1.
Surah
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A Surah is the term for a chapter of the Quran. There are 114 Surahs in the Quran, each divided into verses, the chapters or suras are of unequal length, the shortest chapter has only three ayat while the longest contains 286 verses. Of the 114 chapters in the Quran,87 are classified as Meccan, except for sura At-Tawba, all chapters or suras commence with In the Name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate. This formula is known as the Bismillah and denotes the boundaries between chapters, the chapters are arranged roughly in order of descending size, therefore the arrangement of the Quran is neither chronological nor thematic. Suras are recited during the portions of Muslim prayers. Sura Al-Fatiha, the first chapter of the Quran, is recited in every unit of prayer, the word sura was used at the time of Muhammad as a term with the meaning of a chapter or a portion of the Quran. Its plural form suwar is also mentioned in the Quran, Or do they say, say, Then bring ten suwar like it and call upon whomever you can besides God, if you are truthful. Nöldeke following Buxtorf suggested that the sura has similar root with the Hebrew word שורה meaning a row. Some took it as connected with the Arabic word Sur meaning a wall, jeffery believes that it has a common origin with a Syrian word that means writing. Chapters in the Quran are not arranged in the order of revelation. For this reason, no attempt was made to edit the numerous revelations, organize them into thematic units, a number of medieval Islamic writers attempted to compile a chronologically ordered list of the chapters, with differing results. One version is given in a 15th-century work by Abd al-Kafi, another list is mentioned by Abu Salih, while a significantly different version of Abu Salihs is preserved in the book Kitab Mabani. Yet another, from the 10th century, is given by Ibn Nadim, a number of verses are associated with particular events which helps date them. Muhammads first revelation was chapter 96, verses 16,41 and 47,13 refer to migration of Muslims which took place in the year 622. Verses 8, 1-7 and 3, 120-175 refer to battles of Badr, Muhammads last pilgrimage is mentioned in 5,3 which occurred in 632, a few months before he died. This method is of limited usefulness because the Quran narrates the life of Muhammad or the history of the Muslim community only incidentally. In fact, very few chapters contain clear references to events which took place in Muhammads life, theodor Nöldekes chronology is based on the assumption that the style of the Quran changes in one direction without reversals. Tripartite chapters open with a warning, followed by one or more narratives about unbelievers
2.
Quran
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The Quran is the central religious text of Islam, which Muslims believe to be a revelation from God. It is widely regarded as the finest work in classical Arabic literature, the Quran is divided into chapters, which are then divided into verses. The word Quran occurs some 70 times in the text of the Quran, although different names, according to the traditional narrative, several companions of Muhammad served as scribes and were responsible for writing down the revelations. Shortly after Muhammads death, the Quran was compiled by his companions who wrote down and these codices had differences that motivated the Caliph Uthman to establish a standard version now known as Uthmans codex, which is generally considered the archetype of the Quran known today. There are, however, variant readings, with minor differences in meaning. The Quran assumes familiarity with major narratives recounted in the Biblical scriptures and it summarizes some, dwells at length on others and, in some cases, presents alternative accounts and interpretations of events. The Quran describes itself as a book of guidance and it sometimes offers detailed accounts of specific historical events, and it often emphasizes the moral significance of an event over its narrative sequence. The Quran is used along with the hadith to interpret sharia law, during prayers, the Quran is recited only in Arabic. Someone who has memorized the entire Quran is called a hafiz, some Muslims read Quranic ayah with elocution, which is often called tajwid. During the month of Ramadan, Muslims typically complete the recitation of the whole Quran during tarawih prayers, in order to extrapolate the meaning of a particular Quranic verse, most Muslims rely on the tafsir. The word qurʼān appears about 70 times in the Quran itself and it is a verbal noun of the Arabic verb qaraʼa, meaning he read or he recited. The Syriac equivalent is qeryānā, which refers to reading or lesson. While some Western scholars consider the word to be derived from the Syriac, regardless, it had become an Arabic term by Muhammads lifetime. An important meaning of the word is the act of reciting, as reflected in an early Quranic passage, It is for Us to collect it, in other verses, the word refers to an individual passage recited. Its liturgical context is seen in a number of passages, for example, So when al-qurʼān is recited, listen to it, the word may also assume the meaning of a codified scripture when mentioned with other scriptures such as the Torah and Gospel. The term also has closely related synonyms that are employed throughout the Quran, each synonym possesses its own distinct meaning, but its use may converge with that of qurʼān in certain contexts. Such terms include kitāb, āyah, and sūrah, the latter two terms also denote units of revelation. In the large majority of contexts, usually with an article, the word is referred to as the revelation
3.
Juz'
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A juzʼ is one of thirty parts of varying lengths into which the Quran is sometimes divided. Of note, division into juz has no relevance to the meaning of the Quran, some use these divisions to facilitate recitation of the Quran in a month – especially during Ramadan, when the entire Quran is recited in the Tarawih prayers, reciting approximately one juz a night. A juz is further divided into two ahzab, and each hizb is in turn subdivided into four quarters, making eight quarters per juz, there are 240 of these quarters in the Quran. These maqra are often used as sections for revision when memorizing the Quran, the most commonly memorized juz is juzʾ amma, which is the 30th juz and contains chapters 78 through 114, most of the shortest chapters of the Quran. Juzʾ amma is named after the 1st word of the 1st chapter in that juz, muslims from South Asia also refer to a juz as a para or paaro
4.
Ruku
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Rukūʿ refers to a paragraph of the holy book Quran. There 558 or at some books 540 Ruku in Holy Quran, in prayer it refers to the bowing down from the standing position while praying according to Islamic ritual. There is a consensus on the nature of the rukūʿ. The position of rukūʿ is established by bending over, putting ones hands on ones knees, in Al-Ghazalis book Inner Dimensions of Islamic Worship, he wrote about the rukūʿ by saying, Bowing and prostration are accompanied by a renewed affirmation of the supreme greatness of Allah. To confirm this, you seek the aid of your tongue, glorifying your Lord and testifying repeatedly to His supreme majesty, then you rise from bowing, hopeful that He will be merciful towards you. To emphasise this hope within you, you say samiʾa -llāhu liman ḥamidahu, acknowledging the need to express gratitude, you immediately add, rabbana lak al-ḥamd - Grateful praise to You, our Lord. To show the abundance of this gratitude, you may also say malʾ as-samāwāt wa-malʾ al-ʾarḍ - as much as the heavens, the term rukūʿ — roughly translated to passage, pericope or stanza — is also used to denote a group of thematically related verses in the Quran. Longer suras in the Quran are usually divided into several rukūʿs, so that the reciters could identify when to make rukūʿ in Salat without breaking an ongoing topic in the Quranic text
5.
Ayah
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In the context of Islams principal scripture, the Quran, ayah is used to mean verse, i. e. each statement or paragraph marked by a number. These are the ayat of God, which We recite to you with truth, then in which speech after God and His signs will they believe. Although meaning verse when using the Quran, it is doubtful whether ayah means anything other than sign or remarkable event in the Qurans text. The signs refer to various phenomena, ranging from the universe, its creation, other references are to miracles or to the rewards of belief and the fate of unbelievers. For example, And of his signs is the creation of the heavens and earth, and a sign for them is the dead earth. We have brought it to life and brought forth from it grain, herein is indeed a sign yet most of them are not believers. You are but a mortal like us, so bring some sign if you are of the truthful. Chapters in the Quran consist of verses, varying in number from 3 to 286. Within a long chapter, the verses may be grouped into thematic sequences or passages. For the purpose of interpretation, the verses are separated into two groups, those that are clear and unambiguous and those that are allegorical and this distinction is based on the Quran itself, It is God Who has sent down to you the Book. In it are verses that are clear, they are the foundation of the Book, and those who are firmly grounded in knowledge say, We believe in the Book, the whole of it is from our Lord. And none will grasp the Message except men of understanding, the word ayah is also used to refer to the verses of the Bible by Arab Christians and Christians in countries where Arabic words are used for religious terms. A common myth persists that the number of verses in the Quran is 6,666, in fact, the total number of verses in all chapters is 6,236, although this varies depending on how the Bismillah appearing at the start of each chapter is counted. The Unicode symbol for a Quran verse, U+06DD, is, the first ayahs in the Quran from a chronological order are Read in the name of your Lord who created. He created man from a clot, Read, and your Lord is the Most Honorable who taught with the pen from sura Al-Alaq. The first ayahs from an order are In the name of God, the Merciful. The first ayahs after the opening sura are Alif Lam Mim and this is the Scripture whereof there is no doubt, a guidance unto those who ward off, from sura Al-Baqara. Quranism Media related to Islamic mythology at Wikimedia Commons
6.
An-Naml
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Sūrat an-Naml is the 27th sura of the Quran with 93 ayat. Sura 27 tells stories of the prophets Moses, Solomon, Salih, the miracles of Moses, described in the Book of Exodus, are mentioned in opposition to the arrogance and kufr of Pharaoh. The story of Solomon is most detailed, Solomon converted Bilqis to the religion after a hoopoe reported to him that she was a sun-worshipping queen. The suras name is taken from the ants whose conversations were understood by Solomon, similar to Sura 13 or Sura 29, The Ants has no thematic significance in the Sura beyond it being a familiar phrase amongst believers, a reminder of the suras story of Solomon. Ants do hold a privileged status among animals in Islam on account of the story of Solomon. Hadith literature tells of Muhammad forbidding Muslims to kill the ant, bee, hoopoe, or shrike, it is no coincidence that they are all featured in Sura 27, one interpretation for the ants theological significance coincides with its role historically. As written in the 1993 edition of the Encyclopaedia of Islam, Since early antiquity, the feverish activity with which they provide for their sustenance and the perfect organisation of their societies. This perfect organization under one cause correlates well with the Islamic idea of obedience, tawhid was preached by many Jewish prophets as well as Arabian prophets prior to Quranic revelation. Truly, this Quran explains to the Children of Israel most of what they differ about, God has no equal as a creator, all those who associate others with God are guilty of shirk. Earthly knowledge is nothing compared to God, only those with open ears, Disbelievers of the message of God will have no hope come Judgement Day. The revelation is a clear warning, Sura 27 reiterates that all humanity must turn to God without delay. Sura 27 is agreed to be a Meccan Sura from the middle of the Meccan period, Tafsīr al-Jalālayn notes that some exceptions exist, ayat 52-55 are from the Medinan period, aya 85 was revealed during the Hijra to Medina. Orientalist Theodor Nöldekes chronology places Sura 27 as 68th out of 114 and he places it amongst the 21 suras of the Second Meccan Period. Nöldeke estimates Sura 27 to be preceded by Sura 17 Al-Isra, all three suras use allusions to Judaism and the stories of Moses in particular. Standard Islamic Egyptian chronology places Sura 27 as 48th out of 114, in this order, it comes before Sura 28 al-Qasas and after Sura 26 al-Shuara, following its order in the standard Uthmanic Quran. Sura 27 begins with the words Ta Sin, as evident in Tafsīr al-Jalālayn, these words are sometimes interpreted as mysteries of God - signs to believe. Sura 27, as a mid-Meccan Period sura, can be interpreted multiple ways in terms of structure, thematically speaking, the sura progresses across several subjects, Declaration of Quran - Mosess Signs are Ignored by Pharaoh Solomon realizes Gods blessings and dedicates himself to Gods service. The Queen of Sheba deals well with Solomon and acts generously with him, the Queen of Sheba, one from disbelievers, converts and devotes herself to tawhid
7.
