1.
The Mother of All Demos
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The live demonstration featured the introduction of a complete computer hardware and software system called the oN-Line System or, more commonly, NLS. Engelbarts presentation was the first to demonstrate all of these elements in a single system. The demonstration was highly influential and spawned similar projects at Xerox PARC in the early 1970s, the underlying technologies influenced both the Apple Macintosh and Microsoft Windows graphical user interface operating systems in the 1980s and 1990s. It was the mother of all demos, andries van Dam repeated the phrase in 1995 while introducing Engelbart at the Vannevar Bush Symposium at MIT. The phrase was also cited in John Markoffs 2005 book What the Dormouse Said, much of Engelbarts thought that led to the development of his Augmentation Research Center, as well as the oN-Line System was derived from the research culture of World War II and the early Cold War. In Engelbarts view, in order to society into the right use of scientific knowledge derived from the war. Engelbart had read about these efforts and saw that they often backfired, rapid food production led to the depletion of the soil, the eradication of insects led to ecological imbalances. This ultimately led to the idea that beyond merely performing calculations, Engelbart had assembled a team of computer engineers and programmers at his Augmentation Research Center located in Stanford Universitys Stanford Research Institute in the early 1960s. His idea was to free computing from merely being about number crunching and for it to become a tool for communications and he wanted to turn Vannevar Bushs idea for a Memex machine into reality, where a machine used interactively by one person could Augment their intelligence. Over the course of six years, with the help of both NASA and ARPA, his team went about putting together all the elements that would make such a computer system a reality. At the urging of ARPAs director, Robert Taylor, the NLS would make its first public appearance at the fall 1968 Joint Computer Conference, the conference session was presented under the title A research center for augmenting human intellect. Approximately 1,000 computer professionals were in attendance at Brooks Hall in San Francisco to witness the presentation, notable attendees in the audience included Alan Kay, Charles Irby and Andy van Dam, as well as Bob Sproull. Engelbart, with the help of his geographically distributed team, and with Bill English directing the presentations technical elements, additionally, live video of him and his associates from ARC in Menlo Park, about 48 kilometers away, was combined with the computers output on the Eidophor. In order to provide live two-way video between the lab and the hall, two microwave links were used, relayed by a microwave van near the summit of a hill that overlooked both sites. English also commanded a video switcher that controlled what was displayed on the big screen, during the 90-minute presentation, Engelbart used a mouse to move around the screen, highlight text, and resize windows. This was the first time that a system for manipulating text onscreen was presented publicly. Engelbart would simultaneously appear on a portion of the screen, along with the computers output. At separate times, his Augment associates Jeff Rulifson and Bill Paxton appeared in another portion of the screen to help edit the text remotely from ARC, while they were editing they could see each others screen, talk and see each other as well
2.
Springfield, Massachusetts
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Springfield is a city in western New England, and the seat of Hampden County, Massachusetts, United States. Springfield sits on the bank of the Connecticut River near its confluence with three rivers, the western Westfield River, the eastern Chicopee River, and the eastern Mill River. As of the 2010 Census, the population was 153,060. Metropolitan Springfield, as one of two areas in Massachusetts, had an estimated population of 698,903 as of 2009. The first Springfield in the New World, it is the largest city in Western New England, and the urban, economic and it is the third-largest city in Massachusetts and fourth-largest in New England after Boston, Worcester, and Providence. Hartford, the capital of Connecticut, lies 23.9 miles south of Springfield, bradley International Airport, which sits 12 miles south of Metro Center Springfield, is Hartford-Springfields airport. Springfield was founded in 1636 by English Puritan William Pynchon as Agawam Plantation under the administration of the Connecticut Colony, in 1641 it was renamed after Pynchons hometown of Springfield, Essex, England, following incidents that precipitated the settlement joining the Massachusetts Bay Colony. From 1777 until its closing during the Vietnam War, the Springfield Armory attracted skilled laborers to Springfield, arsenal at Springfield during Shays Rebellion of 1787 led directly to the formation of the U. S. Springfield is located at 42°6′45″N 72°32′51″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 33.2 square miles, of which 32.1 square miles is land and 1.1 square miles is water. Once nicknamed The City in a Forest, Springfield features over 4, aside from its rivers, Springfields 2nd most prominent topographical feature is the citys 735 acres Forest Park, designed by renowned landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted. Forest Park also borders Western Massachusetts most affluent town, Longmeadow, Springfield shares borders with other well-heeled suburbs such as East Longmeadow, Wilbraham, Ludlow and the de-industrializing city of Chicopee. The small cities of Agawam and West Springfield, Massachusetts lie less than a mile from Springfields Metro Center, across the Connecticut River. The City of Springfield also owns the Springfield Country Club, which is located in the city of West Springfield, Massachusetts. Springfield, like other cities in southern New England, has a continental climate with four distinct seasons. Winters are cold with a average in January of around 26 °F. During winter, noreaster storms can drop significant snowfalls on Springfield, Springfields summers are very warm and sometimes humid. During summer, several times per month, on hot days afternoon thunderstorms will develop when unstable warm air collides with approaching cold fronts, the daily average in July is around 74 °F. Usually several days during the summer exceed 90 °F, constituting a heat wave, Spring and fall temperatures are usually pleasant, with mild days and crisp, cool nights
3.
University of Colorado Boulder
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The University of Colorado Boulder is a public research university located in Boulder, Colorado, United States. It is the university of the University of Colorado system and was founded five months before Colorado was admitted to the Union in 1876. In 2015, the university consisted of nine colleges and schools and offered over 150 academic programs, twelve Nobel Laureates, nine MacArthur Fellows, and 20 astronauts have been affiliated with CU Boulder as students, researchers, or faculty members in its history. The university received nearly $454 million in sponsored research in 2010 to fund programs like the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics, the Colorado Buffaloes compete in 17 varsity sports and are members of the NCAA Division I Pac-12 Conference. The Buffaloes have won 28 national championships,20 in skiing, seven total in mens and womens cross country, approximately 1,500 students participate in 34 intercollegiate club sports annually as well. Two cities competed for the site of the University of Colorado, Boulder, the consolation prize for the losing city was to be home of the new Colorado State Prison. Cañon City was at a disadvantage as it was already the home of the Colorado Territorial Prison, the cornerstone of the building that became Old Main was laid on September 20,1875. The doors of the university opened on September 5,1877, at the time, there were few high schools in the state that could adequately prepare students for university work, so in addition to the University, a preparatory school was formed on campus. In the fall of 1877, the student body consisted of 15 students in the proper and 50 students in the preparatory school. There were 38 men and 27 women, and their ages ranged from 12–23 years, during World War II, Colorado was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V-12 Navy College Training Program which offered students a path to a navy commission. The main CU Boulder campus is located south of the Pearl Street Mall and it consists of academic and residential buildings as well as research facilities. The East Campus is about a mile from the main campus and is composed mainly of athletic fields. CU Boulders distinctive architecture style, known as Tuscan Vernacular Revival, was designed by architect Charles Klauder. A month or so after approval, however, Klauder updated his design by sketching in a new wrap of rough, textured sandstone walls with sloping, multi-leveled red-tiled roofs and Indiana limestone trim. This formed the basis of a style which was used in the design of fifteen other buildings between 1921 and 1939. The sandstone used in the construction of all the buildings on campus was selected from a variety of front range mountain quarries. In 2011, Travel+Leisure named the Boulder campus as one of the most beautiful campuses in the United States. Currently Freshmen and others attending the University of Colorado Boulder have an option of 24 on-, Residence halls have 17 varieties of room types from singles to four-person rooms and others with apartment style amenities
4.
University of Utah
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The University of Utah is a public coeducational space-grant research university in Salt Lake City, Utah, United States. As the states flagship university, the university more than 100 undergraduate majors. The university is classified in the highest ranking, R-1, Doctoral Universities – Highest Research Activity by the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education, the Carnegie Classification also considers the university as selective, which is its second most selective admissions category. Quinney College of Law and the School of Medicine, Utahs only medical school, as of Fall 2015, there are 23,909 undergraduate students and 7,764 graduate students, for an enrollment total of 31,673. The university was established in 1850 as the University of Deseret by the General Assembly of the provisional State of Deseret and it received its current name in 1892, four years before Utah attained statehood, and moved to its current location in 1900. The university ranks among the top 50 U. S. universities by total research expenditures with over $486 million spent in 2014, in addition, the universitys Honors College has been reviewed among 50 leading national Honors Colleges in the U. S. The university has also ranked the 12th most ideologically diverse university in the country. The universitys athletic teams, the Utes, participate in NCAA Division I athletics as a member of the Pac-12 Conference and its football team has received national attention for winning the 2005 Fiesta Bowl and the 2009 Sugar Bowl. A Board of Regents was organized by Brigham Young to establish a university in the Salt Lake Valley, early classes were held in private homes or wherever space could be found. The university closed in 1853 due to lack of funds and lack of feeder schools, the university moved out of the council house into the Union Academy building in 1876 and into Union Square in 1884. Additional Fort Douglas land has granted to the university over the years. Upon his death in 1900, Dr. John R. Park bequeathed his fortune to the university. One third of the faculty resigned in protest of these dismissals, the controversy was largely resolved when Kingsbury resigned in 1916, but university operations were again interrupted by World War I, and later The Great Depression and World War II. Student enrollment dropped to a low of 3,418 during the last year of World War II, ray Olpin made substantial additions to campus following the war, and enrollment reached 12,000 by the time he retired in 1964. Growth continued in the decades as the university developed into a research center for fields such as computer science. During the 2002 Winter Olympics, the university hosted the Olympic Village, the University of Utah Asia Campus opened as an international branch campus in the Incheon Global Campus in Songdo, Incheon, South Korea in 2014. Three other European and American universities are also participating, the Asia Campus was funded by the South Korean government. Campus takes up 1,534 acres, including the Health Sciences complex, Research Park and it is located on the east bench of the Salt Lake Valley, close to the Wasatch Range and approximately 2 miles east of downtown Salt Lake City
5.
