1.
Emil Stumpp
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Emil Stumpp was a German painter teacher and artist known for his cartoons and drawings of well-known people in the 1930s during the Weimar Republic. He died in 1941 in jail after returning to Germany and he had left after drawing an unflattering portrait of Adolf Hitler. Stumpp was born in Neckarzimmern in southeastern Germany, but he moved with his family at the age of three to Worms, when he was eight the family moved to Karlsruhe. Stumpp served in the first world war reaching the rank of lieutenant and his early education had been in Karlsruhe, Uppsala and in Berlin. He studied art as well as philosophy, history and German, in 1924 he left his teaching post to become a full-time artist, despite having a wife and five children to support. He was eventually commissioned to create a portrait of Adolf Hitler for his birthday in 1933, the work was not well received and the portrait, Strumpp, his paper, and its editor were all prohibited. Stumpp left the country but he was denounced on a return in 1940, Stumpp was given an exhibition in Dortmund in 1996 at the Institut für Zeitungsforschung der Stadt. He left about 6,000 drawings which were all drawn from life
2.
Austria
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Austria, officially the Republic of Austria, is a federal republic and a landlocked country of over 8.7 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Hungary and Slovakia to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, the territory of Austria covers 83,879 km2. The terrain is mountainous, lying within the Alps, only 32% of the country is below 500 m. The majority of the population speaks local Bavarian dialects of German as their native language, other local official languages are Hungarian, Burgenland Croatian, and Slovene. The origins of modern-day Austria date back to the time of the Habsburg dynasty, from the time of the Reformation, many northern German princes, resenting the authority of the Emperor, used Protestantism as a flag of rebellion. Following Napoleons defeat, Prussia emerged as Austrias chief competitor for rule of a greater Germany, Austrias defeat by Prussia at the Battle of Königgrätz, during the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, cleared the way for Prussia to assert control over the rest of Germany. In 1867, the empire was reformed into Austria-Hungary, Austria was thus the first to go to war in the July Crisis, which would ultimately escalate into World War I. The First Austrian Republic was established in 1919, in 1938 Nazi Germany annexed Austria in the Anschluss. This lasted until the end of World War II in 1945, after which Germany was occupied by the Allies, in 1955, the Austrian State Treaty re-established Austria as a sovereign state, ending the occupation. In the same year, the Austrian Parliament created the Declaration of Neutrality which declared that the Second Austrian Republic would become permanently neutral, today, Austria is a parliamentary representative democracy comprising nine federal states. The capital and largest city, with a population exceeding 1.7 million, is Vienna, other major urban areas of Austria include Graz, Linz, Salzburg and Innsbruck. Austria is one of the richest countries in the world, with a nominal per capita GDP of $43,724, the country has developed a high standard of living and in 2014 was ranked 21st in the world for its Human Development Index. Austria has been a member of the United Nations since 1955, joined the European Union in 1995, Austria also signed the Schengen Agreement in 1995, and adopted the euro currency in 1999. The German name for Austria, Österreich, meant eastern realm in Old High German, and is cognate with the word Ostarrîchi and this word is probably a translation of Medieval Latin Marchia orientalis into a local dialect. Austria was a prefecture of Bavaria created in 976, the word Austria is a Latinisation of the German name and was first recorded in the 12th century. Accordingly, Norig would essentially mean the same as Ostarrîchi and Österreich, the Celtic name was eventually Latinised to Noricum after the Romans conquered the area that encloses most of modern-day Austria, around 15 BC. Noricum later became a Roman province in the mid-first century AD, heers hypothesis is not accepted by linguists. Settled in ancient times, the Central European land that is now Austria was occupied in pre-Roman times by various Celtic tribes, the Celtic kingdom of Noricum was later claimed by the Roman Empire and made a province
3.
Composer
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A composer is a person who creates or writes music, which can be vocal music, instrumental music or music which combines both instruments and voices. The core meaning of the term refers to individuals who have contributed to the tradition of Western classical music through creation of works expressed in written musical notation, many composers are also skilled performers, either as singers, instrumentalists, and/or conductors. Examples of composers who are well known for their ability as performers include J. S. Bach, Mozart. In many popular genres, such as rock and country. For a singer or instrumental performer, the process of deciding how to perform music that has previously composed and notated is termed interpretation. Different performers interpretations of the work of music can vary widely, in terms of the tempos that are chosen. Composers and songwriters who present their own music are interpreting, just as much as those who perform the music of others, although a musical composition often has a single author, this is not always the case. A piece of music can also be composed with words, images, or, in the 20th and 21st century, a culture eventually developed whereby faithfulness to the composers written intention came to be highly valued. This musical culture is almost certainly related to the esteem in which the leading classical composers are often held by performers. The movement might be considered a way of creating greater faithfulness to the original in works composed at a time that expected performers to improvise. In Classical music, the composer typically orchestrates her own compositions, in some cases, a pop songwriter may not use notation at all, and instead compose the song in her mind and then play or record it from memory. In jazz and popular music, notable recordings by influential performers are given the weight that written scores play in classical music. The level of distinction between composers and other musicians varies, which issues such as copyright and the deference given to individual interpretations of a particular piece of music. In the development of European classical music, the function of composing music initially did not have greater importance than that of performing it. The preservation of individual compositions did not receive attention and musicians generally had no qualms about modifying compositions for performance. In as much as the role of the composer in western art music has seen continued solidification, for instance, in certain contexts the line between composer and performer, sound designer, arranger, producer, and other roles, can be quite blurred. The term composer is often used to refer to composers of music, such as those found in classical, jazz or other forms of art. In popular and folk music, the composer is usually called a songwriter and this is distinct from a 19th-century conception of instrumental composition, where the work was represented solely by a musical score to be interpreted by performers
4.
Second Viennese School
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Though this common development took place, it neither followed a common time-line nor a cooperative path. Likewise, it was not a result of Schoenbergs teaching—which, as his various published textbooks demonstrate, was highly traditional. Schoenbergs textbooks also reveal that the Second Viennese School spawned not from the development of his serial method, the principal members of the school, besides Schoenberg, were Alban Berg and Anton Webern, who were among his first composition pupils. Both of them had already produced copious and talented music in a late Romantic idiom but felt they gained new direction, pisk, Karl Rankl, Josef Rufer, Nikos Skalkottas, Viktor Ullmann, and Winfried Zillig. Though the school included highly distinct musical personalities the impression of cohesiveness was enhanced by the efforts of some of its members. Several of those mentioned were also influential as teachers, and others as performers, in disseminating the ideals, ideas, german musical literature refers to the grouping as the Wiener Schule or Neue Wiener Schule. The existence of a First Viennese School is debatable, though Mozart and Schubert did not study with Haydn, Mozart and Haydn were admirers of each others work and evidence suggests that the two composers fed off the others compositional craftsmanship. Beethoven, however, did for a time receive lessons from the master, though he was not a pupil in the sense that Berg. Skandalkonzert René Leibowitz, Schoenberg et son école translated by Dika Newlin as Schoenberg and His School, The Contemporary Stage of the Language of Music Arnold Schoenberg Center in Vienna
5.
Romantic music
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Romantic music is an era of Western classical music that began in the late 18th or early 19th century. In the Romantic period, music became more expressive and emotional, expanding to encompass literary, artistic, famous early Romantic composers include Beethoven, Schubert, Schumann, Chopin, Mendelssohn, Bellini, and Berlioz. The late 19th century saw an expansion in the size of the orchestra and in the dynamic range. Also, public concerts became a key part of middle class society, in contrast to earlier periods. Famous composers from the half of the century include Johann Strauss II, Brahms, Liszt, Tchaikovsky, Verdi. A prominent mark of late 19th century music is its nationalistic fervor, as exemplified by such figures as Dvořák, Sibelius, other prominent late-century figures include Saint-Saëns, Fauré, Rachmaninoff and Franck. The Romantic movement was an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that originated in the half of the 18th century in Europe. In part, it was a revolt against social and political norms of the Age of Enlightenment and a reaction against the scientific rationalization of nature. It was embodied most strongly in the arts, music, and literature, but had a major impact on historiography and education. One of the first significant applications of the term to music was in 1789, in the Mémoires by the Frenchman André Grétry, in the first of these essays Hoffmann traced the beginnings of musical Romanticism to the later works of Haydn and Mozart. It was also through the writings of Hoffmann and other German authors that German music was brought to the centre of musical Romanticism, the attributes have also been criticized for being too vague. For example, features of the ghostly and supernatural could apply equally to Mozarts Don Giovanni from 1787, events and changes that happen in society such as ideas, attitudes, discoveries, inventions, and historical events always affect music. For example, the Industrial Revolution was in effect by the late 18th century. This event had a profound effect on music, there were major improvements in the mechanical valves. The new and innovative instruments could be played with greater ease, another development that had an effect on music was the rise of the middle class. Composers before this period lived on the patronage of the aristocracy, many times their audience was small, composed mostly of the upper class and individuals who were knowledgeable about music. The Romantic composers, on the hand, often wrote for public concerts and festivals, with large audiences of paying customers. Composers of the Romantic Era, like Elgar, showed the world that there should be no segregation of musical tastes, during the Romantic period, music often took on a much more nationalistic purpose
6.
Twelve-tone technique
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All 12 notes are thus given more or less equal importance, and the music avoids being in a key. Over time, the technique increased greatly in popularity and eventually became widely influential on 20th century composers, many important composers who had originally not subscribed to or even actively opposed the technique, such as Aaron Copland and Igor Stravinsky, eventually adopted it in their music. Schoenberg himself described the system as a Method of composing with twelve tones which are related only with one another and it is commonly considered a form of serialism. Schoenbergs countryman and contemporary Josef Matthias Hauer also developed a system using unordered hexachords or tropes—but with no connection to Schoenbergs twelve-tone technique. Other composers have created systematic use of the scale. The twelve tone technique was preceded by freely atonal pieces of 1908–23 which, though free, the twelve-tone technique was also preceded by nondodecaphonic serial composition used independently in the works of Alexander Scriabin, Igor Stravinsky, Béla Bartók, Carl Ruggles, and others. Oliver Neighbour argues that Bartók was the first composer to use a group of twelve notes consciously for a structural purpose, essentially, Schoenberg and Hauer systematized and defined for their own dodecaphonic purposes a pervasive technical feature of modern musical practice, the ostinato. In Hauers breakthrough piece Nomos, Op. Schoenbergs idea in developing the technique was for it to replace those structural differentiations provided formerly by tonal harmonies, Some of these composers extended the technique to control aspects other than the pitches of notes, thus producing serial music. Some even subjected all elements of music to the serial process, the basis of the twelve-tone technique is the tone row, an ordered arrangement of the twelve notes of the chromatic scale. There are four postulates or preconditions to the technique which apply to the row, on which a work or section is based, no note is repeated within the row. The row may be subjected to interval-preserving transformations -—that is, it may appear in inversion, retrograde, or retrograde-inversion, the row in any of its four transformations may begin on any degree of the chromatic scale, in other words it may be freely transposed. A particular transformation together with a choice of transpositional level is referred to as a set form or row form, every row thus has up to 48 different row forms. However, not all prime series will yield so many variations because transposed transformations may be identical to each other. A simple case is the chromatic scale, the retrograde inversion of which is identical to the prime form. In the above example, as is typical, the retrograde inversion contains three points where the sequence of two pitches are identical to the prime row, thus the generative power of even the most basic transformations is both unpredictable and inevitable. Motivic development can be driven by such internal consistency, note that rules 1–4 above apply to the construction of the row itself, and not to the interpretation of the row in the composition. While a row may be expressed literally on the surface as thematic material, it need not be, however, individual composers have constructed more detailed systems in which matters such as these are also governed by systematic rules. The tone row chosen as the basis of the piece is called the prime series, untransposed, it is notated as P0
7.