Al-Ankabut
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Surat al-‘Ankabūt is the 29th sura of the Quran with 69 verses. It is a Meccan surah due to the introduction concerning the persecution of the Muslims, the early Muslims were persecuted in Mecca, where Muhammed was not a head of state and not persecuted in Medina, where he was a head of state and had some protection. The surah states that Nuh, Ibrahim, Lut, Shuaib, Hud, Saleh, Musa, for example, Noah was ridiculed often and Abraham was thrown into the fire. But God destroyed their people who transgressed
8.
Islamic eschatology
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Islamic eschatology is the branch of Islamic scholarship that studies Yawm al-Qiyāmah or Yawm ad-Dīn. This is believed to be the final assessment of humanity by God, consisting of the annihilation of all life, resurrection, the time of the event is not specified, although there are major and minor signs which have been foretold to happen at al-Qiyamah. Many verses of the Quran contain the motif of the impending Last Judgment, surat al-Qiyama has as its main subject the resurrection. The Great Tribulation is also described in the hadith, and commentaries of the such as al-Ghazali, Ibn Kathir, Ibn Majah, Muhammad al-Bukhari. The Day of Judgment is also known as the Day of Reckoning, the hadith describe the end time with more specificity than the Quran, describing the events of al-Qiyamah through twelve major signs. At the time of judgment, terrible corruption and chaos will rule, the Mahdi will be sent and with the help of Jesus, will battle Masih ad-Dajjal. They will triumph, liberating Islam from cruelty, and this will be followed by a time of serenity with people living true to religious values, however, there is no mention of the advent of Mahdi and Isa in one era in any of the hadith. Some Muslim scholars translate the Arabic word Imam as Mahdi to prove the advent of Mahdi, like other Abrahamic religions, Islam also teaches resurrection of the dead, a final tribulation and eternal division of the righteous and wicked. Islamic apocalyptic literature describing Armageddon is often known as fitna, malāḥim, the righteous are rewarded with pleasures of Jannah Paradise, while the unrighteous are punished in Jahannam Hell. The Day of Judgment or Resurrection, al-Qiyāmah, is one of the six articles of faith in Islam. The tribulation associated with it is described in the Quran and hadith, and commentaries of ulama like al-Ghazali, Ibn Kathir, Ibn Majah, Muhammad al-Bukhari, the Day of Judgment is also known as the Day of Reckoning, the Hour, and the Last Day. The Day of Judgment or Resurrection, al-Qiyāmah, relates to one of the six articles in Sunni Islam and seven articles in Shia Islam. There are two sources in Islamic scripture that discuss the Last Judgment, the Quran, which is viewed in Islam as infallible. Hadith are viewed with more flexibility due to the compilation of the traditions in written form. The concept has also discussed in commentaries of ulama such as al-Ghazali, Ibn Kathir. The Quran describes the Last Judgment with a number of interpretations of its verses, there are specific aspects, The time is known only to God. Those who have been dead will believe that a time has passed between birth and death. God will resurrect all, even if they have turned to stone or iron and those that have accepted false deities will suffer in the afterlife
9.
Women in the Quran
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This article is about women that appear in the Quran. For the roles, rights, and duties of women as laid out in the Quran, Women in the Quran are important characters and subjects of discussion in the stories and morals taught in Islam. Some of the women in the Quran are portrayed in a positive light, Mary is the only woman mentioned in the Quran by name. The others names come from other traditions, Most of the women in the Quran are represented as either the mothers or wives of certain leaders and prophets. While the Quran does not directly name any woman except for Mary, women play a role in many of the rich and these stories have been subject to manipulation and rigid interpretation in both classical commentary and popular literature from patriarchal societies. Throughout history, different Islamic exegetes and lawmakers constantly reinterpreted the women presented in the Quran as a result of the dominating ideology, Eve, like all other women in the Quran, save for Mary, is not mentioned by name. However, in later hadith she is referred to as Hawwa and she appears in a total of three Suras, referred to both as Adam’s partner and wife, while Adam appears separately in an additional two. The Quranic narrative of Adam and Eves creation and fall differs thematically from the more fleshed out story in the Jewish, similar to the Christian and Jewish tale, Allah created Adam and Eve and created a place for them to live, Paradise. However, in the Quran Hawwa’s role is minimal, as she is the accomplice to human sin rather than the instigator and it is Adam who is forewarned by Allah that Iblis, Satan, is his and Hawwas natural enemy and the threat to getting them removed from heaven. Instead of being portrayed as the cause of Adam’s fall, Eve is merely presented as equally compliant in the sin and then later, however the early exegesis surrounding the creation and fall story was influenced heavily by the pervading Christian and Jewish notions of Eve. Therefore, the early medieval exegeses focus on depicting Hawwa as morally and mentally compromised, as in the Christian and Jewish tradition, Hawwa is seen as the one who tempts the prophet Adam into sin. Her status as the first woman in the world is incredibly relevant since she is looked upon as the model for her sex, today both traditional and modernist thinkers look to Hawwa either to support or deny their argument regarding the equality of women in the religion. Specifically, those with a traditionalist view believe in the Hadith, in response, more liberal interpretations cite no direct and incontestable truth that Hawwa was created from a “crooked rib”, they claim such suggestions do not stem from verifiable sources. The three verses in the Quran mentioning the wives of Noah and Lot, or Nuh and Lut in Arabic, are a conjoined entry depicting the consequences and response by Allah to non-believers. According to the Quran and later depictions, both women were guilty of not believing the message of their husbands, and therefore failed both as wives and religious figures. Oftentimes the names of women are confused, however the general scholarly consensus regards that Noah’s wife was Amzura while Lot’s wife was Wā‘ila. This continual reversal of the two names underscores exactly how both women have served the same purpose in Islamic exegesis. In the case of Noah’s wife many theorists surmise that she died in the flood and was not allowed on the ark due to her continual instigation that her husband was crazy
10.
God in Islam
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In Islamic theology, God is the all-powerful and all-knowing creator, sustainer, ordainer and judge of everything in existence. Islam emphasizes that God is strictly singular, unique, inherently One, also all-merciful, the Surat 112 Al-Ikhlāş says, He is God, One. He neither begets nor is born, Nor is there to Him any equivalent, in Islam, there are 99 known names of God, each of which evoke a distinct attribute of God. All these names refer to Allah, the supreme and all-comprehensive god, among the 99 names of God, the most familiar and frequent of these names are the Compassionate and the Merciful. Creation and ordering of the universe is seen as an act of mercy for which all creatures sing Gods attributes. Allah is the Arabic word referring to God in Abrahamic religions and it is distinguished from ilāh, the Arabic word meaning deity, which could refer to any of the gods worshipped in pre-Islamic Arabia. God is described and referred to in the Quran and hadith by certain names or attributes, the Quran refers to the attributes of God as most beautiful names. According to Gerhard Böwering, They are traditionally enumerated as 99 in number to which is added as the highest Name, there are numerous conventional phrases and expressions invoking God. Islams most fundamental concept is a strict monotheism called tawhid, affirming that God is one, the basic creed of Islam, the Shahada, involves لا إله إلا الله, or, I testify there is no god other than God. Muslims reject the Christian doctrine of the Trinity and divinity of Jesus, according to Vincent J. Tawhid constitutes the foremost article of the Muslim profession. The deification or worship of anyone or anything other than God is the biggest sin in Islam, the entirety of the Islamic teaching rests on the principle of Tawhid. God is the creator of the universe and all the creatures in it, praise is to Allah, Creator of the heavens and the earth, made the angels messengers having wings, two or three or four. He increases in creation what He wills, indeed, Allah is over all things competent. And it is We Who have constructed the heavens with might and verily and we created man from an extract of clay. Then We made him as a drop in a place of settlement, so blessed be Allah, the Best of creators. Be dutiful to your Lord, Who created you from a person and from Him He created his wife. And verily Allah is my Lord and your Lord, the most commonly used names in the primary sources are Al-Rahman, meaning Most Compassionate and Al-Rahim, meaning Most Merciful. God is said to love forgiving, with a hadith stating God would replace a sinless people with one who sinned but still asked repentance
11.
