1.
Emil Stumpp
–
Emil Stumpp was a German painter teacher and artist known for his cartoons and drawings of well-known people in the 1930s during the Weimar Republic. He died in 1941 in jail after returning to Germany and he had left after drawing an unflattering portrait of Adolf Hitler. Stumpp was born in Neckarzimmern in southeastern Germany, but he moved with his family at the age of three to Worms, when he was eight the family moved to Karlsruhe. Stumpp served in the first world war reaching the rank of lieutenant and his early education had been in Karlsruhe, Uppsala and in Berlin. He studied art as well as philosophy, history and German, in 1924 he left his teaching post to become a full-time artist, despite having a wife and five children to support. He was eventually commissioned to create a portrait of Adolf Hitler for his birthday in 1933, the work was not well received and the portrait, Strumpp, his paper, and its editor were all prohibited. Stumpp left the country but he was denounced on a return in 1940, Stumpp was given an exhibition in Dortmund in 1996 at the Institut für Zeitungsforschung der Stadt. He left about 6,000 drawings which were all drawn from life
Emil Stumpp
–
A portrait by Strumpp of
Martin Andersen Nexø.
Emil Stumpp
–
Portrait of Hitler (1933)
2.
Austria
–
Austria, officially the Republic of Austria, is a federal republic and a landlocked country of over 8.7 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Hungary and Slovakia to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, the territory of Austria covers 83,879 km2. The terrain is mountainous, lying within the Alps, only 32% of the country is below 500 m. The majority of the population speaks local Bavarian dialects of German as their native language, other local official languages are Hungarian, Burgenland Croatian, and Slovene. The origins of modern-day Austria date back to the time of the Habsburg dynasty, from the time of the Reformation, many northern German princes, resenting the authority of the Emperor, used Protestantism as a flag of rebellion. Following Napoleons defeat, Prussia emerged as Austrias chief competitor for rule of a greater Germany, Austrias defeat by Prussia at the Battle of Königgrätz, during the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, cleared the way for Prussia to assert control over the rest of Germany. In 1867, the empire was reformed into Austria-Hungary, Austria was thus the first to go to war in the July Crisis, which would ultimately escalate into World War I. The First Austrian Republic was established in 1919, in 1938 Nazi Germany annexed Austria in the Anschluss. This lasted until the end of World War II in 1945, after which Germany was occupied by the Allies, in 1955, the Austrian State Treaty re-established Austria as a sovereign state, ending the occupation. In the same year, the Austrian Parliament created the Declaration of Neutrality which declared that the Second Austrian Republic would become permanently neutral, today, Austria is a parliamentary representative democracy comprising nine federal states. The capital and largest city, with a population exceeding 1.7 million, is Vienna, other major urban areas of Austria include Graz, Linz, Salzburg and Innsbruck. Austria is one of the richest countries in the world, with a nominal per capita GDP of $43,724, the country has developed a high standard of living and in 2014 was ranked 21st in the world for its Human Development Index. Austria has been a member of the United Nations since 1955, joined the European Union in 1995, Austria also signed the Schengen Agreement in 1995, and adopted the euro currency in 1999. The German name for Austria, Österreich, meant eastern realm in Old High German, and is cognate with the word Ostarrîchi and this word is probably a translation of Medieval Latin Marchia orientalis into a local dialect. Austria was a prefecture of Bavaria created in 976, the word Austria is a Latinisation of the German name and was first recorded in the 12th century. Accordingly, Norig would essentially mean the same as Ostarrîchi and Österreich, the Celtic name was eventually Latinised to Noricum after the Romans conquered the area that encloses most of modern-day Austria, around 15 BC. Noricum later became a Roman province in the mid-first century AD, heers hypothesis is not accepted by linguists. Settled in ancient times, the Central European land that is now Austria was occupied in pre-Roman times by various Celtic tribes, the Celtic kingdom of Noricum was later claimed by the Roman Empire and made a province
Austria
–
First appearance of the word "ostarrichi", circled in red. Modern Austria honours this document, dated 996, as the founding of the nation.
Austria
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Flag
Austria
–
Venus of Willendorf, 28,000 to 25,000 BC.
Museum of Natural History Vienna
Austria
–
"Heidentor" – Remains of the
Roman military city of
Carnuntum
3.
Composer
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A composer is a person who creates or writes music, which can be vocal music, instrumental music or music which combines both instruments and voices. The core meaning of the term refers to individuals who have contributed to the tradition of Western classical music through creation of works expressed in written musical notation, many composers are also skilled performers, either as singers, instrumentalists, and/or conductors. Examples of composers who are well known for their ability as performers include J. S. Bach, Mozart. In many popular genres, such as rock and country. For a singer or instrumental performer, the process of deciding how to perform music that has previously composed and notated is termed interpretation. Different performers interpretations of the work of music can vary widely, in terms of the tempos that are chosen. Composers and songwriters who present their own music are interpreting, just as much as those who perform the music of others, although a musical composition often has a single author, this is not always the case. A piece of music can also be composed with words, images, or, in the 20th and 21st century, a culture eventually developed whereby faithfulness to the composers written intention came to be highly valued. This musical culture is almost certainly related to the esteem in which the leading classical composers are often held by performers. The movement might be considered a way of creating greater faithfulness to the original in works composed at a time that expected performers to improvise. In Classical music, the composer typically orchestrates her own compositions, in some cases, a pop songwriter may not use notation at all, and instead compose the song in her mind and then play or record it from memory. In jazz and popular music, notable recordings by influential performers are given the weight that written scores play in classical music. The level of distinction between composers and other musicians varies, which issues such as copyright and the deference given to individual interpretations of a particular piece of music. In the development of European classical music, the function of composing music initially did not have greater importance than that of performing it. The preservation of individual compositions did not receive attention and musicians generally had no qualms about modifying compositions for performance. In as much as the role of the composer in western art music has seen continued solidification, for instance, in certain contexts the line between composer and performer, sound designer, arranger, producer, and other roles, can be quite blurred. The term composer is often used to refer to composers of music, such as those found in classical, jazz or other forms of art. In popular and folk music, the composer is usually called a songwriter and this is distinct from a 19th-century conception of instrumental composition, where the work was represented solely by a musical score to be interpreted by performers
Composer
–
French composer
Louis-Nicolas Clérambault composing at the keyboard
4.
Second Viennese School
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Though this common development took place, it neither followed a common time-line nor a cooperative path. Likewise, it was not a result of Schoenbergs teaching—which, as his various published textbooks demonstrate, was highly traditional. Schoenbergs textbooks also reveal that the Second Viennese School spawned not from the development of his serial method, the principal members of the school, besides Schoenberg, were Alban Berg and Anton Webern, who were among his first composition pupils. Both of them had already produced copious and talented music in a late Romantic idiom but felt they gained new direction, pisk, Karl Rankl, Josef Rufer, Nikos Skalkottas, Viktor Ullmann, and Winfried Zillig. Though the school included highly distinct musical personalities the impression of cohesiveness was enhanced by the efforts of some of its members. Several of those mentioned were also influential as teachers, and others as performers, in disseminating the ideals, ideas, german musical literature refers to the grouping as the Wiener Schule or Neue Wiener Schule. The existence of a First Viennese School is debatable, though Mozart and Schubert did not study with Haydn, Mozart and Haydn were admirers of each others work and evidence suggests that the two composers fed off the others compositional craftsmanship. Beethoven, however, did for a time receive lessons from the master, though he was not a pupil in the sense that Berg. Skandalkonzert René Leibowitz, Schoenberg et son école translated by Dika Newlin as Schoenberg and His School, The Contemporary Stage of the Language of Music Arnold Schoenberg Center in Vienna
Second Viennese School
–
Prime, retrograde, inverse, and retrograde-inverse permutations.
5.
Romantic music
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Romantic music is an era of Western classical music that began in the late 18th or early 19th century. In the Romantic period, music became more expressive and emotional, expanding to encompass literary, artistic, famous early Romantic composers include Beethoven, Schubert, Schumann, Chopin, Mendelssohn, Bellini, and Berlioz. The late 19th century saw an expansion in the size of the orchestra and in the dynamic range. Also, public concerts became a key part of middle class society, in contrast to earlier periods. Famous composers from the half of the century include Johann Strauss II, Brahms, Liszt, Tchaikovsky, Verdi. A prominent mark of late 19th century music is its nationalistic fervor, as exemplified by such figures as Dvořák, Sibelius, other prominent late-century figures include Saint-Saëns, Fauré, Rachmaninoff and Franck. The Romantic movement was an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that originated in the half of the 18th century in Europe. In part, it was a revolt against social and political norms of the Age of Enlightenment and a reaction against the scientific rationalization of nature. It was embodied most strongly in the arts, music, and literature, but had a major impact on historiography and education. One of the first significant applications of the term to music was in 1789, in the Mémoires by the Frenchman André Grétry, in the first of these essays Hoffmann traced the beginnings of musical Romanticism to the later works of Haydn and Mozart. It was also through the writings of Hoffmann and other German authors that German music was brought to the centre of musical Romanticism, the attributes have also been criticized for being too vague. For example, features of the ghostly and supernatural could apply equally to Mozarts Don Giovanni from 1787, events and changes that happen in society such as ideas, attitudes, discoveries, inventions, and historical events always affect music. For example, the Industrial Revolution was in effect by the late 18th century. This event had a profound effect on music, there were major improvements in the mechanical valves. The new and innovative instruments could be played with greater ease, another development that had an effect on music was the rise of the middle class. Composers before this period lived on the patronage of the aristocracy, many times their audience was small, composed mostly of the upper class and individuals who were knowledgeable about music. The Romantic composers, on the hand, often wrote for public concerts and festivals, with large audiences of paying customers. Composers of the Romantic Era, like Elgar, showed the world that there should be no segregation of musical tastes, during the Romantic period, music often took on a much more nationalistic purpose
Romantic music
–
Wanderer Above the Sea of Fog, by
Caspar David Friedrich is an example of Romantic painting.