Vienna
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Vienna is the capital and largest city of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austrias primary city, with a population of about 1.8 million, and its cultural, economic and it is the 7th-largest city by population within city limits in the European Union. Today, it has the second largest number of German speakers after Berlin, Vienna is host to many major international organizations, including the United Nations and OPEC. The city is located in the part of Austria and is close to the borders of the Czech Republic, Slovakia. These regions work together in a European Centrope border region, along with nearby Bratislava, Vienna forms a metropolitan region with 3 million inhabitants. In 2001, the city centre was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, apart from being regarded as the City of Music because of its musical legacy, Vienna is also said to be The City of Dreams because it was home to the worlds first psycho-analyst – Sigmund Freud. The citys roots lie in early Celtic and Roman settlements that transformed into a Medieval and Baroque city and it is well known for having played an essential role as a leading European music centre, from the great age of Viennese Classicism through the early part of the 20th century. The historic centre of Vienna is rich in architectural ensembles, including Baroque castles and gardens, Vienna is known for its high quality of life. In a 2005 study of 127 world cities, the Economist Intelligence Unit ranked the city first for the worlds most liveable cities, between 2011 and 2015, Vienna was ranked second, behind Melbourne, Australia. Monocles 2015 Quality of Life Survey ranked Vienna second on a list of the top 25 cities in the world to make a base within, the UN-Habitat has classified Vienna as being the most prosperous city in the world in 2012/2013. Vienna regularly hosts urban planning conferences and is used as a case study by urban planners. Between 2005 and 2010, Vienna was the worlds number-one destination for international congresses and it attracts over 3.7 million tourists a year. The English name Vienna is borrowed from the homonymous Italian version of the name or the French Vienne. The etymology of the name is still subject to scholarly dispute. Some claim that the name comes from Vedunia, meaning forest stream, which produced the Old High German Uuenia. A variant of this Celtic name could be preserved in the Czech and Slovak names of the city, the name of the city in Hungarian, Serbo-Croatian and Ottoman Turkish has a different, probably Slavonic origin, and originally referred to an Avar fort in the area. Slovene-speakers call the city Dunaj, which in other Central European Slavic languages means the Danube River, evidence has been found of continuous habitation since 500 BC, when the site of Vienna on the Danube River was settled by the Celts. In 15 BC, the Romans fortified the city they called Vindobona to guard the empire against Germanic tribes to the north
8.
Literature
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Literature, in its broadest sense, is any single body of written works. Its Latin root literatura/litteratura was used to refer to all written accounts, developments in print technology have allowed an evergrowing distribution and proliferation of written works, culminating in electronic literature. There have been attempts to define literature. Simon and Delyse Ryan begin their attempt to answer the question What is Literature, with the observation, The quest to discover a definition for literature is a road that is much travelled, though the point of arrival, if ever reached, is seldom satisfactory. Most attempted definitions are broad and vague, and they change over time. In fact, the thing that is certain about defining literature is that the definition will change. Concepts of what is literature change over time as well, definitions of literature have varied over time, it is a culturally relative definition. In Western Europe prior to the century, literature as a term indicated all books. A more restricted sense of the term emerged during the Romantic period, contemporary debates over what constitutes literature can be seen as returning to the older, more inclusive notion of what constitutes literature. Cultural studies, for instance, takes as its subject of both popular and minority genres, in addition to canonical works. The value judgment definition of literature considers it to cover exclusively those writings that possess high quality or distinction and this sort of definition is that used in the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition when it classifies literature as the best expression of the best thought reduced to writing. The formalist definition is that literature foregrounds poetic effects, it is the literariness or poetic of literature that distinguishes it from ordinary speech or other kinds of writing. Etymologically, the term derives from Latin literatura/litteratura learning, a writing, grammar, originally writing formed with letters, in spite of this, the term has also been applied to spoken or sung texts. Poetry is a form of art which uses aesthetic and rhythmic qualities of language to evoke meanings in addition to, or in place of. Possibly as a result of Aristotles influence, poetry before the century was usually less a technical designation for verse than a normative category of fictive or rhetorical art. As a form it may pre-date literacy, with the earliest works being composed within and sustained by an oral tradition, novel, a long fictional prose narrative. It was the close relation to real life that differentiated it from the chivalric romance, in most European languages the equivalent term is roman. In English, the term emerged from the Romance languages in the fifteenth century, with the meaning of news, it came to indicate something new
9.
Music
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Music is an art form and cultural activity whose medium is sound organized in time. The common elements of music are pitch, rhythm, dynamics, different styles or types of music may emphasize, de-emphasize or omit some of these elements. The word derives from Greek μουσική, Ancient Greek and Indian philosophers defined music as tones ordered horizontally as melodies and vertically as harmonies. Common sayings such as the harmony of the spheres and it is music to my ears point to the notion that music is often ordered and pleasant to listen to. However, 20th-century composer John Cage thought that any sound can be music, saying, for example, There is no noise, the creation, performance, significance, and even the definition of music vary according to culture and social context. There are many types of music, including music, traditional music, art music, music written for religious ceremonies. For example, it can be hard to draw the line between some early 1980s hard rock and heavy metal, within the arts, music may be classified as a performing art, a fine art or as an auditory art. People may make music as a hobby, like a teen playing cello in a youth orchestra, the word derives from Greek μουσική. According to the Online Etymological Dictionary, the music is derived from mid-13c. Musike, from Old French musique and directly from Latin musica the art of music and this is derived from the. Greek mousike of the Muses, from fem. of mousikos pertaining to the Muses, from Mousa Muse. In classical Greece, any art in which the Muses presided, Music is composed and performed for many purposes, ranging from aesthetic pleasure, religious or ceremonial purposes, or as an entertainment product for the marketplace. With the advent of recording, records of popular songs. Some music lovers create mix tapes of their songs, which serve as a self-portrait. An environment consisting solely of what is most ardently loved, amateur musicians can compose or perform music for their own pleasure, and derive their income elsewhere. Professional musicians sometimes work as freelancers or session musicians, seeking contracts and engagements in a variety of settings, There are often many links between amateur and professional musicians. Beginning amateur musicians take lessons with professional musicians, in community settings, advanced amateur musicians perform with professional musicians in a variety of ensembles such as community concert bands and community orchestras. However, there are many cases where a live performance in front of an audience is also recorded and distributed. Live concert recordings are popular in classical music and in popular music forms such as rock, where illegally taped live concerts are prized by music lovers
10.
Arnold Schoenberg
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Arnold Franz Walter Schoenberg or Schönberg was an Austrian composer, music theorist, and painter. He was associated with the expressionist movement in German poetry and art, by 1938, with the rise of the Nazi Party, Schoenbergs works were labeled degenerate music, because he was Jewish. He moved to the United States in 1934, Schoenbergs approach, both in terms of harmony and development, has been one of the most influential of 20th-century musical thought. Many European and American composers from at least three generations have consciously extended his thinking, whereas others have reacted against it. Schoenberg was known early in his career for simultaneously extending the traditionally opposed German Romantic styles of Brahms, later, his name would come to personify innovations in atonality that would become the most polemical feature of 20th-century art music. In the 1920s, Schoenberg developed the technique, an influential compositional method of manipulating an ordered series of all twelve notes in the chromatic scale. He also coined the term developing variation and was the first modern composer to embrace ways of developing motifs without resorting to the dominance of a melodic idea. Schoenbergs archival legacy is collected at the Arnold Schönberg Center in Vienna, Arnold Schoenberg was born into a lower middle-class Jewish family in the Leopoldstadt district of Vienna, at Obere Donaustraße 5. His father Samuel, a native of Bratislava, was a shopkeeper and he took only counterpoint lessons with the composer Alexander Zemlinsky, who was to become his first brother-in-law. In his twenties, Schoenberg earned a living by orchestrating operettas, while composing his own works and he later made an orchestral version of this, which became one of his most popular pieces. Strauss turned to a more conservative idiom in his own work after 1909, Mahler adopted him as a protégé and continued to support him, even after Schoenbergs style reached a point Mahler could no longer understand. Mahler worried about who would look after him after his death, Schoenberg, who had initially despised and mocked Mahlers music, was converted by the thunderbolt of Mahlers Third Symphony, which he considered a work of genius. Afterward he spoke of Mahler as a saint, in 1898 Schoenberg converted to Christianity in the Lutheran church. According to MacDonald this was partly to strengthen his attachment to Western European cultural traditions and he would self-identify as a member of the Jewish religion later in life. In October 1901, he married Mathilde Zemlinsky, the sister of the conductor and composer Alexander von Zemlinsky and he and Mathilde had two children, Gertrud and Georg. Gertrud would marry Schoenbergs pupil Felix Greissle in 1921, during the summer of 1908, his wife Mathilde left him for several months for a young Austrian painter, Richard Gerstl. This period marked a change in Schoenbergs work. This was the first composition without any reference at all to a key, also in this year, he completed one of his most revolutionary compositions, the String Quartet No
11.
Counterpoint
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In music, counterpoint is the relationship between voices that are harmonically interdependent yet independent in rhythm and contour. It has been most commonly identified in the European classical tradition, strongly developing during the Renaissance and in much of the common practice period, the term originates from the Latin punctus contra punctum meaning point against point. Counterpoint generally involves musical lines with strongly independent identities, Counterpoint has been used to designate a voice or even an entire composition. In each era, contrapuntally organized music writing has been subject to rules—sometimes strict ones, chords are the simultaneous soundings of notes, whereas harmonic, vertical features are considered secondary and almost incidental when counterpoint is the predominant textural element. Counterpoint focuses on melodic interaction—only secondarily on the produced by that interaction. In the words of John Rahn, It is hard to write a beautiful song and it is harder to write several individually beautiful songs that, when sung simultaneously, sound as a more beautiful polyphonic whole. The way that is accomplished in detail is, some examples of related compositional techniques include, the round, the canon, and perhaps the most complex contrapuntal convention, the fugue. All of these are examples of imitative counterpoint, Species counterpoint generally offers less freedom to the composer than other types of counterpoint and therefore is called a strict counterpoint. The student gradually attains the ability to free counterpoint according to the given rules at the time. The idea is at least as old as 1532, when Giovanni Maria Lanfranco described a concept in his Scintille di musica. Zacconi, unlike later theorists, included a few extra contrapuntal techniques, a succession of later theorists quite closely imitated Fuxs seminal work, often with some small and idiosyncratic modifications in the rules. The following rules apply to melodic writing in each species, for each part, if the final is approached from below, then the leading tone must be raised in a minor key, but not in Phrygian or Hypophrygian mode. Thus, in the Dorian mode on D, a C♯ is necessary at the cadence, permitted melodic intervals are the perfect fourth, fifth, and octave, as well as the major and minor second, major and minor third, and ascending minor sixth. The ascending minor sixth must be followed by motion downwards. The three notes should be from the triad, if this is impossible, they should not outline more than one octave. In general, do not write more than two skips in the same direction, if writing a skip in one direction, it is best to proceed after the skip with motion in the other direction. The interval of a tritone in three notes should be avoided as is the interval of a seventh in three notes, there must be a climax or high point in the line countering the cantus firmus. This usually occurs somewhere in the middle of exercise and must occur on a strong beat, an outlining of a seventh is avoided within a single line moving in the same direction
12.