Biblical and Quranic narratives
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The Quran, the central religious text of Islam, contains references to more than fifty people and events also found in the Bible. While the stories told in each book are generally comparable in most respects, many stories in the Bible are not mentioned at all in the Quran. Often, stories related in the Quran tend to concentrate on the Islamic moral or spiritual significance of events rather than the details. According to the story, a Serpent tempted them to partake of fruit from the tree, telling them that they would become like God themselves by doing so, immediately thereafter, they became ashamed and covered their nakedness with leaves. God questioned them concerning their actions, reminding them of His command to not eat of the tree. He next put enmity between the woman and the serpent, and between humans and the tempter, then forced Adam and Eve to leave the garden, following which these two humans then populated the earth. According to the Islamic creation narrative in the Quran, before creating Adam from clay by uttering the simple word Be, when they asked him will You place therein one who will do harm and shed blood, while we, we hymn Your praise and sanctify You. He said, Surely I know that which you know not, God next commanded all of the angels to prostrate themselves before Adam, to honour Gods new creation and to display obedience to God. All of them did except for Iblis, a jinn who was arrogant and refused to comply because he thought Adam was inferior to him because he was created from clay, while Iblis was created from fire. Shaitaan subsequently swore to mislead mankind from the path of God. Among the many significant differences between the stories are, In the Bible, God tells the man to name the animals, in the Quran, God teaches Adam the names of all things and Adam repeats them. In the second of the Bibles creation stories, the woman is created from the rib of the man. In the Quran, Eve is not mentioned by name, but it states that all mankind were created from one soul, but the creation of Eve from Adams rib is in hadith. In the Bible, the forbidden tree named is the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil, and while its fruit is often depicted as an apple, the Bible does not describe the fruit. In the Quran the forbidden tree is not named but Shaitaan calls it The Tree of Eternity to deceive Adam, in the Bible, God creates man in His own image. In the Quran, God says Surely the likeness of Isa is with God as the likeness of Adam, He created him from dust, then said to him, Be, in the Quran, God tells the angels to prostrate before Adam, but Iblis refuses. In the Bible, no account is given. According to the Bible, because of Gods curse, serpents have to crawl and eat dust, women have to suffer in childbirth, the Biblical story also states that women will suffer from periods and will bear pregnancy pain
12.
Quran and miracles
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Islam considers the Quran to be a holy book, the word of Allah, and a miracle. And if you are in doubt concerning that which We have sent down to Our final Messenger, then produce a surah of the like thereof and call your witnesses besides Allah, or they say, He forged it. Say, Bring you then ten forged surah like unto it, or do they say, He has forged it. Say, Bring then a surah like unto it, and call whomsoever you can, besides Allah. Or do they say, He has forged it, let them then produce a recital like unto it if they are truthful. The Quran describes Muhammad as ummi, which is interpreted as unlettered. Besides, Muhammads being ummi was taken as a sign of the genuineness of his prophethood, for example, according to Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, if Muhammad had mastered writing and reading he possibly would have been suspected of having studied the books of the ancestors. Some scholars such as Watt prefer the second meaning, the suggestion is that since Muhammad had no previous knowledge of the content in the Quran, it was in fact composed of miracles. The majority of Muslim thinkers accept the factuality of the found in the Quran. This is why Muslims do not rely on these miracles when attempting to convert others to Islam, throughout the Quran, claims or predictions are made concerning future events. Many of the prophecies are viewed as having metaphoric meanings, while others are more literally. Some prophecies are debated more than others as to whether or not they were actually fulfilled or how the Quranic text should be interpreted, one of the more general prophecies is that the Quran predicts its own preservation and endurance. The Quran states that the book itself will survive as a valid source, Muslim scholars say that todays Quran is the same Quran originally compiled by Muhammad, and that the memorisation ensures the consistency and its preservation. The following passages from the Quran state these prophecies, “We have, without doubt, Sent down the Message, And We will assuredly Guard it ”. “It is Allah Who has sent His Messenger with Guidance And the ideology of Truth, to make it superior over all other ways of life, another interpretation of the Quran is that it predicted the defeat of the Persians by the Romans. Before the prophecy, at the Battle of Antioch, in 613 C. E. the Persians defeated the Romans, Muslims were upset by this defeat because they felt more connected to Rome, a Christian empire, than to Persia, a Zoroastrian one. With God is the Decision, In the Past And in the Future, by 627 C. E. the Romans had successfully defeated the Persians, resulting in much celebration by Muslims and fulfilling the prophecy of the Quran. The Quran says “And We have indeed Made the Qur-an easy to understand and remember, the Quran’s “rhythmic style and eloquent expression” have been cited as aids in verbatim memorization
13.
Prophets and messengers in Islam
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Belief in Islamic prophets is one of the six articles of the Islamic faith, and specifically mentioned in the Quran. Muslims believe the first prophet was also the first human being, Many of the revelations delivered by the 48 prophets in Judaism and many prophets of Christianity are mentioned as such in the Quran but usually in altered form and with different names. For example, the Jewish Elisha is called Alyasa, Job is Ayyub, Jesus is Isa, the Torah given to Moses is called Tawrat, the Psalms given to David is the Zabur, the Gospel given to Jesus is Injil). Notwithstanding, none of the seven Jewish Prophetesses are mentioned in the Quran as prophets, each came to preach Islam at different times in history and some told of the coming of the final Islamic prophet and messenger of God, who would be named Ahmed commonly known as Muhammad. Each Islamic prophet directed a message to a different group of people, in Arabic and Hebrew, the term nabī means prophet. Forms of this noun occur 75 times in the Quran, the term nubuwwah occurs five times in the Quran. The terms rasūl and mursal denote messenger or apostle and occur more than 300 times, the term for a prophetic message, risālah, appears in the Quran in ten instances. The Syriac form of rasūl Allāh, s̲h̲eliḥeh d-allāhā, occurs frequently in the apocryphal Acts of St. Thomas, the corresponding verb for s̲h̲eliḥeh—s̲h̲alaḥ, occurs in connection with the prophets in the Hebrew Bible. The words prophet and messenger appear several times in the Old Testament, the following table shows these words in different languages, In the Hebrew Bible, the word navi occurs more commonly, and the Hebrew word malakh refers to Angels in Judaism. According to Judaism, Haggai, Zachariah, and Malachi were the last prophets, with them, the authentic period of Nevuah died, and nowadays only the Bath Kol exists. In the New Testament, however, the word becomes more frequent. Messenger may refer to Jesus, to his Apostles and to John the Baptist, but the last book of the Old Testament, the Book of Malachi, speaks of a messenger that Christian commentators interpret as a reference to the future prophet John the Baptist. In Muslim belief, every Islamic prophet preached Islam, the beliefs of charity, prayer, pilgrimage, worship of God and fasting are believed to have been taught by every prophet who has ever lived. The Quran itself calls Islam the religion of Abraham and refers to Jacob, the Quran speaks of the Islamic prophets as being the greatest human beings of all time. A prophet, in the Muslim sense of the term, is a person whom God specially chose to teach the faith of Islam, before man was created, God had specifically selected those men whom He would use as prophets. This does not, however, mean that every prophet began to prophesy from his birth, some were called to prophesy late in life, in Muhammads case at the age of 40. Others, such as John the Baptist, were called to prophesy while still at a young age, the Quran verse 4,69 lists various virtuous groups of human beings, among whom prophets occupy the highest rank. Verse 4,69 reads, All who obey Allah and the messenger are in the company of those on whom is the Grace of Allah—of the prophets, the sincere, the witnesses, and we have made the evil ones friends to those without faith
14.
Islamic attitudes towards science
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Muslim scholars have developed a spectrum of viewpoints on science within the context of Islam. The Quran exhorts Muslims to study nature and investigate the truth, Muslims often cite verse 239 from Surah Al-Baqara —- He has taught you what you did not know. —- in support of their view that the Quran promotes the acquisition of new knowledge, for some Muslim writers, the study of science stems from Tawhid. Scientists of medieval Muslim civilization made many contributions of to modern science and this fact is celebrated in the Muslim world today. At the same time, concerns have been raised about the lack of literacy in parts of the Muslim world. Its generally accepted that there are around 750 verses in the Quran dealing with natural phenomena, many verses of the Quran ask mankind to study nature, and this has been interpreted to mean an encouragement for scientific inquiry. The investigation of the truth is one of the messages of the Quran. Historical Islamic scientists like Al-Biruni and Al-Battani derived their inspiration from verses of the Quran, mohammad Hashim Kamali has stated that scientific observation, experimental knowledge and rationality are the primary tools with which humanity can achieve the goals laid out for it in the Quran. Ziauddin Sardar built a case for Muslims having developed the foundations of science, by highlighting the repeated calls of the Quran to observe. The scientific method, as it is today, was first developed by Muslim scientists like Ibn al-Haytham and Al-Biruni. Guessoum cites Ghaleb Hasan on the definition of proof according the Quran being clear, also, such a proof cannot rely on an argument from authority, citing verse 5,104. Lastly, both assertions and rejections require a proof, according to verse 4,174, the philosopher Muhammad Iqbal considered the Qurans methodology and epistemology to be empirical and rational. Salam also held the opinion that the Quran and the Islamic spirit of study, the religion Islam has its own world view system including beliefs about ultimate reality, epistemology, ontology, ethics, purpose, etc. Muslims believe that the Quran is the revelation of God for the guidance of humankind. Science is the pursuit of knowledge and understanding of the natural and social world following a systematic methodology based on evidence. It is a system of acquiring knowledge based on empiricism, experimentation and methodological naturalism, in the history of science, science in the Muslim world refers to the science developed under Islamic civilization between the 8th and 16th centuries, during what is known as the Islamic Golden Age. It is also known as Arabic science since the majority of texts during this period were written in Arabic, a number of modern scholars such as Fielding H. In al-Bukharis and Muslims collection of sahih hadith it is said, There is no disease that Allah has created and this culminated in the work of Ibn al-Nafis, who discovered the pulmonary circulation in 1242 and used his discovery as evidence for the orthodox Islamic doctrine of bodily resurrection
15.