Dynabook
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Adults could also use a Dynabook, but the target audience was children. Part of the motivation and funding for the Dynabook project came from the need for portable military maintenance, repair, eliminating the need to move large amounts of difficult-to-access paper in a dynamic military theatre provided significant US Department of Defense funding. Though the hardware required to create a Dynabook is here today, Alan Kay still thinks the Dynabook hasnt been invented yet, because key software and educational curricula are missing. When Microsoft came up with its tablet PC, Kay was quoted as saying Microsofts Tablet PC, a comment he had earlier applied to the Apple Macintosh. Toshiba also has a line of computers called DynaBooks. Describing the idea as “A Personal Computer For Children of All Ages and this concept was created two years before the founding of Xerox PARC. The ideas led to the development of the Xerox Alto prototype and it embodied all the elements of a graphical user interface, or GUI, as early as 1972. The software component of research was Smalltalk, which went on to have a life of its own independent of the Dynabook concept. The hardware on which the programming environment ran was relatively irrelevant, at the same time, Kay tried in his 1972 article to identify existing hardware components that could be used in a Dynabook, including screens, processors and storage memory. For example, A standalone ‘smart terminal’ that uses one of these chips for a processor is now on the market for about $6000, the Dynabook vision was most fully laid out in Kay’s 1977 article Personal Dynamic Media, co-authored with collaborator Adele Goldberg. Since the late 1990s, Kay has been working on the Squeak programming system, Alan Kay is actively involved in the One Laptop Per Child project that uses Smalltalk, Squeak, and the concepts of a computer for learning. Gruener, Wolfgang, Did Steve Jobs Steal The iPad, genius Inventor Alan Kay Reveals All, Toms Hardware. Kay, Alan C, A Personal Computer for Children of All Ages, DE, M Prove. ———, Sketchpad, Grail, the World in your Own Notebook, The Best of Creative Computing, Atari archives,3, p.5. From the Dynabook to Squeak – A Study in Survivals, Thinkubator, CA, tracing the Dynabook, A Study of Technocultural Transformations, Thinkubator, CA, SFU about the Dynabook project and vision Toshibas dynabook R – a lowcost tablet PC, Uber gizmo, Feb 2005. An Interview with Computing Pioneer Alan Kay, Time, April 2,2013
6.
Smalltalk
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Smalltalk is an object-oriented, dynamically typed, reflective programming language. Smalltalk was created as the language to underpin the new world of computing exemplified by human–computer symbiosis, the language was first generally released as Smalltalk-80. Smalltalk-like languages are in continuing development and have gathered loyal communities of users around them. ANSI Smalltalk was ratified in 1998 and represents the version of Smalltalk. There are a number of Smalltalk variants. The unqualified word Smalltalk is often used to indicate the Smalltalk-80 language, Smalltalk was the product of research led by Alan Kay at Xerox Palo Alto Research Center, Alan Kay designed most of the early Smalltalk versions, which Dan Ingalls implemented. A later variant actually used for work is now known as Smalltalk-72. Its syntax and execution model were very different from modern Smalltalk variants, after significant revisions which froze some aspects of execution semantics to gain performance, Smalltalk-76 was created. This system had a development environment featuring most of the now familiar tools, later a general availability implementation, known as Smalltalk-80 Version 2, was released as an image and a virtual machine specification. ANSI Smalltalk has been the standard language reference since 1998, two of the currently popular Smalltalk implementation variants are descendants of those original Smalltalk-80 images. Squeak is an open source implementation derived from Smalltalk-80 Version 1 by way of Apple Smalltalk, VisualWorks is derived from Smalltalk-80 version 2 by way of Smalltalk-802.5 and ObjectWorks. As an interesting link between generations, in 2001 Vassili Bykov implemented Hobbes, a machine running Smalltalk-80 inside VisualWorks. During the late 1980s to mid-1990s, Smalltalk environments—including support, training, ParcPlace Systems tended to focus on the Unix/Sun microsystems market, while Digitalk focused on Intel-based PCs running Microsoft Windows or IBMs OS/2. IBM initially supported the Digitalk product, but then entered the market with a Smalltalk product in 1995 called VisualAge/Smalltalk, easel introduced Enfin at this time on Windows and OS/2. Enfin became far more popular in Europe, as IBM introduced it into IT shops before their development of IBM Smalltalk, Enfin was later acquired by Cincom Systems, and is now sold under the name ObjectStudio, and is part of the Cincom Smalltalk product suite. In 1995, ParcPlace and Digitalk merged into ParcPlace-Digitalk and then rebranded in 1997 as ObjectShare, located in Irvine, ObjectShare was traded publicly until 1999, when it was delisted and dissolved. The merged firm never managed to find a response to Java as to market positioning. VisualWorks was sold to Cincom and is now part of Cincom Smalltalk, Cincom has backed Smalltalk strongly, releasing multiple new versions of VisualWorks and ObjectStudio each year since 1999
7.
Graphical user interface
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GUIs were introduced in reaction to the perceived steep learning curve of command-line interfaces, which require commands to be typed on a computer keyboard. The actions in a GUI are usually performed through direct manipulation of the graphical elements, beyond computers, GUIs are used in many handheld mobile devices such as MP3 players, portable media players, gaming devices, smartphones and smaller household, office and industrial controls. Designing the visual composition and temporal behavior of a GUI is an important part of application programming in the area of human–computer interaction. Its goal is to enhance the efficiency and ease of use for the logical design of a stored program. Methods of user-centered design are used to ensure that the language introduced in the design is well-tailored to the tasks. The visible graphical interface features of an application are sometimes referred to as chrome or GUI, typically, users interact with information by manipulating visual widgets that allow for interactions appropriate to the kind of data they hold. The widgets of an interface are selected to support the actions necessary to achieve the goals of users. A model–view–controller allows a structure in which the interface is independent from and indirectly linked to application functions. This allows users to select or design a different skin at will, good user interface design relates to users more, and to system architecture less. Large widgets, such as windows, usually provide a frame or container for the main presentation content such as a web page, smaller ones usually act as a user-input tool. A GUI may be designed for the requirements of a market as application-specific graphical user interfaces. By the 1990s, cell phones and handheld game systems also employed application specific touchscreen GUIs, newer automobiles use GUIs in their navigation systems and multimedia centers, or navigation multimedia center combinations. Sample graphical desktop environments A GUI uses a combination of technologies and devices to provide a platform that users can interact with, a series of elements conforming a visual language have evolved to represent information stored in computers. This makes it easier for people with few computer skills to work with, the most common combination of such elements in GUIs is the windows, icons, menus, pointer paradigm, especially in personal computers. The WIMP style of interaction uses a virtual device to represent the position of a pointing device, most often a mouse. Available commands are compiled together in menus, and actions are performed making gestures with the pointing device, a window manager facilitates the interactions between windows, applications, and the windowing system. The windowing system handles hardware devices such as pointing devices, graphics hardware, window managers and other software combine to simulate the desktop environment with varying degrees of realism. Smaller mobile devices such as personal assistants and smartphones typically use the WIMP elements with different unifying metaphors, due to constraints in space
8.
Window (computing)
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In computing, a window is a graphical control element. It consists of an area containing some of the graphical user interface of the program it belongs to and is framed by a window decoration. It usually has a shape that can overlap with the area of other windows. It displays the output of and may allow input to one or more processes, Windows are primarily associated with graphical displays, where they can be manipulated with a pointer by employing some kind of pointing device. Text-only displays can also support windowing, as a way to multiple independent display areas. Text windows are controlled by keyboard, though some also respond to the mouse. A graphical user interface using windows as one of its main metaphors is called a system, whose main components are the display server. The idea was developed at the Stanford Research Institute and their earliest systems supported multiple windows, but there was no obvious way to indicate boundaries between them. Research continued at Xerox Corporations Palo Alto Research Center / PARC, during the 1980s the term WIMP, which stands for window, icon, menu, pointer, was coined at PARC. Apple had worked with PARC briefly at that time, apple developed an interface based on PARCs interface. It was first used on Apples Lisa and later Macintosh computers, Microsoft was developing office applications for the Mac at that time. Some speculate that this gave access to Apples OS before it was released. Windows are two dimensional objects arranged on a called the desktop. In a modern full-featured windowing system they can be resized, moved, hidden, Windows usually include other graphical objects, possibly including a menu-bar, toolbars, controls, icons and often a working area. In the working area, the document, image, folder contents or other object is displayed. Around the working area, within the window, there may be other smaller window areas, sometimes called panes or panels. The working area of a single document interface holds only one main object, child windows in multiple document interfaces, and tabs for example in many web browsers, can make several similar documents or main objects available within a single main application window. Some windows in Mac OS X have a feature called a drawer, applications that can run either under a graphical user interface or in a text user interface may use different terminology
9.
Kyoto Prize
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The Kyoto Prize is Japan’s highest private award for global achievement. The Prize is given not only to those that are top representatives of their own respective field, the Kyoto Prizes are regarded by many as the most prestigious award available in fields that are traditionally not honored with a Nobel Prize. The Prize has been awarded annually since 1985 by the Inamori Foundation, the honorary president of the Foundation is Princess Takamado. The Kyoto Prize has been awarded annually to those who have contributed significantly to the scientific, cultural, the Prizes are given in the fields of Advanced Technology, Basic Sciences, and Arts and Philosophy. The Prizes are regarded by many as the most prestigious award available in fields that are not honored with a Nobel Prize. The laureates are announced each June, the presentation ceremony and related events are held in Kyoto, Japan. The Prizes were endowed with 50 million yen, with the 2015 Kyoto laureates, the three-category prizes have honored 99 individuals and one foundation. Individual laureates range from scientists, engineers, and researchers to philosophers, painters, architects, sculptors, musicians, the United States has produced the most recipients, followed by Japan, the United Kingdom, and France. The Kyoto Prize in Basic Sciences was awarded to Michel Mayor for his Outstanding Contributions in Evolving a New Vision of the Universe through the Discovery of Extrasolar Planet. The Kyoto Prize in Arts and Philosophy was awarded to John Neumeier for being A Choreographer Who Developed 20th Century Ballet to New Levels, Kyoto Prize in Advanced Technology Kyoto Prize in Basic Sciences Kyoto Prize in Arts and Philosophy List of Kyoto Prize winners Official website Inamori Foundation
10.
Computer science
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Computer science is the study of the theory, experimentation, and engineering that form the basis for the design and use of computers. An alternate, more succinct definition of science is the study of automating algorithmic processes that scale. A computer scientist specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems and its fields can be divided into a variety of theoretical and practical disciplines. Some fields, such as computational complexity theory, are highly abstract, other fields still focus on challenges in implementing computation. Human–computer interaction considers the challenges in making computers and computations useful, usable, the earliest foundations of what would become computer science predate the invention of the modern digital computer. Machines for calculating fixed numerical tasks such as the abacus have existed since antiquity, further, algorithms for performing computations have existed since antiquity, even before the development of sophisticated computing equipment. Wilhelm Schickard designed and constructed the first working mechanical calculator in 1623, in 1673, Gottfried Leibniz demonstrated a digital mechanical calculator, called the Stepped Reckoner. He may be considered the first computer scientist and information theorist, for, among other reasons and he started developing this machine in 1834, and in less than two years, he had sketched out many of the salient features of the modern computer. A crucial step was the adoption of a card system derived from the Jacquard loom making it infinitely programmable. Around 1885, Herman Hollerith invented the tabulator, which used punched cards to process statistical information, when the machine was finished, some hailed it as Babbages dream come true. During the 1940s, as new and more powerful computing machines were developed, as it became clear that computers could be used for more than just mathematical calculations, the field of computer science broadened to study computation in general. Computer science began to be established as an academic discipline in the 1950s. The worlds first computer science program, the Cambridge Diploma in Computer Science. The first computer science program in the United States was formed at Purdue University in 1962. Since practical computers became available, many applications of computing have become distinct areas of study in their own rights and it is the now well-known IBM brand that formed part of the computer science revolution during this time. IBM released the IBM704 and later the IBM709 computers, still, working with the IBM was frustrating if you had misplaced as much as one letter in one instruction, the program would crash, and you would have to start the whole process over again. During the late 1950s, the science discipline was very much in its developmental stages. Time has seen significant improvements in the usability and effectiveness of computing technology, modern society has seen a significant shift in the users of computer technology, from usage only by experts and professionals, to a near-ubiquitous user base
11.