6.
Twelve-tone technique
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All 12 notes are thus given more or less equal importance, and the music avoids being in a key. Over time, the technique increased greatly in popularity and eventually became widely influential on 20th century composers, many important composers who had originally not subscribed to or even actively opposed the technique, such as Aaron Copland and Igor Stravinsky, eventually adopted it in their music. Schoenberg himself described the system as a Method of composing with twelve tones which are related only with one another and it is commonly considered a form of serialism. Schoenbergs countryman and contemporary Josef Matthias Hauer also developed a system using unordered hexachords or tropes—but with no connection to Schoenbergs twelve-tone technique. Other composers have created systematic use of the scale. The twelve tone technique was preceded by freely atonal pieces of 1908–23 which, though free, the twelve-tone technique was also preceded by nondodecaphonic serial composition used independently in the works of Alexander Scriabin, Igor Stravinsky, Béla Bartók, Carl Ruggles, and others. Oliver Neighbour argues that Bartók was the first composer to use a group of twelve notes consciously for a structural purpose, essentially, Schoenberg and Hauer systematized and defined for their own dodecaphonic purposes a pervasive technical feature of modern musical practice, the ostinato. In Hauers breakthrough piece Nomos, Op. Schoenbergs idea in developing the technique was for it to replace those structural differentiations provided formerly by tonal harmonies, Some of these composers extended the technique to control aspects other than the pitches of notes, thus producing serial music. Some even subjected all elements of music to the serial process, the basis of the twelve-tone technique is the tone row, an ordered arrangement of the twelve notes of the chromatic scale. There are four postulates or preconditions to the technique which apply to the row, on which a work or section is based, no note is repeated within the row. The row may be subjected to interval-preserving transformations -—that is, it may appear in inversion, retrograde, or retrograde-inversion, the row in any of its four transformations may begin on any degree of the chromatic scale, in other words it may be freely transposed. A particular transformation together with a choice of transpositional level is referred to as a set form or row form, every row thus has up to 48 different row forms. However, not all prime series will yield so many variations because transposed transformations may be identical to each other. A simple case is the chromatic scale, the retrograde inversion of which is identical to the prime form. In the above example, as is typical, the retrograde inversion contains three points where the sequence of two pitches are identical to the prime row, thus the generative power of even the most basic transformations is both unpredictable and inevitable. Motivic development can be driven by such internal consistency, note that rules 1–4 above apply to the construction of the row itself, and not to the interpretation of the row in the composition. While a row may be expressed literally on the surface as thematic material, it need not be, however, individual composers have constructed more detailed systems in which matters such as these are also governed by systematic rules. The tone row chosen as the basis of the piece is called the prime series, untransposed, it is notated as P0
Twelve-tone technique
–
Schoenberg, inventor of twelve-tone technique
7.
Vienna
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Vienna is the capital and largest city of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austrias primary city, with a population of about 1.8 million, and its cultural, economic and it is the 7th-largest city by population within city limits in the European Union. Today, it has the second largest number of German speakers after Berlin, Vienna is host to many major international organizations, including the United Nations and OPEC. The city is located in the part of Austria and is close to the borders of the Czech Republic, Slovakia. These regions work together in a European Centrope border region, along with nearby Bratislava, Vienna forms a metropolitan region with 3 million inhabitants. In 2001, the city centre was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, apart from being regarded as the City of Music because of its musical legacy, Vienna is also said to be The City of Dreams because it was home to the worlds first psycho-analyst – Sigmund Freud. The citys roots lie in early Celtic and Roman settlements that transformed into a Medieval and Baroque city and it is well known for having played an essential role as a leading European music centre, from the great age of Viennese Classicism through the early part of the 20th century. The historic centre of Vienna is rich in architectural ensembles, including Baroque castles and gardens, Vienna is known for its high quality of life. In a 2005 study of 127 world cities, the Economist Intelligence Unit ranked the city first for the worlds most liveable cities, between 2011 and 2015, Vienna was ranked second, behind Melbourne, Australia. Monocles 2015 Quality of Life Survey ranked Vienna second on a list of the top 25 cities in the world to make a base within, the UN-Habitat has classified Vienna as being the most prosperous city in the world in 2012/2013. Vienna regularly hosts urban planning conferences and is used as a case study by urban planners. Between 2005 and 2010, Vienna was the worlds number-one destination for international congresses and it attracts over 3.7 million tourists a year. The English name Vienna is borrowed from the homonymous Italian version of the name or the French Vienne. The etymology of the name is still subject to scholarly dispute. Some claim that the name comes from Vedunia, meaning forest stream, which produced the Old High German Uuenia. A variant of this Celtic name could be preserved in the Czech and Slovak names of the city, the name of the city in Hungarian, Serbo-Croatian and Ottoman Turkish has a different, probably Slavonic origin, and originally referred to an Avar fort in the area. Slovene-speakers call the city Dunaj, which in other Central European Slavic languages means the Danube River, evidence has been found of continuous habitation since 500 BC, when the site of Vienna on the Danube River was settled by the Celts. In 15 BC, the Romans fortified the city they called Vindobona to guard the empire against Germanic tribes to the north
Vienna
Vienna
Vienna
Vienna
8.
Literature
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Literature, in its broadest sense, is any single body of written works. Its Latin root literatura/litteratura was used to refer to all written accounts, developments in print technology have allowed an evergrowing distribution and proliferation of written works, culminating in electronic literature. There have been attempts to define literature. Simon and Delyse Ryan begin their attempt to answer the question What is Literature, with the observation, The quest to discover a definition for literature is a road that is much travelled, though the point of arrival, if ever reached, is seldom satisfactory. Most attempted definitions are broad and vague, and they change over time. In fact, the thing that is certain about defining literature is that the definition will change. Concepts of what is literature change over time as well, definitions of literature have varied over time, it is a culturally relative definition. In Western Europe prior to the century, literature as a term indicated all books. A more restricted sense of the term emerged during the Romantic period, contemporary debates over what constitutes literature can be seen as returning to the older, more inclusive notion of what constitutes literature. Cultural studies, for instance, takes as its subject of both popular and minority genres, in addition to canonical works. The value judgment definition of literature considers it to cover exclusively those writings that possess high quality or distinction and this sort of definition is that used in the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition when it classifies literature as the best expression of the best thought reduced to writing. The formalist definition is that literature foregrounds poetic effects, it is the literariness or poetic of literature that distinguishes it from ordinary speech or other kinds of writing. Etymologically, the term derives from Latin literatura/litteratura learning, a writing, grammar, originally writing formed with letters, in spite of this, the term has also been applied to spoken or sung texts. Poetry is a form of art which uses aesthetic and rhythmic qualities of language to evoke meanings in addition to, or in place of. Possibly as a result of Aristotles influence, poetry before the century was usually less a technical designation for verse than a normative category of fictive or rhetorical art. As a form it may pre-date literacy, with the earliest works being composed within and sustained by an oral tradition, novel, a long fictional prose narrative. It was the close relation to real life that differentiated it from the chivalric romance, in most European languages the equivalent term is roman. In English, the term emerged from the Romance languages in the fifteenth century, with the meaning of news, it came to indicate something new
Literature
–
The
Classic of Rites (
Chinese: 禮 記;
pinyin: Lǐjì), an ancient Chinese text. Certain definitions of literature have taken it to include all written work.
Literature
–
A
calligram by
Guillaume Apollinaire. These are a type of poem in which the written words are arranged in such a way to produce a visual image.
Literature
–
Egyptian hieroglyphs with
cartouches for the name "
Ramesses II ", from the
Luxor Temple,
New Kingdom
Literature
–
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe,
German writer and author of the
Faust books
9.