Quran reading
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Quran reading is the reading aloud, reciting, or chanting of portions of the Quran. The reciter is called a tālī, murattil, mujawwid, or most commonly a qari, recitation should be done according to rules of pronunciation, intonation, and caesuras established by the Islamic prophet Muhammad, though first recorded in the eighth century CE. The most popular reading is that of Hafs on the authority of asim, skilled readers may read professionally for mosques in cities. The Quran is marked with symbols, circles, rectangles, dashes and letters. These are written above, below, or beside the letters of the alphabet and they indicate the pronunciation of consonants, whether the blending of neighboring or adjacent consonants is allowed, and where recitation pauses and caesuras are forbidden and possible. In this last respect their function is analogous to that of Biblical cantillation marks, despite the fact proper pronunciation is essential for reading the Quran an understanding the text is also appreciated and encouraged in many ways. Motivation for reading and knowing the meaning is related with interest which again shape readers engagement in the society, Quran Reading with Tajweed Habib Hassan Touma. The Music of the Arabs, trans, gade, Anna M. Perfection Makes Practice, Learning, Emotion, and the Recited Qur’ân in Indonesia. Honolulu, University of Hawaii Press,2004
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Tajwid
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Tajweed, sometimes rendered as tajwid, refers to the rules governing pronunciation during recitation of the Quran. The term is derived from the triliteral root j-w-d meaning to make well, make better, tajweed is mustahab when reciting the Quran to the best of ones ability. The Arabic alphabet has 28 basic letters, plus hamzah, ا ب ت ث ج ح خ د ذ ر ز س ش ص ض ط ظ ع غ ف ق ك ل م ن ہ و ي The Arabic word for the is ال al-. The lām in al- is pronounced if the letter after it is qamarīyah, but if the letter after it is shamsīyah, solar and lunar became descriptions for these instances as the words for the moon and the sun are examples of this rule. The manner of articulation refers to the different attributes of the letters, some of the characteristics have opposites, while some are individual. An example of a characteristic would be the fricative consonant sound called ṣafīr, the emphatic consonants خ ص ض ط ظ غ ق, known as mufakhkham letters, are pronounced with a “heavy accent”. This is done by either pharyngealization /ˤ/, i. e. pronounced while squeezing ones voicebox, if its vowel sound is cancelled, such as by a sukūn or the end of a sentence, then it is light when the first preceding voweled letter has a kasrah. It is heavy if the first preceding voweled letter is accompanied by a fatḥah or ḍammah, the number of morae then becomes two. If these are at the end of the sentence, such as in all the verses in al-Fatiha, then the number of morae can be more than two, but must be consistent from verse to verse. Additionally, if there is a sign over the mudd letter, it is held for four or five morae when followed by a hamzah. For example, the end of the last verse in al-Fatiha has a six-mora maddah due to the shaddah on the ل, صِرَٰطَ ٱلَّذِينَ أَنْعَمْتَ عَلَيْهِمْ غَيْرِ ٱلمَغْضُوبِ عَلَيْهِمْ وَلاَ ٱلضَّآلِّين Nūn sākinah refers to instances where the letter nūn is accompanied by a tanwīn or sukun sign. Additionally, it is pronounced in a ghunnah, there is also a ghunnah if it is followed by و م ي or another ن. Idghām only applies between two words and not in the middle of a word, consider the nūn that is suppressed in the second verse of the chapter Al-Falaq, مِنْ شَرِّ مَا خَلَقَ The term mīm sākinah refers to instances where the letter mīm is accompanied by a sukun. The five qalqalah letters are the consonants ق ط د ج ب, qalqalah is the addition of a slight bounce or reduced vowel sound /ə/ to the consonant whose vowel sound is otherwise cancelled, such as by a sukūn, shaddah, or the end of sentence. The lesser bounce occurs when the letter is in the middle of a word or at the end of the word and it is indicated with the diacritic waṣlah, a small ṣād on the letter alif. In Arabic, words starting with alif not using a hamzah are capable to get a waṣlah, waqf is the Arabic pausa rule, all words whose last letter end on a harakah become mute when being the last word of a sentence. In the case of the proper name عمرو /ʕamrun/, it is pronounced /ʕamr/ in pausa, and in fact, عمرو is a triptote. Understanding the origin of the word, one should understand that the Qurʼan is not the word of man
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Hafiz (Quran)
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Hafiz, literally meaning guardian or memorizer, depending on the context, is a term used by Muslims for someone who has completely memorized the Quran. The Islamic prophet Muhammad lived in the 6th Century CE, in Arabia in a time when few people were literate, the Arabs preserved their histories, genealogies, and poetry by memory alone. The Arabic writing of the time was a script, that did not include vowel markings or other diacritics needed to distinguish between words. Hence if there was any question as to the pronunciation of a verse, the huffaz were also highly appreciated as reciters, whose intoned words were accessible even to the illiterate. Memorization required no expensive materials, at the time there was no paper in the Muslim world, even after Caliph Uthman ibn Affan collected and organized the Quran circa 650-656 CE, recitation of the Quran was still honored and encouraged. There are numerous traditions of recitation, most huffaz know only one version, but some experts can recite in several traditions. However this does not change the meaning of the content, the Quran is divided into 114 Surahs, containing 6,236 verses. This process generally takes between 3 and 6 years part-time together with schooling, most huffaz have studied as children in special Islamic schools or madrasahs, being instructed in tajwid and vocalisation as well as committing the Quran to memory. Huffaz are highly respected within the Islamic community and they are privileged to use the title Hafiz before their names. They are tested on their knowledge, for example, in one test they are asked to continue the recitation of a passage taken randomly from the Quran. As they do not know which passage will be chosen, they must know the text in order to be sure of passing. In another test, a would-be hafiz might be asked to recite verses containing a word or phrase. In the classical Arabic lexicon, the word hafiz was not traditionally used to refer to one who had memorized the Quran, instead, the word used was hamil Hafiz was used for the scholars of hadith, specifically one who had committed 100,000 hadiths to memory. Having memorised the Quran, the hafiz or hafiza must then ensure they do not forget it, to ensure perfect recall of all the learned verses requires constant practice. The memorisation of the Quran was important to Muslims in the past and is also in the present, yearly, thousands of students master the Quran and complete the book with interpretation and also memorisation. The Quran is perhaps the book, religious or secular. For Muslims who are attempting to memorize certain suras but are unfamiliar with the Arabic script, the most important sura to memorize is Al-Fatiha. All praise and thanks be to Allah, there is none worthy of worship except Allah
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Tarteel
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Tarteel is the Arabic word for hymnody, the term is commonly translated in reference to the Quran as recitation, in proper order and with no haste. This word is used in chapter 73 verse 4 of the Quran, the Arabic word translated as slow, measured rhythmic tones is tarteel. It is also the used to define the rules explaining proper recitation of the Quran in the manner that Gabriel revealed it to Muhammad. While reciting one has to keep in mind the fasl and wasl of words, the fourth caliph Ali ibn Abi Talib said that tarteel is delivering words according to their makharij. Saying the words clearly and slowly and reciting with understanding and uttering the contents correctly is of prime importance. One should neither recite the Quran with such speed that it might become incomprehensible and bore the listener nor the recitation be so slow that it takes a long time, according to him Following the middle path is a virtue or in Arabic, Khayru l-umūri awsaṭuhā
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Quran translations
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Translations of the Quran are interpretations of the scripture of Islam in languages other than Arabic. Quran was originally written in the Arabic language and has translated into most major African, Asian and European languages. Translation of the Quran has always been a problematic and difficult issue in Islamic theology, according to modern Islamic theology, the Quran is a revelation very specifically in Arabic, and so it should only be recited in Quranic Arabic. Translations into other languages are necessarily the work of humans and so, according to Muslims, since these translations necessarily subtly change the meaning, they are often called interpretations or translation of the meanings. For instance, Pickthall called his translation The Meaning of the Glorious Koran rather than simply The Koran, the task of translation is not an easy one, some native Arab-speakers will confirm that some Quranic passages are difficult to understand even in the original Arabic. A part of this is the difficulty of any translation, in Arabic, as in other languages. There is always an element of human judgement involved in understanding and translating a text and this factor is made more complex by the fact that the usage of words has changed a great deal between classical and modern Arabic. As a result, even Quranic verses which seem perfectly clear to native speakers accustomed to modern vocabulary, the original meaning of a Quranic passage will also be dependent on the historical circumstances of the prophet Muhammads life and early community in which it originated. Investigating that context usually requires a knowledge of hadith and sirah. This introduces an element of uncertainty which cannot be eliminated by any linguistic rules of translation. The first translation of the Quran was performed by Salman the Persian, according to Islamic tradition contained in the hadith, Emperor Negus of Abyssinia and Byzantine Emperor Heraclius received letters from Muhammad containing verses from the Quran. However, during Muhammads lifetime, no passage from the Quran was ever translated into these languages nor any other, the second known translation was into Greek and was used by Nicetas Byzantius, a scholar from Constantinople, in his Refutation of Quran written between 855 and 870. However, we know nothing about who and for what purpose had made this translation and it is however very probable that it was a complete translation. The first fully attested complete translations of the Quran were done between the 10th and 12th centuries in Persian language, the Samanid king, Mansur I, ordered a group of scholars from Khorasan to translate the Tafsir al-Tabari, originally in Arabic, into Persian. Later in the 11th century, one of the students of Abu Mansur Abdullah al-Ansari wrote a complete tafsir of the Quran in Persian, in the 12th century, Abu Hafs Omar al-Nasafi translated the Quran into Persian. The manuscripts of all three books have survived and have published several times. In 1936, translations in 102 languages were known, robertus Ketenensis produced the first Latin translation of the Quran in 1143. His version was entitled Lex Mahumet pseudoprophete, the translation was made at the behest of Peter the Venerable, abbot of Cluny, and currently exists in the Bibliothèque de lArsenal in Paris
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English translations of the Quran
