1.
Employment
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Employees in some fields or sectors may receive gratuities, bonus payment or stock options. In some types of employment, employees may receive benefits in addition to payment, benefits can include health insurance, housing, disability insurance or use of a gym. Employment is typically governed by employment laws or regulations or legal contracts, employers must balance interests such as decreasing wage constraints with a maximization of labor productivity in order to achieve a profitable and productive employment relationship. The main ways for employers to workers and for people to find employers are via jobs listings in newspapers and online. Employers and job seekers also find each other via professional recruitment consultants which receive a commission from the employer to find, screen. However, a study has shown that such consultants may not be reliable when they fail to use established principles in selecting employees, a more traditional approach is with a Help Wanted sign in the establishment. Evaluating different employees can be quite laborious but setting up different techniques to analyze their skill to measure their talents within the field can be best through assessments, employer and potential employee commonly take the additional step of getting to know each other through the process of job interview. Training and development refers to the effort to equip a newly hired employee with necessary skills to perform at the job. An appropriate level of training and development helps to improve job satisfaction. There are many ways that employees are paid, including by hourly wages, by piecework, by yearly salary, in sales jobs and real estate positions, the employee may be paid a commission, a percentage of the value of the goods or services that they have sold. In some fields and professions, employees may be eligible for a bonus if they meet certain targets, employee benefits are various non-wage compensation provided to employee in addition to their wages or salaries. In some cases, such as with workers employed in remote or isolated regions, employee benefits can improve the relationship between employee and employer and lowers staff turnover. Organizational justice is a perception and judgement of employers treatment in the context of fairness or justice. The resulting actions to influence the relationship is also a part of organizational justice. Employees can organize into trade or labor unions, which represent the force to collectively bargain with the management of organizations about working. Usually, either an employee or employer may end the relationship at any time and this is referred to as at-will employment. The contract between the two parties specifies the responsibilities of each when ending the relationship and may include such as notice periods, severance pay. In some professions, notably teaching, civil servants, university professors, and some jobs, some employees may have tenure
2.
Albany, Oregon
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Albany is the county seat of Linn County, and the 11th largest city in the State of Oregon. Albany is located in the Willamette Valley at the confluence of the Calapooia River and it is predominantly a farming and manufacturing city that settlers founded around 1848. As of the 2010 United States Census, the population of Albany was 50,158 and its population was estimated by the Portland Research Center to be 51,583 in 2013. Albany has a home rule charter, a government. The city provides the population access to over 30 parks and trails, a senior center. In addition to farming and manufacturing, the economy depends on retail trade, health care. In recent years the city has worked to revive the downtown shopping area, in the historic era, the area of the Willamette Valley that makes up modern-day Albany was inhabited by one of the tribes of the Kalapuya a Penutian-speaking, Native American people. The Kalapuya had named the area Takenah, a Kalapuyan word used to describe the deep pool at the confluence of the Calapooia, a variation of the place name can also be written as Tekenah. The Kalapuya population in the valley was between 4,000 and 20,000 before contact with Europeans, but they suffered high mortality from new diseases introduced shortly afterward. The tribes were decimated by an epidemic that raged through the Pacific Northwest in 1782–83. A malaria outbreak swept through the region between 1830 and 1833 and it is estimated that as many as 90 percent of the Kalapuya population died during this period. That, coupled with the treaties signed during the 1850s by the Kalapuya to cede land to the United States, the first European American settler arrived in 1845, Abner Hackleman was a farmer from Iowa. Taking up a claim for himself, Hackleman asked Hiram N. Smead to hold another for him until his son arrived from Iowa. In 1846, a year after arriving in Oregon, Hackleman died while returning to Iowa to fetch his family. In 1847 a pair of brothers, Walter and Thomas Monteith, settled in the area, after traveling by ox team along the Oregon Trail from their native state of New York. They were a family of prominence in the area, in 1848, they bought a claim of 320 acres from Hiram Smead for $400. They named the city Albany after their hometown of Albany in New York, during the same period, Hacklemans son Abram reached his fathers original land claim and built a log house in an oak grove still known as Hacklemans Grove. He later built a house, which stands at the corner of Fifth
3.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
4.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
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Campus
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A campus is traditionally the land on which a college or university and related institutional buildings are situated. Usually a college campus includes libraries, lecture halls, residence halls, student centers or dining halls, a modern campus is a collection of buildings and grounds that belong to a given institution, either academic or non-academic. Examples include the Googleplex and the Apple Campus, the word derives from a Latin word for field and was first used to describe the large field adjacent Nassau Hall of the College of New Jersey in 1774. The field separated Princeton from the nearby town. Some other American colleges later adopted the word to describe individual fields at their own institutions, a school might have one space called a campus, one called a field, and another called a yard. The tradition of a campus began with the medieval European universities where the students, the notion of the importance of the setting to academic life later migrated to America, and early colonial educational institutions were based on the Scottish and English collegiate system. The campus evolved from the model in Europe to a diverse set of independent styles in the United States. The meaning expanded to include the whole institutional property during the 20th century, sometimes the lands on which company office buildings sit, along with the buildings, are called campuses. The Microsoft Campus in Redmond, Washington is a good example, hospitals, and even airports sometimes use the term to describe the territory of their facilities
6.