PARC (company)
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PARC, formerly Xerox PARC, is a research and development company in Palo Alto, California, with a distinguished reputation for its contributions to information technology and hardware systems. Xerox formed Palo Alto Research Center Incorporated as an owned subsidiary in 2002. Pake selected Palo Alto, California, as the site of what was to become known as PARC. S, the integration of Ethernet prompted the development of the PARC Universal Packet architecture, much like todays Internet. Xerox has been criticized for failing to properly commercialize and profitably exploit PARCs innovations. A favorite example is the user interface, initially developed at PARC for the Alto. Although very significant in terms of its influence on future system design, a small group from PARC led by David Liddle and Charles Irby formed Metaphor Computer Systems. They extended the Star desktop concept into a graphic and communicating office-automation model. Among PARCs distinguished researchers were three Turing Award winners, Butler W. Lampson, Alan Kay, and Charles P. Thacker. The Association for Computing Machinery Software System Award recognized the Alto system in 1984, Smalltalk in 1987, InterLisp in 1992, and the remote procedure call in 1994. Lampson, Kay, Bob Taylor, and Charles P. Thacker received the National Academy of Engineerings prestigious Charles Stark Draper Prize in 2004 for their work on the Alto, PARCs developments in information technology served for a long time as standards for much of the computing industry. Many advances were not equalled or surpassed for two decades, enormous timespans in the fast-paced high-tech world, a number of GUI engineers left to join Apple Computer. Work at PARC since the early 1980s includes advances in computing, aspect-oriented programming. Xerox Daybreak GlobalView Michael A. Hiltzik, Dealers of Lightning, Xerox PARC, alexander, Fumbling the Future, How Xerox Invented, Then Ignored, the First Personal Computer ISBN 1-58348-266-0 M. Mitchell Waldrop, The Dream Machine, J. C. R. Strassmann Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis Oral history interview with William Crowther Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis
12.
Stanford University
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Stanford University, officially Leland Stanford Junior University, is a private research university in Stanford, California, adjacent to Palo Alto and between San Jose and San Francisco. Its 8, 180-acre campus is one of the largest in the United States, Stanford also has land and facilities elsewhere. The university was founded in 1885 by Leland and Jane Stanford in memory of their only child, Stanford was a former Governor of California and U. S. Senator, he made his fortune as a railroad tycoon. The school admitted its first students 125 years ago on October 1,1891, Stanford University struggled financially after Leland Stanfords death in 1893 and again after much of the campus was damaged by the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Following World War II, Provost Frederick Terman supported faculty and graduates entrepreneurialism to build self-sufficient local industry in what would later be known as Silicon Valley. The university is one of the top fundraising institutions in the country. There are three schools that have both undergraduate and graduate students and another four professional schools. Students compete in 36 varsity sports, and the university is one of two institutions in the Division I FBS Pac-12 Conference. Stanford faculty and alumni have founded a number of companies that produce more than $2.7 trillion in annual revenue. It is the alma mater of 30 living billionaires,17 astronauts and it is also one of the leading producers of members of the United States Congress. Sixty Nobel laureates and seven Fields Medalists have been affiliated with Stanford as students, alumni, Stanford University was founded in 1885 by Leland and Jane Stanford, dedicated to Leland Stanford Jr, their only child. The institution opened in 1891 on Stanfords previous Palo Alto farm, despite being impacted by earthquakes in both 1906 and 1989, the campus was rebuilt each time. In 1919, The Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace was started by Herbert Hoover to preserve artifacts related to World War I, the Stanford Medical Center, completed in 1959, is a teaching hospital with over 800 beds. The SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, which was established in 1962, in 2008, 60% of this land remained undeveloped. Besides the central campus described below, the university also operates at more remote locations, some elsewhere on the main campus. Stanfords main campus includes a place within unincorporated Santa Clara County. The campus also includes land in unincorporated San Mateo County, as well as in the city limits of Menlo Park, Woodside. The academic central campus is adjacent to Palo Alto, bounded by El Camino Real, Stanford Avenue, Junipero Serra Boulevard, the United States Postal Service has assigned it two ZIP codes,94305 for campus mail and 94309 for P. O. box mail
13.
Atari, Inc.
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Atari, Inc. was an American video game developer and home computer company founded in 1972 by Nolan Bushnell and Ted Dabney. In 1966, Nolan Bushnell saw Spacewar. for the first time at the University of Utah, the resulting game, Computer Space, was released by a coin-op game company, Nutting Associates. For the first time at the University of Utah, Computer Space did not fare well commercially when it was placed in Nuttings customary market, bars. Feeling that the game was too complex for the average customer unfamiliar and unsure with the new technology. Bushnell and Ted Dabney left Nutting to form their own engineering firm, Syzygy Engineering, initially wanting to start Syzygy off with a driving game, Bushnell had concerns that it might be too complicated for the young Alcorns first game. In May 1972, Bushnell had seen a demonstration of the Magnavox Odyssey, according to Alcorn, Bushnell decided to have him produce an arcade version of the Odysseys Tennis game, which would go on to be named Pong. Atari later had to pay Magnavox a licensing fee after the latter sued Atari because of this, when they went to incorporate their firm that June, they soon found that Syzygy already existed in California. Atari was incorporated in the state of California on June 27,1972, by August 1972, the first Pong was completed. It consisted of a black and white television from Walgreens, the game hardware. It was placed in a Sunnyvale tavern by the name of Andy Capps to test its viability. When the game begun malfunctioning a few days later and Alcorn returned to fix the machine, he was met by a lineup of people waiting for the bar to open so they could play the game. On examination, the turned out to be mundane, the coin collector was filled to overflowing with quarters, and when customers tried to jam them in anyway. Though Kees relationship to Atari was discovered in 1974, Joe Keenan did such a job managing the subsidiary that he was promoted to president of Atari that same year. In 1975, Bushnell started an effort to produce a video game console that was capable of playing all four of Ataris then-current games. Development took place at an engineering lab, which initially had serious difficulties trying to produce such a machine. However, in early 1976 the now-famous MOS Technology 6502 was released, the result was the Atari 2600, released in October 1977 as the Video Computer System, one of the most successful consoles in history. Bushnell knew he had another hit on his hands. In 1976 Bushnell sold Atari to Warner Communications for $28 million and he departed from the division in 1979
14.
Apple Inc.
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Apple is an American multinational technology company headquartered in Cupertino, California that designs, develops, and sells consumer electronics, computer software, and online services. Apples consumer software includes the macOS and iOS operating systems, the media player, the Safari web browser. Its online services include the iTunes Store, the iOS App Store and Mac App Store, Apple Music, Apple was founded by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, and Ronald Wayne in April 1976 to develop and sell personal computers. It was incorporated as Apple Computer, Inc. in January 1977, Apple joined the Dow Jones Industrial Average in March 2015. In November 2014, Apple became the first U. S. company to be valued at over US$700 billion in addition to being the largest publicly traded corporation in the world by market capitalization. The company employs 115,000 full-time employees as of July 2015 and it operates the online Apple Store and iTunes Store, the latter of which is the worlds largest music retailer. Consumers use more than one billion Apple products worldwide as of March 2016, Apples worldwide annual revenue totaled $233 billion for the fiscal year ending in September 2015. This revenue accounts for approximately 1. 25% of the total United States GDP.1 billion, the corporation receives significant criticism regarding the labor practices of its contractors and its environmental and business practices, including the origins of source materials. Apple was founded on April 1,1976, by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, the Apple I kits were computers single-handedly designed and hand-built by Wozniak and first shown to the public at the Homebrew Computer Club. The Apple I was sold as a motherboard, which was less than what is now considered a personal computer. The Apple I went on sale in July 1976 and was market-priced at $666.66, Apple was incorporated January 3,1977, without Wayne, who sold his share of the company back to Jobs and Wozniak for $800. Multimillionaire Mike Markkula provided essential business expertise and funding of $250,000 during the incorporation of Apple, during the first five years of operations revenues grew exponentially, doubling about every four months. Between September 1977 and September 1980 yearly sales grew from $775,000 to $118m, the Apple II, also invented by Wozniak, was introduced on April 16,1977, at the first West Coast Computer Faire. It differed from its rivals, the TRS-80 and Commodore PET, because of its character cell-based color graphics. While early Apple II models used ordinary cassette tapes as storage devices, they were superseded by the introduction of a 5 1/4 inch floppy disk drive and interface called the Disk II. The Apple II was chosen to be the platform for the first killer app of the business world, VisiCalc. VisiCalc created a market for the Apple II and gave home users an additional reason to buy an Apple II. Before VisiCalc, Apple had been a distant third place competitor to Commodore, by the end of the 1970s, Apple had a staff of computer designers and a production line
15.
Apple Advanced Technology Group
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The Advanced Technology Group was a corporate research laboratory at Apple Computer from 1986 to 1997. Over the next decade it was led by David Nagel, Richard LeFaivre and it was known as Apple Research Labs during Normans tenure as VP of the organization. Steve Jobs closed the group when he returned to Apple in 1997, many of these efforts are described in a special issue of the ACM SIGCHI bulletin which provided a retrospective of the ATG work after the lab was shut down. ATG was also home to four Apple Fellows, Al Alcorn, object-oriented software pioneer Alan Kay, Bill Atkinson, further, ATG funded university research and, starting in 1992, held an annual design competition for teams of students. SIGCHI, The Apple Advanced Technology Group
16.
Walt Disney Imagineering
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Imagineering is responsible for designing and building Disney theme parks, resorts, cruise ships, and other entertainment venues at all levels of project development. Imagineering also manages various properties held by units within the Walt Disney Company including Disneys Burbank Studios, New Amsterdam Theater, when Disney was in the sports team ownership that included Edison Field and the Mighty Ducks Disney Ice practice rink in Anaheim. Disney filed for a copyright for the term in 1967, claiming first use of the term in 1962, Walt Disney Inc. was formed by Walt Disney in 1953 with the Disneyland designing engineering division. In light of objections from Roy as well as those of potential stockholders, in 1961, WED moved into the Grand Central Business Park, the site of the former Grand Central Air Terminal, in 1961. The unit was renamed as of January 1986 to Walt Disney Imagineering, in 1996, Disney Development Company, the Disney conglomerates real estate development subsidiary, merged into Imagineering. Imagineering created Disney Fair, a U. S. traveling attraction, with poor attendance, the fair was pulled after a few stops. Disney Entertainment Projects Inc. a new Disney Asian Pacific subsidiary, by 1997, Imagineers were in several buildings in Grand Central Business Park when Disney purchased the park. In September 1999, Disney Imagineering announced the Grand Central Creative Campus redesign of the park with a new office-studio complex anchored by Disney Imagineering. Some of the building were demolished to make way for new buildings, the additional space would be for sound stages, production facilities and offices. Imagineers are governed by a few key principles when developing new concepts, often, new concepts and improvements are created to fulfill specific needs. Many solutions to problems are designed in this way, such as the vehicle of the attraction Soarin Over California. An Imagineer found an Erector set in his attic, and was able to envision, Imagineers are also known for returning to ideas for attractions and shows that, for whatever reason, never came to fruition. These ideas are often reworked and appear in a different form – like the Museum of the Weird, finally, there is the principle of blue sky speculation, a process where Imagineers generate ideas with no limitations. The custom at Imagineering has been to start the process with what is referred to as eyewash--the boldest, wildest, best idea one can come up with. Many Imagineers consider this to be the beginning of the design process and operate under the notion that if it can be dreamt. Imagineers are always seeking to improve upon their work--what Walt Disney called plussing and he firmly believed that Disneyland will never be completed as long as theres imagination left in the world, meaning there is always room for innovation and improvement. During an Imagineering workshop in 1991, Marty Sklar presented ten commandments attributed to Mickey Steinberg, WDI is responsible for technological advances such as the Circle-Vision 360° film technique and the FastPass virtual queuing system. The idea sprang from Disney’s fascination with a bird he purchased in New Orleans
17.