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The Quran has been translated into English many times. The first few translations were made in the 17th and 19th centuries, the Alcoran, Translated out of Arabic into French. By the Andrew du Ryer, Lord of Malezair, and Resident for the French King and this, however, was a translation of the French translation LAlcoran de Mahomet by the Sieur du Ryer, Lord of Malezair. Koran, commonly called the Alcoran of Mohammed, tr. into English immediately from the original Arabic, with explanatory notes, to which is prefixed a preliminary discourse by George Sale London, Printed by C. The first scholarly translation of the Quran based primarily on the Latin translation of Louis Maracci, George Sales two-volume translation was to remain the most widely available English translation over the next 200 years, and is still in print today, with release of a recent 2009 edition. The next major English translation of note was by John Rodwell, Rector of St. Ethelburga, London, released in 1861 and it was soon followed in 1880 with a two-volume edition by E. H. Palmer, a Cambridge scholar, who was entrusted with the preparation of the new translation for Max Mullers Sacred Books of the East series, the Quran by Mirza Abul Fazl, Arabic Text and English Translation Arranged Chronologically with an Abstract. Mirza Abul Fazl, was a native of Allahabad, India and he was the first Muslim to present a translation of the Quran in English along with the original Arabic text. The Holy Quran by Maulana Muhammad Ali, an Ahmadi Muslim scholar of the Quran, Hadith and religion of Islam, Ali gives copious explanatory notes, introductions to each chapter, and a general preface-introduction of nearly 70 pages. The Meaning of the Glorious Quran by Muhammad Marmaduke Pickthall, an English convert to Islam penned this translation at the behest of the Emir of Hyderabad while on a sojourn in India. Pickthalls widely printed translation was regarded as an important milestone in the course of Koranic interpretation by later esteemed Quran translator A. J. Arberry, who noted a few problems with Pickthalls verse numbering. The Holy Quran, Translation and Commentary by Abdullah Yusuf Ali and this translation is widely used in many English-speaking countries and was the most popular translation before the Interpretation of the Meanings of the Noble Quran was published in 1999. The Quran, Translated, with a Critical Re-arrangement of the Surahs by Richard Bell. A. J. Arberry, in the preface to his own translation of the Quran, notes, Dr Bell was a most erudite scholar of Arabic, and had devoted many years to his critical re-arrangement of the Surahs. He quite literally took the Koran to pieces and put it again, his meticulous reconstruction extending as far as individual verses. The Koran Interpreted by Arthur Arberry, the first English translation by an academic scholar of Arabic, Islam and Sufism. For many years the standard for English translations, this rendering of the Quran makes a special attempt to reproduce something of the rhythms
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Ahmadiyya translations of the Quran
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The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community has translated the Quran into over 70 languages of the world. Portions of the scripture have been translated into other languages. The Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement has produced translations into at least 7 languages, the period of the late 1980s and the early 1990s saw an acceleration in the number of translations being produced by the Ahmadiyya movement. Some of the earliest translations were produced by Ahmadi Muslim scholars, all translations are published alongside the Arabic text. The translations of the Quran authored by Ahmadi Muslim scholars always feature translated verses alongside the original Arabic text, before the translations are published, they are checked, scrutinized and proof-read by a wide array of individuals for errors. A similar procedure is undertaken when revised versions of the translations are produced, in particular, guidance is sought from the caliph of the Community with regards to textual and other linguistic difficulties. Since the majority of the Quran translations have been available from the 1980s, most translations have sought advice from Caliph IV. The translations of the Quran by Ahmadi Muslims have been listed below, the list has been divided by regions of the world. The translations produced by the main Ahmadiyya Muslim Community have been numbered, translations produced by members of the Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement have been starred in place of numbering for the purpose of identification. List of translations of the Quran English translations of the Quran
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History of the Quran
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The history of the Quran refers to the oral revelation of the Quran to Islamic prophet Muhammad and its subsequent written compilation into a manuscript. It spans several decades and forms an important part of early Islamic history, throughout his life, Muhammad continued to have revelations until before his death in 632. The Quran we see today was compiled into book format by Uthman, for this reason, the Quran as it exists today is also known as the Uthmanic codex. Quran 7,157. According to Bukhari, Muhammads wife Aisha described that the first Quranic revelation occurred when angel Gabriel visited Muhammad, Muhammad responded ma ana bīqāreu, which could be translated into a number of ways, I do not read or what am I to read/recite. And your Sustainer is the most Beautiful, after this Muhammad continued sporadically over a period of twenty-three years to have revelations, until shortly before his death in 11/632. Muslims believe that Gabriel brought the word of God to Muhammad verbatim, the Quran emphasizes that Muhammad was required only to receive the sacred text and that he had no authority to change it. It is also believed that God did not make himself known through the revelations, there is nothing in the Quran that suggests that Muhammad saw God during his revelations. For Muhammad, the revelations were real and he believed the context was objective, when asked about the experience of revelation Muhammad reported, sometimes it is revealed like the ringing of a bell. This form of inspiration is the hardest of all and then it passes off after I have grasped what is inspired. Sometimes the Angel comes in the form of a man and talks to me, at times, it was also reported that the experience was painful for Muhammad. For example, he had been saying, Never once did I receive a revelation without thinking that my soul had been torn away from me. After Muhammad would receive revelations he would recite it to his companions. Before the Quran was commonly available in form, speaking it from memory prevailed as the mode of teaching it to others. The practice of memorizing the whole Quran is still practiced among Muslims, millions of people have memorized the entire Quran in its original Arabic. This fact, taken in the context of 7th-century Arabia, was not an extraordinary feat, People of that time had a penchant for recited poetry and had developed their skills in memorization to a remarkable degree. Events and competitions that featured the recitation of poetry were of great interest. People questioned the nature and modes of Muhammad’s revelations, the Meccans of Muhammad judged the Quranic revelation based on their understanding of ‘inspiration’. For them, poetry was closely connected to inspiration from a spiritual source
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Samarkand Kufic Quran
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The Samarkand Kufic Quran is an 8th or 9th century manuscript Quran written in the territory of modern Iraq in the Kufic script. Today it is kept in the Hast Imam library, in Tashkent, in local Uzbek tradition, it is said to have belonged to the third caliph, Uthman ibn Affan. Based on orthographic and palaeographic studies, the manuscript probably dates the 8th or 9th century, radio-carbon dating showed a 95. 4% probability of a date between 765 and 855. The copy of the Quran is traditionally considered to be one of a commissioned by the third caliph Uthman, however. In 651,19 years after the death of the Islamic Prophet, Muhammad, Uthman commissioned a committee to produce a standard copy of the text of the Quran. Five of these authoritative Qurans were sent to the major Muslim cities of the era, and Uthman kept one for his own use in Medina, although the Samarkand Quran is most likely not one of those copies. The only other surviving copy was thought to be the one held in Topkapı Palace in Turkey, but studies have shown that the Topkapı manuscript is not from the 7th century. Uthman was succeeded by Ali, who took the uthmanic Quran to Kufa, the subsequent history of the Quran is known only from legends. According to one of them, when Tamerlane destroyed the area, he took the Quran to his capital, Samarkand, as a treasure. According to another, the Quran was brought from the caliph of Rum to Samarkand by Khoja Ahrar and it attracted the attention of Orientalists and eventually a facsimile edition was published in Saint-Petersburg in 1905. The 50 copies soon became rarities, the first thorough description and dating of the manuscript was undertaken by the Russian Orientalist Shebunin in 1891. After the October Revolution, Vladimir Lenin, in an act of goodwill to the Muslims of Russia, gave the Quran to the people of Ufa, Bashkortostan. After repeated appeals by the people of the Turkestan ASSR, the Quran was returned to Central Asia, to Tashkent, in 1924, where it has since remained. The parchment manuscript now is held in the library of the Telyashayakh Mosque, in the old Hast-Imam area of Tashkent, Uzbekistan, close to the grave of Kaffal Shashi, a folio containing a page from the Al-Anbiya is held at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. The manuscript is incomplete, it begins in the middle of verse 7 of the second sura, the manuscript has between eight and twelve lines to the page and, showing its antiquity, the text is devoid of vocalisation. Topkapi manuscript Sanaa palimpsest Codex Parisino-petropolitanus W. Ouspensky, S. Pissaref, St. Pétersbourg, Institut Archéologique de St. Pétersbourg. Публичной Библиотеки // Записки Восточного отделения Императорского Русского археологического общества, memory of the World Register - Nomination Form Uzbekistan - Holy Koran Mushaf of Othman
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Sana'a manuscript
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The Sanaa palimpsest, dubbed Ṣanʿā’1, is one of the oldest Quranic manuscripts in existence. It was identified in 1981, amongst a cache preserving numerous Quranic and non-Quranic fragments, discovered in Yemen in 1972, the manuscript is written on parchment, and comprises two layers of text. The upper text largely conforms to the standard Uthmanic Quran, whereas the text contains many variants to the standard text. A partial reconstruction of the text was published in 2012. A radiocarbon analysis has dated the parchment to before 671 AD with a 99% accuracy, in 1972, construction workers renovating a wall in the attic of the Great Mosque of Sanaa in Yemen came across large quantities of old manuscripts and parchments, many of which were deteriorated. Not realizing their significance, the gathered up the documents, packed them away into some twenty potato sacks. Qadhi Ismail al-Akwa, then the president of the Yemeni Antiquities Authority, the preserved fragments comprise Quranic and non-Quranic material. Restoration of the began in 1980 under the supervision of the Yemeni Department for Antiquities. It was funded by the Cultural Section of the German Foreign Ministry, the find includes 12,000 Quranic parchment fragments. All of them, except 1500–2000 fragments, were assigned to 926 distinct Quranic manuscripts as of 1997, none is complete and many contain only a few folios apiece. Albrecht Noth was the director of the project, work on the ground began in 1981 and continued through the end of 1989, when the project terminated with the end of funding. Gerd R. Puin was the director beginning with 1981. His involvement came to an end in 1985, when Hans-Caspar Graf von Bothmer took over as the local director, Bothmer left Ṣanā in the following year, but continued to run the project from Germany, traveling to the site almost every year. Beginning in 1982, Ursula Dreibholz served as the conservator for this project and she completed the restoration of the manuscripts. She also designed the permanent storage, collated many parchment fragments to identify distinct Quranic manuscripts, the manuscripts are located in the House of Manuscripts, the Dār al-Makhṭūṭāt, in Ṣanā, Yemen. After 1989, Bothmer would visit the collection periodically, in the winter of 1996–7, he microfilmed all of the parchment fragments that have been assigned to distinct Quranic manuscripts. Of the remaining 1500–2000 fragments, he microfilmed a group of 280, the microfilms are available in Ṣanā in the House of Manuscripts. The Sanaa palimpsest is one of the most important manuscripts of the collection in the world and this palimpsest has two layers of text, both of which are Quranic and written in the Hijazi script
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Topkapi manuscript