Music theory
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Music theory is the study of the practices and possibilities of music. The term is used in three ways in music, though all three are interrelated. The first is what is otherwise called rudiments, currently taught as the elements of notation, of key signatures, of time signatures, of rhythmic notation, Theory in this sense is treated as the necessary preliminary to the study of harmony, counterpoint, and form. The second is the study of writings about music from ancient times onwards, Music theory is frequently concerned with describing how musicians and composers make music, including tuning systems and composition methods among other topics. However, this medieval discipline became the basis for tuning systems in later centuries, Music theory as a practical discipline encompasses the methods and concepts composers and other musicians use in creating music. The development, preservation, and transmission of music theory in this sense may be found in oral and written music-making traditions, musical instruments, and other artifacts. In ancient and living cultures around the world, the deep and long roots of music theory are clearly visible in instruments, oral traditions, and current music making. Many cultures, at least as far back as ancient Mesopotamia and ancient China, have also considered music theory in more formal ways such as written treatises, in modern academia, music theory is a subfield of musicology, the wider study of musical cultures and history. Etymologically, music theory is an act of contemplation of music, from the Greek θεωρία, a looking at, viewing, contemplation, speculation, theory, also a sight, a person who researches, teaches, or writes articles about music theory is a music theorist. University study, typically to the M. A. or Ph. D level, is required to teach as a music theorist in a US or Canadian university. Methods of analysis include mathematics, graphic analysis, and especially analysis enabled by Western music notation, comparative, descriptive, statistical, and other methods are also used. See for instance Paleolithic flutes, Gǔdí, and Anasazi flute, several surviving Sumerian and Akkadian clay tablets include musical information of a theoretical nature, mainly lists of intervals and tunings. The scholar Sam Mirelman reports that the earliest of these dates from before 1500 BCE. Further, All the Mesopotamian texts are united by the use of a terminology for music that, much of Chinese music history and theory remains unclear. The earliest texts about Chinese music theory are inscribed on the stone and they include more than 2800 words describing theories and practices of music pitches of the time. The bells produce two intertwined pentatonic scales three tones apart with additional pitches completing the chromatic scale, Chinese theory starts from numbers, the main musical numbers being twelve, five and eight. Twelve refers to the number of pitches on which the scales can be constructed, the Lüshi chunqiu from about 239 BCE recalls the legend of Ling Lun. On order of the Yellow Emperor, Ling Lun collected twelve bamboo lengths with thick, blowing on one of these like a pipe, he found its sound agreeable and named it huangzhong, the Yellow Bell
13.
Harmony
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In music, harmony considers the process by which the composition of individual sounds, or superpositions of sounds, is analysed by hearing. Usually, this means simultaneously occurring frequencies, pitches, or chords, the study of harmony involves chords and their construction and chord progressions and the principles of connection that govern them. Harmony is often said to refer to the aspect of music, as distinguished from melodic line. In popular and jazz harmony, chords are named by their root plus various terms, in many types of music, notably baroque, romantic, modern, and jazz, chords are often augmented with tensions. A tension is an additional member that creates a relatively dissonant interval in relation to the bass. Typically, in the common practice period a dissonant chord resolves to a consonant chord. Harmonization usually sounds pleasant to the ear when there is a balance between the consonant and dissonant sounds, in simple words, that occurs when there is a balance between tense and relaxed moments. The term harmony derives from the Greek ἁρμονία, meaning joint, agreement, concord, from the verb ἁρμόζω, to fit together, the term was often used for the whole field of music, while music referred to the arts in general. In Ancient Greece, the term defined the combination of contrasted elements, in the Middle Ages the term was used to describe two pitches sounding in combination, and in the Renaissance the concept was expanded to denote three pitches sounding together. Aristoxenus wrote a work entitled Harmonika Stoicheia, which is thought the first work in European history written on the subject of harmony, the underlying principle behind these texts is that harmony sanctions harmoniousness by conforming to certain pre-established compositional principles. Current dictionary definitions, while attempting to give concise descriptions, often highlight the ambiguity of the term in modern use, ambiguities tend to arise from either aesthetic considerations or from the point of view of musical texture (distinguishing between harmonic and contrapuntal. The view that modern tonal harmony in Western music began in about 1600 is commonplace in music theory and this is usually accounted for by the replacement of horizontal writing, common in the music of the Renaissance, with a new emphasis on the vertical element of composed music. Modern theorists, however, tend to see this as an unsatisfactory generalisation, as Carl Dahlhaus puts it, It was not that counterpoint was supplanted by harmony but that an older type both of counterpoint and of vertical technique was succeeded by a newer type. And harmony comprises not only the structure of chords but also their movement, like music as a whole, harmony is a process. Descriptions and definitions of harmony and harmonic practice may show bias towards European musical traditions, pitch simultaneity in particular is rarely a major consideration. Nevertheless, emphasis on the precomposed in European art music and the written theory surrounding it shows considerable cultural bias, the conception of musics that live in oral traditions as something composed with the use of improvisatory techniques separates them from the higher-standing works that use notation. Yet the evolution of harmonic practice and language itself, in Western art music, is and was facilitated by this process of prior composition, some traditions of Western music performance, composition, and theory have specific rules of harmony. This model provides that the seventh and ninth are not dissonant
14.
Musical composition
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People who create new compositions are called composers in classical music. In popular music and traditional music, the creators of new songs are usually called songwriters, with songs, Composition is the act or practice of creating a song or other piece of music. In popular music and traditional music, songwriting may involve the creation of an outline of the song, called the lead sheet. In classical music, orchestration is typically done by the composer, in some cases, a pop or traditional songwriter may not use written notation at all, and instead compose the song in her mind and then play, sing and/or record it from memory. In jazz and popular music, notable recordings by influential performers are given the weight that written or printed scores play in classical music. Although a musical composition often uses musical notation and has a single author, a piece of music can also be composed with words, images, or, since the 20th century, with computer programs that explain or notate how the singer or musician should create musical sounds. A more commonly known example of chance-based music is the sound of wind chimes jingling in a breeze, although in the 2000s, composition is considered to consist of the manipulation of each aspect of music, according to Jean-Benjamin de Laborde, Composition consists in two things only. The first is the ordering and disposing of several sounds. in such a manner that their succession pleases the ear and this is what the Ancients called melody. The second is the rendering audible of two or more simultaneous sounds in such a manner that their combination is pleasant and this is what we call harmony, and it alone merits the name of composition. In classical music, a piece of music exists in the form of a composition in musical notation or as a live acoustic event. Since the invention of recording, a classical piece or popular song may also exist as a recording. If music is composed before being performed, music can be performed from memory, by reading written musical notation, compositions comprise a huge variety of musical elements, which vary widely from between genres and cultures. Popular music genres after about 1960 make extensive use of electric and electronic instruments, such as electric guitar, electric and electronic instruments are used in contemporary classical music compositions and concerts, albeit to a lesser degree than in popular music. Music from the Baroque music era, for example, used only acoustic and mechanical such as strings, brass, woodwinds, timpani and keyboard instruments such as harpsichord. A 2000s-era pop band may use electric guitar played with electronic effects through a guitar amplifier, different musical styles permit singers or performers to use various amounts of musical improvisation during the performance of a composed song or piece. In free jazz, the performers may play without any sheet music, improvisation is the act of composing musical elements spontaneously during the performance, as opposed to having a composer write down the music beforehand. Improvisation was an important skill during the Baroque music era, instrumentalists and singers were expected to be able to improvise ornaments, during the classical period, solo instrumentalists were expected to be able to improvise virtuostic cadenzas during a concerto. During the Romantic music era, composers began writing out ornaments and cadenzas, in contemporary classical music, some composers began writing pieces which indicate that the performer should improvise during certain sections
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Piano sonata
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A piano sonata is a sonata written for a solo piano. Piano sonatas are written in three or four movements, although some piano sonatas have been written with a single movement. The first movement is composed in sonata form. In the Baroque era, the use of the term generally referred to either the sonata da chiesa or sonata da camera. The keyboard sonata was relatively neglected by most composers, the sonatas of Domenico Scarlatti were the hallmark of the Baroque keyboard sonata, though they were for the most part unpublished during Scarlattis lifetime. The majority of these sonatas are in one-movement binary form, both sections being in the tempo and utilizing the same thematic material. These sonatas are prized for both their technical difficulty and their musical and formal ingenuity, the influence of Spanish folk music is evident in Scarlattis sonatas. Other composers of keyboard sonatas include Marcello, Giustini, Durante, all the well-known Classical era composers, especially Joseph Haydn, Muzio Clementi, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, and Ludwig van Beethoven, wrote many piano sonatas. Muzio Clementi wrote more than 110 piano sonatas and he is well known as The Father of the Pianoforte. Clementis Opus 2 was the first real piano sonata composed, the much younger Franz Schubert also wrote many. The 32 sonatas of Ludwig van Beethoven, including the well-known Pathétique Sonata, Franz Liszts comprehensive three-movements-in-one Sonata in B minor draws on the concept of thematic transformation first introduced by Schubert in his Wanderer Fantasie of 1822. Piano sonatas have been throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach Württemberg Sonata No.1 in A minor, H.30, 49/1 Prussian Sonata No.4 in C minor, Wq. 1840-60 Janáček, Leoš Piano Sonata 1. X.1905 Liebermann, Lowell Piano Sonata No
16.
Theodor W. Adorno
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Theodor W. Adorno was a German philosopher, sociologist, and composer known for his critical theory of society. He is widely regarded as one of the 20th centurys foremost thinkers on aesthetics and philosophy, as a writer of polemics in the tradition of Nietzsche and Karl Kraus, Adorno delivered scathing critiques of contemporary Western culture. Theodor W. Adorno was born as Theodor Ludwig Wiesengrund in Frankfurt am Main on September 11,1903, the only child of Oscar Alexander Wiesengrund and Maria Calvelli-Adorno della Piana. His mother, a devout Catholic from Corsica, was once a professional singer, while his father, proud of her origins, Maria wanted her sons paternal surname to be supplemented by the addition of her own name, Adorno. Thus his earliest publications carried the name Theodor Wiesengrund-Adorno, upon his application for US citizenship and he was not only a precocious child but, as he recalled later in life, a child prodigy who could play pieces by Beethoven on the piano by the time he was twelve. At the age of six, he attended the Deutschherren middle school before transferring to the Kaiser-Wilhelm Gymnasium, I took this motif so much as my own that I do not believe I have ever written anything without reference to it, either implicit or explicit. Yet Adornos intellectual nonconformism was no less shaped by the repugnance he felt towards the nationalism which swept through the Reich during the First World War, the younger generations distrust for traditional knowledge arose from the way in which this tradition had discredited itself. Over time, Oscar Wiesengrunds firm established close professional and personal ties with the factory of Karplus & Herzberger in Berlin, I am not exaggerating in the slightest when I say that I owe more to this reading than to my academic teachers. In the summer of 1924, Adorno received his doctorate with a study of Edmund Husserl under the direction of the unorthodox neo-Kantian Hans Cornelius, before his graduation, Adorno had already met with his most important intellectual collaborators, Max Horkheimer and Walter Benjamin. Through Corneliuss seminars, Adorno met his future collaborator Max Horkheimer, in Vienna, he attended public lectures of the satirist Karl Kraus with Berg and met Lukács, who had been living in Vienna after the failure of the Hungarian Soviet Republic. Alban Berg, the man Adorno referred to as my master and teacher, was among the most prescient of his young pupils early friends, convinced that and you are capable of supreme achievements and will undoubtedly fulfill this promise in the shape of great philosophical works. In December 1926 Adornos Two Pieces for String Quartet, op.2 were performed in Vienna, after writing the Piano Pieces in strict twelve-tone technique, as well as songs later integrated into the Six Bagatelles for Voice and Piano, op. 6, Adorno presented his Habilitation manuscript, The Concept of the Unconscious in the Transcendental Theory of the Psyche, Cornelius advised Adorno to withdraw his application on the grounds that the manuscript was too close to his own way of thinking. In this manuscript, Adorno attempted to underline the epistemological status of the unconscious as it emerged from Freuds early writings, against the function of the unconscious in both Nietzsche and Spengler, Adorno argued that Freuds notion of the unconscious serves as a sharp weapon. Against every attempt to create a metaphysics of the instincts and to deify full, undaunted by his academic prospects, Adorno threw himself once again into composition. In addition to publishing numerous reviews of performances and concerts, Adornos Four Songs for Medium Voice and Piano. Between 1928 and 1930 Adorno took on a role within the editorial committee of the Musikblätter des Anbruch. During this period he published the essays Night Music, On Twelve-Tone Technique and Reaction, at this time, Adorno struck up a correspondence with the composer Ernst Krenek, with whom he discussed problems of atonality and twelve-tone technique
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Musical development
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In classical music, musical development is a process by which a musical idea is communicated in the course of a composition. It refers to the transformation and restatement of initial material, development is often contrasted with musical variation, which is a slightly different means to the same end. Development is carried out upon portions of material treated in many different presentations and combinations at a time, listeners may apprehend a tension between expected and real results, which is one element of surprise in music. In sonata form, the section is called the development. Typically, in section, material from the exposition section is developed. In some older texts, this section may be referred to as free fantasia, according to the Oxford Companion to Music there are several ways of developing a theme. These include, The division of a theme into parts, each of which can be developed in any of the ways or recombined in a new way. Similarly, two or more themes can be developed in combination, in cases, themes are composed with this possibility in mind. Alteration of pitch intervals while retaining the original rhythm, rhythmic displacement, so that the metrical stress occurs at a different point in the otherwise unchanged theme. Sequence, either diatonically within a key or through a succession of keys, the Scherzo movement from Beethovens Piano Sonata No.15 in D major, Op 28 shows a number of these processes at work on a small scale. Developing variation Fugue#Development Secondary development Sequence
18.