University of California, Los Angeles
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The University of California, Los Angeles is a public research university in the Westwood district of Los Angeles, California, United States. It became the Southern Branch of the University of California in 1919 and it offers 337 undergraduate and graduate degree programs in a wide range of disciplines. UCLA enrolls about 31,000 undergraduate and 13,000 graduate students, and had 119,000 applicants for Fall 2016, including transfer applicants, the university is organized into six undergraduate colleges, seven professional schools, and four professional health science schools. Fourteen Nobel laureates, three Fields Medalists, two Chief Scientists of the U. S. Air Force and three Turing Award winners have been faculty, researchers, or alumni, the university was elected to the Association of American Universities in 1974. The Times Higher Education World University Rankings for 2015–2016 ranked UCLA 16th in the world for academics, in 2015-2016, UCLA ranked 12th in the world by the Academic Ranking of World Universities and 31st in the 2016/17 QS World University Rankings. UCLA student-athletes compete as the Bruins in the Pac-12 Conference, the Bruins won 126 national championships, including 113 NCAA team championships, more than any other university. UCLA student-athletes, coaches and staff won 251 Olympic medals,126 gold,65 silver and 60 bronze, UCLA student-athletes competed in every Olympics since 1920 with one exception, and won a gold medal in every Olympics that the United States participated in since 1932. The State Normal School at Los Angeles opened on August 29,1882, the facility included an elementary school where teachers-in-training could practice their technique with children. That elementary school is related to the present day version, UCLA Lab School, in 1887, the school became known as the Los Angeles State Normal School. In 1914, the moved to a new campus on Vermont Avenue in East Hollywood. However, David Prescott Barrows, the new President of the University of California, the same legislation added its general undergraduate program, the College of Letters and Science. After the athletic teams entered the Pacific Coast conference in 1926, the Southern Branch student council adopted the nickname Bruins, in 1927, the Regents renamed the Southern Branch the University of California at Los Angeles. In the same year, the state broke ground in Westwood on land sold for $1 million, less than one-third its value, by real estate developers Edwin and Harold Janss, the campus in Westwood opened to students in 1929. The original four buildings were the College Library, Royce Hall, the Physics-Biology Building, the first undergraduate classes on the new campus were held in 1929 with 5,500 students. A timeline of the history can be found on its website, during its first 32 years, UCLA was treated as an off-site department of UC. As such, its presiding officer was called a provost, in 1951, UCLA was formally elevated to co-equal status with UC Berkeley, and its presiding officer Raymond B. Allen was the first chief executive to be granted the title of chancellor. The appointment of Franklin David Murphy to the position of Chancellor in 1960 helped spark an era of growth of facilities. By the end of the decade, UCLA had achieved distinction in a range of subjects
18.
Kyoto University
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Kyoto University, or Kyodai is a national university in Kyoto, Japan. It is the second oldest Japanese university, one of Asias highest ranked universities, Kyoto Universitys forerunner was the Chemistry School founded in Osaka in 1869, which, despite its name, taught physics as well. Later, the Third Higher School was established in the place of Seimi-kyoku in 1886, Kyoto Imperial University as a part of the Imperial University system was established on June 18,1897, using the Third Higher Schools buildings. The higher school moved to a patch of land across the street, in the same year of the universitys establishment, the College of Science and Technology was founded. The College of Law and the College of Medicine were founded in 1899, the faculty was dissolved with the foundation of the Faculty of Integrated Human Studies in 1992. Kyoto University has since 2004 been incorporated as a national university corporation under a new law which applies to all national universities, despite the incorporation which has led to increased financial independence and autonomy, Kyoto University is still partly controlled by the Japanese Ministry of Education. The Universitys Department of Geophysics and their Disaster Prevention Research Institute are represented on the national Coordinating Committee for Earthquake Prediction. The university has three campuses in Yoshida, Kyoto, in Katsura, Kyoto, in Gokashō, Uji Yoshida Campus is the main campus, the Graduate School of Engineering is currently under process of moving to the newly built Katsura Campus. The university has about 22,000 students enrolled in its undergraduate and graduate programs, the university claims ten Nobel Laureates and two Fields Medalists among its faculty and alumni. The university is known as the starting point for the Kyoto School philosophical movement. It can be seen in the several such as shown below. In another ranking, Japanese prep school Kawaijuku ranked Kyodai as the 2nd best university in Japan, Kyodai is also one of the top universities in the world. The following rankings are the example of Kyodais ranking positions in the world rankings, Kyoto University was ranked 24th in the world in the 2010 Academic Ranking of World Universities 11th worldwide in the Global University Ranking. A human competitiveness index and analysis by the Human Resources & Labor Review, QS World University Rankings in 2011 placed Kyoto University 32nd overall in the world, one behind University of Melbourne, seven places lower than the previous year. The 2011 QS Asian Rankings make Kyoto University the seventh highest ranked university in Asia, Kyodai is usually considered as one of the top research institution in Japan. In fact, the 2nd largest amount of investment from Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research and this financial support from the Japanese government has a direct effect on Kyodais research outcomes. According to Thomson Reuters, Kyodai is the 1st best research university in Japan and its research excellence is especially distinctive in Chemistry, Biology & Biochemistry, Pharmacology & Toxicology, Immunology, Material Science, and Physics. Kyodai was placed in the 10th position in this ranking, Kyodai also has a high research standard in Social Sciences & Humanities
19.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
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The Massachusetts Institute of Technology is a private research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, often cited as one of the worlds most prestigious universities. Researchers worked on computers, radar, and inertial guidance during World War II, post-war defense research contributed to the rapid expansion of the faculty and campus under James Killian. The current 168-acre campus opened in 1916 and extends over 1 mile along the bank of the Charles River basin. The Institute is traditionally known for its research and education in the sciences and engineering, and more recently in biology, economics, linguistics. Air Force and 6 Fields Medalists have been affiliated with MIT, the school has a strong entrepreneurial culture, and the aggregated revenues of companies founded by MIT alumni would rank as the eleventh-largest economy in the world. In 1859, a proposal was submitted to the Massachusetts General Court to use newly filled lands in Back Bay, Boston for a Conservatory of Art and Science, but the proposal failed. A charter for the incorporation of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Rogers, a professor from the University of Virginia, wanted to establish an institution to address rapid scientific and technological advances. The Rogers Plan reflected the German research university model, emphasizing an independent faculty engaged in research, as well as instruction oriented around seminars, two days after the charter was issued, the first battle of the Civil War broke out. After a long delay through the war years, MITs first classes were held in the Mercantile Building in Boston in 1865, in 1863 under the same act, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts founded the Massachusetts Agricultural College, which developed as the University of Massachusetts Amherst. In 1866, the proceeds from sales went toward new buildings in the Back Bay. MIT was informally called Boston Tech, the institute adopted the European polytechnic university model and emphasized laboratory instruction from an early date. Despite chronic financial problems, the institute saw growth in the last two decades of the 19th century under President Francis Amasa Walker. Programs in electrical, chemical, marine, and sanitary engineering were introduced, new buildings were built, the curriculum drifted to a vocational emphasis, with less focus on theoretical science. The fledgling school still suffered from chronic financial shortages which diverted the attention of the MIT leadership, during these Boston Tech years, MIT faculty and alumni rebuffed Harvard University president Charles W. Eliots repeated attempts to merge MIT with Harvard Colleges Lawrence Scientific School. There would be at least six attempts to absorb MIT into Harvard, in its cramped Back Bay location, MIT could not afford to expand its overcrowded facilities, driving a desperate search for a new campus and funding. Eventually the MIT Corporation approved an agreement to merge with Harvard, over the vehement objections of MIT faculty, students. However, a 1917 decision by the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court effectively put an end to the merger scheme, the neoclassical New Technology campus was designed by William W. Bosworth and had been funded largely by anonymous donations from a mysterious Mr. Smith, starting in 1912. In January 1920, the donor was revealed to be the industrialist George Eastman of Rochester, New York, who had invented methods of production and processing
20.
Hewlett-Packard
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The Hewlett-Packard Company or shortened to Hewlett-Packard was an American multinational information technology company headquartered in Palo Alto, California. The company was founded in a garage in Palo Alto by William Bill Redington Hewlett and David Dave Packard. HP was the worlds leading PC manufacturer from 2007 to Q22013 and it specialized in developing and manufacturing computing, data storage, and networking hardware, designing software and delivering services. HP also had services and consulting business around its products and partner products.4 billion in 2008, in November 2009, HP announced the acquisition of 3Com, with the deal closing on April 12,2010. On April 28,2010, HP announced the buyout of Palm, on September 2,2010, HP won its bidding war for 3PAR with a $33 a share offer, which Dell declined to match. On October 6,2014, Hewlett-Packard announced plans to split the PC and printers business from its enterprise products, the split closed on November 1,2015, and resulted in two publicly traded companies, HP Inc. and Hewlett Packard Enterprise. William Redington Hewlett and David Packard graduated with degrees in engineering from Stanford University in 1935. The company originated in a garage in nearby Palo Alto during a fellowship they had with a past professor, Terman was considered a mentor to them in forming Hewlett-Packard. In 1939, Packard and Hewlett established Hewlett-Packard in Packards garage with a capital investment of US$538. Hewlett and Packard tossed a coin to decide whether the company they founded would be called Hewlett-Packard or Packard-Hewlett, HP incorporated on August 18,1947, and went public on November 6,1957. Of the many projects they worked on, their very first financially successful product was an audio oscillator. This allowed them to sell the Model 200A for $54.40 when competitors were selling less stable oscillators for over $200, the Model 200 series of generators continued until at least 1972 as the 200AB, still tube-based but improved in design through the years. They worked on technology and artillery shell fuses during World War II. Hewlett-Packards HP Associates division, established around 1960, developed semiconductor devices primarily for internal use, instruments and calculators were some of the products using these devices. HP partnered in the 1960s with Sony and the Yokogawa Electric companies in Japan to develop several high-quality products, the products were not a huge success, as there were high costs in building HP-looking products in Japan. HP and Yokogawa formed a joint venture in 1963 to market HP products in Japan, HP bought Yokogawa Electrics share of Hewlett-Packard Japan in 1999. HP spun off a company, Dynac, to specialize in digital equipment. The name was picked so that the HP logo hp could be turned upside down to be a reverse image of the logo dy of the new company
21.