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The Topkapi manuscript is an early manuscript of the Quran dated to the late 1st century / early 2nd century AH This manuscript is kept in the Topkapi Palace Museum, Istanbul, Turkey. It is attributed to Uthman Ibn Affan Similar illuminations can be found in the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, the size of this manuscript is 41 cm x 46 cm. It contains more than 99% of the text of the Quran, with only two pages lacking, this manuscript is the closest to the complete text of the Quran. Mehmed Ali Pasha, Governor of Egypt, sent this manuscript to the Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II as a gift in the 19th century, Quran History of the Quran Sanaa manuscript Codex Parisino-petropolitanus
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Birmingham Quran manuscript
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The parchment on which two leaves of an early Quranic manuscript coveted by the University of Birmingham are written, were radiocarbon dated in 2015 between 568 and 645. The manuscript is part of the Mingana Collection of Middle Eastern manuscripts, the manuscript is written in ink on parchment, using a Arabic Hijazi script and is still clearly legible. The leaves preserve parts of Surahs 19 to 20 and it was on display at the Birmingham University, Bramall Music Building, from 2-25 October 2015 and subsequently at Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery until 5 August 2016. The Birmingham leaves, now catalogued as Mingana 1572a, are folio size, the two surviving leaves were separated in the original codex by a number of missing folios containing the intervening verses of surahs 18 and 19. There are no marks to indicate short vowels, but consonants are occasionally differentiated with oblique dashes. The text is out in the format that was to become standard for complete Quran manuscripts, with chapter divisions indicated by a decorated line. Although the Quran text witnessed in the two Birmingham leaves largely conforms to the standard text their orthography differs, especially in respect of the writing of the letter alif. Equally, the application of intermittent dashes to differentiate consonants varies from the counterpart pointing in the text at four places. Subsequent ultraviolet testing of the leaves has confirmed no underwriting, and they dated the parchment to between AD568 and 645, within a 95. 4% confidence interval, with a sample reference OxA-29418. The results will be published in datelist number 36 of the journal Archaeometry, the proposed radiocarbon date for the manuscript is significant, as the prophet Muhammad lived from c. 570 to 632. And it seems to open the possibility that the Uthmanic redaction took place earlier than had been thought – or even, conceivably. In any case, this – along with the beauty of the content. This means that the parts of the Qur’an that are written on this parchment can, with a degree of confidence, be dated to less than two decades after Muhammad’s death. In that study, the Paris Quran, BnF Arabe 328, is compared with Qurans in Istanbul, and concluded as having been written around the end of the seventh century and the beginning of the eighth century. Lumbard of Brandeis University has written in the Huffington Post in support of the proposed by the Birmingham scholars. Whereas, on the hand, counterpart accounts of Quranic origins within classical Islamic traditions stand up well in the light of ongoing scientific discoveries
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Tafsir
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Tafsir is the Arabic word for exegesis, usually of the Quran. An author of tafsir is a mufassir, a Quranic tafsir will often explain content and provide places and times, not contained in Quranic verses, as well as give the different views and opinions of scholars on the verse. The word tafsīr is derived from the Arabic root, F-S-R which means to explain, to expound, to disclose. In Islamic contexts, it is defined as understanding and uncovering the Will of Allah which has been conveyed by the Quranic text, by means of the Arabic language and one’s own knowledge. As the Quran was revealed to him, he recited the verses to his companions and this was one of Muhammads responsibilities. Elements of Muhammads explanations are, Clarifying verses whose intents are not understood Indication of names, places, times etc. These interpretations have not been collected independently in a book, rather, they have recorded in hadith books, under the topic of tafsir. After the death of Muhammad, his companions, the sahabah, undertook the task of interpretation, most of the sahabah, including Abu Bakr, refrained from commenting with their personal views, and only narrated comments by Muhammad. Others including ibn Abbas used their own knowledge from the Arabic language to interpret the Quran, by the time of the next generations ensuing the Sahabah, the tabiin scholars started using a wide range of sources for tafsir. The whole of the Quran is interpreted, and narrations are separated from tafsir into separate books, grammatical explanations and historical data are preserved within these books, personal opinions are recorded, whether accepted or rejected. The mufasireen listed 15 fields that must be mastered before one can interpret the Quran. Classical Arabic, Is how one learns the meaning of each word, mujahid ibn Jabr said, “It is not permissible for one who holds faith in Allah and the Day of Judgment to speak on the Quran without learning classical Arabic. Arabic Philology, Is important because any change in the diacritical marks affects the meaning, Arabic morphology, is important because changes in the configuration of verb and noun forms change the meaning. Ibn Faris said, “A person who misses out on Arabic morphology has missed out on a lot. ”Al-Ishtiqaaq and this is the science of etymology which explains the reciprocal relation and radical composition between the root and derived word. For example, masih derives from the root word masah which means “to feel something and to something with a wet hand, ”. Ilm al-Bayaan, is the science by which one learns the similes, metaphors, metonymies, zuhoor, ilm al-Badi’, The science by which one learns to interpret sentences which reveal the beauty and eloquence of the spoken and written word. The above-mentioned three sciences are categorized as Ilm-ul-Balagha and it is one of the most important sciences to a mufassir because he is able to reveal the miraculous nature of the Quran through these three sciences. Ilm al-Qiraat, Dialecticisms of the different readings of the Quran and this science is important because one qiraat of the Quran may differ in meaning from another, and one learns to favor one reading over another based on the difference in the meanings
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Naskh (tafsir)
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Neither the Quran nor the sayings of Muhammad state which verses stand abrogated. The possibility of abrogation between these two sources of Islam has been a more contentious issue. Seventy-one of the Qurans one hundred and fourteen surah contain abrogated verses according to one estimate, Muslim exegetes and jurists have disagreed and disputed the number of verses of the Quran and sunnah in the Hadiths recognized as abrogated. Naskh refers to the theory of abrogation for the Quran. Through Naskh, the verse as well as the superseded verse are determined for the purposes of formulating Sharia. Naskh literally means obliteration, cancellation, transfer, suppression, suspension depending on the context and it is also referred to as Mansukh doctrine. Naskh shares the root as the words appearing in the phrase al-nāsikh wal-mansūkh. The stem n-s-kh occurs four times within the Qurān in verses 7,154,45,29,22,52, and 2,106. The first two come in the context of texts and scribal activity, in the writing thereon. The verse 2,106 and 16,101 of the Quran are known as the verses of abrogation, any revelation We cause to be superseded or forgotten, We replace with something better or similar. Do you not know that God has power over everything, when We substitute one revelation for another, – and Allah knows best what He reveals, – they say, Thou art but a forger, but most of them understand not. These two revealed verses establish the principle of abrogation of a verse and its substitution with a new verse. This principle has been accepted and applied by vast majority of Islamic jurists on both the Quran and the Sunnah. Another verse 13,39 in the Quran, states Allah doth blot out or confirm what He pleaseth, scholars consider this verse as further confirming the two major modes of abrogation. Another significant occurrence of Naskh is in verse 22,52, in Tabarīs interpretation, states John Burton, some of the early verses that the devil had cast into the Quran is precisely what God removed from it and suppressed through later verses. Ibn Taymiyyah similarly identified two forms of Naskh and it does not indicate the occurrence in the divine revelations of the naskh of what God considers to be part of his truth. These Islamic scholars relegated verse 22,52 of the Quran to merely lexical significance, the Quran was revealed by Muhammad over 22 years, while sunnah in the Hadiths traditionally are held as the sayings and practices of Muhammad over this period. From the early period of Islams history, scholars noted that certain verses and later verses covered the same topic
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Esoteric interpretation of the Quran
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Esoteric interpretation of the Quran, also known as Sufi interpretation and taʾwīl, is the allegorical interpretation of the Quran or the quest for its hidden, inner meanings. It was a synonym of conventional interpretation in its earliest use, esoteric interpretations do not usually contradict the conventional interpretations, instead, they discuss the inner levels of meaning of the Quran. The term batin refers to the inner or esoteric meaning of a sacred text, esoteric interpretations are found in Sufi, Shia, Sunni, and Bahai interpretations of the Quran. A hadith which states that the Quran has a meaning, and that this inner meaning conceals a yet deeper inner meaning. The exoteric aspect is the word, the law. Esoteric interpretations are more suggestive than declarative, they are rather than explanations. However the Quran says about doing this, As for those in whose hearts is deviation, they follow that of it which is unspecific, seeking discord. And no one knows its interpretation except Allah, but those firm in knowledge say, We believe in it. And no one will be reminded except those of understanding, only a few examples are given here. In 7,172 the Quran states, And when Your Lord summoned the descendants of Adam, thus you cannot say on the Day of Resurrection we were unaware of this. According to the above mentioned verse, before creation, God called the future humanity out of the loins of the not-yet-created Adam and addressed them with the words, and they answered, Yes, we witness it. In Islam, this primordial covenant is the foundation between God and humankind. Along the way, this esoteric being damages a boat belonging to poor people, moses is so disturbed that he couldnt stop protesting despite his agreement to keep silent. And in 56,79 the Quran describes itself, This is an honorable Quran, in a book hidden, in the exoteric sense, the Quran requires Muslims to perform ritual cleansing of their hands before touching it. Esoteric interpreters were of the opinion that it implies that individuals with spiritual purity are able to grasp the meaning of the Quran. Attar of Nishapur, the 12th-century mystical poet, gives an interpretation of the Quranic story of the descent of Adam. According to Attar, the man whose mind and vision are ensnared by heavens grace must forfeit that same grace, occasionally a verse may be interpreted in a sense very different from its conventional meaning. For example, Hamadani in his book Tamheedat interprets 104, 6–7 which conventionally refers to the punishment in hell, Hamadani interprets 14,48, which conventionally describes the day of judgment as a description of the moment of spiritual awakening or enlightenment
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Criticism of the Quran