Music
–
Music is an art form and cultural activity whose medium is sound organized in time. The common elements of music are pitch, rhythm, dynamics, different styles or types of music may emphasize, de-emphasize or omit some of these elements. The word derives from Greek μουσική, Ancient Greek and Indian philosophers defined music as tones ordered horizontally as melodies and vertically as harmonies. Common sayings such as the harmony of the spheres and it is music to my ears point to the notion that music is often ordered and pleasant to listen to. However, 20th-century composer John Cage thought that any sound can be music, saying, for example, There is no noise, the creation, performance, significance, and even the definition of music vary according to culture and social context. There are many types of music, including music, traditional music, art music, music written for religious ceremonies. For example, it can be hard to draw the line between some early 1980s hard rock and heavy metal, within the arts, music may be classified as a performing art, a fine art or as an auditory art. People may make music as a hobby, like a teen playing cello in a youth orchestra, the word derives from Greek μουσική. According to the Online Etymological Dictionary, the music is derived from mid-13c. Musike, from Old French musique and directly from Latin musica the art of music and this is derived from the. Greek mousike of the Muses, from fem. of mousikos pertaining to the Muses, from Mousa Muse. In classical Greece, any art in which the Muses presided, Music is composed and performed for many purposes, ranging from aesthetic pleasure, religious or ceremonial purposes, or as an entertainment product for the marketplace. With the advent of recording, records of popular songs. Some music lovers create mix tapes of their songs, which serve as a self-portrait. An environment consisting solely of what is most ardently loved, amateur musicians can compose or perform music for their own pleasure, and derive their income elsewhere. Professional musicians sometimes work as freelancers or session musicians, seeking contracts and engagements in a variety of settings, There are often many links between amateur and professional musicians. Beginning amateur musicians take lessons with professional musicians, in community settings, advanced amateur musicians perform with professional musicians in a variety of ensembles such as community concert bands and community orchestras. However, there are many cases where a live performance in front of an audience is also recorded and distributed. Live concert recordings are popular in classical music and in popular music forms such as rock, where illegally taped live concerts are prized by music lovers
Music
–
A painting on an Ancient Greek vase depicts a music lesson (c. 510 BC).
Music
–
Jean-Gabriel Ferlan performing at a 2008 concert at the collège-lycée Saint-François Xavier
Music
–
The composer
Michel Richard Delalande, pen in hand.
Music
–
Funk places most of its emphasis on rhythm and
groove, with entire songs based around a
vamp on a single chord. Pictured are the influential funk musicians
George Clinton and
Parliament Funkadelic in 2006.
10.
Arnold Schoenberg
–
Arnold Franz Walter Schoenberg or Schönberg was an Austrian composer, music theorist, and painter. He was associated with the expressionist movement in German poetry and art, by 1938, with the rise of the Nazi Party, Schoenbergs works were labeled degenerate music, because he was Jewish. He moved to the United States in 1934, Schoenbergs approach, both in terms of harmony and development, has been one of the most influential of 20th-century musical thought. Many European and American composers from at least three generations have consciously extended his thinking, whereas others have reacted against it. Schoenberg was known early in his career for simultaneously extending the traditionally opposed German Romantic styles of Brahms, later, his name would come to personify innovations in atonality that would become the most polemical feature of 20th-century art music. In the 1920s, Schoenberg developed the technique, an influential compositional method of manipulating an ordered series of all twelve notes in the chromatic scale. He also coined the term developing variation and was the first modern composer to embrace ways of developing motifs without resorting to the dominance of a melodic idea. Schoenbergs archival legacy is collected at the Arnold Schönberg Center in Vienna, Arnold Schoenberg was born into a lower middle-class Jewish family in the Leopoldstadt district of Vienna, at Obere Donaustraße 5. His father Samuel, a native of Bratislava, was a shopkeeper and he took only counterpoint lessons with the composer Alexander Zemlinsky, who was to become his first brother-in-law. In his twenties, Schoenberg earned a living by orchestrating operettas, while composing his own works and he later made an orchestral version of this, which became one of his most popular pieces. Strauss turned to a more conservative idiom in his own work after 1909, Mahler adopted him as a protégé and continued to support him, even after Schoenbergs style reached a point Mahler could no longer understand. Mahler worried about who would look after him after his death, Schoenberg, who had initially despised and mocked Mahlers music, was converted by the thunderbolt of Mahlers Third Symphony, which he considered a work of genius. Afterward he spoke of Mahler as a saint, in 1898 Schoenberg converted to Christianity in the Lutheran church. According to MacDonald this was partly to strengthen his attachment to Western European cultural traditions and he would self-identify as a member of the Jewish religion later in life. In October 1901, he married Mathilde Zemlinsky, the sister of the conductor and composer Alexander von Zemlinsky and he and Mathilde had two children, Gertrud and Georg. Gertrud would marry Schoenbergs pupil Felix Greissle in 1921, during the summer of 1908, his wife Mathilde left him for several months for a young Austrian painter, Richard Gerstl. This period marked a change in Schoenbergs work. This was the first composition without any reference at all to a key, also in this year, he completed one of his most revolutionary compositions, the String Quartet No
Arnold Schoenberg
–
Arnold Schoenberg, Los Angeles, 1948
Arnold Schoenberg
–
Arnold Schönberg in Payerbach, 1903
Arnold Schoenberg
–
Schoenberg's Der Rote Blick (Red Gaze), 1910
Arnold Schoenberg
–
Arnold Schoenberg, by
Egon Schiele 1917
11.
Counterpoint
–
In music, counterpoint is the relationship between voices that are harmonically interdependent yet independent in rhythm and contour. It has been most commonly identified in the European classical tradition, strongly developing during the Renaissance and in much of the common practice period, the term originates from the Latin punctus contra punctum meaning point against point. Counterpoint generally involves musical lines with strongly independent identities, Counterpoint has been used to designate a voice or even an entire composition. In each era, contrapuntally organized music writing has been subject to rules—sometimes strict ones, chords are the simultaneous soundings of notes, whereas harmonic, vertical features are considered secondary and almost incidental when counterpoint is the predominant textural element. Counterpoint focuses on melodic interaction—only secondarily on the produced by that interaction. In the words of John Rahn, It is hard to write a beautiful song and it is harder to write several individually beautiful songs that, when sung simultaneously, sound as a more beautiful polyphonic whole. The way that is accomplished in detail is, some examples of related compositional techniques include, the round, the canon, and perhaps the most complex contrapuntal convention, the fugue. All of these are examples of imitative counterpoint, Species counterpoint generally offers less freedom to the composer than other types of counterpoint and therefore is called a strict counterpoint. The student gradually attains the ability to free counterpoint according to the given rules at the time. The idea is at least as old as 1532, when Giovanni Maria Lanfranco described a concept in his Scintille di musica. Zacconi, unlike later theorists, included a few extra contrapuntal techniques, a succession of later theorists quite closely imitated Fuxs seminal work, often with some small and idiosyncratic modifications in the rules. The following rules apply to melodic writing in each species, for each part, if the final is approached from below, then the leading tone must be raised in a minor key, but not in Phrygian or Hypophrygian mode. Thus, in the Dorian mode on D, a C♯ is necessary at the cadence, permitted melodic intervals are the perfect fourth, fifth, and octave, as well as the major and minor second, major and minor third, and ascending minor sixth. The ascending minor sixth must be followed by motion downwards. The three notes should be from the triad, if this is impossible, they should not outline more than one octave. In general, do not write more than two skips in the same direction, if writing a skip in one direction, it is best to proceed after the skip with motion in the other direction. The interval of a tritone in three notes should be avoided as is the interval of a seventh in three notes, there must be a climax or high point in the line countering the cantus firmus. This usually occurs somewhere in the middle of exercise and must occur on a strong beat, an outlining of a seventh is avoided within a single line moving in the same direction
Counterpoint
–
This is an example of a double passing tone in which the two middle notes are a dissonant interval from the cantus firmus. A fourth and a diminished fifth.
Counterpoint
–
Extract from
Fugue no. 17 in A-flat major,
BWV 862, from book 1 of
The Well-Tempered Clavier by
Bach Play (
help ·
info)
Counterpoint
–
This is an example of a descending double neighbor figure against a cantus firmus.
Counterpoint
–
This is an example of an ascending double neighbor figure against a cantus firmus.
12.
Music theory
–
Music theory is the study of the practices and possibilities of music. The term is used in three ways in music, though all three are interrelated. The first is what is otherwise called rudiments, currently taught as the elements of notation, of key signatures, of time signatures, of rhythmic notation, Theory in this sense is treated as the necessary preliminary to the study of harmony, counterpoint, and form. The second is the study of writings about music from ancient times onwards, Music theory is frequently concerned with describing how musicians and composers make music, including tuning systems and composition methods among other topics. However, this medieval discipline became the basis for tuning systems in later centuries, Music theory as a practical discipline encompasses the methods and concepts composers and other musicians use in creating music. The development, preservation, and transmission of music theory in this sense may be found in oral and written music-making traditions, musical instruments, and other artifacts. In ancient and living cultures around the world, the deep and long roots of music theory are clearly visible in instruments, oral traditions, and current music making. Many cultures, at least as far back as ancient Mesopotamia and ancient China, have also considered music theory in more formal ways such as written treatises, in modern academia, music theory is a subfield of musicology, the wider study of musical cultures and history. Etymologically, music theory is an act of contemplation of music, from the Greek θεωρία, a looking at, viewing, contemplation, speculation, theory, also a sight, a person who researches, teaches, or writes articles about music theory is a music theorist. University study, typically to the M. A. or Ph. D level, is required to teach as a music theorist in a US or Canadian university. Methods of analysis include mathematics, graphic analysis, and especially analysis enabled by Western music notation, comparative, descriptive, statistical, and other methods are also used. See for instance Paleolithic flutes, Gǔdí, and Anasazi flute, several surviving Sumerian and Akkadian clay tablets include musical information of a theoretical nature, mainly lists of intervals and tunings. The scholar Sam Mirelman reports that the earliest of these dates from before 1500 BCE. Further, All the Mesopotamian texts are united by the use of a terminology for music that, much of Chinese music history and theory remains unclear. The earliest texts about Chinese music theory are inscribed on the stone and they include more than 2800 words describing theories and practices of music pitches of the time. The bells produce two intertwined pentatonic scales three tones apart with additional pitches completing the chromatic scale, Chinese theory starts from numbers, the main musical numbers being twelve, five and eight. Twelve refers to the number of pitches on which the scales can be constructed, the Lüshi chunqiu from about 239 BCE recalls the legend of Ling Lun. On order of the Yellow Emperor, Ling Lun collected twelve bamboo lengths with thick, blowing on one of these like a pipe, he found its sound agreeable and named it huangzhong, the Yellow Bell
Music theory
–
Ancient Egyptian musicians playing lutes in an ensemble.