HP Labs
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HP Labs is the exploratory and advanced research group for HP Inc. HP headquarters is in Palo Alto, California and has research and development facilities in Bristol, the development of programmable desktop calculators, inkjet printing, and 3D graphics are credited to HP Labs researchers. HP Labs was established on March 3,1966, by founders Bill Hewlett and David Packard and it remained a division of the original Hewlett-Packard company until November 1,2015 when it split into two companies, HP Inc. and Hewlett Packard Enterprise. With that split also came the split of Hewlett Packard Labs, HP Labs specializes in products and solutions related to laptops and tablets, desktop computers, printers, ink and toner cartridges, display accessories and business solutions. HP Labs has made an investment in the development of HP MultiJet Fusion technology. The following have served as Director of HP Labs since its foundation in 1966
22.
Robert S. Barton
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Robert Stanley Bob Barton was recognized as the chief architect of the Burroughs B5000 and other computers such as the B1700, and a co-inventor of dataflow. Bartons thinking has been broadly influential, Barton designed machines at a more abstract level, not tied to the technology constraints of the time. He employed high-level languages and a machine in his design of the Burroughs Corporation B5000 computer. Bartons B5000 design survives in the modern Unisys Burroughs MCP and his work with stack architectures was the first implementation in a mainframe computer. Hewlett-Packard would later use the stack architecture in its HP3000 computers, Barton died on January 28,2009, in Portland, Oregon, at the age of 83. Barton was born in New Britain, Connecticut in 1925 and received his BA in 1948 and his early experience with computers was when he worked in the IBM Applied Science Department in 1951. In 1954, he joined the Shell Oil Company Technical Services, while at Shell, in preparing for a conference in Michigan in 1958, Barton was reading Irving Copis 1954 textbook on Symbolic Logic and saw a reference in it to Polish notation. This made him curious about it and its application to arithmetic expressions and he also then read the works of Jan Łukasiewicz, who had invented Polish Notation back in the early 20th century for use in logic. He managed a system programming group in 1959 which developed an ALGOL-like compiler for Burroughs, the early programming language was known as BALGOL and was implemented for the Burroughs 220 machine. The language and compiler were an early implementation of the International Algebraic Language also known as ALGOL58. After an assignment in Australia in 1963 for Control Data Corporation, from 1968 to 1973 he taught as a professor of Electrical Engineering at the University of Utah with David C. Evans, Ivan Sutherland, and Thomas Stockham, after 1973, he devoted his full-time to Burroughs Systems Research in La Jolla, San Diego, California, working on new computer architectures and systems programming. IEEE1977 W. Wallace McDowell Award Recipient, charter Computer Pioneer by the IEEE Computer Society for his work in Language Directed Architecture. Barton, Robert S. Functional Design of Computers, Communications of the ACM4,405 Barton, a New Approach to the Functional Design of a Digital Computer, Proceedings of the Western Joint Computer Conference, May 1961, pp. 393–396. A Critical Review of the State of Programming Art, AFIPS Joint Computer Conferences, May 1963, “Ideas for Computer Systems Organization, A Personal Survey”, Software Engineering, vol. 1, Academic Press, New York,1970, pp. 7–16, Systems programmers are the high priests of a low cult. Robert S. Barton, IEEE1977 W. Wallace McDowell Award Recipient Waychoff, Richard, Stories about the B5000 and people who were there, April 9,1979 The Early History of Smalltalk by Alan C. Kay History of the School of Computing – University of Utah History of the College of Engineering – University of Utah A Critical Review of the State of the Programming Art
23.
American Academy of Arts and Sciences
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Dædalus, the Academys quarterly journal, is widely regarded as one of the worlds leading intellectual journals. The Academy is headquartered in Cambridge, Massachusetts, the Academy was established by the Massachusetts legislature on May 4th,1780. Its purpose, as described in its charter, is to cultivate every art and science which may tend to advance the interest, honor, dignity, and happiness of a free, independent, and virtuous people. The sixty-two incorporating fellows represented varying interests and high standing in the political, professional, the first class of new members, chosen by the Academy in 1781, included Benjamin Franklin and George Washington as well as several foreign honorary members. The initial volume of Academy Memoirs appeared in 1785, and the Proceedings followed in 1846, in the 1950s the Academy launched its journal Daedalus, reflecting its commitment to a broader intellectual and socially-oriented program. The Academy has sponsored a number of awards throughout its history and its first award, established in 1796 by Benjamin Thompson, honored distinguished work on heat and light and provided support for research activities. Additional prizes recognized important contributions in the sciences, social sciences, since the second half of the twentieth century, policy research has become a central focus of the Academy. In the late 1950s, arms control emerged as a concern of the Academy. The Academy also served as the catalyst in establishing the National Humanities Center in North Carolina, in 2002, the Academy established a visiting scholars program in association with Harvard University. More than 60 academic institutions from across the country have become Affiliates of the Academy to support this program, robert Oppenheimer, Willa Cather, T. S. Eliot, Edward R. Murrow, Jonas Salk, Eudora Welty, and Duke Ellington. Astronomer Maria Mitchell was the first woman to be elected to the Academy, the current membership encompasses over 4,900 Fellows and 600 Foreign Honorary Members on the roster, including more than 250 Nobel laureates and more than 60 Pulitzer Prize winners. The current membership is divided into five classes and twenty-four sections, Class I – Mathematical and Physical Sciences Section 1. Applied Mathematics and Statistics Section 2, astronomy and Earth Science Section 5. Engineering Sciences and Technologies Section 6, computer Sciences Class II – Biological Sciences Section 1. Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology Section 2, cellular and Developmental Biology, Microbiology and Immunology Section 3. Neurosciences, Cognitive Sciences, and Behavioral Biology Section 4, evolutionary and Population Biology and Ecology Section 5. Medical Sciences, Clinical Medicine, and Public Health Class III – Social Sciences Section 1, Social and Developmental Psychology and Education Section 2. Political Science, International Relations, and Public Policy Section 4, archaeology, Anthropology, Sociology, Geography and Demography Class IV – Arts and Humanities Section 1
24.
Royal Society of Arts
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The Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce is a London-based, British organisation committed to finding practical solutions to social challenges. The shorter version, The Royal Society of Arts and the related RSA acronym, are used more frequently than the full name, the RSA award three medals, the Albert Medal, the Benjamin Franklin Medal and the Bicentenary Medal. Medal winners include Nelson Mandela, Sir Frank Whittle, and Professor Stephen Hawking, on the RSA buildings frieze The Royal Society of Arts words are engraved, although its full name is Royal Society for the encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce. The short name and the related R S of A abbreviation is used more frequently than the full name, on its website, the RSA characterises itself as an enlightenment organisation committed to finding innovative practical solutions to today’s social challenges. The RSAs Patron is currently HM Elizabeth II, the RSAs President is HRH The Princess Royal, its Chairman is Vikki Heywood, life Fellows must have demonstrated exceptionally high achievement. The RSA says, The RSA Fellowship is an international community achievers and influencers from an array of backgrounds and professions. Fellows are social entrepreneurs to scientists, community leaders to commercial innovators, artists and journalists to architects and engineers, edwin Landseer who at the age of 10 was awarded a silver medal for his drawing of a dog. The RSA originally specifically precluded premiums for patented solutions, today the RSA continues to offer premiums. The Faculty currently has 120 Royal Designers and 45 Honorary Royal Designers, the Faculty consists of the world’s leading practitioners from fields as disparate as engineering, furniture, fashion and textiles, graphics, theater and film design. Early members include Eric Gill, Enid Marx, Sir Frank Whittle, the RSA moved to its current home in 1774. The House, situated in John Adam Street, near the Strand in central London, had been purpose-designed by the Adam Brothers as part of their innovative Adelphi scheme. The former private dining room of the Tavern contains a magnificent Adam ceiling with painted roundels by the school of Kauffman and Zucchi. A major refurbishment in 2012 by Matthew Lloyd Architects won a RIBA London Award in 2013, the first of these plaques was, in fact, of red terracotta erected outside a former residence of Lord Byron. The Society erected 36 plaques until, in 1901, responsibility for them was transferred to the London County Council and, later, similar schemes are now operated in all the constituent countries of the United Kingdom. The Society for the encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce hosted the first exhibition of art in 1760. Thomas Gainsborough and Sir Joshua Reynolds, who had exhibited at this first exhibition were subsequently members of The Royal Academy of Arts in 1768. The Society was a pioneer in examinations, offering the first national public examinations in 1882 that led to the formation of the RSA Examinations Board now included in the. In 1876, a predecessor of the Royal College of Music, in 1929 The Society purchased the entire village of West Wycombe
25.
Jazz guitarist
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Jazz guitarists are guitar players who play jazz using an approach to chords, melodies, and improvised solo lines which is called jazz guitar playing. The guitar has fulfilled the roles of accompanist and soloist in small and large ensembles, in the 1930s, before guitar amplifiers were widely used, it was difficult for jazz guitarists playing acoustic instruments to be heard over drums, piano, or horn sections. As a result, jazz guitarists tended to act as accompanists, after guitar amplifiers were developed in the 1930s, electric guitarists such as George Barnes and Charlie Christian were able to project their solo sound over a jazz ensemble. The history of guitar has been an integral part of the wide-ranging history of jazz. The early guitar players were the great singers who accompanied themselves on the guitar. By the 1930s, guitarists gained prominence in jazz and some were featured performers, such as Carl Kress. In Europe, Django Reinhardt, a Belgian gypsy jazz guitarist recorded with his Quintette du Hot Club de France, beginning in 1939, Charlie Christian played with big band bandleader Benny Goodman, and in the bebop era, Tal Farlow was notable for his virtuoso playing. In the 1960s, guitarists tended to play in groups, such as Jim Hall. Wes Montgomery was a self-taught guitarist who used his thumb rather than a plectrum to produce his unique sound in his late-1950s and 1960s hard bop recordings. Joe Pass pioneered solo guitar with chordal substitutions in his duos with Ella Fitzgerald, grant Green was known for his 1960s organ trio music. Fusion guitarists such as Larry Coryell, John McLaughlin, Pat Metheny, the banjo, because of its loud volume, was an early stringed accompaniment instrument in jazz in New Orleans and Dixieland music. Banjoists such as Johnny St. Cyr and Bud Scott also played guitar in bands of the 1910s-1920s. Early jazz guitarists included Eddie Lang, Nick Lucas, Lonnie Johnson, Eddie Lang recorded in 1927 with Bix Beiderbecke and Frank Trumbauers classic Singin the Blues and was a popular studio guitarist, recording with Bing Crosby and Ruth Etting. Lang is credited with having the guitar replace the banjo as a rhythm instrument, even as late as the early 1930s sophisticated jazz orchestras such as the Duke Ellington band still used a banjo to provide a rhythmic pulse. During the 1930s, though, guitarists gained prominence in jazz, langs versatility allowed him to record on popular as well as blues and jazz records. He recorded blues duets with Lonnie Johnson as Blind Willie Dunn, Johnson had played with Louis Armstrongs Hot Five. Carl Kress and Dick McDonough made early guitar duo recordings, Kress was featured with the Paul Whiteman Orchestra in 1926. Kress initially played banjo and four-string guitar, changing over to six-string guitar in the 1930s, Kress used an unorthodox tuning that he created for himself
26.