United States Department of Energy
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The United States Department of Energy is a Cabinet-level department of the United States Government concerned with the United States policies regarding energy and safety in handling nuclear material. It also directs research in genomics, the Human Genome Project originated in a DOE initiative, DOE sponsors more research in the physical sciences than any other U. S. federal agency, the majority of which is conducted through its system of National Laboratories. Former Governor of Texas Rick Perry is the current Secretary of Energy and he was confirmed by a 62 to 37 vote in the United States Senate on March 2,2017. In 1942, during World War II, the United States started the Manhattan Project, after the war in 1946, the Atomic Energy Commission was created to control the future of the project. The 1973 oil crisis called attention to the need to consolidate energy policy, on August 4,1977, President Jimmy Carter signed into law The Department of Energy Organization Act of 1977, which created the Department of Energy. Former Secretary of Defense James Schlesinger, who served under Presidents Nixon, a DOE spokesperson denied that phrases had been banned. In December 1999, the FBI was investigating how China obtained plans for a nuclear device. Wen Ho Lee was accused of stealing nuclear secrets from Los Alamos National Laboratory for the Peoples Republic of China, Federal officials, including then-Energy Secretary Bill Richardson, publicly named Lee as a suspect before he was charged with a crime. The U. S. Congress held hearings to investigate the Department of Energys mishandling of his case, republican senators thought that an independent agency should be in charge of nuclear weapons and security issues, not the Department of Energy. All but one of the 59 charges against Lee were eventually dropped because the investigation proved that the plans the Chinese obtained could not have come from Lee. Lee filed suit and won a $1.6 million settlement against the federal government, the department is under the control and supervision of a United States Secretary of Energy, a political appointee of the President of the United States. The Energy Secretary is assisted in managing the department by a United States Deputy Secretary of Energy, also appointed by the president, the department also has three under secretaries, each appointed by the president, who oversee the major areas of the departments work. The president also appoints seven officials with the rank of Assistant Secretary of Energy who have line management responsibility for major elements of the Department. The Energy Secretary assigns their functions and duties. S.4 billion budget request for DOE for fiscal year 2010, including $2.3 billion for the DOE Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. The budget aims to expand the use of renewable energy sources while improving energy transmission infrastructure. It also makes significant investments in hybrids and plug-in hybrids, in smart grid technologies, most of the stimulus spending was in the form of grants and contracts. The contractor guarantees the energy improvements will generate savings, and after the contract ends, in loan guarantees, a conditional commitment requires to meet an equity commitment, as well as other conditions, before the loan guarantee is completed. The DOE budget includes $280 million to fund eight Energy Innovation Hubs, yet another hub will develop smart materials that will allow the electrical grid to adapt and respond to changing conditions
7.
