronext Paris, the London Stock Exchange, and SIX Swiss Exchange. Schlumberger is a Fortune 500 company, ranked 287 in 2016, Schlumberger was founded in 1926 by brothers Conrad and Marcel Schlumberger from the Alsace region in France as the Société de prospection électrique. The company recorded the electrical resistivity well log in Merkwiller-Pechelbronn. The company is involved in the groundwater extraction and carbon capture. The brothers had experience conducting geophysical surveys in countries such as Romania, Canada, Serbia, South Africa, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the new company sold electrical-measurement mapping services, and recorded the first-ever electrical resistivity well log in Merkwiller-Pechelbronn, France in 1927. The company quickly expanded, logging its first well in the U. S. in 1929, in Kern County, in 1935, the Schlumberger Well Surveying Corporation was founded in Houston, later evolving into Schlumberger Well Services, and finally Schlumberger Wireline & Testing. Schlumberger invested heavily in research, inaugurating the Schlumberger-Doll Research Center in Ridgefield, Connecticut in 1948, in 1956, Schlumberger Limited was incorporated as a holding company for all Schlumberger businesses, which by now included American testing and production company Johnston Testers. Over the years, Schlumberger continued to expand its operations and acquisitions, in 1960, Dowell Schlumberger, which specialized in pumping services for the oil industry, was formed. In 1962, Schlumberger Limited became listed on the New York Stock Exchange, Schlumberger purchased 50% of Forex in 1964 and merged it with 50% of Languedocienne to create the Neptune Drilling Company. The first computerized reservoir analysis, SARABAND, was introduced in 1970, the remaining 50% of Forex was acquired the following year, Neptune was renamed Forex Neptune Drilling Company. In 1979, Fairchild Camera and Instrument became a subsidiary of Schlumberger Limited, Schlumberger established the first international data links with e-mail in 1981. In 1983, Schlumberger opened their Cambridge Research Center in Cambridge, England, Forex Neptune was merged with SEDCO to create the Sedco Forex Drilling Company the following year, when Schlumberger purchased Merlin and 50% of GECO. In 1987, Schlumberger completed their purchases of Neptune, Bosco and Cori and that same year, National Semiconductor acquired Fairchild Semiconductor from Schlumberger for $122 million. In 1991, Schlumberger acquired PRAKLA-SEISMOS, and pioneered the use of geosteering to plan the drill path in horizontal wells, Schlumberger acquired software company GeoQuest Systems in 1992. With the purchase came the conversion of SINet to TCP/IP and www capability, in the 1990s Schlumberger bought out the petroleum division, AEG meter, and ECLIPSE reservoir study team Intera Technologies Corp. A joint venture between Schlumberger and Cable & Wireless resulted with the creation of Omnes, which handled all of Schlumbergers internal IT business
Schlumberger
–
This
Houston building, as of 2015, houses the Schlumberger U.S. executive offices
Schlumberger
–
Schlumberger complex in
Sugar Land, Texas