Pipe organ
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The pipe organ is a musical instrument that produces sound by driving pressurized air through organ pipes selected via a keyboard. Because each pipe produces a pitch, the pipes are provided in sets called ranks, each of which has a common timbre. Most organs have multiple ranks of pipes of differing timbre, pitch, a pipe organ has one or more keyboards played by the hands, and a pedalboard played by the feet, each keyboard has its own group of stops. The keyboard, pedalboard, and stops are housed in the organs console, the smallest portable pipe organs may have only one or two dozen pipes and one manual, the largest may have over 20,000 pipes and seven manuals. A list of some of the most notable and largest pipe organs in the world can be viewed at List of pipe organs. The origins of the organ can be traced back to the water organ in Ancient Greece, in the 3rd century BC. By the 6th or 7th century AD, bellows were used to supply organs with wind, beginning in the 12th century, the organ began to evolve into a complex instrument capable of producing different timbres. A pipe organ with great leaden pipes was sent to the West by the Byzantine emperor Constantine V as a gift to Pepin the Short, King of the Franks, in 757. Pepins son Charlemagne requested a similar organ for his chapel in Aachen in 812, by the 17th century, most of the sounds available on the modern classical organ had been developed. From that time, the organ was the most complex man-made device - a distinction it retained until it was displaced by the telephone exchange in the late 19th century. Pipe organs are installed in churches, synagogues, concert halls, schools and they are used in the performance of classical music, sacred music, secular music, and popular music. The beginning of the 21st century has seen a resurgence in installations in concert halls, the organ boasts a substantial repertoire, which spans over 500 years. The organ is one of the oldest instruments used in European classical music that has commonly been credited as having derived from Greece. Its earliest predecessors were built in Ancient Greece in the 3rd century BC. The word organ is derived from the Greek όργανον, a term for an instrument or a tool, via the Latin organum. The Greek engineer Ctesibius of Alexandria is credited with inventing the organ in the 3rd century BC and he devised an instrument called the hydraulis, which delivered a wind supply maintained through water pressure to a set of pipes. The hydraulis was played in the arenas of the Roman Empire, the 9th century Persian geographer Ibn Khurradadhbih, in his lexicographical discussion of instruments, cited the urghun as one of the typical instruments of the Eastern Roman Empire. It was often used in the Hippodrome in the capital of Constantinople
27.
Physiology
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Physiology is the scientific study of normal mechanisms, and their interactions, which operate within a living system. A sub-discipline of biology, its focus is in how organisms, organ systems, organs, cells, and biomolecules carry out the chemical or physical functions that exist in a living system. Given the size of the field, it is divided into, among others, animal physiology, plant physiology, cellular physiology, microbial physiology, bacterial physiology, and viral physiology. The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine is awarded to those who make significant achievements in this discipline by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In medicine, a state is one occurring from normal body function, rather than pathologically. Physiological studies date back to the ancient civilizations of India and Egypt alongside anatomical studies, the study of human physiology as a medical field dates back to at least 420 BC to the time of Hippocrates, also known as the father of medicine. Hippocrates incorporated his belief called the theory of humours, which consisted of four basic substance, earth, water, air. Each substance is known for having a corresponding humour, black bile, phlegm, blood and yellow bile, Hippocrates also noted some emotional connections to the four humours, which Claudis Galenus would later expand on. The critical thinking of Aristotle and his emphasis on the relationship between structure and function marked the beginning of physiology in Ancient Greece. Like Hippocrates, Aristotle took to the theory of disease. Claudius Galenus, known as Galen of Pergamum, was the first to use experiments to probe the functions of the body, unlike Hippocrates though, Galen argued that humoral imbalances can be located in specific organs, including the entire body. His modification of this theory better equipped doctors to more precise diagnoses. Galen was also the founder of experimental physiology, and for the next 1,400 years, Galenic physiology was a powerful and influential tool in medicine. Jean Fernel, a French physician, introduced the term physiology, inspired in the work of Adam Smith, Milne-Edwards wrote that the body of all living beings, whether animal or plant, resembles a factory. Where the organs, comparable to workers, work incessantly to produce the phenomena that constitute the life of the individual, in more differentiated organisms, the functional labor could be apportioned between different instruments or systems. In 1858, Joseph Lister studied the cause of blood coagulation and inflammation that resulted after previous injuries and he later discovered and implemented antiseptics in the operating room, and as a result decreases death rate from surgery by a substantial amount. The Physiological Society was founded in London in 1876 as a dining club, the American Physiological Society is a nonprofit organization that was founded in 1887. The Society is, devoted to fostering education, scientific research, in 1891, Ivan Pavlov performed research on conditional reflexes that involved dogs saliva production in response to a plethora of sounds and visual stimuli
28.
New York metropolitan area
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The New York metropolitan area continues to be the premier gateway for legal immigration to the United States, with the largest foreign-born population of any metropolitan region in the world. The MSA covers 6,720 sq mi, while the CSA area is 13,318 sq mi, encompassing an ethnically and geographically diverse region. In 2012, the New York metropolitan area was home to seven of the 25 wealthiest counties in the United States by median household income. According to Forbes, in 2014, the New York City metropolitan area was home to eight of the top ten ZIP codes in the United States by median housing price, with six in Manhattan alone. The U. S. Office of Management and Budget utilizes two definitions of the area, the Metropolitan Statistical Area and the Combined Statistical Area, the MSA is further subdivided into four metropolitan divisions. The 25-county metropolitan area includes 12 counties in New York State,12 counties in Northern and Central New Jersey, the largest urbanized area in the United States is at the heart of the metropolitan area, the New York–Newark, NY–NJ–CT Urbanized Area. The New York-Newark, NY-NJ-CT-PA Combined Statistical Area had an population of 23.7 million as of 2014. About one out of every fifteen Americans resides in this region, which includes seven counties in New York, New Jersey. This area, less the Pennsylvania portion, is referred to as the Tri-State Area. The New York City television designated market area includes Pike County, Pennsylvania, for instance, Long Island can be divided into its South and North Shores and the East End. The Hudson Valley and Connecticut are sometimes grouped together and referred to as the Northern Suburbs, the geographical, cultural, and economic center of the metropolitan area is New York City, which consists of five boroughs, each of which is also a county of New York State. The five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, the Bronx, with a Census-estimated population of 8,550,405 in 2015, distributed over a land area of just 305 square miles, New York is the most densely populated major city in the United States. Long Island is a located just off the northeast coast of the United States. Stretching east-northeast from New York Harbor into the Atlantic Ocean, the island comprises four counties, Kings and Queens to the west, then Nassau, North of the island is Long Island Sound, across which are the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island. Its population density is 5,571 inhabitants per square mile, Queens is the most ethnically diverse urban area in the world. Long Island is the most populated island in the United States, known especially for recreation, boating and miles of public beaches, including numerous town, county and state parks and Fire Island National Seashore. The East End of Long Island boasts open spaces for farmland, passenger rail access is provided by the Metropolitan Transportation Authority Long Island Rail Road, one of the largest commuter railroads in the United States. Air travel needs are served by several airports – most notably Farmingdale-Republic Airport and Islip-MacArthur Airport, within Queens, it is home to John F. Kennedy International Airport and LaGuardia Airport, two of the three major airline hubs serving the New York City area
29.
Brooklyn Technical High School
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It is one of three original specialized high schools operated by the New York City Department of Education, the other two being Stuyvesant High School and Bronx High School of Science. Brooklyn Tech is considered one of the most prestigious and selective schools in the United States. Admission to Brooklyn Tech is highly competitive, with a rate around 8%. Admission to Brooklyn Tech is based exclusively on an examination, known as the Specialized High Schools Admissions Test. The test covers math and verbal skills, out of the approximately 30,000 students taking the entrance examination for the September 2011 admission round, about 1,951 offers were made, making for an acceptance rate of 8. 5%. In 1918, Dr. Albert L. Colston, chair of the Math Department at Manual Training High School and his plan envisioned a heavy concentration of math, science, and drafting courses with parallel paths leading either to college or to a technical career in industry. By 1922, Dr. Colstons concept was approved by the Board of Education and this location, in the shadow of the Manhattan Bridge, is the reason the school seal bears that bridges image, rather than the more obvious symbol for the borough, the Brooklyn Bridge. Brooklyn Tech would occupy one more location before settling into its site at 29 Fort Greene Place, atypical for American high schools, Brooklyn Tech uses a system of college-style majors. The curriculum consists of two years of studies with a technical and engineering emphasis, followed by two years of a student-chosen major. The curriculum remained largely unchanged until the end of Dr. Colstons 20-year term as principal in 1942, upon his retirement, Tech was led briefly by acting principal Ralph Breiling, who was succeeded by Principal Harold Taylor in 1944. Techs modernization would come under Principal William Pabst, who assumed stewardship in 1946 after serving as chair of the Electrical Department, a general College Preparatory curriculum, would be added later. In August 1965, a boy named Carl Johnson drowned in the swimming pool at Brooklyn Tech while swimming with his day-camp group. The next year, more than 30 graduating Seniors in the school complained that Techs curriculum was old and their primary complaint was that the curriculum was geared toward the small minority of students who were not planning on attending college. In 1967 the schools of New York City got to view television in the classrooms for the first time, thanks to the station WNYE-TV, then located in the transmitter center on top of Brooklyn Tech. For the school beginning in the last half of 1970, females began attending. In 1972, Brooklyn Tech, Bronx Science, Stuyvesant High School, the act called for a uniform exam to be administered for admission to Brooklyn Tech, Bronx Science, and Stuyvesant. The exam would become known as the Specialized High Schools Admissions Test and tested students in math, with its statewide recognition, the school had to become co-educational. In 1973, Tech celebrated its 50th anniversary with a dinner-dance at the Waldorf Astoria, to further commemorate the anniversary, a monument was erected, with a time capsule beneath it, in the north courtyard
30.