Music theory
–
Pythagoras and
Philolaus engaged in theoretical investigations, in a woodcut from
Franchinus Gaffurius, Theorica musicæ (1492)
Music theory
–
A set of bells from China, 5th Century BCE.
Music theory
–
Barbershop quartets, such as this US Navy group, sing 4-part pieces, made up of a melody line (normally the second-highest voice, called the "lead") and 3 harmony parts.
13.
Harmony
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In music, harmony considers the process by which the composition of individual sounds, or superpositions of sounds, is analysed by hearing. Usually, this means simultaneously occurring frequencies, pitches, or chords, the study of harmony involves chords and their construction and chord progressions and the principles of connection that govern them. Harmony is often said to refer to the aspect of music, as distinguished from melodic line. In popular and jazz harmony, chords are named by their root plus various terms, in many types of music, notably baroque, romantic, modern, and jazz, chords are often augmented with tensions. A tension is an additional member that creates a relatively dissonant interval in relation to the bass. Typically, in the common practice period a dissonant chord resolves to a consonant chord. Harmonization usually sounds pleasant to the ear when there is a balance between the consonant and dissonant sounds, in simple words, that occurs when there is a balance between tense and relaxed moments. The term harmony derives from the Greek ἁρμονία, meaning joint, agreement, concord, from the verb ἁρμόζω, to fit together, the term was often used for the whole field of music, while music referred to the arts in general. In Ancient Greece, the term defined the combination of contrasted elements, in the Middle Ages the term was used to describe two pitches sounding in combination, and in the Renaissance the concept was expanded to denote three pitches sounding together. Aristoxenus wrote a work entitled Harmonika Stoicheia, which is thought the first work in European history written on the subject of harmony, the underlying principle behind these texts is that harmony sanctions harmoniousness by conforming to certain pre-established compositional principles. Current dictionary definitions, while attempting to give concise descriptions, often highlight the ambiguity of the term in modern use, ambiguities tend to arise from either aesthetic considerations or from the point of view of musical texture (distinguishing between harmonic and contrapuntal. The view that modern tonal harmony in Western music began in about 1600 is commonplace in music theory and this is usually accounted for by the replacement of horizontal writing, common in the music of the Renaissance, with a new emphasis on the vertical element of composed music. Modern theorists, however, tend to see this as an unsatisfactory generalisation, as Carl Dahlhaus puts it, It was not that counterpoint was supplanted by harmony but that an older type both of counterpoint and of vertical technique was succeeded by a newer type. And harmony comprises not only the structure of chords but also their movement, like music as a whole, harmony is a process. Descriptions and definitions of harmony and harmonic practice may show bias towards European musical traditions, pitch simultaneity in particular is rarely a major consideration. Nevertheless, emphasis on the precomposed in European art music and the written theory surrounding it shows considerable cultural bias, the conception of musics that live in oral traditions as something composed with the use of improvisatory techniques separates them from the higher-standing works that use notation. Yet the evolution of harmonic practice and language itself, in Western art music, is and was facilitated by this process of prior composition, some traditions of Western music performance, composition, and theory have specific rules of harmony. This model provides that the seventh and ninth are not dissonant
Harmony
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Barbershop quartets, such as this US Navy group, sing 4-part pieces, made up of a melody line (normally the lead) and 3 harmony parts.
Harmony
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Rameau 's 'Traité de l'harmonie' (Treatise on Harmony) from 1722.
Harmony
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Example of implied harmonies in
J.S. Bach's Cello Suite no. 1 in G, BWV 1007, bars 1-2. Play (
help ·
info) or Play harmony (
help ·
info)
14.
Musical composition
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People who create new compositions are called composers in classical music. In popular music and traditional music, the creators of new songs are usually called songwriters, with songs, Composition is the act or practice of creating a song or other piece of music. In popular music and traditional music, songwriting may involve the creation of an outline of the song, called the lead sheet. In classical music, orchestration is typically done by the composer, in some cases, a pop or traditional songwriter may not use written notation at all, and instead compose the song in her mind and then play, sing and/or record it from memory. In jazz and popular music, notable recordings by influential performers are given the weight that written or printed scores play in classical music. Although a musical composition often uses musical notation and has a single author, a piece of music can also be composed with words, images, or, since the 20th century, with computer programs that explain or notate how the singer or musician should create musical sounds. A more commonly known example of chance-based music is the sound of wind chimes jingling in a breeze, although in the 2000s, composition is considered to consist of the manipulation of each aspect of music, according to Jean-Benjamin de Laborde, Composition consists in two things only. The first is the ordering and disposing of several sounds. in such a manner that their succession pleases the ear and this is what the Ancients called melody. The second is the rendering audible of two or more simultaneous sounds in such a manner that their combination is pleasant and this is what we call harmony, and it alone merits the name of composition. In classical music, a piece of music exists in the form of a composition in musical notation or as a live acoustic event. Since the invention of recording, a classical piece or popular song may also exist as a recording. If music is composed before being performed, music can be performed from memory, by reading written musical notation, compositions comprise a huge variety of musical elements, which vary widely from between genres and cultures. Popular music genres after about 1960 make extensive use of electric and electronic instruments, such as electric guitar, electric and electronic instruments are used in contemporary classical music compositions and concerts, albeit to a lesser degree than in popular music. Music from the Baroque music era, for example, used only acoustic and mechanical such as strings, brass, woodwinds, timpani and keyboard instruments such as harpsichord. A 2000s-era pop band may use electric guitar played with electronic effects through a guitar amplifier, different musical styles permit singers or performers to use various amounts of musical improvisation during the performance of a composed song or piece. In free jazz, the performers may play without any sheet music, improvisation is the act of composing musical elements spontaneously during the performance, as opposed to having a composer write down the music beforehand. Improvisation was an important skill during the Baroque music era, instrumentalists and singers were expected to be able to improvise ornaments, during the classical period, solo instrumentalists were expected to be able to improvise virtuostic cadenzas during a concerto. During the Romantic music era, composers began writing out ornaments and cadenzas, in contemporary classical music, some composers began writing pieces which indicate that the performer should improvise during certain sections
Musical composition
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People composing music
Musical composition
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Scherzo in A flat (
Borodin) Play (
help ·
info)
15.
Piano sonata
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A piano sonata is a sonata written for a solo piano. Piano sonatas are written in three or four movements, although some piano sonatas have been written with a single movement. The first movement is composed in sonata form. In the Baroque era, the use of the term generally referred to either the sonata da chiesa or sonata da camera. The keyboard sonata was relatively neglected by most composers, the sonatas of Domenico Scarlatti were the hallmark of the Baroque keyboard sonata, though they were for the most part unpublished during Scarlattis lifetime. The majority of these sonatas are in one-movement binary form, both sections being in the tempo and utilizing the same thematic material. These sonatas are prized for both their technical difficulty and their musical and formal ingenuity, the influence of Spanish folk music is evident in Scarlattis sonatas. Other composers of keyboard sonatas include Marcello, Giustini, Durante, all the well-known Classical era composers, especially Joseph Haydn, Muzio Clementi, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, and Ludwig van Beethoven, wrote many piano sonatas. Muzio Clementi wrote more than 110 piano sonatas and he is well known as The Father of the Pianoforte. Clementis Opus 2 was the first real piano sonata composed, the much younger Franz Schubert also wrote many. The 32 sonatas of Ludwig van Beethoven, including the well-known Pathétique Sonata, Franz Liszts comprehensive three-movements-in-one Sonata in B minor draws on the concept of thematic transformation first introduced by Schubert in his Wanderer Fantasie of 1822. Piano sonatas have been throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach Württemberg Sonata No.1 in A minor, H.30, 49/1 Prussian Sonata No.4 in C minor, Wq. 1840-60 Janáček, Leoš Piano Sonata 1. X.1905 Liebermann, Lowell Piano Sonata No
Piano sonata
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Ludwig van Beethoven 's manuscript sketch for
Piano Sonata No. 28, Movement IV, Geschwind, doch nicht zu sehr und mit Entschlossenheit (
Allegro), in his own handwriting. The piece was completed in 1816.
16.