Metal
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A metal is a material that is typically hard, opaque, shiny, and has good electrical and thermal conductivity. Metals are generally malleable—that is, they can be hammered or pressed permanently out of shape without breaking or cracking—as well as fusible and ductile, about 91 of the 118 elements in the periodic table are metals, the others are nonmetals or metalloids. Some elements appear in both metallic and non-metallic forms, astrophysicists use the term metal to collectively describe all elements other than hydrogen and helium, the simplest two, in a star. The star fuses smaller atoms, mostly hydrogen and helium, to larger ones over its lifetime. In that sense, the metallicity of an object is the proportion of its matter made up of all chemical elements. Many elements and compounds that are not normally classified as metals become metallic under high pressures, the atoms of metallic substances are typically arranged in one of three common crystal structures, namely body-centered cubic, face-centered cubic, and hexagonal close-packed. In bcc, each atom is positioned at the center of a cube of eight others, in fcc and hcp, each atom is surrounded by twelve others, but the stacking of the layers differs. Some metals adopt different structures depending on the temperature, atoms of metals readily lose their outer shell electrons, resulting in a free flowing cloud of electrons within their otherwise solid arrangement. This provides the ability of metallic substances to easily transmit heat, while this flow of electrons occurs, the solid characteristic of the metal is produced by electrostatic interactions between each atom and the electron cloud. This type of bond is called a metallic bond, Metals are usually inclined to form cations through electron loss, reacting with oxygen in the air to form oxides over various timescales. Examples,4 Na + O2 →2 Na2O2 Ca + O2 →2 CaO4 Al +3 O2 →2 Al2O3, the transition metals are slower to oxidize because they form a passivating layer of oxide that protects the interior. Others, like palladium, platinum and gold, do not react with the atmosphere at all, some metals form a barrier layer of oxide on their surface which cannot be penetrated by further oxygen molecules and thus retain their shiny appearance and good conductivity for many decades. The oxides of metals are generally basic, as opposed to those of nonmetals, exceptions are largely oxides with very high oxidation states such as CrO3, Mn2O7, and OsO4, which have strictly acidic reactions. Painting, anodizing or plating metals are good ways to prevent their corrosion, however, a more reactive metal in the electrochemical series must be chosen for coating, especially when chipping of the coating is expected. Water and the two form an electrochemical cell, and if the coating is less reactive than the coatee. Metals in general have high conductivity, high thermal conductivity. Typically they are malleable and ductile, deforming under stress without cleaving, in terms of optical properties, metals are shiny and lustrous. Sheets of metal beyond a few micrometres in thickness appear opaque, although most metals have higher densities than most nonmetals, there is wide variation in their densities, lithium being the least dense solid element and osmium the densest
8.
Alloy
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An alloy is a mixture of metals or a mixture of a metal and another element. Alloys are defined by a metallic bonding character, an alloy may be a solid solution of metal elements or a mixture of metallic phases. Intermetallic compounds are alloys with a stoichiometry and crystal structure. Zintl phases are sometimes considered alloys depending on bond types. Alloys are used in a variety of applications. In some cases, a combination of metals may reduce the overall cost of the material while preserving important properties, in other cases, the combination of metals imparts synergistic properties to the constituent metal elements such as corrosion resistance or mechanical strength. Examples of alloys are steel, solder, brass, pewter, duralumin, bronze, the alloy constituents are usually measured by mass. Alloys are usually classified as substitutional or interstitial alloys, depending on the arrangement that forms the alloy. They can be classified as homogeneous, or heterogeneous or intermetallic. An alloy is a mixture of elements, which forms an impure substance that retains the characteristics of a metal. Alloys are made by mixing two or more elements, at least one of which is a metal and this is usually called the primary metal or the base metal, and the name of this metal may also be the name of the alloy. The other constituents may or may not be metals but, when mixed with the base, they will be soluble. The mechanical properties of alloys will often be different from those of its individual constituents. A metal that is very soft, such as aluminium, can be altered by alloying it with another soft metal. Although both metals are soft and ductile, the resulting aluminium alloy will have much greater strength. Adding a small amount of carbon to iron trades its great ductility for the greater strength of an alloy called steel. Due to its strength, but still substantial toughness, and its ability to be greatly altered by heat treatment, steel is one of the most useful. By adding chromium to steel, its resistance to corrosion can be enhanced, creating stainless steel, while adding silicon will alter its electrical characteristics, producing silicon steel
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Ceramic