Bethany College (West Virginia)
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Bethany College is a private, liberal arts college located in Bethany, West Virginia, United States. Founded in 1840 by Alexander Campbell of the Restoration Movement, who gained support by the Virginia legislature, bethanys 1, 300-acre campus is located in the northern panhandle of West Virginia, situated on the hilly Allegheny Plateau. Wheeling, West Virginia, Washington, Pennsylvania, and Steubenville, pittsburgh, Pennsylvania is a 50-minute drive from campus. A liberal arts college, Bethany was chartered on March 2,1840, by the Virginia legislature, West Virginias secession from Virginia on June 20,1863, recognized existing Virginia charters, Bethany College continues to operate under the Virginia charter today. It was founded by Alexander Campbell, a minister in the Restoration Movement who provided the land and funds for the first building, Bethany has been a four-year private liberal arts college affiliated with the Christian Church, since its inception. This religious body, of which Campbell was one of the founders, continues to support and encourage the college. An early center of coeducation, Bethany has admitted women since the 1880s, the colleges roots stem from the Buffalo Seminary, a center for advancement to further education, founded in 1818 by Campbell. Sessions were first held in his mansion in Bethany, home of Alexander Campbell and it is located less than a mile away from the Colleges present location. The college is the birthplace of Delta Tau Delta, a social fraternity founded in 1858. During World War II, Bethany was one of 131 colleges nationally that took part in the V-12 Navy College Training Program, a number of campus buildings are contributing resources to the Bethany Historic District. The Historic District was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1982, pendleton Heights was listed in 1975 and the Delta Tau Delta Founders House in 1979. Bethany College offers a selection of studies, awarding Bachelor of Science or Bachelor of Arts degrees in more than 25 fields. If a major does not appeal to a student, Bethany offers students the opportunity to design their own major through the Interdisciplinary program, Bethany also offers Dual Majors, which is a combination of two majors. The schools mascot is the Bison and its colors are green, the Bison defeated Johns Hopkins, 1–0, in double overtime for their first and only NCAA title. In doing so, Bethany became the smallest college in the United States to win an NCAA championship, the winning goal was scored by Pat Ricci and was assisted by Steve Lindquist. Malleh Sallah was named the NCAA Goalkeeper of the Year and a First Team All-American, the team was coached by John Cunningham, who led the team from 1968 to 2001 and never had a losing record. Fraternities and sororities constitute important social groups for upperclass-men and -women on campus, members of the five social fraternities and three sororities constitute approximately forty percent of the student body. Representatives from each serve on agencies which coordinate fraternal affairs and activities, social fraternities represented are Delta Tau Delta, Alpha Sigma Phi, Beta Theta Pi, Phi Kappa Tau and Sigma Nu
31.
Bethany, West Virginia
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Bethany is a town in Brooke County, West Virginia, United States. It is part of the Weirton-Steubenville, WV-OH Metropolitan Statistical Area, the population was 1,036 at the 2010 census. The town of Bethany is home to Bethany College, the town most likely was named after Bethany, a biblical place. The Bethany Historic District was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1982, located within the district are the separately listed Alexander Campbell Mansion, Delta Tau Delta Founders House, Old Bethany Church, Old Main, and Pendleton Heights. Bethany is located at 40°12′23″N 80°33′35″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 0.73 square miles, all of it land. As of the census of 2010, there were 1,036 people,174 households, the population density was 1,419.2 inhabitants per square mile. There were 190 housing units at a density of 260.3 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 88. 9% White,7. 3% African American,0. 4% Native American,0. 5% Asian,0. 7% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 2. 5% of the population. 42. 0% of all households were made up of individuals and 13. 2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 1.93 and the average family size was 2.64. The median age in the town was 21.3 years. 4. 6% of residents were under the age of 18,68. 1% were between the ages of 18 and 24,9. 2% were from 25 to 44, 10% were from 45 to 64, and 8% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the town was 51. 8% male and 48. 2% female, as of the census of 2000, there were 985 people,190 households, and 99 families residing in the town. The population density was 1,374.4 inhabitants per square mile, there were 212 housing units at an average density of 295.8 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 94. 42% White,3. 25% African American,0. 91% Asian,0. 61% Pacific Islander, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 71% of the population. 40. 0% of all households were made up of individuals and 7. 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.11 and the average family size was 2.90. In the town, the population was out with 7. 9% under the age of 18,64. 0% from 18 to 24,10. 4% from 25 to 44,11. 4% from 45 to 64. The median age was 21 years, for every 100 females there were 107.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 109.5 males, the median income for a household in the town was $36,375, and the median income for a family was $61,250
32.
Biology
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Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, evolution, distribution, identification and taxonomy. Modern biology is a vast and eclectic field, composed of branches and subdisciplines. However, despite the broad scope of biology, there are certain unifying concepts within it that consolidate it into single, coherent field. In general, biology recognizes the cell as the unit of life, genes as the basic unit of heredity. It is also understood today that all organisms survive by consuming and transforming energy and by regulating their internal environment to maintain a stable, the term biology is derived from the Greek word βίος, bios, life and the suffix -λογία, -logia, study of. The Latin-language form of the term first appeared in 1736 when Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus used biologi in his Bibliotheca botanica, the first German use, Biologie, was in a 1771 translation of Linnaeus work. In 1797, Theodor Georg August Roose used the term in the preface of a book, karl Friedrich Burdach used the term in 1800 in a more restricted sense of the study of human beings from a morphological, physiological and psychological perspective. The science that concerns itself with these objects we will indicate by the biology or the doctrine of life. Although modern biology is a recent development, sciences related to. Natural philosophy was studied as early as the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indian subcontinent, however, the origins of modern biology and its approach to the study of nature are most often traced back to ancient Greece. While the formal study of medicine back to Hippocrates, it was Aristotle who contributed most extensively to the development of biology. Especially important are his History of Animals and other works where he showed naturalist leanings, and later more empirical works that focused on biological causation and the diversity of life. Aristotles successor at the Lyceum, Theophrastus, wrote a series of books on botany that survived as the most important contribution of antiquity to the plant sciences, even into the Middle Ages. Scholars of the medieval Islamic world who wrote on biology included al-Jahiz, Al-Dīnawarī, who wrote on botany, biology began to quickly develop and grow with Anton van Leeuwenhoeks dramatic improvement of the microscope. It was then that scholars discovered spermatozoa, bacteria, infusoria, investigations by Jan Swammerdam led to new interest in entomology and helped to develop the basic techniques of microscopic dissection and staining. Advances in microscopy also had a impact on biological thinking. In the early 19th century, a number of biologists pointed to the importance of the cell. Thanks to the work of Robert Remak and Rudolf Virchow, however, meanwhile, taxonomy and classification became the focus of natural historians
33.
Mathematics
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Mathematics is the study of topics such as quantity, structure, space, and change. There is a range of views among mathematicians and philosophers as to the exact scope, Mathematicians seek out patterns and use them to formulate new conjectures. Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proof, when mathematical structures are good models of real phenomena, then mathematical reasoning can provide insight or predictions about nature. Through the use of abstraction and logic, mathematics developed from counting, calculation, measurement, practical mathematics has been a human activity from as far back as written records exist. The research required to solve mathematical problems can take years or even centuries of sustained inquiry, rigorous arguments first appeared in Greek mathematics, most notably in Euclids Elements. Galileo Galilei said, The universe cannot be read until we have learned the language and it is written in mathematical language, and the letters are triangles, circles and other geometrical figures, without which means it is humanly impossible to comprehend a single word. Without these, one is wandering about in a dark labyrinth, carl Friedrich Gauss referred to mathematics as the Queen of the Sciences. Benjamin Peirce called mathematics the science that draws necessary conclusions, David Hilbert said of mathematics, We are not speaking here of arbitrariness in any sense. Mathematics is not like a game whose tasks are determined by arbitrarily stipulated rules, rather, it is a conceptual system possessing internal necessity that can only be so and by no means otherwise. Albert Einstein stated that as far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality, they are not certain, Mathematics is essential in many fields, including natural science, engineering, medicine, finance and the social sciences. Applied mathematics has led to entirely new mathematical disciplines, such as statistics, Mathematicians also engage in pure mathematics, or mathematics for its own sake, without having any application in mind. There is no clear line separating pure and applied mathematics, the history of mathematics can be seen as an ever-increasing series of abstractions. The earliest uses of mathematics were in trading, land measurement, painting and weaving patterns, in Babylonian mathematics elementary arithmetic first appears in the archaeological record. Numeracy pre-dated writing and numeral systems have many and diverse. Between 600 and 300 BC the Ancient Greeks began a study of mathematics in its own right with Greek mathematics. Mathematics has since been extended, and there has been a fruitful interaction between mathematics and science, to the benefit of both. Mathematical discoveries continue to be made today, the overwhelming majority of works in this ocean contain new mathematical theorems and their proofs. The word máthēma is derived from μανθάνω, while the modern Greek equivalent is μαθαίνω, in Greece, the word for mathematics came to have the narrower and more technical meaning mathematical study even in Classical times
34.
Denver
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Denver, officially the City and County of Denver, is the capital and most populous municipality of the U. S. state of Colorado. Denver is in the South Platte River Valley on the edge of the High Plains just east of the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains. The Denver downtown district is immediately east of the confluence of Cherry Creek with the South Platte River, Denver is nicknamed the Mile-High City because its official elevation is exactly one mile above sea level, making it the highest major city in the United States. The 105th meridian west of Greenwich, the reference for the Mountain Time Zone. Denver is ranked as a Beta- world city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. With a 2015 estimated population of 682,545, Denver ranks as the 19th-most populous U. S. city, and with a 2. 8% increase in 2015, the city is also the fastest-growing major city in the United States. The 10-county Denver-Aurora-Lakewood, CO Metropolitan Statistical Area had an estimated 2015 population of 2,814,330 and ranked as the 19th most populous U. S. metropolitan statistical area. The 12-city Denver-Aurora, CO Combined Statistical Area had an estimated 2015 population of 3,418,876, which ranks as the 16th most populous U. S. metropolitan area. Denver is the most populous city of the 18-county Front Range Urban Corridor, Denver is the most populous city within a 500-mile radius and the second-most populous city in the Mountain West after Phoenix, Arizona. In 2016, Denver was named the best place to live in the USA by U. S. News & World Report and this was the first historical settlement in what was later to become the city of Denver. The site faded quickly, however, and by the summer of 1859 it was abandoned in favor of Auraria, Larimer named the townsite Denver City to curry favor with Kansas Territorial Governor James W. Denver. Larimer hoped the name would help make it the county seat of Arapaho County but, unbeknownst to him. The location was accessible to existing trails and was across the South Platte River from the site of seasonal encampments of the Cheyenne, the site of these first towns is now the site of Confluence Park near downtown Denver. Larimer, along with associates in the St. Charles City Land Company, sold parcels in the town to merchants and miners, Denver City was a frontier town, with an economy based on servicing local miners with gambling, saloons, livestock and goods trading. In the early years, land parcels were often traded for grubstakes or gambled away by miners in Auraria, in May 1859, Denver City residents donated 53 lots to the Leavenworth & Pikes Peak Express in order to secure the regions first overland wagon route. Offering daily service for passengers, mail, freight, and gold, in 1863, Western Union furthered Denvers dominance of the region by choosing the city for its regional terminus. The Colorado Territory was created on February 28,1861, Arapahoe County was formed on November 1,1861, Denver City served as the Arapahoe County Seat from 1861 until consolidation in 1902. In 1867, Denver City became the territorial capital, with its newfound importance, Denver City shortened its name to Denver
35.