Quartal and quintal harmony
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In music, quartal harmony is the building of harmonic structures with a distinct preference for the intervals of the perfect fourth, the augmented fourth and the diminished fourth. Quintal harmony is harmonic structure preferring the perfect fifth, the augmented fifth, use of the terms quartal and quintal arises from a contrast, compositional or perceptual, with traditional tertian harmonic constructions. Quintal harmony is a term, and since the fifth is the inversion or complement of the fourth. Indeed, a circle of fifths can be arranged in fourths, in the Middle Ages, simultaneous notes a fourth apart were heard as a consonance. During the common practice period, this came to be heard either as a dissonance or as a consonance. In the later 19th century, during the breakdown of tonality in classical music, Quartal harmony was developed in the early 20th century as a result of this breakdown and reevaluation of tonality. The Tristan chord is made up of the notes F♮, B♮, D♯, the bottom two notes make up an augmented fourth, the upper two make up a perfect fourth. This layering of fourths in this context has been seen as highly significant, beethovens use of the chord is of short duration and it resolves in the accepted manner, whereas Wagners use lasts much longer and resolves in a highly unorthodox manner for the time. Wagners unusual chord is really a device to draw the listener into the argument which the composer is presenting to us. However, fourths become important later in the opera, especially in the melodic development, at the beginning of the 20th century, fourth-based chords finally became an important element of harmony. Scriabin used a system of transposition using fourth-chords, like his Mystic chord in his Piano Sonata No.6. Scriabins sketches for his unfinished work Mysterium show that he intended to develop the Mystic chord into a huge chord incorporating all twelve notes of the chromatic scale, in France, Erik Satie experimented with planing in the stacked fourths of his 1891 score for Le Fils des étoiles. Quartal harmony in Ravels Sonatine and Ma mère loye would follow a few years later, composers who use the techniques of quartal harmony include Claude Debussy, Francis Poulenc, Alexander Scriabin, Alban Berg, Leonard Bernstein, Arnold Schoenberg, Igor Stravinsky, and Anton Webern. Arnold Schoenbergs Chamber Symphony Op.9 displays quartal harmony, the first measures construct a five-part fourth chord with the notes C – F – B♭ – E♭ – A♭ distributed over several instruments. The composer then picks out this vertical quartal harmony in a sequence of fourths from the horns. Schoenberg was also one of the first to write on the consequences of this harmonic innovation. But the quartal construction makes possible, as I said, accommodation of all phenomena of harmony, for Anton Webern, the importance of quartal harmony lay in the possibility of building new sounds. After hearing Schoenbergs Chamber Symphony, Webern wrote You must write something like that, hindemith constructed large parts of his symphonic work Symphony, Mathis der Maler by means of fourth and fifth intervals
19.
Alexander von Zemlinsky
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Alexander Zemlinsky or Alexander von Zemlinsky was an Austrian composer, conductor, and teacher. Zemlinsky was born in Vienna to a multicultural family. Zemlinskys grandfather, Anton Semlinski, emigrated from Žilina, Hungary to Austria, both were from staunchly Roman Catholic families, and Alexanders father, Adolf, was raised as a Catholic. Alexanders mother was born in Sarajevo to a Sephardic Jewish father, Alexanders entire family converted to the religion of his maternal grandfather, Judaism, and Zemlinsky was born and raised Jewish. His father added an aristocratic von to his name, though neither he nor his forebears were ennobled and he also began spelling his surname Zemlinszky. Alexander studied the piano from a young age and he played the organ in his synagogue on holidays, and was admitted to the Vienna Conservatory in 1884. He studied piano with Anton Door, winning the schools piano prize in 1890 and he continued his studies until 1892, studying theory with Robert Fuchs and composition with Johann Nepomuk Fuchs and Anton Bruckner. At this time he began writing music, in Johannes Brahms, Zemlinsky had a valuable supporter. In 1893, on the invitation of Zemlinskys teacher Johann Nepomuk Fuchs, soon after that, Brahms attended a performance of one of Zemlinkys quartets by the Hellmesberger Quartet. Brahms, impressed with Zemlinskys music, recommended the younger composers Clarinet Trio to the N. Simrock company for publication, Zemlinsky also met Arnold Schoenberg when the latter joined Polyhymnia, an orchestra in which he played cello and helped found in 1895. The two became friends and later mutual admirers and brothers-in-law when Schoenberg married his sister Mathilde. Zemlinsky gave Schoenberg lessons in counterpoint, thus becoming the formal music teacher Schoenberg would have. In 1897 Zemlinskys Symphony No.2 was a success when premiered in Vienna and his reputation as a composer was further helped when Gustav Mahler conducted the premiere of his opera Es war einmal at the Hofoper in 1900. In 1899 Zemlinsky secured the post of Kapellmeister at Viennas Carltheater, in 1899, Zemlinsky converted to Protestantism. He alluded to the Christian cross and to Jesus in the text of Turnwächterlied, in 1900, Zemlinsky met and fell in love with Alma Schindler, one of his composition students. She reciprocated his feelings initially, however, Alma felt a great deal of pressure from close friends and they were primarily concerned with Zemlinskys lack of an international reputation and by an unappealing physical appearance. She broke off the relationship with Zemlinsky and subsequently married composer Gustav Mahler in 1902, Zemlinsky married Ida Guttmann in 1907, but the marriage was an unhappy one. Following Idas death in 1929, Zemlinsky married Luise Sachsel in 1930, a woman twenty-nine years his junior and this was a much happier relationship, lasting until Zemlinskys death
20.
Franz Schreker
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Franz Schreker was an Austrian composer, conductor, teacher and administrator. Schreker was born in Monaco, the eldest son of the Bohemian Jewish court photographer Ignaz Schrecker, and his wife, Eleonore von Clossmann, who was a member of the Catholic aristocracy of Styria. Starting with violin studies, with Sigismund Bachrich and Arnold Rosé, he moved into the class of Robert Fuchs. His first success was with the Intermezzo for strings, Op.8, after graduating from the conservatory he spent several years taking various bread-and-butter jobs. His first opera, Flammen, was completed in 1902 but failed to receive a staged production, Schreker had begun conducting in 1895, when he had founded the Verein der Musikfreunde Döbling. In 1907 he formed the Vienna Philharmonic Chorus, which he conducted until 1920, among its many premières were Zemlinskys Psalm XXIII and Schoenbergs Friede auf Erden and Gurre-Lieder. Such was the success of the venture that Schreker composed several more dance-related works for the two sisters including Der Wind, Valse lente and Ein Tanzspiel. November 1909 saw the premiere of the complex orchestral interlude from Der ferne Klang. In 1912, the first performance of the opera in Frankfurt consolidated his fame. In the same year, director Wihelm Bopp offered Schreker a provisional teaching appointment at the Conservatory where Schreker had studied, in early 1913 he was appointed full professor. This breakthrough heralds a decade of success for the composer. The first performance of Der Schatzgräber in Frankfurt on 21 January 1920 was the point of his career. The Chamber Symphony, composed between the two operas for the faculty of the Vienna Academy in 1916, quickly entered the repertoire and remains Schrekers most frequently performed work today. Schrekers fame and influence were at their peak during the years of the Weimar Republic when he was the most performed living opera composer after Richard Strauss. Political developments and the spread of anti-Semitism were also contributory factors, finally, in June 1932, Schreker lost his position as Director of the Musikhochschule in Berlin and, the following year, also his post as professor of composition at the Akademie der Künste. In his lifetime he went from being hailed as the future of German opera to being considered irrelevant as a composer, after suffering from a stroke in December 1933, he died in Berlin on 21 March 1934, two days before his 56th birthday. After decades in obscurity, Schreker has begun to enjoy a revival in reputation in the German-speaking world. In 2005 the Salzburg Festival mounted a production of Die Gezeichneten, conducted by Kent Nagano
21.
Gustav Klimt
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Gustav Klimt was an Austrian symbolist painter and one of the most prominent members of the Vienna Secession movement. Klimt is noted for his paintings, murals, sketches, Klimts primary subject was the female body, and his works are marked by a frank eroticism. In addition to his works, which include allegories and portraits. Among the artists of the Vienna Secession, Klimt was the most influenced by Japanese art, early in his artistic career, he was a successful painter of architectural decorations in a conventional manner. He subsequently accepted no more commissions, but achieved a new success with the paintings of his golden phase. Klimts work was an important influence on his younger contemporary Egon Schiele, Gustav Klimt was born in Baumgarten, near Vienna in Austria-Hungary, the second of seven children—three boys and four girls. His mother, Anna Klimt, had an ambition to be a musical performer. His father, Ernst Klimt the Elder, formerly from Bohemia, was a gold engraver, all three of their sons displayed artistic talent early on. Klimts younger brothers were Ernst Klimt and Georg Klimt, Klimt lived in poverty while attending the Vienna School of Arts and Crafts, where he studied architectural painting until 1883. He revered Viennas foremost history painter of the time, Hans Makart, Klimt readily accepted the principles of a conservative training, his early work may be classified as academic. In 1877 his brother, Ernst, who, like his father, would become an engraver, the two brothers and their friend, Franz Matsch, began working together and by 1880 they had received numerous commissions as a team that they called the Company of Artists. They also helped their teacher in painting murals in the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna, Klimt began his professional career painting interior murals and ceilings in large public buildings on the Ringstraße, including a successful series of Allegories and Emblems. In 1888 Klimt received the Golden Order of Merit from Emperor Franz Josef I of Austria for his contributions to murals painted in the Burgtheater in Vienna and he also became an honorary member of the University of Munich and the University of Vienna. In 1892 Klimts father and brother Ernst both died, and he had to assume responsibility for his fathers and brothers families. The tragedies also affected his vision and soon he would move towards a new personal style. Historians believe that Klimt with the nuda veritas denounced both the policy of the Habsburgs and the Austrian society, which ignored all political and social problems of that time. In the early 1890s Klimt met Austrian fashion designer Emilie Louise Flöge who was to be his companion until the end of his life and his painting, The Kiss, is thought to be an image of them as lovers. He designed many costumes she created and modeled in his works, during this period Klimt fathered at least fourteen children
22.