Theodor W. Adorno
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Theodor W. Adorno was a German philosopher, sociologist, and composer known for his critical theory of society. He is widely regarded as one of the 20th centurys foremost thinkers on aesthetics and philosophy, as a writer of polemics in the tradition of Nietzsche and Karl Kraus, Adorno delivered scathing critiques of contemporary Western culture. Theodor W. Adorno was born as Theodor Ludwig Wiesengrund in Frankfurt am Main on September 11,1903, the only child of Oscar Alexander Wiesengrund and Maria Calvelli-Adorno della Piana. His mother, a devout Catholic from Corsica, was once a professional singer, while his father, proud of her origins, Maria wanted her sons paternal surname to be supplemented by the addition of her own name, Adorno. Thus his earliest publications carried the name Theodor Wiesengrund-Adorno, upon his application for US citizenship and he was not only a precocious child but, as he recalled later in life, a child prodigy who could play pieces by Beethoven on the piano by the time he was twelve. At the age of six, he attended the Deutschherren middle school before transferring to the Kaiser-Wilhelm Gymnasium, I took this motif so much as my own that I do not believe I have ever written anything without reference to it, either implicit or explicit. Yet Adornos intellectual nonconformism was no less shaped by the repugnance he felt towards the nationalism which swept through the Reich during the First World War, the younger generations distrust for traditional knowledge arose from the way in which this tradition had discredited itself. Over time, Oscar Wiesengrunds firm established close professional and personal ties with the factory of Karplus & Herzberger in Berlin, I am not exaggerating in the slightest when I say that I owe more to this reading than to my academic teachers. In the summer of 1924, Adorno received his doctorate with a study of Edmund Husserl under the direction of the unorthodox neo-Kantian Hans Cornelius, before his graduation, Adorno had already met with his most important intellectual collaborators, Max Horkheimer and Walter Benjamin. Through Corneliuss seminars, Adorno met his future collaborator Max Horkheimer, in Vienna, he attended public lectures of the satirist Karl Kraus with Berg and met Lukács, who had been living in Vienna after the failure of the Hungarian Soviet Republic. Alban Berg, the man Adorno referred to as my master and teacher, was among the most prescient of his young pupils early friends, convinced that and you are capable of supreme achievements and will undoubtedly fulfill this promise in the shape of great philosophical works. In December 1926 Adornos Two Pieces for String Quartet, op.2 were performed in Vienna, after writing the Piano Pieces in strict twelve-tone technique, as well as songs later integrated into the Six Bagatelles for Voice and Piano, op. 6, Adorno presented his Habilitation manuscript, The Concept of the Unconscious in the Transcendental Theory of the Psyche, Cornelius advised Adorno to withdraw his application on the grounds that the manuscript was too close to his own way of thinking. In this manuscript, Adorno attempted to underline the epistemological status of the unconscious as it emerged from Freuds early writings, against the function of the unconscious in both Nietzsche and Spengler, Adorno argued that Freuds notion of the unconscious serves as a sharp weapon. Against every attempt to create a metaphysics of the instincts and to deify full, undaunted by his academic prospects, Adorno threw himself once again into composition. In addition to publishing numerous reviews of performances and concerts, Adornos Four Songs for Medium Voice and Piano. Between 1928 and 1930 Adorno took on a role within the editorial committee of the Musikblätter des Anbruch. During this period he published the essays Night Music, On Twelve-Tone Technique and Reaction, at this time, Adorno struck up a correspondence with the composer Ernst Krenek, with whom he discussed problems of atonality and twelve-tone technique
Theodor W. Adorno
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(April 1964)
Theodor W. Adorno
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The "Adorno-Ampel" (Adorno-traffic light) on Senckenberganlage, a street which divides the Institute for Social Research from
Goethe University Frankfurt —Adorno requested its construction after a pedestrian death in 1962, and it was finally installed 25 years later.
17.
Quartal and quintal harmony
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In music, quartal harmony is the building of harmonic structures with a distinct preference for the intervals of the perfect fourth, the augmented fourth and the diminished fourth. Quintal harmony is harmonic structure preferring the perfect fifth, the augmented fifth, use of the terms quartal and quintal arises from a contrast, compositional or perceptual, with traditional tertian harmonic constructions. Quintal harmony is a term, and since the fifth is the inversion or complement of the fourth. Indeed, a circle of fifths can be arranged in fourths, in the Middle Ages, simultaneous notes a fourth apart were heard as a consonance. During the common practice period, this came to be heard either as a dissonance or as a consonance. In the later 19th century, during the breakdown of tonality in classical music, Quartal harmony was developed in the early 20th century as a result of this breakdown and reevaluation of tonality. The Tristan chord is made up of the notes F♮, B♮, D♯, the bottom two notes make up an augmented fourth, the upper two make up a perfect fourth. This layering of fourths in this context has been seen as highly significant, beethovens use of the chord is of short duration and it resolves in the accepted manner, whereas Wagners use lasts much longer and resolves in a highly unorthodox manner for the time. Wagners unusual chord is really a device to draw the listener into the argument which the composer is presenting to us. However, fourths become important later in the opera, especially in the melodic development, at the beginning of the 20th century, fourth-based chords finally became an important element of harmony. Scriabin used a system of transposition using fourth-chords, like his Mystic chord in his Piano Sonata No.6. Scriabins sketches for his unfinished work Mysterium show that he intended to develop the Mystic chord into a huge chord incorporating all twelve notes of the chromatic scale, in France, Erik Satie experimented with planing in the stacked fourths of his 1891 score for Le Fils des étoiles. Quartal harmony in Ravels Sonatine and Ma mère loye would follow a few years later, composers who use the techniques of quartal harmony include Claude Debussy, Francis Poulenc, Alexander Scriabin, Alban Berg, Leonard Bernstein, Arnold Schoenberg, Igor Stravinsky, and Anton Webern. Arnold Schoenbergs Chamber Symphony Op.9 displays quartal harmony, the first measures construct a five-part fourth chord with the notes C – F – B♭ – E♭ – A♭ distributed over several instruments. The composer then picks out this vertical quartal harmony in a sequence of fourths from the horns. Schoenberg was also one of the first to write on the consequences of this harmonic innovation. But the quartal construction makes possible, as I said, accommodation of all phenomena of harmony, for Anton Webern, the importance of quartal harmony lay in the possibility of building new sounds. After hearing Schoenbergs Chamber Symphony, Webern wrote You must write something like that, hindemith constructed large parts of his symphonic work Symphony, Mathis der Maler by means of fourth and fifth intervals
Quartal and quintal harmony
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Disliking the sound of thirds (in equal-temperament tuning), Robert Fripp builds chords with perfect intervals in his new standard tuning.
Quartal and quintal harmony
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Four note quartal chord Play (
help ·
info).
18.
Alexander von Zemlinsky
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Alexander Zemlinsky or Alexander von Zemlinsky was an Austrian composer, conductor, and teacher. Zemlinsky was born in Vienna to a multicultural family. Zemlinskys grandfather, Anton Semlinski, emigrated from Žilina, Hungary to Austria, both were from staunchly Roman Catholic families, and Alexanders father, Adolf, was raised as a Catholic. Alexanders mother was born in Sarajevo to a Sephardic Jewish father, Alexanders entire family converted to the religion of his maternal grandfather, Judaism, and Zemlinsky was born and raised Jewish. His father added an aristocratic von to his name, though neither he nor his forebears were ennobled and he also began spelling his surname Zemlinszky. Alexander studied the piano from a young age and he played the organ in his synagogue on holidays, and was admitted to the Vienna Conservatory in 1884. He studied piano with Anton Door, winning the schools piano prize in 1890 and he continued his studies until 1892, studying theory with Robert Fuchs and composition with Johann Nepomuk Fuchs and Anton Bruckner. At this time he began writing music, in Johannes Brahms, Zemlinsky had a valuable supporter. In 1893, on the invitation of Zemlinskys teacher Johann Nepomuk Fuchs, soon after that, Brahms attended a performance of one of Zemlinkys quartets by the Hellmesberger Quartet. Brahms, impressed with Zemlinskys music, recommended the younger composers Clarinet Trio to the N. Simrock company for publication, Zemlinsky also met Arnold Schoenberg when the latter joined Polyhymnia, an orchestra in which he played cello and helped found in 1895. The two became friends and later mutual admirers and brothers-in-law when Schoenberg married his sister Mathilde. Zemlinsky gave Schoenberg lessons in counterpoint, thus becoming the formal music teacher Schoenberg would have. In 1897 Zemlinskys Symphony No.2 was a success when premiered in Vienna and his reputation as a composer was further helped when Gustav Mahler conducted the premiere of his opera Es war einmal at the Hofoper in 1900. In 1899 Zemlinsky secured the post of Kapellmeister at Viennas Carltheater, in 1899, Zemlinsky converted to Protestantism. He alluded to the Christian cross and to Jesus in the text of Turnwächterlied, in 1900, Zemlinsky met and fell in love with Alma Schindler, one of his composition students. She reciprocated his feelings initially, however, Alma felt a great deal of pressure from close friends and they were primarily concerned with Zemlinskys lack of an international reputation and by an unappealing physical appearance. She broke off the relationship with Zemlinsky and subsequently married composer Gustav Mahler in 1902, Zemlinsky married Ida Guttmann in 1907, but the marriage was an unhappy one. Following Idas death in 1929, Zemlinsky married Luise Sachsel in 1930, a woman twenty-nine years his junior and this was a much happier relationship, lasting until Zemlinskys death
Alexander von Zemlinsky
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Alexander Zemlinsky
19.