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The Quran is viewed to be the scriptural foundation of Islam and is believed by Muslims to have been revealed, without issue, to Muhammad by the angel Gabriel. Criticism of the Quran has frequently occurred since western scholarship has looked to decipher, understand, issues relating to the authenticity and morality of the Quran are criticized. It is not a transcript, however, our present Quran is the result of an edition prepared under the orders of Uthman and those Uthmanic clues are fragmentary, however, and large invented portions might well have been added to our Quran or authentic material deleted. Most Muslims believe that the Quran is the word of God as recited to the Islamic prophet Muhammad through the angel Gabriel. Muhammad, according to tradition, recited perfectly what the angel Gabriel revealed to him for his companions to write down, Muslims believe that the wording of the Quranic text available today corresponds exactly to that revealed to Muhammad in the years 610–632. It spanned a period of twenty years and, as soon as it was believed to be transmitted to Muhammad by Archangel Gabriel. It is traditionally believed to have written down during Muhammads life. Since the official compilation was completed several decades after Muhammads death, bucaille believed that this did not give rise to any problems of this Qurans authenticity. There was nothing easier, when required to defend any religious or political system, thabit said, The Prophet died and the Qur’an had not been assembled into a single place. It is reported… from Ali who said, May the mercy of Allah be upon Abu Bakr and it is reported… from Ibn Buraidah who said, The first of those to collect the Quran into a mushaf was Salim, the freed slave of Abu Hudhaifah. The Sanaa manuscript contains older portions of the Quran showing variances different from the Uthman copy, the Sanaa palimpsest is one of the most important manuscripts of the collection in the world. This palimpsest has two layers of text, both of which are Quranic and written in the Hijazi script, while the upper text is almost identical with the modern Qurans in use, the lower text contains significant diversions from the standard text. For example, in sura 2, verse 87, the text has wa-qaffaynā alā āthārihi whereas the standard text has wa-qaffaynā min badihi. The Sanaa manuscript has the same verses and the same order of verses as the standard Quran. The order of the suras in the Sanaa codex is different from the order in the standard Quran, such variants are similar to the ones reported for the Quran codices of Companions such as Ibn Masud and Ubay ibn Kab. However, variants occur much more frequently in the Sanaa codex and they emphasize that while Muhammad was alive, Quranic texts were written without chapter decoration, marked verse endings or use of coloured inks, and did not follow any standard sequence of surahs. They maintain that those features were introduced into Quranic practice in the time of the Caliph Uthman, and so the Birmingham leaves could have been written later, but not earlier. In that study, the Paris Quran, BnF Arabe 328, is compared with Qurans in Istanbul, and concluded as having been written around the end of the seventh century and the beginning of the eighth century
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I'jaz
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In Islam, ijaz or inimitability of the Quran is the doctrine which holds that the Quran has a miraculous quality, both in content and in form, that no human speech can match. According to this doctrine the Quran is a miracle and its inimitability is the proof granted to Muhammad in authentication of his prophetic status. The concept of miraculousness of the Quran was understood as soon as it was revealed by Muhammed to the Arabs beginning on 22 December 609 CE, when Muhammad was 40 years of age. According to Sophia Vasalou, a scholar in theology, the reports about the Arabs bewildered reception of the Quran is crucial in the argument. The Arabs, upon hearing it, were lost for words in trying to classify it, is it poetry, is it magic. is it soothsaying. They could not find a form to which the Quran corresponded Vasalou adds. The concept of inimitability originates in the Quran, in five different verses, opponents are challenged to produce something like the Quran. Say, Bring you then ten chapters like unto it, and call whomsoever you can, other than God, or do they say he has fabricated it. Say bring then a chapter like unto it, and call upon whom you can besides God, or do they say he has fabricated it. Let them then produce a recital like unto it if they speak the truth, and if you are in doubt concerning that which We have sent down to our servant, then produce a chapter of the like. In the verses cited, Muhammads opponents are invited to try to produce a text like the Quran, or even ten chapters and it is understood among Muslims that that challenge has not been met. The literary quality of the Quran has been acknowledged by Muslim and some non-Muslim scholars. And there is evidence that Muslims accepted Islam on the basis of evaluating the Quran as a text that all human production. They did not question this, what they rejected was Qurans ideas, especially monotheism, numerous scholars devoted time to finding out why the Quran was inimitable. The majority of opinions was around eloquence of the Quran both in wording and meaning as its speech does not form to poetry nor prose commonly expressed in all languages, nonliguistic approaches focus on the inner meanings of the Quran. He thinks that it is the combination of language, ideas, Al Jurjani argued that the inimitability of the Quran is a linguistic phenomenon and proposed that the Quran has a degree of excellence unachievable by human beings. Al Jurjani believed that Qurans eloquence must be a special quality in the manner of its stylistic arrangement. He studied the Quran with literary proofs and examined the various literary features and he rejected the idea that the words and meaning of a literary work can be separated
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Hadith of the Quran and Sunnah
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Quran and Sunnah is a saying attributed to the Islamic prophet Muhammad, namely I have left among you two matters by holding fast to which, you shall never be misguided, the Book of God and my Sunna. It is an often quoted saying regarding the sources of Islam, the authenticity of this hadith is rejected by many Shia. Hadith literature refers to the tradition about the words and deeds of Muhammad. The statement that Islam has these two sources has been attributed to Muhammad, the hadith in the Six Authentic Books are generally accept as authentic throughout Islam. The Quran and Sunnah hadith is reported in books as having been said during Muhammads Farewell Sermon atop Mount Arafat after his Last Pilgrimage. Slightly varied versions are cited in many Sunni hadith works, take their name from the sunnah, meaning those who follow the example of the Prophet. Prof. Fatih Okumus refers to Muhammad as the walking Qur’an, as the sayings and deeds of Muhammad were reported via many different sources, there was disagreement about what constituted sunnah, and how that affected what should be shariah. In the ninth century Al-Shafi‘i took the view that the Quran superseded sunnah, in this he rejected the version of the above hadith that said the Quran and sunnah were equal sources of guidance. Others, notably Ibn Kathir in his book Al-Bidaya wal-Nihaya, took the position that sunnah as later revelation should take precedence over the Quran. Both Sunnis and Shias accept the authenticity of the related Hadith of the two weighty things, in this hadith, Muhammad referred to the Quran and Ahl al-Bayt as the two weighty things. Although the hadith is accepted by both Sunnis and Shias, the two differ on the exact wording of what Muhammad said, as well as how to interpret these words. The Shias use the Hadith of the two weighty things to prove their claim that Muhammad meant for all his successors to be from his own family, the Sunnis reject this view and believe in a different interpretation of this related hadith. The Sunnis and the Shias also disagree about what constitutes the Sunnah, the Sunnis generally accept this hadith, but narrowly define sunnah as the sayings and deeds of Muhammad. Although some include the implied approvals of Muhammad, at the same time, Shias do agree with the meaning of the Hadith, even if they deem it a fabrication. The Shias believe in following the Sunnah of Muhammad, but they say that this is possible via the Ahl al-Bayt. The Shias believe that Muhammad said Hadith al-Thaqalayn multiple times in multiple settings in multiple wordings. They argue that Muhammad said Hadith al-Thaqalayn at Mount Arafat during his Farewell Sermon, at Ghadir Khumm, in the mosque of Medinah, during his last illness, and at many other places and times. The Shias believe that Muhammad said this hadith so many times because he wanted to stress how important it was that the Muslims only take his own descendants as leaders
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Quranism
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Quranism describes any form of Islam that accepts the Quran as revelation but rejects the religious authority, and/or authenticity of, the Hadith collections. Quranists follow the Quran alone, they believe that its message is clear and complete, and they claim that the Hadith literature was forged, as it had been written 250 years after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. There are significant differences between Quranists in their interpretation of Islam, Quranism is similar to movements in other religions such as the Karaite movement of Judaism and the Sola scriptura view of Protestant Christianity. Hadith rejection has also associated with Muslim modernists. Adherents of Quranism are referred to as Quranists, or people of the Quran and this should not be confused with Ahle-e-Quran, which is an organisation formed by Abdullah Chakralawi. Quranists may also refer to simply as Muslims, Submitters. Quranists believe, based on historical accounts, that the Quranist sentiment dates back to the time of Muhammad. During the Abassid Caliphate, the poet, theologian, and jurist, Ibrahim an-Nazzam founded a madhhab called the Nazzamiyya that rejected the authority of hadiths and his famous student, al-Jahiz, was also critical of those who followed hadith, referring to his traditionalist opponents as al-nabita. A contemporary of an-Nazzam, al-Shafii, tried to refute the arguments of the Quranists, and Ibn Qutaybah tried to refute an-Nazzams arguments against hadith in his book tawil mukhtalif al-hadith. In South Asia during the 19th century, the Ahle Quran movement formed partially in reaction to the Ahle Hadith whom they considered to be placing too much emphasis on hadith, many Ahle Quran adherents were formerly adherents of Ahle Hadith but found themselves incapable of accepting certain hadiths. In Egypt during the early 20th century, the ideas of Quranists like Muhammad Tawfiq Sidqi grew out of Salafism i. e. a rejection of taqlid. Another difficulty in determining their prevalence is the fear of persecution due to being regarded as apostates. Ahle Qur’an is a formed by Abdullah Chakralawi, who described the Quran as ahsan hadith, meaning most perfect hadith. His movement relies entirely on the chapters and verses of the Quran, chakralawis position was that the Quran itself was the most perfect source of tradition and could be exclusively followed. According to Chakralawi, Muhammad could receive only one form of revelation, and he argues that the Quran was the only record of divine wisdom, the only source of Muhammads teachings, and that it superseded the entire corpus of hadith, which came later. In the United States it was associated with Rashad Khalifa, founder of the United Submitters International, the group popularized the phrase, The Quran, the whole Quran, and nothing but the Quran. After Khalifa declared himself the Messenger of the Covenant, he was rejected by other Muslim scholars as an apostate of Islam, later, he was assassinated in 1990 by a terrorist group. His followers believe that there is a structure in the Quran
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Shia view of the Quran