Karl Kraus (writer)
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Karl Kraus was an Austrian writer and journalist, known as a satirist, essayist, aphorist, playwright and poet. He directed his satire at the press, German culture, the Austrian author Stefan Zweig once called Kraus the master of venomous ridicule. Kraus was born into the wealthy Jewish family of Jacob Kraus, a papermaker, the family moved to Vienna in 1877. Kraus enrolled as a law student at the University of Vienna in 1892, beginning in April of the same year, he began contributing to the paper Wiener Literaturzeitung, starting with a critique of Gerhart Hauptmanns The Weavers. Around that time, he tried to perform as an actor in a small theater. In 1894, he changed his field of studies to philosophy and he discontinued his studies in 1896. His friendship with Peter Altenberg began about this time, in 1897, Kraus broke from this group with a biting satire, Die demolierte Literatur, and was named Vienna correspondent for the newspaper Breslauer Zeitung. One year later, as an advocate of Jewish assimilation, he attacked the founder of modern Zionism, Theodor Herzl. In 1901 Kraus was sued by Hermann Bahr and Emmerich Bukovics, many lawsuits by various offended parties followed in later years. Also in 1901, Kraus found out that his publisher, Moriz Frisch, had taken over his magazine while he was absent on a months-long journey, Frisch had registered the magazines front cover as a trademark and published the Neue Fackel. From that time, Die Fackel was published by the printer Jahoda & Siegel, while Die Fackel at first resembled journals like Die Weltbühne, it increasingly became a magazine that was privileged in its editorial independence, thanks to Krauss financial independence. Die Fackel printed what Kraus wanted to be printed, after 1911, however, Kraus was usually the sole author. Krauss work was published exclusively in Die Fackel, of which 922 irregularly issued numbers appeared in total. Authors who were supported by Kraus include Peter Altenberg, Else Lasker-Schüler, Die Fackel targeted corruption, journalists and brutish behaviour. Notable enemies were Maximilian Harden, Moriz Benedikt, Alfred Kerr, Hermann Bahr, Imre Bekessy, starting in 1906, Kraus published the first of his aphorisms in Die Fackel, they were collected in 1909 in the book Sprüche und Widersprüche. Elias Canetti, who regularly attended Krauss lectures, titled the volume of his autobiography Die Fackel im Ohr in reference to the magazine. At the peak of his popularity, Krauss lectures attracted four thousand people, wedekinds works are considered among the precursors of expressionism, but in 1914, when expressionist poets like Richard Dehmel began producing war propaganda, Kraus became a fierce critic of them. In 1907, Kraus attacked his erstwhile benefactor Maximilian Harden because of his role in the Eulenburg trial in the first of his spectacular Erledigungen, after 1911, Kraus was the sole author of most issues of Die Fackel
23.
Adolf Loos
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Adolf Franz Karl Viktor Maria Loos was an Austrian and Czech architect and influential European theorist of modern architecture. His essay Ornament and Crime advocated smooth and clear surfaces in contrast to the decorations of the fin de siècle. Loos became a pioneer of modern architecture and contributed a body of theory and criticism of Modernism in architecture, Loos had three tumultuous marriages that all ended in divorce. He suffered from health, including an inherited hearing affliction. He died aged 62 on 23 August 1933 in Kalksburg near Vienna, Loos was born on 10 December 1870 in Brno, in the Moravia region of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. His father, a German stonemason, died when Loos was nine years old, young Adolf Loos had inherited his fathers hearing impairment and was significantly handicapped by it throughout his life. His mother continued to carry on the business after her husbands death. Loos attended several Gymnasium schools, a school in Liberec. He later studied at Dresden University of Technology and he left one year later without completing his study. At age 23, Loos traveled to the United States and stayed there for three years from 1893–96, Loos returned to Vienna in 1896 and made it his permanent residence. He was a prominent figure in the city and a friend of Ludwig Wittgenstein, Arnold Schönberg, Peter Altenberg, inspired by his years in the New World he devoted himself to architecture. After briefly associating himself with the Vienna Secession in 1896, he rejected the style and advocated a new, plain, a utilitarian approach to use the entire floor plan completed his concept. Looss early commissions consisted of designs for shops and cafés in Vienna. In Spoken into the Void, published in 1900, he attacked the Vienna Secession, in his essays, Loos used provocative catchphrases and is noted for the essay/manifesto entitled Ornament and Crime, given in a lecture in 1910 and first published in 1913. Loos stripped-down buildings influenced the minimal massing of modern architecture, the distinction is not between complicated and simple, but between organic and superfluous decoration. Loos was also interested in the arts, collecting sterling silver and high quality leather goods. He also enjoyed fashion and mens clothing, designing the famed Kníže of Vienna, in 1920, he had a brief collaboration with Frederick John Kiesler - architect, theater and art-exhibition designer. The house, today Michaelerplatz 3, Vienna, and under monument preservation, was criticized by its contemporaries
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Peter Altenberg
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Peter Altenberg was a writer and poet from Vienna, Austria. He was key to the genesis of early modernism in the city and he was born Richard Engländer on 9 March 1859 in Vienna. The nom de plume, Altenberg, came from a town on the Danube river. Allegedly, he chose the Peter to honor a young girl whom he remembered as an unrequited love and he cultivated a feminine appearance and feminine handwriting, wore a cape, sandals and a broad-brimmed hat, and despised macho masculinity. Discovered by Arthur Schnitzler in 1894 and appreciated by Hugo von Hofmannsthal and Karl Kraus and he was a master of short, aphoristic stories based on close observation of everyday life events. It flaunts it – its origin – as it flaunts its attitude, at the fin de siècle, when Vienna was a major crucible and center for modern arts and culture, Altenberg was a very influential part of a literary and artistic movement known as Jung-Wien. Altenberg was a contemporary of Karl Kraus, Gustav Mahler, Arthur Schnitzler, Gustav Klimt and he was somewhat older, in his early 30s, than the others. His oeuvre consists of short, poetic prose pieces that do not easily fit into usual formal categories and he became well known throughout Vienna after the publication of a book of his fragmentary observations of women and children in everyday street activities. Because most of his work was written while he frequented various Viennese bars and coffeehouses. His favorite coffeehouse was the Café Central, to which he even had his mail delivered, Altenbergs detractors said he was a drug addict and a womanizer. Altenberg was also rumored to have problems with alcoholism and mental illness, yet his admirers considered him to be a highly creative individual with a great love for the aesthetic, for nature, and for young girls. He is certainly known to have had a collection of photographs and drawings of young girls. Altenberg was never a successful writer, but he did enjoy most if not all of the benefits of fame in his lifetime. Some of the poetry he wrote on the backs of postcards. In 1913, Bergs Five songs on picture postcard texts by Peter Altenberg were premiered in Vienna, the piece caused an uproar, and the performance had to be halted, a complete performance of the work was not given until 1952. He repaid his debts with his talent, his wit, many academics consider him to have been a bohemians bohemian. Most of Altenbergs work is published in the German language and, much of it remains in university libraries or private collections. Two selections have been translated, Evocations of Love and Telegrams of the Soul, Altenberg, who never married, died on 8 January 1919, aged 59
25.
Franz Joseph I of Austria
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Franz Joseph I or Francis Joseph I was Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary, and many others from 2 December 1848 until his death on 21 November 1916. From 1 May 1850 to 24 August 1866 he was also President of the German Confederation, in December 1848, Emperor Ferdinand abdicated the throne at Olomouc as part of Ministerpräsident Felix zu Schwarzenbergs plan to end the Revolutions of 1848 in Hungary. This allowed Ferdinands nephew Franz Joseph to accede to the throne, largely considered to be a reactionary, Franz Joseph spent his early reign resisting constitutionalism in his domains. Franz Joseph was troubled by nationalism during his entire reign and he concluded the Ausgleich of 1867, which granted greater autonomy to Hungary, hence transforming the Austrian Empire into the Austro-Hungarian Empire under his dual monarchy. After the Austro-Prussian War, Austria-Hungary turned its attention to the Balkans, the Bosnian crisis was a result of Franz Josephs annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908, which had been occupied by his troops since the Congress of Berlin. On 28 June 1914, the assassination of his nephew Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo resulted in Austria-Hungarys declaration of war against the Kingdom of Serbia and this activated a system of alliances which resulted in World War I. Franz Joseph died on 21 November 1916, after ruling his domains for almost 68 years and he was succeeded by his grandnephew Charles. His name in German was Franz Joseph I and I and his names in other languages were, Croatian and Bosnian, Franjo Josip I. Ukrainian, Фра́нц Йо́сиф I, Romanian, Francisc Iosif Slovene, serbian, Фрања Јосиф Franz Joseph was born in the Schönbrunn Palace in Vienna, the eldest son of Archduke Franz Karl, and his wife Princess Sophie of Bavaria. Franzl came to idolise his grandfather, der Gute Kaiser Franz, at the age of thirteen, Franzl started a career as a colonel in the Austrian army. From that point onward, his fashion was dictated by army style, Franz Joseph was soon joined by three younger brothers, Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian, Archduke Karl Ludwig, and Archduke Ludwig Viktor, and a sister, Maria Anna, who died at the age of four. Instead, Franz was sent to the front in Italy, joining Field Marshal Radetzky on campaign on 29 April, by all accounts he handled his first military experience calmly and with dignity. Around the same time, the Imperial Family was fleeing revolutionary Vienna for the setting of Innsbruck. Soon, the Archduke was called back from Italy, joining the rest of his family at Innsbruck by mid-June. It was at Innsbruck at this time that Franz Joseph first met his cousin Elisabeth, his bride, then a girl of ten. Following victory over the Italians at Custoza in late July, the court felt safe to return to Vienna, but within a few months Vienna again appeared unsafe, and in September the court left again, this time for Olomouc in Moravia. By now, Prince Alfred I of Windisch-Grätz, the military commander in Bohemia, was determined to see the young Archduke soon put on the throne. By the abdication of his uncle Ferdinand and the renunciation of his father, at this time he first became known by his second as well as his first Christian name
26.
Anna Nahowski
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Anna Nahowski was the mistress of Franz Joseph of Austria from 1875 until 1889. She was from the age of fourteen married to the silk manufacturer Heuduck and she met Franz Joseph at a walk in the park of Schönbrunn. The relationship was arranged between Anna and Franz Joseph without the knowledge of her spouse, Franz Joseph visited her discreetly and regularly while her husband was away. This arrangement continued also after she remarried the decadent Franz Nahowski, in 1889, Nahowski discovered that Franz Joseph was in parallel involved, and this time more publicly, with Katharina Schratt, which made Franz Joseph end the relationship to Nahowski. Anna Nahowski was given economic compensation for both herself and her children in exchange for signing a contract of silence and her daughter Helene, who is believed to have been the emperors, was the wife of the composer Alban Berg. Her diary was published in 1976, friedrich Saathen, Anna Nahowski und Kaiser Franz Josef
27.
Altenberg Lieder
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The Five Orchestral Songs, Op.4, for medium voice and orchestra, were composed by Alban Berg in 1911/12. Numbers 2 and 3 were premiered under the baton of Bergs teacher Arnold Schoenberg at the Vienna Musikverein on 31 March 1913, the texts are taken from picture-postcard texts by the contemporary Viennese poet Peter Altenberg. The texts deal with the stormy but beautiful condition of the soul, Bergs setting is for a large orchestra. The music has many displaced ostinati and the conflicted, lyrical passion found in much of Bergs works, the five songs are, Seele, wie bist du schöner Sahst du nach dem Gewitterregen den Wald. Altenberg Lieder, Scores at the International Music Score Library Project
28.