Franz Schreker
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Franz Schreker was an Austrian composer, conductor, teacher and administrator. Schreker was born in Monaco, the eldest son of the Bohemian Jewish court photographer Ignaz Schrecker, and his wife, Eleonore von Clossmann, who was a member of the Catholic aristocracy of Styria. Starting with violin studies, with Sigismund Bachrich and Arnold Rosé, he moved into the class of Robert Fuchs. His first success was with the Intermezzo for strings, Op.8, after graduating from the conservatory he spent several years taking various bread-and-butter jobs. His first opera, Flammen, was completed in 1902 but failed to receive a staged production, Schreker had begun conducting in 1895, when he had founded the Verein der Musikfreunde Döbling. In 1907 he formed the Vienna Philharmonic Chorus, which he conducted until 1920, among its many premières were Zemlinskys Psalm XXIII and Schoenbergs Friede auf Erden and Gurre-Lieder. Such was the success of the venture that Schreker composed several more dance-related works for the two sisters including Der Wind, Valse lente and Ein Tanzspiel. November 1909 saw the premiere of the complex orchestral interlude from Der ferne Klang. In 1912, the first performance of the opera in Frankfurt consolidated his fame. In the same year, director Wihelm Bopp offered Schreker a provisional teaching appointment at the Conservatory where Schreker had studied, in early 1913 he was appointed full professor. This breakthrough heralds a decade of success for the composer. The first performance of Der Schatzgräber in Frankfurt on 21 January 1920 was the point of his career. The Chamber Symphony, composed between the two operas for the faculty of the Vienna Academy in 1916, quickly entered the repertoire and remains Schrekers most frequently performed work today. Schrekers fame and influence were at their peak during the years of the Weimar Republic when he was the most performed living opera composer after Richard Strauss. Political developments and the spread of anti-Semitism were also contributory factors, finally, in June 1932, Schreker lost his position as Director of the Musikhochschule in Berlin and, the following year, also his post as professor of composition at the Akademie der Künste. In his lifetime he went from being hailed as the future of German opera to being considered irrelevant as a composer, after suffering from a stroke in December 1933, he died in Berlin on 21 March 1934, two days before his 56th birthday. After decades in obscurity, Schreker has begun to enjoy a revival in reputation in the German-speaking world. In 2005 the Salzburg Festival mounted a production of Die Gezeichneten, conducted by Kent Nagano
Franz Schreker
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Franz Schreker, c. 1911
Franz Schreker
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Schreker in a lithograph by Heinrich Gottselig, ca. 1922
20.
Gustav Klimt
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Gustav Klimt was an Austrian symbolist painter and one of the most prominent members of the Vienna Secession movement. Klimt is noted for his paintings, murals, sketches, Klimts primary subject was the female body, and his works are marked by a frank eroticism. In addition to his works, which include allegories and portraits. Among the artists of the Vienna Secession, Klimt was the most influenced by Japanese art, early in his artistic career, he was a successful painter of architectural decorations in a conventional manner. He subsequently accepted no more commissions, but achieved a new success with the paintings of his golden phase. Klimts work was an important influence on his younger contemporary Egon Schiele, Gustav Klimt was born in Baumgarten, near Vienna in Austria-Hungary, the second of seven children—three boys and four girls. His mother, Anna Klimt, had an ambition to be a musical performer. His father, Ernst Klimt the Elder, formerly from Bohemia, was a gold engraver, all three of their sons displayed artistic talent early on. Klimts younger brothers were Ernst Klimt and Georg Klimt, Klimt lived in poverty while attending the Vienna School of Arts and Crafts, where he studied architectural painting until 1883. He revered Viennas foremost history painter of the time, Hans Makart, Klimt readily accepted the principles of a conservative training, his early work may be classified as academic. In 1877 his brother, Ernst, who, like his father, would become an engraver, the two brothers and their friend, Franz Matsch, began working together and by 1880 they had received numerous commissions as a team that they called the Company of Artists. They also helped their teacher in painting murals in the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna, Klimt began his professional career painting interior murals and ceilings in large public buildings on the Ringstraße, including a successful series of Allegories and Emblems. In 1888 Klimt received the Golden Order of Merit from Emperor Franz Josef I of Austria for his contributions to murals painted in the Burgtheater in Vienna and he also became an honorary member of the University of Munich and the University of Vienna. In 1892 Klimts father and brother Ernst both died, and he had to assume responsibility for his fathers and brothers families. The tragedies also affected his vision and soon he would move towards a new personal style. Historians believe that Klimt with the nuda veritas denounced both the policy of the Habsburgs and the Austrian society, which ignored all political and social problems of that time. In the early 1890s Klimt met Austrian fashion designer Emilie Louise Flöge who was to be his companion until the end of his life and his painting, The Kiss, is thought to be an image of them as lovers. He designed many costumes she created and modeled in his works, during this period Klimt fathered at least fourteen children
Gustav Klimt
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Photographic portrait from 1914
Gustav Klimt
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Klimt in a light Blue Smock by
Egon Schiele, 1913
Gustav Klimt
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A section of the
Beethoven Frieze, at
Secession Building,
Vienna (1902)
Gustav Klimt
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Judith II (1909)
21.
Karl Kraus (writer)
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Karl Kraus was an Austrian writer and journalist, known as a satirist, essayist, aphorist, playwright and poet. He directed his satire at the press, German culture, the Austrian author Stefan Zweig once called Kraus the master of venomous ridicule. Kraus was born into the wealthy Jewish family of Jacob Kraus, a papermaker, the family moved to Vienna in 1877. Kraus enrolled as a law student at the University of Vienna in 1892, beginning in April of the same year, he began contributing to the paper Wiener Literaturzeitung, starting with a critique of Gerhart Hauptmanns The Weavers. Around that time, he tried to perform as an actor in a small theater. In 1894, he changed his field of studies to philosophy and he discontinued his studies in 1896. His friendship with Peter Altenberg began about this time, in 1897, Kraus broke from this group with a biting satire, Die demolierte Literatur, and was named Vienna correspondent for the newspaper Breslauer Zeitung. One year later, as an advocate of Jewish assimilation, he attacked the founder of modern Zionism, Theodor Herzl. In 1901 Kraus was sued by Hermann Bahr and Emmerich Bukovics, many lawsuits by various offended parties followed in later years. Also in 1901, Kraus found out that his publisher, Moriz Frisch, had taken over his magazine while he was absent on a months-long journey, Frisch had registered the magazines front cover as a trademark and published the Neue Fackel. From that time, Die Fackel was published by the printer Jahoda & Siegel, while Die Fackel at first resembled journals like Die Weltbühne, it increasingly became a magazine that was privileged in its editorial independence, thanks to Krauss financial independence. Die Fackel printed what Kraus wanted to be printed, after 1911, however, Kraus was usually the sole author. Krauss work was published exclusively in Die Fackel, of which 922 irregularly issued numbers appeared in total. Authors who were supported by Kraus include Peter Altenberg, Else Lasker-Schüler, Die Fackel targeted corruption, journalists and brutish behaviour. Notable enemies were Maximilian Harden, Moriz Benedikt, Alfred Kerr, Hermann Bahr, Imre Bekessy, starting in 1906, Kraus published the first of his aphorisms in Die Fackel, they were collected in 1909 in the book Sprüche und Widersprüche. Elias Canetti, who regularly attended Krauss lectures, titled the volume of his autobiography Die Fackel im Ohr in reference to the magazine. At the peak of his popularity, Krauss lectures attracted four thousand people, wedekinds works are considered among the precursors of expressionism, but in 1914, when expressionist poets like Richard Dehmel began producing war propaganda, Kraus became a fierce critic of them. In 1907, Kraus attacked his erstwhile benefactor Maximilian Harden because of his role in the Eulenburg trial in the first of his spectacular Erledigungen, after 1911, Kraus was the sole author of most issues of Die Fackel
Karl Kraus (writer)
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Karl Kraus
Karl Kraus (writer)
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First issue of Die Fackel
22.