United States Air Force
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The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947. It is the most recent branch of the U. S. military to be formed, the U. S. Air Force is a military service organized within the Department of the Air Force, one of the three military departments of the Department of Defense. The Air Force is headed by the civilian Secretary of the Air Force, who reports to the Secretary of Defense, the U. S. Air Force provides air support for surface forces and aids in the recovery of troops in the field. As of 2015, the service more than 5,137 military aircraft,406 ICBMs and 63 military satellites. It has a $161 billion budget with 313,242 active duty personnel,141,197 civilian employees,69,200 Air Force Reserve personnel, and 105,500 Air National Guard personnel. According to the National Security Act of 1947, which created the USAF and it shall be organized, trained, and equipped primarily for prompt and sustained offensive and defensive air operations. The stated mission of the USAF today is to fly, fight, and win in air, space and we will provide compelling air, space, and cyber capabilities for use by the combatant commanders. We will excel as stewards of all Air Force resources in service to the American people, while providing precise and reliable Global Vigilance, Reach and it should be emphasized that the core functions, by themselves, are not doctrinal constructs. The purpose of Nuclear Deterrence Operations is to operate, maintain, in the event deterrence fails, the US should be able to appropriately respond with nuclear options. Dissuading others from acquiring or proliferating WMD, and the means to deliver them, moreover, different deterrence strategies are required to deter various adversaries, whether they are a nation state, or non-state/transnational actor. Nuclear strike is the ability of forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets which the enemy holds dear in a devastating manner. Should deterrence fail, the President may authorize a precise, tailored response to terminate the conflict at the lowest possible level, post-conflict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter further aggression. Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates all aspects of operations to ensure high levels of performance. Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and effectiveness of nuclear operations, the Air Force, in conjunction with other entities within the Departments of Defense or Energy, achieves a high standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety program. The Air Force continues to pursue safe, secure and effective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements, adversaries, allies, and the American people must be highly confident of the Air Forces ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use. This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations is the cornerstone of the credibility of the NDO mission, positive nuclear command, control, communications, effective nuclear weapons security, and robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO function. OCA is the method of countering air and missile threats, since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source
36.
Programmer
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A programmer, computer programmer, developer, dev, coder, or software engineer is a person who writes computer software. The term computer programmer can refer to a specialist in one area of programming or to a generalist who writes code for many kinds of software. One who practices or professes a formal approach to programming may also be known as a programmer analyst, a programmers primary computer language is often prefixed to these titles, and those who work in a web environment often prefix their titles with web. The use of the term programmer for these positions is sometimes considered an insulting or derogatory oversimplification. Because Babbages machine was never completed to a standard in her time. The first person to run a program on a functioning modern electronically based computer was computer scientist Konrad Zuse, the ENIAC programming team, consisting of Kay McNulty, Betty Jennings, Betty Snyder, Marlyn Wescoff, Fran Bilas and Ruth Lichterman were the first regularly working programmers. International Programmers Day is celebrated annually on 7 January, in 2009, the government of Russia decreed a professional annual holiday known as Programmers Day to be celebrated on 13 September. It had also been an international holiday before that. Some of this section is from the Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2006–07 Edition, Computer programmers write, test, debug, and maintain the detailed instructions, called computer programs, that computers must follow to perform their functions. Programmers also conceive, design, and test logical structures for solving problems by computer, job titles and descriptions may vary, depending on the organization. Programmers work in many settings, including corporate information technology departments, big companies, small service firms. Many professional programmers also work for consulting companies at client sites as contractors, licensing is not typically required to work as a programmer, although professional certifications are commonly held by programmers. Programming is widely considered a profession, Programmers work varies widely depending on the type of business for which they are writing programs. For example, the involved in updating financial records are very different from those required to duplicate conditions on an aircraft for pilots training in a flight simulator. In most cases, several work together as a team under a senior programmer’s supervision. Programmers write programs according to the specifications determined primarily by more senior programmers, after the design process is complete, it is the job of the programmer to convert that design into a logical series of instructions that the computer can follow. The programmer codes these instructions in one of many programming languages, different programming languages are used depending on the purpose of the program. COBOL, for example, is used for business applications that typically run on mainframe and midrange computers, whereas Fortran is used in science
37.
Bachelor's degree
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A bachelors degree or baccalaureate is an undergraduate academic degree awarded by colleges and universities upon completion of a course of study lasting three to seven years. In some institutions and educational systems, some bachelors degrees can only be taken as graduate or postgraduate degrees after a first degree has been completed. The term bachelor in the 12th century referred to a knight bachelor, by the end of the 13th century, it was also used by junior members of guilds or universities. By folk etymology or wordplay, the word came to be associated with bacca lauri in reference to laurels being awarded for academic success or honours. An honours degree generally requires an academic standard than a pass degree. In most African countries, the university systems follow the model of their former colonizing power, for example, the Nigerian university system is similar to the British system, while the Ivorian system is akin to the French. The degree is typically identical to the program of Frances universities, bachelors degree programs cover most of the fields in Algerian universities, except some fields, such as Medicine and Pharmaceutical Science. Bachelors degrees at the University of Botswana normally take four years, the system draws on both British and American models. Degrees are classified as First Class, Second Class Division One, Second Class Division Two and Third as in English degrees, but without being described as honours. The main degrees are named by British tradition, but in recent years there have been a numbers of degrees named after specific subjects, such as Bachelor of Library, in Morocco, a bachelors degree is referred to as al-ʾijāzah. The course of study takes three years, which are divided into two cycles. The first cycle comprises the first, or propaedeutic, year, after successfully completing their first two years, students can pursue either theoretical specialization or professional specialization. The second cycle is one long, after whose completion students receive the licence détudes fondamentales or the licence professionnelle. This academic degree system was introduced in September 2003, University admission is extremely competitive, with attendant advantages and disadvantages. Nonetheless, it takes four to five years to complete a bachelors degree, in cases of poor performance, the time limit is double the standard amount of time. For example, one may not study for more than 10 years for a five-year course, students are normally asked to leave if they must take longer. B. Arch. and other specialized undergraduate degrees, such as B. Eng, Science undergraduate degrees may require six months or a semester dedicated to SIWES but it is usually mandatory for all engineering degrees. A semester for project work/thesis is required, not excluding course work, the classifications of degrees, first-class, second-class, third-class and a pass
38.
Molecular biology
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Writing in Nature in 1961, William Astbury described molecular biology as. It is concerned particularly with the forms of biological molecules and is predominantly three-dimensional and structural—which does not mean, however and it must at the same time inquire into genesis and function. Researchers in molecular biology use specific techniques native to molecular biology but increasingly combine these techniques and ideas from genetics. There is not a line between these disciplines. Biochemists focus heavily on the role, function, and structure of biomolecules, the study of the chemistry behind biological processes and the synthesis of biologically active molecules are examples of biochemistry. Genetics is the study of the effect of differences on organisms. This can often be inferred by the absence of a normal component, the study of mutants – organisms which lack one or more functional components with respect to the so-called wild type or normal phenotype. Genetic interactions can often confound simple interpretations of such knockout studies, molecular biology is the study of molecular underpinnings of the processes of replication, transcription, translation, and cell function. This picture, however, is undergoing revision in light of emerging novel roles for RNA, much of molecular biology is quantitative, and recently much work has been done at its interface with computer science in bioinformatics and computational biology. In the early 2000s, the study of structure and function. There is also a tradition of studying biomolecules from the ground up in biophysics. One of the most basic techniques of molecular biology to study protein function is molecular cloning, in this technique, DNA coding for a protein of interest is cloned using PCR and/or restriction enzymes into a plasmid. A vector has 3 distinctive features, an origin of replication, a multiple cloning site, the origin of replication will have promoter regions upstream from the replication/transcription start site. This plasmid can be inserted into either bacterial or animal cells, introducing DNA into bacterial cells can be done by transformation via uptake of naked DNA, conjugation via cell-cell contact or by transduction via viral vector. Introducing DNA into eukaryotic cells, such as cells, by physical or chemical means is called transfection. Several different transfection techniques are available, such as calcium phosphate transfection, electroporation, microinjection, the plasmid may be integrated into the genome, resulting in a stable transfection, or may remain independent of the genome, called transient transfection. DNA coding for a protein of interest is now inside a cell, a variety of systems, such as inducible promoters and specific cell-signaling factors, are available to help express the protein of interest at high levels. Large quantities of a protein can then be extracted from the bacterial or eukaryotic cell, polymerase chain reaction is an extremely versatile technique for copying DNA
39.
Jazz
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Jazz is a music genre that originated amongst African Americans in New Orleans, United States, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and developed from roots in Blues and Ragtime. Since the 1920s jazz age, jazz has become recognized as a form of musical expression. Jazz is characterized by swing and blue notes, call and response vocals, polyrhythms, Jazz has roots in West African cultural and musical expression, and in African-American music traditions including blues and ragtime, as well as European military band music. Although the foundation of jazz is deeply rooted within the Black experience of the United States, different cultures have contributed their own experience, intellectuals around the world have hailed jazz as one of Americas original art forms. As jazz spread around the world, it drew on different national, regional, and local musical cultures, New Orleans jazz began in the early 1910s, combining earlier brass-band marches, French quadrilles, biguine, ragtime and blues with collective polyphonic improvisation. In the 1930s, heavily arranged dance-oriented swing big bands, Kansas City jazz, bebop emerged in the 1940s, shifting jazz from danceable popular music toward a more challenging musicians music which was played at faster tempos and used more chord-based improvisation. Cool jazz developed in the end of the 1940s, introducing calmer, smoother sounds and long, modal jazz developed in the late 1950s, using the mode, or musical scale, as the basis of musical structure and improvisation. Jazz-rock fusion appeared in the late 1960s and early 1970s, combining jazz improvisation with rock rhythms, electric instruments. In the early 1980s, a form of jazz fusion called smooth jazz became successful. Other styles and genres abound in the 2000s, such as Latin, the question of the origin of the word jazz has resulted in considerable research, and its history is well documented. It is believed to be related to jasm, a term dating back to 1860 meaning pep. The use of the word in a context was documented as early as 1915 in the Chicago Daily Tribune. Its first documented use in a context in New Orleans was in a November 14,1916 Times-Picayune article about jas bands. In an interview with NPR, musician Eubie Blake offered his recollections of the slang connotations of the term, saying, When Broadway picked it up. That was dirty, and if you knew what it was, the American Dialect Society named it the Word of the Twentieth Century. Jazz has proved to be difficult to define, since it encompasses such a wide range of music spanning a period of over 100 years. Attempts have been made to define jazz from the perspective of other musical traditions, in the opinion of Robert Christgau, most of us would say that inventing meaning while letting loose is the essence and promise of jazz. As Duke Ellington, one of jazzs most famous figures, said, although jazz is considered highly difficult to define, at least in part because it contains so many varied subgenres, improvisation is consistently regarded as being one of its key elements
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