Conducting
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Conducting is the art of directing a musical performance, such as an orchestral or choral concert. A conductors directions will almost invariably be supplemented or reinforced by verbal instructions or suggestions to their musicians in rehearsal prior to a performance. The conductor typically stands on a podium with a large music stand for the full score. Conducting while playing a piano or synthesizer may also be done with musical theatre pit orchestras, communication is typically non-verbal during a performance. However, in rehearsals, frequent interruptions allow the conductor to give verbal directions as to how the music should be played or sung, Conductors act as guides to the orchestras or choirs they conduct. They choose the works to be performed and study their scores, to which they may make adjustments, work out their interpretation. They may also attend to matters, such as scheduling rehearsals, planning a concert season, hearing auditions and selecting members. Orchestras, choirs, concert bands and other musical ensembles such as big bands are usually led by conductors. The principal conductor of an orchestra or opera company is referred to as a music director or chief conductor, or by the German words Kapellmeister or Dirigent. Conductors of choirs or choruses are sometimes referred to as director, chorus master, or choirmaster. Conductors of concert bands, military bands, marching bands and other bands may hold the title of director, bandmaster. Respected senior conductors are sometimes referred to by the Italian word, an early form of conducting is cheironomy, the use of hand gestures to indicate melodic shape. This has been practiced at least as far back as the Middle Ages, in the 17th century, other devices to indicate the passing of time came into use. Rolled up sheets of paper, smaller sticks and unadorned hands are all shown in pictures from this period, the large staff was responsible for the death of Jean-Baptiste Lully, who injured his foot with one while conducting a Te Deum for the Kings recovery from illness. The wound became gangrenous and Lully refused amputation, whereupon the gangrene spread to his leg, in instrumental music throughout the 18th century, a member of the ensemble usually acted as the conductor. This was sometimes the concertmaster, who could use his bow as a baton and it was common to conduct from the harpsichord in pieces that had a basso continuo part. In opera performances, there were sometimes two conductors – the keyboard player was in charge of the singers, and the principal violinist or leader was in charge of the orchestra. By the early 19th century, it became the norm to have a dedicated conductor, the size of the usual orchestra expanded during this period, and the use of a baton became more common, as it was easier to see than bare hands or rolled-up paper
29.
Skandalkonzert
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The Skandalkonzert of March 31,1913, was a concert of the Wiener Konzertverein conducted by Arnold Schoenberg in the Great Hall of the Musikverein. The audience, shocked by the expressionism and experimentalism of the Second Viennese School, began rioting, the program listed, Anton Webern, Six Pieces for Orchestra, Op.6 Alexander von Zemlinsky, Four Orchestral Songs on poems by Maeterlinck Arnold Schoenberg, Chamber Symphony No. 1, Op.9 Alban Berg, Two of the Five Orchestral Songs on Picture-Postcard Texts by Peter Altenberg, both the lyrical and musical side of this premiere were seen as provocative. The concert was ended before the performance of Gustav Mahlers Kindertotenlieder could begin. During Bergs songs the audience called for both poet and composer to be committed, despite it being public knowledge that Altenberg was already committed to an asylum at the time. Though not present at the concert he was granted leave to attend the dress-rehearsal that morning, at the concert it was during Bergs songs that the fighting began. At the trial, Straus commented that the thud of Buschbecks punch had been the most harmonious sound at the entire concert. For Bergs work the Skandalkonzert had lasting consequences, the songs were not performed again until 1952, and the full score did not appear in print until 1966. The first performance of Schoenbergs Gurrelieder was held on February 23,1913, in the Great Hall of the Musikverein, under the direction of Franz Schreker, but the composer, offended by the previous conservative attitude of the Viennese public, refused to accept the applause. In return, the audience took revenge a few weeks later in the concert of contemporary works there. The famous fracas at the premiere of Igor Stravinskys The Rite of Spring took place in Paris two months later, on 29 May 1913
30.
Austro-Hungarian Army
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The Austro-Hungarian Army was the ground force of the Austro-Hungarian Dual Monarchy from 1867 to 1918. It was composed of three parts, the joint army, the Imperial Austrian Landwehr, and the Royal Hungarian Honved, with the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 the new tripartite army was brought into being. It existed until the disestablishment of the Austro-Hungarian Empire following World War I in 1918, all of the Honvédség and the Landwehr regiments were composed of three battalions, while the joint army k. u. k. In September 1915, field gray was adopted as the new uniform color. The last known surviving member of the Austro-Hungarian Army was World War I veteran Franz Künstler, Austria-Hungary avoided major wars in the era between 1867 and 1914 but engaged in a number of minor military actions. Nevertheless, the general staff maintained plans for major wars against neighboring powers, especially Italy, soldiers under the command of Conrad von Hotzendorf were also used against Italian rioters in Trieste in 1902. The most significant action by soldiers of the Dual Monarchy in this period was the Austro-Hungarian occupation of Bosnia, despite setbacks at Maglaj and Tuzla, Sarajevo was occupied in October. Austro-Hungarian casualties amounted to over 5,000 and the violence of the campaign led to recriminations between commanders and political leaders. In 1868, the number of active-duty troops in the army was 255,000, however, this was significantly less than the European powers of France, the North German Confederation and Russia, each of which could field more than one million men. Though the population of the empire had risen to nearly 50 million by 1900, the size of the army was tied to ceilings established in 1889. Thus, at the start of the 20th century, Austria-Hungary conscripted only 0. 29% of its population, the 1889 army law was not revised until 1912, which allowed for an increase in annual conscriptions. From a religious standpoint, the Austro-Hungarian army officer corps was dominated by Roman Catholics, in 1896, out of 1000 officers,791 were Roman Catholics,86 Protestants,84 Jews,39 Greek-Orthodox, and one Uniate. Of the pre–World War military forces of the major European powers, while the Jewish population of the lands of the Dual Monarchy was about 5%, Jews made up nearly 18% of the reserve officer corps. Franz Ferdinand was also accused of discriminating against Protestant officers, following the 1867 constitutional arrangements, the Reichsrat was dominated by German Liberals, who generally regarded the army as a relic of feudalism. In Budapest, legislators were reluctant to authorize funds for the joint army but were generous with the Hungarian branch of the army, the Honvédség. Despite increases throughout the 1850s and 1860s, in the half of the century Austria-Hungary was still spending less on its army than were other major European powers. Attempts to increase the intake of recruits were proposed but repeatedly blocked by officials in Budapest until an agreement was reached in 1912. In the emerging field of aviation, Austria-Hungary lagged behind other European states
31.
Opera
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Opera is an art form in which singers and musicians perform a dramatic work combining text and musical score, usually in a theatrical setting. In traditional opera, singers do two types of singing, recitative, a style and arias, a more melodic style. Opera incorporates many of the elements of theatre, such as acting, scenery. The performance is given in an opera house, accompanied by an orchestra or smaller musical ensemble. Opera is a key part of the Western classical music tradition, in the 18th century, Italian opera continued to dominate most of Europe, attracting foreign composers such as George Frideric Handel. Opera seria was the most prestigious form of Italian opera, until Christoph Willibald Gluck reacted against its artificiality with his operas in the 1760s. The first third of the 19th century saw the point of the bel canto style, with Gioachino Rossini, Gaetano Donizetti. It also saw the advent of Grand Opera typified by the works of Auber and Meyerbeer, the mid-to-late 19th century was a golden age of opera, led and dominated by Richard Wagner in Germany and Giuseppe Verdi in Italy. The popularity of opera continued through the era in Italy and contemporary French opera through to Giacomo Puccini. During the 19th century, parallel operatic traditions emerged in central and eastern Europe, the 20th century saw many experiments with modern styles, such as atonality and serialism, Neoclassicism, and Minimalism. With the rise of recording technology, singers such as Enrico Caruso, since the invention of radio and television, operas were also performed on these mediums. Beginning in 2006, a number of opera houses began to present live high-definition video transmissions of their performances in cinemas all over the world. In 2009, an opera company offered a download of a complete performance. The words of an opera are known as the libretto, some composers, notably Wagner, have written their own libretti, others have worked in close collaboration with their librettists, e. g. Mozart with Lorenzo Da Ponte. Vocal duets, trios and other ensembles often occur, and choruses are used to comment on the action, in some forms of opera, such as singspiel, opéra comique, operetta, and semi-opera, the recitative is mostly replaced by spoken dialogue. Melodic or semi-melodic passages occurring in the midst of, or instead of, the terminology of the various kinds of operatic voices is described in detail below. Over the 18th century, arias were accompanied by the orchestra. Subsequent composers have tended to follow Wagners example, though some, the changing role of the orchestra in opera is described in more detail below
32.
Wozzeck
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Wozzeck is the first opera by the Austrian composer Alban Berg. It was composed between 1914 and 1922 and first performed in 1925, the opera is based on the drama Woyzeck, which was left incomplete by the German playwright Georg Büchner at his death. Berg attended the first production in Vienna of Büchners play on 5 May 1914, from the fragments of unordered scenes left by Büchner, Berg selected fifteen to form a compact structure of three acts with five scenes each. He adapted the libretto himself, retaining the character of the play, with its many short scenes, its abrupt and sometimes brutal language. The plot depicts the life of soldiers and the townspeople of a rural German-speaking town. Prominent themes of militarism, callousness, social exploitation, and a casual sadism are brutally and uncompromisingly presented, toward the end of act 1, scene 2, the title character murmurs, Still, all is still, as if the world died. With his fellow soldier Andres uttering, Night, seemingly oblivious to Wozzecks previous words. The dialogue is concluded and a funeral march begins, only to transform into the song of the military marching band in the next scene. Musicologist Glenn Watkins considers this, as vivid a projection of impending doom as any to come out of the Great War. Bergs experience of the war had a impact on the compositional direction of Wozzeck. His correspondence and notebooks dating from the war years reveal a painful obsession with completing Wozzeck, in a draft page of the act 1, scene 2 libretto, Berg included notations in the dialogue that refer to Austrian army bugle calls. These military signals were later inserted into the score in a modified slightly atonal form, the scene of snoring soldiers in the barracks during act 2, scene 5 was influenced by Bergs similar such experience. This polyphonic breathing, gasping, and groaning is the most peculiar chorus Ive ever heard and it is like some primeval music that wells up from the abysses of the soul. In 1916, however, he devoted himself to attaining the rank of Einjährig-Freiwillige Korporal, during this period, as Berg wrote to his wife, For months I havent done any work on Wozzeck. Finishing act 1 by the summer of 1919, act 2 in August 1921, for the climactic section, Berg used one of his old student pieces in D minor. A typical performance of the work takes slightly over an hour, erich Kleiber, who programmed on his own initiative, conducted the world premiere at the Berlin State Opera on 14 December 1925. He spent a deal of his time through the 1920s and 30s travelling to attend performances. The American premiere of the opera was given by the Philadelphia Grand Opera Company on 19 March 1931 at the Philadelphia Metropolitan Opera House with Leopold Stokowski conducting
33.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
34.
Biorhythm
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A biorhythm is an attempt to predict various aspects of a persons life through simple mathematical cycles. The theory was developed by Wilhelm Fliess in the late 19th century, most scientists believe that the idea has no more predictive power than chance and consider the concept an example of pseudoscience. According to the theory of biorhythms, a life is influenced by rhythmic biological cycles that affect his or her ability in various domains. The theory is built on the idea that the chemical and hormonal secretion functions within the body could show a sinusoidal behavior over time. Most biorhythm models use three cycles, a 23-day physical cycle, a 28-day emotional cycle, and a 33-day intellectual cycle. Although the 28-day cycle is the length as the average womans menstrual cycle and was originally described as a female cycle. Each of these cycles varies between high and low extremes sinusoidally, with days where the crosses the zero line described as critical days of greater risk or uncertainty. In addition to the three cycles, various other cycles have been proposed, based on linear combination of the three, or on longer or shorter rhythms. Theories published state the equations for the cycles as, physical, sin , emotional, sin , intellectual, sin , where t indicates the number of days since birth. Basic arithmetic shows that the combination of the simpler 23- and 28-day cycles repeats every 644 days, while the combination of 23-, 28-. The notion of periodic cycles in human fortunes is ancient, for instance, it is found in natal astrology and in folk beliefs about lucky days. The 23- and 28-day rhythms used by biorhythmists, however, were first devised in the late 19th century by Wilhelm Fliess, Fliess believed that he observed regularities at 23- and 28-day intervals in a number of phenomena, including births and deaths. He labeled the 23-day rhythm male and the 28-day rhythm female, in 1904, Viennese psychology professor Hermann Swoboda came to similar conclusions. One of the first academic researchers of biorhythms was Estonian-born Nikolai Pärna, gittelsons company, Biorhythm Computers, Inc. made a business selling personal biorhythm charts and calculators, but his ability to predict sporting events was not substantiated. Charting biorhythms for personal use was popular in the United States during the 1970s, Biorhythm programs were a common application on personal computers, and in the late 1970s, there were also handheld biorhythm calculators on the market, the Kosmos 1 and the Casio Biolator. Biorhythm charts appeared in the Chicago Tribune from 1977 to 1979, there have been some three dozen studies supporting biorhythm theory, but according to a study by Terence Hines, all of those had methodological and statistical errors. Hines rejected 134 biorhythm studies and concluded that the theory is not valid and it is empirically testable and has been shown to be false. Terence Hines believes that this implies that biorhythm theory can not be properly termed a pseudoscientific theory
35.