Adolf Loos
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Adolf Franz Karl Viktor Maria Loos was an Austrian and Czech architect and influential European theorist of modern architecture. His essay Ornament and Crime advocated smooth and clear surfaces in contrast to the decorations of the fin de siècle. Loos became a pioneer of modern architecture and contributed a body of theory and criticism of Modernism in architecture, Loos had three tumultuous marriages that all ended in divorce. He suffered from health, including an inherited hearing affliction. He died aged 62 on 23 August 1933 in Kalksburg near Vienna, Loos was born on 10 December 1870 in Brno, in the Moravia region of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. His father, a German stonemason, died when Loos was nine years old, young Adolf Loos had inherited his fathers hearing impairment and was significantly handicapped by it throughout his life. His mother continued to carry on the business after her husbands death. Loos attended several Gymnasium schools, a school in Liberec. He later studied at Dresden University of Technology and he left one year later without completing his study. At age 23, Loos traveled to the United States and stayed there for three years from 1893–96, Loos returned to Vienna in 1896 and made it his permanent residence. He was a prominent figure in the city and a friend of Ludwig Wittgenstein, Arnold Schönberg, Peter Altenberg, inspired by his years in the New World he devoted himself to architecture. After briefly associating himself with the Vienna Secession in 1896, he rejected the style and advocated a new, plain, a utilitarian approach to use the entire floor plan completed his concept. Looss early commissions consisted of designs for shops and cafés in Vienna. In Spoken into the Void, published in 1900, he attacked the Vienna Secession, in his essays, Loos used provocative catchphrases and is noted for the essay/manifesto entitled Ornament and Crime, given in a lecture in 1910 and first published in 1913. Loos stripped-down buildings influenced the minimal massing of modern architecture, the distinction is not between complicated and simple, but between organic and superfluous decoration. Loos was also interested in the arts, collecting sterling silver and high quality leather goods. He also enjoyed fashion and mens clothing, designing the famed Kníže of Vienna, in 1920, he had a brief collaboration with Frederick John Kiesler - architect, theater and art-exhibition designer. The house, today Michaelerplatz 3, Vienna, and under monument preservation, was criticized by its contemporaries
Adolf Loos
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Adolf Loos
Adolf Loos
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Looshaus in Michaelerplatz, Vienna.
23.
Peter Altenberg
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Peter Altenberg was a writer and poet from Vienna, Austria. He was key to the genesis of early modernism in the city and he was born Richard Engländer on 9 March 1859 in Vienna. The nom de plume, Altenberg, came from a town on the Danube river. Allegedly, he chose the Peter to honor a young girl whom he remembered as an unrequited love and he cultivated a feminine appearance and feminine handwriting, wore a cape, sandals and a broad-brimmed hat, and despised macho masculinity. Discovered by Arthur Schnitzler in 1894 and appreciated by Hugo von Hofmannsthal and Karl Kraus and he was a master of short, aphoristic stories based on close observation of everyday life events. It flaunts it – its origin – as it flaunts its attitude, at the fin de siècle, when Vienna was a major crucible and center for modern arts and culture, Altenberg was a very influential part of a literary and artistic movement known as Jung-Wien. Altenberg was a contemporary of Karl Kraus, Gustav Mahler, Arthur Schnitzler, Gustav Klimt and he was somewhat older, in his early 30s, than the others. His oeuvre consists of short, poetic prose pieces that do not easily fit into usual formal categories and he became well known throughout Vienna after the publication of a book of his fragmentary observations of women and children in everyday street activities. Because most of his work was written while he frequented various Viennese bars and coffeehouses. His favorite coffeehouse was the Café Central, to which he even had his mail delivered, Altenbergs detractors said he was a drug addict and a womanizer. Altenberg was also rumored to have problems with alcoholism and mental illness, yet his admirers considered him to be a highly creative individual with a great love for the aesthetic, for nature, and for young girls. He is certainly known to have had a collection of photographs and drawings of young girls. Altenberg was never a successful writer, but he did enjoy most if not all of the benefits of fame in his lifetime. Some of the poetry he wrote on the backs of postcards. In 1913, Bergs Five songs on picture postcard texts by Peter Altenberg were premiered in Vienna, the piece caused an uproar, and the performance had to be halted, a complete performance of the work was not given until 1952. He repaid his debts with his talent, his wit, many academics consider him to have been a bohemians bohemian. Most of Altenbergs work is published in the German language and, much of it remains in university libraries or private collections. Two selections have been translated, Evocations of Love and Telegrams of the Soul, Altenberg, who never married, died on 8 January 1919, aged 59
Peter Altenberg
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Portrait by Charles Scolik (de)
24.
Franz Joseph I of Austria
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Franz Joseph I or Francis Joseph I was Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary, and many others from 2 December 1848 until his death on 21 November 1916. From 1 May 1850 to 24 August 1866 he was also President of the German Confederation, in December 1848, Emperor Ferdinand abdicated the throne at Olomouc as part of Ministerpräsident Felix zu Schwarzenbergs plan to end the Revolutions of 1848 in Hungary. This allowed Ferdinands nephew Franz Joseph to accede to the throne, largely considered to be a reactionary, Franz Joseph spent his early reign resisting constitutionalism in his domains. Franz Joseph was troubled by nationalism during his entire reign and he concluded the Ausgleich of 1867, which granted greater autonomy to Hungary, hence transforming the Austrian Empire into the Austro-Hungarian Empire under his dual monarchy. After the Austro-Prussian War, Austria-Hungary turned its attention to the Balkans, the Bosnian crisis was a result of Franz Josephs annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908, which had been occupied by his troops since the Congress of Berlin. On 28 June 1914, the assassination of his nephew Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo resulted in Austria-Hungarys declaration of war against the Kingdom of Serbia and this activated a system of alliances which resulted in World War I. Franz Joseph died on 21 November 1916, after ruling his domains for almost 68 years and he was succeeded by his grandnephew Charles. His name in German was Franz Joseph I and I and his names in other languages were, Croatian and Bosnian, Franjo Josip I. Ukrainian, Фра́нц Йо́сиф I, Romanian, Francisc Iosif Slovene, serbian, Фрања Јосиф Franz Joseph was born in the Schönbrunn Palace in Vienna, the eldest son of Archduke Franz Karl, and his wife Princess Sophie of Bavaria. Franzl came to idolise his grandfather, der Gute Kaiser Franz, at the age of thirteen, Franzl started a career as a colonel in the Austrian army. From that point onward, his fashion was dictated by army style, Franz Joseph was soon joined by three younger brothers, Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian, Archduke Karl Ludwig, and Archduke Ludwig Viktor, and a sister, Maria Anna, who died at the age of four. Instead, Franz was sent to the front in Italy, joining Field Marshal Radetzky on campaign on 29 April, by all accounts he handled his first military experience calmly and with dignity. Around the same time, the Imperial Family was fleeing revolutionary Vienna for the setting of Innsbruck. Soon, the Archduke was called back from Italy, joining the rest of his family at Innsbruck by mid-June. It was at Innsbruck at this time that Franz Joseph first met his cousin Elisabeth, his bride, then a girl of ten. Following victory over the Italians at Custoza in late July, the court felt safe to return to Vienna, but within a few months Vienna again appeared unsafe, and in September the court left again, this time for Olomouc in Moravia. By now, Prince Alfred I of Windisch-Grätz, the military commander in Bohemia, was determined to see the young Archduke soon put on the throne. By the abdication of his uncle Ferdinand and the renunciation of his father, at this time he first became known by his second as well as his first Christian name
Franz Joseph I of Austria
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Franz Joseph in c. 1905
Franz Joseph I of Austria
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Archduke Franz Joseph in 1840 (by
Moritz Daffinger)
Franz Joseph I of Austria
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Franz Joseph I in 1851 (by Johann Ranzi)
Franz Joseph I of Austria
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Franz Joseph I in 1853
25.
Anna Nahowski
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Anna Nahowski was the mistress of Franz Joseph of Austria from 1875 until 1889. She was from the age of fourteen married to the silk manufacturer Heuduck and she met Franz Joseph at a walk in the park of Schönbrunn. The relationship was arranged between Anna and Franz Joseph without the knowledge of her spouse, Franz Joseph visited her discreetly and regularly while her husband was away. This arrangement continued also after she remarried the decadent Franz Nahowski, in 1889, Nahowski discovered that Franz Joseph was in parallel involved, and this time more publicly, with Katharina Schratt, which made Franz Joseph end the relationship to Nahowski. Anna Nahowski was given economic compensation for both herself and her children in exchange for signing a contract of silence and her daughter Helene, who is believed to have been the emperors, was the wife of the composer Alban Berg. Her diary was published in 1976, friedrich Saathen, Anna Nahowski und Kaiser Franz Josef
Anna Nahowski
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Anna Nahowski
26.
Altenberg Lieder
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The Five Orchestral Songs, Op.4, for medium voice and orchestra, were composed by Alban Berg in 1911/12. Numbers 2 and 3 were premiered under the baton of Bergs teacher Arnold Schoenberg at the Vienna Musikverein on 31 March 1913, the texts are taken from picture-postcard texts by the contemporary Viennese poet Peter Altenberg. The texts deal with the stormy but beautiful condition of the soul, Bergs setting is for a large orchestra. The music has many displaced ostinati and the conflicted, lyrical passion found in much of Bergs works, the five songs are, Seele, wie bist du schöner Sahst du nach dem Gewitterregen den Wald. Altenberg Lieder, Scores at the International Music Score Library Project
Altenberg Lieder
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Alban Berg
27.