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The Shī‘ah view of the Quran has some differences from the Sunni view, but the text of the Quran is exactly identical. While there is a belief that the Shī‘ah disputed the validity of the Uthmanic codex. Since the 10th century, only a total of seven Shī‘ah scholars believed in omissions in the Uthmanic codex, the Shī‘ah use the same Quran as Sunni Muslims, however they do not believe that it was first compiled by Uthman ibn Affan. The Shī‘ah believe that the Quran was gathered and compiled by Muhammad during his lifetime and this completed version of the Quran was kept next to the pulpit of Muhammad within the Mosque of Madinah, where scholars would come to transcribe more copies. Furthermore, Grand Ayatollah Abu al-Qasim al-Khoei believed that Ali possessed a Quran of his own, according to William St. Clair Tisdall, if such content had existed in the Quran then Of course the Sunnite Khalifahs had very great reason to endeavour to suppress any such passages. Since at least the 10th century, Sunnis have incessantly attacked Shia for their perceived espousal of Quranic distortion and this accusation of tabdil —a result of Shiite distrust towards the companions—was scathingly refuted by Ibn Hazm. Mohsen Fayz Kashani Nimatullah Al Jazaairi Muhammad Baqir Behbahani — who wrote in al-Fawāid al-ḥāiriyya and our position is that it is permitted to act upon one of the famous seven variants. The indicator for this position is the statement, or rather the order, Shia also tend to interpret the Quran more allegorically and less literally than Sunnis. For example, Shia writers, including Ali Ibn Ibrahim Qomi, hadith of The Cloak 4,24, or an-Nisa,24, also called as the verse of Mut‘ah, is the Quranic verse that some Shīites use to prove the legality of temporary marriages. Wali There are some common disputed misconceptions and accusations about the Shī‘ah regarding their beliefs and this accusation of tahrīf tampering is antithetical to scholars and is considered polemical. The above sūratayn are considered forgeries and do not appear in published Qurans, Shī‘ah Muslims consider the accusation that they are using a different Quran as one of the misconceptions about the Shia. The Shī‘ah recite the Quran according to the Qira’t of Hafs on authority of ‘Asim, the issue of Tahreef has been a matter of disagreement between many classical Shia scholars. Overall, it is claimed that the Shia have more than 1,000 hadiths ascribed to the Shia Imams which indicate the distortion of the Quran. According to Muhammad Baqir Majlisi, the difference of opinion among the scholars and jurists was as follows, No one from the people claimed…’, meaning, those other than the Imāms. Some accused Shī‘ah of alleging that Fatimah had her own Mushaf, the Mushaf of Fatimah, again, Shī‘ahs reject this as a misrepresentation of facts aimed at discrediting them. According to Momen Shiite Imams had certain books in their possession, list of Shia books Al-Jafr Al-Jamia Criticism of Twelver Shia Islam
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Arabic
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Arabic is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is also the language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six languages of the United Nations. The modern written language is derived from the language of the Quran and it is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic, which is the language of 26 states. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the standards of Quranic Arabic. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-Quranic era, Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics. As a result, many European languages have borrowed many words from it. Many words of Arabic origin are found in ancient languages like Latin. Balkan languages, including Greek, have acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has also borrowed words from languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times. Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages, the Ancient South Arabian languages, the Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include, The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation into a past tense, the conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms, the development of an internal passive. These features are evidence of descent from a hypothetical ancestor. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family were spoken and it is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages, in Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested
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Moses
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Moses is a prophet in Abrahamic religions. Also called Moshe Rabbenu in Hebrew, he is the most important prophet in Judaism and he is also an important prophet in Christianity, Islam, the Baháí Faith as well as a number of other Abrahamic religions. Moses Hebrew mother, Jochebed, secretly hid him when the Pharaoh ordered all newborn Hebrew boys to be killed in order to reduce the population of the Israelites. Through the Pharaohs daughter, the child was adopted as a foundling from the Nile river and grew up with the Egyptian royal family. After killing an Egyptian slavemaster, Moses fled across the Red Sea to Midian, God sent Moses back to Egypt to demand the release of the Israelites from slavery. Moses said that he could not speak with assurance or eloquence, so God allowed Aaron, his brother, to become his spokesperson. After the Ten Plagues, Moses led the Exodus of the Israelites out of Egypt and across the Red Sea, after which they based themselves at Mount Sinai, after 40 years of wandering in the desert, Moses died within sight of the Promised Land on Mount Nebo. According to archaeologist William G. Rabbinical Judaism calculated a lifespan of Moses corresponding to 1391–1271 BCE, Jerome gives 1592 BCE, the Biblical account of Moses birth provides him with a folk etymology to explain the ostensible meaning of his name. He is said to have received it from the Pharaohs daughter and she named him Moses, saying, I drew him out of the water. This explanation links it to a verb mashah, meaning to draw out, the princess made a grammatical mistake which is prophetic of his future role in legend, as someone who will draw the people of Israel out of Egypt through the waters of the Red Sea. Abraham Yahuda, based on the spelling given in the Tanakh, argues that it combines water or seed and pond, expanse of water, the Hebrew etymology in the Biblical story may reflect an attempt to cancel out traces of Moses Egyptian origins. The Egyptian character of his name was recognized as such by ancient Jewish writers like Philo of Alexandria and Josephus. Philo linked Mōēsēs to the Egyptian word for water, while Josephus, in his Antiquities of the Jews, claimed that the element, -esês. Hizkuni suggested she either converted or took a tip from Jochebed, the Israelites had settled in the Land of Goshen in the time of Joseph and Jacob, but a new pharaoh arose who oppressed the children of Israel. At this time Moses was born to his father Amram, son of Kehath the Levite, who entered Egypt with Jacobs household, his mother was Jochebed, Moses had one older sister, Miriam, and one older brother, Aaron. One day after Moses had reached adulthood he killed an Egyptian who was beating a Hebrew, Moses, in order to escape the Pharaohs death penalty, fled to Midian. There, on Mount Horeb, God revealed to Moses his name YHWH and commanded him to return to Egypt and bring his people out of bondage. Moses returned to carry out Gods command, but God caused the Pharaoh to refuse, from Egypt, Moses led the Israelites to biblical Mount Sinai, where he was given the Ten Commandments from God, written on stone tablets
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Wikisource
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Wikisource is an online digital library of free content textual sources on a wiki, operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. Wikisource is the name of the project as a whole and the name for each instance of that project, the projects aims are to host all forms of free text, in many languages, and translations. Originally conceived as an archive to store useful or important historical texts, the project officially began in November 24,2003 under the name Project Sourceberg. The name Wikisource was adopted later that year and it received its own domain name seven months later, the project has come under criticism for lack of reliability but it is also cited by organisations such as the National Archives and Records Administration. The project holds works that are either in the domain or freely licensed, professionally published works or historical source documents, not vanity products. Verification was initially made offline, or by trusting the reliability of digital libraries. Now works are supported by online scans via the ProofreadPage extension, some individual Wikisources, each representing a specific language, now only allow works backed up with scans. While the bulk of its collection are texts, Wikisource as a whole hosts other media, some Wikisources allow user-generated annotations, subject to the specific policies of the Wikisource in question. Wikisources early history included several changes of name and location, the original concept for Wikisource was as storage for useful or important historical texts. These texts were intended to support Wikipedia articles, by providing evidence and original source texts. The collection was focused on important historical and cultural material. The project was originally called Project Sourceberg during its planning stages, in 2001, there was a dispute on Wikipedia regarding the addition of primary source material, leading to edit wars over their inclusion or deletion. Project Sourceberg was suggested as a solution to this, perhaps Project Sourceberg can mainly work as an interface for easily linking from Wikipedia to a Project Gutenberg file, and as an interface for people to easily submit new work to PG. Wed want to complement Project Gutenberg--how, exactly, and Jimmy Wales adding like Larry, Im interested that we think it over to see what we can add to Project Gutenberg. It seems unlikely that primary sources should in general be editable by anyone -- I mean, Shakespeare is Shakespeare, unlike our commentary on his work, the project began its activity at ps. wikipedia. org. The contributors understood the PS subdomain to mean either primary sources or Project Sourceberg, however, this resulted in Project Sourceberg occupying the subdomain of the Pashto Wikipedia. A vote on the name changed it to Wikisource on December 6,2003. Despite the change in name, the project did not move to its permanent URL until July 23,2004, since Wikisource was initially called Project Sourceberg, its first logo was a picture of an iceberg
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Al-Fatiha
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Sūrat al-Fātiḥah is the first chapter of the Quran. Its seven verses are a prayer for the guidance, lordship and this chapter has an essential role in Islamic prayer. Some Muslims interpret it as a reference to an ability of the Surah to open a person to faith in God. The name al-Fātiḥah is due to the subject-matter of the Surah, fātiḥah is that which opens a subject or a book or any other thing. In other words, a sort of preface and it is also called, Umm Al-Kitab and Umm Al-Quran, Saba al Mathani, Al-Hamd, because a hadith narrates Muhammad as having said, The prayer is divided into two halves between Me and My servants. When the servant says, All praise is due to God, al-Shifa, because a hadith narrates Muhammad as having said, The Opening of the Book is a cure for every poison. The former view is widely accepted, although some believe that it was revealed in both Mekka and Medina. In the Quran, the first revelations to Muhammad were only the first few verses of Surahs Alaq, Muzzammil, Al-Muddathir, most narrators recorded that al-Fātiḥah was the first complete Surah revealed to Muhammad. Al-Fātiḥah is often believed to be a synthesis of the Quran and it can be said to encapsulate all of the metaphysical and eschatological realities of which human beings must remain conscious. There are differing interpretations for verses 6 and 7, the phrase the Path journeyed by those upon whom You showered blessings is usually seen as referring to Muslims. The Quran, An Encyclopedia, authored by 43 Muslim and non-Muslim academics says, The Prophet interpreted those who incurred God’s wrath as the Jews and the misguided as the Christians. That devout Muslims are daily declaring before Allah that Christians have gone astray and Jews are objects of divine wrath and this is all the more so because the interpretation of verse 7 which relates it to Christians and Jews is soundly based upon the words of Muhammad himself. As Al-Fatihah is the worship of Muslims, and represents the very essence of Islam itself. Other commentators suggest that these verses do not refer to any religious community. At the interfaith service for the inauguration of President Donald Trump, Sajid Tarar, from the Medina Masjid, Baltimore, Maryland. Andrew Bostom said because of the aspects of this Surah its use on State Occasions such as this should be reconsidered as a, basic principle of true ecumenism. I then went to him and he said, What prevented you from coming, I said, O Messenger of Allah. He said, Didnt Allah say, O you who believe, answer Allah and Messenger when he calls you to that which gives you life