Wilhelm Fliess
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Wilhelm Fliess was a German Jewish otolaryngologist who practised in Berlin. He developed highly eccentric theories of human biorhythms and a nasogenital connection that have not been accepted by modern scientists. He is today best remembered for his personal friendship and theoretical collaboration with Sigmund Freud. Fliess developed several theories, such as vital periodicity, forerunner of the popular concepts of biorhythms. His work never found favor, though some of his thinking – such as the idea of innate bisexuality– was incorporated into Freuds theories. Fliess believed men and women went through mathematically fixed sexual cycles of 23 and 28 days, another of Fliesss ideas was the theory of nasal reflex neurosis. This became widely known following the publication of his controversial book Neue Beitrage und Therapie der nasaelen Reflexneurose in Vienna in 1892, on Josef Breuers suggestion, Fliess attended several conferences with Sigmund Freud beginning in 1887 in Vienna, and the two soon formed a strong friendship. Through their extensive correspondence and the series of meetings, Fliess came to play an important part in the development of psychoanalysis. Together, Fliess and Freud developed a Project for a Scientific Psychology, Fliess wrote about his biorythmic theories in Der Ablauf des Lebens. Eckstein haemorrhaged profusely in the following the procedure, almost to the point of death as infection set in. Freud consulted with another surgeon, who removed a piece of surgical gauze that Fliess had left behind, eckstein was left permanently disfigured, with the left side of her face caved in. Despite this, she remained on good terms with Freud for many years. Fliess also remained friends with Freud. He even predicted Freuds death would be around the age of 51, Freud died at 83 years of age. Freud ordered that his correspondence with Fliess be destroyed and it is only known today because Marie Bonaparte purchased Freuds letters to Fliess and refused to permit their destruction. His son Robert Fliess was also a psychoanalyst and a writer in that field. He devised the phrase ambulatory psychosis, jeffrey Masson claimed that Fliess sexually molested his son Robert and that this caused Fliess to undermine Freuds investigation of the seduction theory because of its implications for his life. His niece Beate Hermelin was an experimental psychologist, who worked in the UK, medical science has given a highly negative verdict to Fliess theories
36.
Erich Kleiber
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Erich Kleiber was an Austrian conductor, composer. He is widely considered to be one of the conductors of the 20th century. He was born in a teachers family in Vienna in 1890. His mother was a pioneer Wagnerian who, as Kleiber remembered, though she died when he was six, played piano transcription of Lohengrin. His father died the year before, as a little boy, he went to live with his grandfather in Prague. In 1900, he returned to Vienna to live with an aunt, in July 1908, he left Vienna and studied art, philosophy, history at the Charles University in Prague between 1908 and 1912 and took conducting lessons at the Prague Conservatory. Erich Kleiber made his debut at the Prague National Theater in 1911, Then he conducted opera in Darmstadt, Barmen-Elberfeld, Düsseldorf, and Mannheim. In 1923, after conducting a performance of Beethovens Fidelio at the Berlin State Opera, he became the general music director of the institution. During twelve years he was one of the artists of the German music life with Wilhelm Furtwängler. He was known for his interpretations of the symphonic and operatic repertoire - works of Beethoven and Wagner -. In 1925, he conducted the world première of Alban Bergs opera, Wozzeck. between 1923 and 1929 he made more than 100 recordings. His international reputation had been started, he began traveling abroad for concerts, notably to Buenos Aires, Moscow, Kleiber was engaged to conduct the first six weeks of the season of the New York Philharmonic Symphony Orchestra in 1930. Then began a world of wandering, a path that passed through Amsterdam, London, Buenos Aires, Montevideo, Havana, New York City and Rome. Kleiber also repudiated his contract with La Scala in Milan in April 1939, shortly after the fascist Mussolini regime enacted its own anti-semitic legislation, La Scala is denied for Jews. both as a Christian and an artist, I can no longer co-operate. Kleiber was a firmly antifascist, emigrated to Argentina, Buenos Aires in 1936, here he specialized in the German operatic repertoire, particularly the works of Wagner. Through the prestige of his name, he was able to attract such luminaries to the Colón as Emanuel List, Kirsten Flagstad, Viorica Ursuleac and Set Svanholm. Some of his performances from this period have made available on CDs of varying quality. In 1938, Kleiber became an Argentine citizen, Kleiber came back to Europe in 1950
37.
Berlin
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Berlin is the capital and the largest city of Germany as well as one of its constituent 16 states. With a population of approximately 3.5 million, Berlin is the second most populous city proper, due to its location in the European Plain, Berlin is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. Around one-third of the area is composed of forests, parks, gardens, rivers. Berlin in the 1920s was the third largest municipality in the world, following German reunification in 1990, Berlin once again became the capital of all-Germany. Berlin is a city of culture, politics, media. Its economy is based on high-tech firms and the sector, encompassing a diverse range of creative industries, research facilities, media corporations. Berlin serves as a hub for air and rail traffic and has a highly complex public transportation network. The metropolis is a popular tourist destination, significant industries also include IT, pharmaceuticals, biomedical engineering, clean tech, biotechnology, construction and electronics. Modern Berlin is home to world renowned universities, orchestras, museums and its urban setting has made it a sought-after location for international film productions. The city is known for its festivals, diverse architecture, nightlife, contemporary arts. Since 2000 Berlin has seen the emergence of a cosmopolitan entrepreneurial scene, the name Berlin has its roots in the language of West Slavic inhabitants of the area of todays Berlin, and may be related to the Old Polabian stem berl-/birl-. All German place names ending on -ow, -itz and -in, since the Ber- at the beginning sounds like the German word Bär, a bear appears in the coat of arms of the city. It is therefore a canting arm, the first written records of towns in the area of present-day Berlin date from the late 12th century. Spandau is first mentioned in 1197 and Köpenick in 1209, although these areas did not join Berlin until 1920, the central part of Berlin can be traced back to two towns. Cölln on the Fischerinsel is first mentioned in a 1237 document,1237 is considered the founding date of the city. The two towns over time formed close economic and social ties, and profited from the right on the two important trade routes Via Imperii and from Bruges to Novgorod. In 1307, they formed an alliance with a common external policy, in 1415 Frederick I became the elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg, which he ruled until 1440. In 1443 Frederick II Irontooth started the construction of a new palace in the twin city Berlin-Cölln
38.
Lulu (opera)
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Lulu is an opera in three acts by the composer Alban Berg. The German-language libretto was adapted by Berg himself from Frank Wedekinds two Lulu plays, Erdgeist and Die Büchse der Pandora, Berg died before completing the third and final act, and in the following decades, the opera was typically performed incomplete. Since its publication in 1979, however, the Friedrich Cerha orchestration has become popular, theodor W. Adorno wrote The opera Lulu is one of those works that reveals the extent of its quality the longer and more deeply one immerses oneself in it. Berg was familiar with Wedekinds Erdgeist by 1903, when he was nineteen and he also saw Die Büchse der Pandora in 1905 in a production by Karl Kraus on 29 May, and was inspired by the introductory speech that Kraus delivered on that occasion. Berg did not begin work on Lulu until 1929, after he had completed his other opera, thanks to Wozzecks success Berg had the economic security that enabled him to embark on a second opera. Even to have an association with someone who was Jewish could lead to denunciation, Wozzeck was also banned in the Soviet Union as bourgeois. Berg found that opportunities for his work to be performed in Germany were becoming rare, despite these conditions, Berg worked steadily on the score of Lulu, in seclusion at his lodge, the Waldhaus, in Carinthia. In the spring of 1934 he learned from Wilhelm Furtwängler that production of Lulu in Berlin, would now be impossible under the current cultural and political situation. It was at point that he set aside the work on the opera to prepare a concert suite, in case the opera could never be performed. This was his Symphonische Stücke aus der Oper Lulu for soprano, in particular the reaction of periodicals such as Die Musik and Zeitschrift für Musik was exceptionally hostile. In January 1935, the Russian-born American violinist Louis Krasner who had championed Bergs work in the United States, had approached Berg to commission a violin concerto. Berg was reluctant to set aside Lulu for this, but the money was welcomed, as Berg was in financial difficulties, at first there was only a tentative agreement, but at the end of March he told Krasner he would compose it and had started some preliminary work. The violin concerto was completed swiftly, between April and August of that year but the time he spent on that meant he was unable to complete the opera before his death on 24 December. The rest of the work remained in short score with indications of instrumentation for much of it. Berg was able to hear the Symphonic Pieces in a BBC radio broadcast from the Queens Hall, London on 20 March 1935, conducted by Sir Adrian Boult and it was the first time he had ever heard any of the music of Lulu. He was not to hear these excerpts performed live until a concert in Vienna on 11 December, the opera was first performed by the Zürich Opera in an incomplete form on 2 June 1937. Erwin Stein made a score of the whole of act 3 following Bergs death. Schoenberg at first accepted, but upon being sent copies of Bergs sketches he changed his mind, the last recording made of the original two-act version—Christoph von Dohnányi conducting the Vienna Philharmonic, with Anja Silja in the title role —presented it in this form
39.
Lyric Suite (Berg)
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The Lyric Suite is a six-movement work for string quartet written by Alban Berg between 1925 and 1926 using methods derived from Arnold Schoenbergs twelve-tone technique. Though publicly dedicated to Alexander von Zemlinsky, the work has shown to possess a secret dedication. Berg arranged three of the pieces for string orchestra in 1928, the title Lyric Suite also refers to a series of about 600 ink-on-rice-paper drawings created by Robert Motherwell in 1965. The drawings were given title as a result of Motherwell having listened to a recording of the string quartet repeatedly while working on the drawings. A set of 12 different tones gives the material of the composition. Perle points out that the first movement is not strictly twelve-tone, with the four chords being derived not from the series. According to René Leibowitz, the first movement is written in the twelve-tone technique, is a sonata movement without the development. Thus the recapitulation follows directly upon the exposition, but, because of the highly advanced twelve-tone technique of variation, the first analysis was undertaken by H. F. Theodor W. Adorno called the quartet a latent opera. Perle discovered a copy of the first edition annotated by Berg for his dedicatee, Hanna Fuchs-Robettin. Berg used the motif, A-B♭-H-F, to combine Alban Berg. This is most prominent in the third movement, Berg also quotes a melody from Zemlinskys Lyric Symphony in movement four which originally set the words You are mine own. In the last movement, according to Bergs self-analysis, the, entire material, as well as the Tristan motif is developed by strict adherence to the 12-note series. The outer sections of the Allegro misterioso present the same forwards and then backwards, while the Trio ecstatico. Berg generates a characteristic rhythmic cell through partitioning the series into a seven note chromatic segment, the second violin unfolds the initial tetrachordal segmentation of the perfect-5th cycle, again at the beginning of the recapitulation. He asks, How could one of the bar as disordered. If anything is to be designated as an Urform here, surely it is this cycle, given its background role in relation to the tone row. The Row of the Lyric Suite is an all-interval row and it is the first all-interval row derived by its discoverer and Berg student Fritz Heinrich Klein. He also depicts it in the following way Play, The row is the set from and was previously used in 1925, in Bergs first twelve-tone work
40.