Conducting
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Conducting is the art of directing a musical performance, such as an orchestral or choral concert. A conductors directions will almost invariably be supplemented or reinforced by verbal instructions or suggestions to their musicians in rehearsal prior to a performance. The conductor typically stands on a podium with a large music stand for the full score. Conducting while playing a piano or synthesizer may also be done with musical theatre pit orchestras, communication is typically non-verbal during a performance. However, in rehearsals, frequent interruptions allow the conductor to give verbal directions as to how the music should be played or sung, Conductors act as guides to the orchestras or choirs they conduct. They choose the works to be performed and study their scores, to which they may make adjustments, work out their interpretation. They may also attend to matters, such as scheduling rehearsals, planning a concert season, hearing auditions and selecting members. Orchestras, choirs, concert bands and other musical ensembles such as big bands are usually led by conductors. The principal conductor of an orchestra or opera company is referred to as a music director or chief conductor, or by the German words Kapellmeister or Dirigent. Conductors of choirs or choruses are sometimes referred to as director, chorus master, or choirmaster. Conductors of concert bands, military bands, marching bands and other bands may hold the title of director, bandmaster. Respected senior conductors are sometimes referred to by the Italian word, an early form of conducting is cheironomy, the use of hand gestures to indicate melodic shape. This has been practiced at least as far back as the Middle Ages, in the 17th century, other devices to indicate the passing of time came into use. Rolled up sheets of paper, smaller sticks and unadorned hands are all shown in pictures from this period, the large staff was responsible for the death of Jean-Baptiste Lully, who injured his foot with one while conducting a Te Deum for the Kings recovery from illness. The wound became gangrenous and Lully refused amputation, whereupon the gangrene spread to his leg, in instrumental music throughout the 18th century, a member of the ensemble usually acted as the conductor. This was sometimes the concertmaster, who could use his bow as a baton and it was common to conduct from the harpsichord in pieces that had a basso continuo part. In opera performances, there were sometimes two conductors – the keyboard player was in charge of the singers, and the principal violinist or leader was in charge of the orchestra. By the early 19th century, it became the norm to have a dedicated conductor, the size of the usual orchestra expanded during this period, and the use of a baton became more common, as it was easier to see than bare hands or rolled-up paper
Conducting
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Steven Sametz conducting the Lehigh University Choir, sans baton
Conducting
Conducting
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Andrew Lee Neer conducting with a baton in Detroit in 2011
Conducting
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Giuseppe Verdi conducting his opera
Aida in 1881
28.
Skandalkonzert
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The Skandalkonzert of March 31,1913, was a concert of the Wiener Konzertverein conducted by Arnold Schoenberg in the Great Hall of the Musikverein. The audience, shocked by the expressionism and experimentalism of the Second Viennese School, began rioting, the program listed, Anton Webern, Six Pieces for Orchestra, Op.6 Alexander von Zemlinsky, Four Orchestral Songs on poems by Maeterlinck Arnold Schoenberg, Chamber Symphony No. 1, Op.9 Alban Berg, Two of the Five Orchestral Songs on Picture-Postcard Texts by Peter Altenberg, both the lyrical and musical side of this premiere were seen as provocative. The concert was ended before the performance of Gustav Mahlers Kindertotenlieder could begin. During Bergs songs the audience called for both poet and composer to be committed, despite it being public knowledge that Altenberg was already committed to an asylum at the time. Though not present at the concert he was granted leave to attend the dress-rehearsal that morning, at the concert it was during Bergs songs that the fighting began. At the trial, Straus commented that the thud of Buschbecks punch had been the most harmonious sound at the entire concert. For Bergs work the Skandalkonzert had lasting consequences, the songs were not performed again until 1952, and the full score did not appear in print until 1966. The first performance of Schoenbergs Gurrelieder was held on February 23,1913, in the Great Hall of the Musikverein, under the direction of Franz Schreker, but the composer, offended by the previous conservative attitude of the Viennese public, refused to accept the applause. In return, the audience took revenge a few weeks later in the concert of contemporary works there. The famous fracas at the premiere of Igor Stravinskys The Rite of Spring took place in Paris two months later, on 29 May 1913
Skandalkonzert
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Watschenkonzert, caricature in Die Zeit from April 6, 1913
29.
Austro-Hungarian Army
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The Austro-Hungarian Army was the ground force of the Austro-Hungarian Dual Monarchy from 1867 to 1918. It was composed of three parts, the joint army, the Imperial Austrian Landwehr, and the Royal Hungarian Honved, with the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 the new tripartite army was brought into being. It existed until the disestablishment of the Austro-Hungarian Empire following World War I in 1918, all of the Honvédség and the Landwehr regiments were composed of three battalions, while the joint army k. u. k. In September 1915, field gray was adopted as the new uniform color. The last known surviving member of the Austro-Hungarian Army was World War I veteran Franz Künstler, Austria-Hungary avoided major wars in the era between 1867 and 1914 but engaged in a number of minor military actions. Nevertheless, the general staff maintained plans for major wars against neighboring powers, especially Italy, soldiers under the command of Conrad von Hotzendorf were also used against Italian rioters in Trieste in 1902. The most significant action by soldiers of the Dual Monarchy in this period was the Austro-Hungarian occupation of Bosnia, despite setbacks at Maglaj and Tuzla, Sarajevo was occupied in October. Austro-Hungarian casualties amounted to over 5,000 and the violence of the campaign led to recriminations between commanders and political leaders. In 1868, the number of active-duty troops in the army was 255,000, however, this was significantly less than the European powers of France, the North German Confederation and Russia, each of which could field more than one million men. Though the population of the empire had risen to nearly 50 million by 1900, the size of the army was tied to ceilings established in 1889. Thus, at the start of the 20th century, Austria-Hungary conscripted only 0. 29% of its population, the 1889 army law was not revised until 1912, which allowed for an increase in annual conscriptions. From a religious standpoint, the Austro-Hungarian army officer corps was dominated by Roman Catholics, in 1896, out of 1000 officers,791 were Roman Catholics,86 Protestants,84 Jews,39 Greek-Orthodox, and one Uniate. Of the pre–World War military forces of the major European powers, while the Jewish population of the lands of the Dual Monarchy was about 5%, Jews made up nearly 18% of the reserve officer corps. Franz Ferdinand was also accused of discriminating against Protestant officers, following the 1867 constitutional arrangements, the Reichsrat was dominated by German Liberals, who generally regarded the army as a relic of feudalism. In Budapest, legislators were reluctant to authorize funds for the joint army but were generous with the Hungarian branch of the army, the Honvédség. Despite increases throughout the 1850s and 1860s, in the half of the century Austria-Hungary was still spending less on its army than were other major European powers. Attempts to increase the intake of recruits were proposed but repeatedly blocked by officials in Budapest until an agreement was reached in 1912. In the emerging field of aviation, Austria-Hungary lagged behind other European states
Austro-Hungarian Army
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Commander in Chief,
Emperor Franz Joseph I
Austro-Hungarian Army
Austro-Hungarian Army
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Austro-Hungarian
POWs in
Russia; a 1915 photo by
Prokudin-Gorskii
Austro-Hungarian Army
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Corps areas in the Austro-Hungarian Army
30.
Opera
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Opera is an art form in which singers and musicians perform a dramatic work combining text and musical score, usually in a theatrical setting. In traditional opera, singers do two types of singing, recitative, a style and arias, a more melodic style. Opera incorporates many of the elements of theatre, such as acting, scenery. The performance is given in an opera house, accompanied by an orchestra or smaller musical ensemble. Opera is a key part of the Western classical music tradition, in the 18th century, Italian opera continued to dominate most of Europe, attracting foreign composers such as George Frideric Handel. Opera seria was the most prestigious form of Italian opera, until Christoph Willibald Gluck reacted against its artificiality with his operas in the 1760s. The first third of the 19th century saw the point of the bel canto style, with Gioachino Rossini, Gaetano Donizetti. It also saw the advent of Grand Opera typified by the works of Auber and Meyerbeer, the mid-to-late 19th century was a golden age of opera, led and dominated by Richard Wagner in Germany and Giuseppe Verdi in Italy. The popularity of opera continued through the era in Italy and contemporary French opera through to Giacomo Puccini. During the 19th century, parallel operatic traditions emerged in central and eastern Europe, the 20th century saw many experiments with modern styles, such as atonality and serialism, Neoclassicism, and Minimalism. With the rise of recording technology, singers such as Enrico Caruso, since the invention of radio and television, operas were also performed on these mediums. Beginning in 2006, a number of opera houses began to present live high-definition video transmissions of their performances in cinemas all over the world. In 2009, an opera company offered a download of a complete performance. The words of an opera are known as the libretto, some composers, notably Wagner, have written their own libretti, others have worked in close collaboration with their librettists, e. g. Mozart with Lorenzo Da Ponte. Vocal duets, trios and other ensembles often occur, and choruses are used to comment on the action, in some forms of opera, such as singspiel, opéra comique, operetta, and semi-opera, the recitative is mostly replaced by spoken dialogue. Melodic or semi-melodic passages occurring in the midst of, or instead of, the terminology of the various kinds of operatic voices is described in detail below. Over the 18th century, arias were accompanied by the orchestra. Subsequent composers have tended to follow Wagners example, though some, the changing role of the orchestra in opera is described in more detail below
Opera
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The performers from the Atlanta Opera sing the finale of
Lucia di Lammermoor. The
opera orchestra is visible in the lowered area in front of the stage.
Opera
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The
Palais Garnier of the
Paris Opéra, one of the world's most famous
opera houses.
Opera
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Claudio Monteverdi
Opera
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George Frideric Handel, 1733