Kammerkonzert (Berg)
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The Kammerkonzert für Klavier und Geige mit 13 Bläsern is a piece of chamber music composed by Austrian composer Alban Berg. It was composed between 1923 and 1925, the short score was completed on 9 February 1925, the full score was finished on 23 July 1925. The work was premiered on 19 March 1927, for example, the first movements 240 measures consist of 30 and 60 measure variations, the second is 240 measures, and the third is the length of the previous two at 480 measures. The first movement involves mainly the piano and the 13 wind instruments, the movement focuses primarily on the solo violin and 13 winds, though the turning point of the palindrome is marked by a brief appearance of the solo piano. In 1935 Berg arranged this movement as a piece for piano, violin. The third movement involves both soloists and the ensemble, and is a large rondo based on a rhythmic, rather than melodic. Berg layers material from the first and second movements on top of other in this final movement. There is an extremely large repeat of almost 175 measures in the movement that is omitted in performances
41.
Antisemitism
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Antisemitism is hostility, prejudice, or discrimination directed against Jews. A person who holds such positions is called an antisemite, Antisemitism is generally considered to be a form of racism. The root word Semite gives the impression that antisemitism is directed against all Semitic people. However, the compound word antisemite was popularized in Germany in 1879 as a term for Judenhass Jew-hatred. Although the term did not come into common usage until the 19th century, the origin of antisemitic terminologies is found in the responses of Moritz Steinschneider to the views of Ernest Renan. As Alex Bein writes, The compound anti-Semitism appears to have been used first by Steinschneider, avner Falk similarly writes, The German word antisemitisch was first used in 1860 by the Austrian Jewish scholar Moritz Steinschneider in the phrase antisemitische Vorurteile. Steinschneider used this phrase to characterise the French philosopher Ernest Renans false ideas about how Semitic races were inferior to Aryan races and he coined the phrase the Jews are our misfortune which would later be widely used by Nazis. According to Jonathan M. Hess, the term was used by its authors to stress the radical difference between their own antisemitism and earlier forms of antagonism toward Jews and Judaism. In 1879 German journalist Wilhelm Marr published a pamphlet, Der Sieg des Judenthums über das Germanenthum, vom nicht confessionellen Standpunkt aus betrachtet in which he used the word Semitismus interchangeably with the word Judentum to denote both Jewry and jewishness. The pamphlet became very popular, and in the year he founded the Antisemiten-Liga. The Jewish Encyclopedia reports, In February 1881, a correspondent of the Allgemeine Zeitung des Judentums speaks of Anti-Semitism as a designation which recently came into use, on 19 July 1882, the editor says, This quite recent Anti-Semitism is hardly three years old. The related term philosemitism was coined around 1885, from the outset the term anti-Semitism bore special racial connotations and meant specifically prejudice against Jews. The term is confusing, for in modern usage Semitic designates a language group, though antisemitism has been used to describe bigotry against people who speak other Semitic languages, the validity of such usage has been questioned. The term may be spelled with or without a hyphen, for example, Emil Fackenheim supported the unhyphenated spelling, in order to the notion that there is an entity Semitism which anti-Semitism opposes. Objections to the usage of the term, such as the nature of the term Semitic as a racial term, have been raised since at least the 1930s. Because of this bad nature, Jews have to be not as individuals. Jews remain essentially alien in the surrounding societies, Jews bring disaster on their host societies or on the whole world, they are doing it secretly, therefore the anti-Semites feel obliged to unmask the conspiratorial, bad Jewish character. It was anti-liberal, racialist and nationalist, bernard Lewis defines antisemitism as a special case of prejudice, hatred, or persecution directed against people who are in some way different from the rest
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Nazism
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National Socialism, more commonly known as Nazism, is the ideology and practice associated with the 20th-century German Nazi Party and Nazi Germany, as well as other far-right groups. Nazism subscribed to theories of racial hierarchy and Social Darwinism, identifying Germans as part of what Nazis regarded as an Aryan or Nordic master race and it aimed to overcome social divisions and create a homogeneous society, unified on the basis of racial purity. The term National Socialism arose out of attempts to create a nationalist redefinition of socialism, the Nazi Partys precursor, the Pan-German nationalist and anti-Semitic German Workers Party, was founded on 5 January 1919. By the early 1920s, Adolf Hitler assumed control of the organisation, following the Holocaust and German defeat in World War II, only a few fringe racist groups, usually referred to as neo-Nazis, still describe themselves as following National Socialism. The full name of Adolf Hitlers party was Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, the shorthand Nazi was formed from the first two syllables of the German pronunciation of the word national. The term was in use before the rise of the NSDAP as a colloquial and derogatory word for a peasant, characterizing an awkward. It derived from Ignaz, being a version of Ignatius, a common name in Bavaria. Opponents seized on this and shortened the first word of the name, Nationalsozialistische. The NSDAP briefly adopted the Nazi designation, attempting to reappropriate the term, the use of Nazi Germany, Nazi regime, and so on was popularised by German exiles abroad. From them, the spread into other languages and was eventually brought back to Germany after World War II. In English, Nazism is a name for the ideology the party advocated. The majority of scholars identify Nazism in practice as a form of far-right politics, far-right themes in Nazism include the argument that superior people have a right to dominate over other people and purge society of supposed inferior elements. Adolf Hitler and other proponents officially portrayed Nazism as being neither left- nor right-wing, but the politicians of the Right deserve exactly the same reproach. It was through their miserable cowardice that those ruffians of Jews who came into power in 1918 were able to rob the nation of its arms, a major inspiration for the Nazis were the far-right nationalist Freikorps, paramilitary organisations that engaged in political violence after World War I. The Nazis stated the alliance was purely tactical and there remained substantial differences with the DNVP, the Nazis described the DNVP as a bourgeois party and called themselves an anti-bourgeois party. After the elections in 1932, the alliance broke after the DNVP lost many of its seats in the Reichstag, the Nazis denounced them as an insignificant heap of reactionaries. The DNVP responded by denouncing the Nazis for their socialism, their violence. Kaiser Wilhelm II, who was pressured to abdicate the throne and flee into exile amidst an attempted communist revolution in Germany, there were factions in the Nazi Party, both conservative and radical
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Modernity
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Some writers have suggested there is more than one possible modernity, given the unsettled nature of the term and of history itself. It also encompasses the social relations associated with the rise of capitalism, the term modern dates from the 5th century, originally distinguishing the Christian era from the Pagan era. In the 6th century AD, Cassiodorus appears to have been the first writer to use modern regularly to refer to his own age, in these usages, modernity denoted the renunciation of the recent past, favouring a new beginning, and a re-interpretation of historical origin. The distinction between modernity and modern did not arise until the 19th century, Modernity has been associated with cultural and intellectual movements of 1436–1789 and extending to the 1970s or later. There was a shift into modernization in the name of industrial capitalism. Some authors, such as Lyotard and Baudrillard, believe that modernity ended in the mid- or late 20th century and thus have defined a period subsequent to modernity, namely Postmodernity. He also proposed that an aim of politics is to ones own chance or fortune. Machiavellis recommendations were sometimes influential upon kings and princes, but eventually came to be seen as favoring free republics over monarchies, machiavelli in turn influenced Francis Bacon, Marchamont Needham, James Harrington, John Milton, David Hume, and many others. Both these principles are enshrined within the constitutions of most modern democracies, starting with Thomas Hobbes, attempts were made to use the methods of the new modern physical sciences, as proposed by Bacon and Descartes, applied to humanity and politics. Notable attempts to improve upon the approach of Hobbes include those of John Locke, Spinoza, Giambattista Vico. David Hume made what he considered to be the first proper attempt at trying to apply Bacons scientific method to political subjects, modernist republicanism openly influenced the foundation of republics during the Dutch Revolt, English Civil War, American Revolution, the French Revolution, and the Haitian revolution. By this logic, what makes a political system or a good man is completely dependent upon the chance path a whole people has taken over history. This thought influenced the thinking of Immanuel Kant, Edmund Burke and others. On the conservative side, Burke argued that this understanding encouraged caution, on the other hand, the notion modernity has been contested also due to its Euro-centric underpinnings. This is further aggravated by the re-emergence of non-Western powers, yet, the contestations about modernity are also linked with our notions of democracy, social discipline, and development. In the most basic terms, Anthony Giddens describes modernity as. a shorthand term for modern society, largely as a result of these characteristics, modernity is vastly more dynamic than any previous type of social order. It is a society—more technically, a complex of institutions—which, unlike any preceding culture, lives in the future, other writers have criticized such definitions as just being a listing of factors. They argue that modernity, contingently understood as marked by a formation in dominance
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Proscribed
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Proscription is, in current usage, a decree of condemnation to death or banishment and can be used in a political context to refer to state-approved murder or banishment. The term originated in Ancient Rome, where it included public identification, during the dictatorial reign of Sulla, the word took on a more sinister meaning. In 82 or 81 BC, Sulla instituted the process of proscription in order to avenge the massacres of Gaius Marius and Gaius Marius’ son. He instituted a notice for the sale of confiscated property belonging to those declared public enemies of the state, there were multiple reasons why the ancient Roman government may have desired to proscribe or attribute multiple other forms of pain. One of the most prevalent reasons for punishment are treason crimes, treason crimes consisted of a very broad and large number of regulations, and such crimes had a negative effect on the government. Overall, crimes in which the state, emperor, the tranquility, or offenses against the good of the people would be considered treason. Punishments for treason were quite harsh for today’s standards and were meant to highlight the seriousness and shamefulness of the crimes committed. There were a variety of punishments for crimes, including death, loss of a freedman’s status, loss of citizenship with a loss of family rights. Death was a common punishment and was referred to as summum supplicium. The death sentence was often the punishment for all but the mildest forms of treason, Julius Caesar was an influential framer on the law on treason. The Interdiction from Water and Fire was a civil excommunication resulting in ultimate exile and those who were condemned would be deported to an island. Emperor Augustus frequently utilized this method of exile, as he desired to keep banished men from banding together in large groups, such punishment was only given for the mildest forms of treason, in comparison to the death penalty served for most other treason crimes. Augustus also created the prefect, whose powers included the ability to banish, deport, an early instance of mass proscription took place in 82 BC, when Lucius Cornelius Sulla was appointed dictator rei publicae constituendae. Sulla proceeded to have the Senate draw up a list of those he considered enemies of the state, no person could inherit money or property from proscribed men, nor could any woman married to a proscribed man remarry after his death. Many victims of proscription were decapitated and their heads were displayed on spears in the Forum and this gave rise to a general fear of being taken from ones home at night as a consequence of any outwardly seditious behaviour. Sullas proscription was bureaucratically overseen, and the names of informers, because Roman law could criminalise acts ex post facto, many informers and profiteers were later prosecuted. The proscription of 82 BC was overseen by Sullas freedman steward Lucius Cornelius Chrysogonus, the proscription lists created by Sulla led to mass terror in Rome. During this time, the cities of Italy became theaters of execution, citizens were terrified to find their names on the lists
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Degenerate music
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Degenerate music was a label applied in the 1930s by the Nazi government in Germany to certain forms of music that it considered to be harmful or decadent. The Nazi governments concern for degenerate music was a part of its larger, in both cases, the government attempted to isolate, discredit, discourage, or ban the works. Their ideas drew on decades of writing on music and on a debate on the relationship between music and mental illness. Jewish composers such as Felix Mendelssohn and Gustav Mahler were disparaged and condemned by the Nazis, in Leipzig, a bronze statue of Mendelssohn was removed. The regime commissioned music to replace his incidental music to A Midsummer Nights Dream, from the Nazi seizure of power onward, these composers found it increasingly difficult, and often impossible, to get work or have their music performed. Many went into exile, or retreated into internal exile, or ended up in the concentration camps, like degenerate art, examples of degenerate music were displayed in public exhibits in Germany beginning in 1938. Reichsmusikkammer Negermusik Reich Music Examination Office Cultural Bolshevism Low culture Swing Kids Anon, musiques interdites sous le IIIe Reich. Degenerate Music in Nazi Germany Degenerate Music at Guide to the Holocaust Database of Degenerate Music
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