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A ceramic is an inorganic, non-metallic, solid material comprising metal, non-metal or metalloid atoms primarily held in ionic and covalent bonds. This article gives an overview of ceramic materials from the point of view of materials science, the crystallinity of ceramic materials ranges from highly oriented to semi-crystalline, vitrified, and often completely amorphous. Most often, fired ceramics are either vitrified or semi-vitrified as is the case with earthenware, stoneware, varying crystallinity and electron consumption in the ionic and covalent bonds cause most ceramic materials to be good thermal and electrical insulators. With such a range of possible options for the composition/structure of a ceramic, the breadth of the subject is vast. Many composites, such as fiberglass and carbon fiber, while containing ceramic materials, are not considered to be part of the ceramic family. The earliest ceramics made by humans were pottery objects or figurines made from clay, either by itself or mixed with materials like silica, hardened, sintered. Later ceramics were glazed and fired to create smooth, colored surfaces, decreasing porosity through the use of glassy, ceramics now include domestic, industrial and building products, as well as a wide range of ceramic art. In the 20th century, new materials were developed for use in advanced ceramic engineering. The word ceramic comes from the Greek word κεραμικός, of pottery or for pottery, from κέραμος, potters clay, tile, the earliest known mention of the root ceram- is the Mycenaean Greek ke-ra-me-we, workers of ceramics, written in Linear B syllabic script. The word ceramic may be used as an adjective to describe a material, product or process, or it may be used as a noun, either singular, or, more commonly, as the plural noun ceramics. A ceramic material is an inorganic, non-metallic, often crystalline oxide, nitride or carbide material, some elements, such as carbon or silicon, may be considered ceramics. Ceramic materials are brittle, hard, strong in compression, weak in shearing and they withstand chemical erosion that occurs in other materials subjected to acidic or caustic environments. Ceramics generally can withstand high temperatures, such as temperatures that range from 1,000 °C to 1,600 °C. Glass is often not considered a ceramic because of its amorphous character. However, glassmaking involves several steps of the process and its mechanical properties are similar to ceramic materials. Traditional ceramic raw materials include minerals such as kaolinite, whereas more recent materials include aluminium oxide. The modern ceramic materials, which are classified as advanced ceramics, include silicon carbide, both are valued for their abrasion resistance, and hence find use in applications such as the wear plates of crushing equipment in mining operations. Advanced ceramics are used in the medicine, electrical, electronics industries. Crystalline ceramic materials are not amenable to a range of processing
10.
Prototype
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A prototype is an early sample, model, or release of a product built to test a concept or process or to act as a thing to be replicated or learned from. It is a used in a variety of contexts, including semantics, design, electronics. A prototype is used to evaluate a new design to enhance precision by system analysts. Prototyping serves to provide specifications for a real, working system rather than a theoretical one, in some design workflow models, creating a prototype is the step between the formalization and the evaluation of an idea. The word prototype derives from the Greek πρωτότυπον prototypon, primitive form, neutral of πρωτότυπος prototypos, original, primitive, from πρῶτος protos, first and τύπος typos, a Working Prototype represents all or nearly all of the functionality of the final product. A Visual Prototype represents the size and appearance, but not the functionality, a User Experience Prototype represents enough of the appearance and function of the product that it can be used for user research. A Functional Prototype captures both function and appearance of the design, though it may be created with different techniques. A Paper Prototype is a printed or hand-drawn representation of the interface of a software product. In some cases, the final production materials may still be undergoing development themselves, process - Mass-production processes are often unsuitable for making a small number of parts, so prototypes may be made using different fabrication processes than the final product. Differences in fabrication process may lead to differences in the appearance of the prototype as compared to the final product, verification - The final product may be subject to a number of quality assurance tests to verify conformance with drawings or specifications. These tests may involve custom inspection fixtures, statistical sampling methods, prototypes are generally made with much closer individual inspection and the assumption that some adjustment or rework will be part of the fabrication process. Prototypes may also be exempted from some requirements that apply to the final product. Engineers and prototype specialists will attempt to minimize the impact of these differences on the role for the prototype. Engineers and prototyping specialists seek to understand the limitations of prototypes to exactly simulate the characteristics of their intended design and it is important to realize that by their very definition, prototypes will represent some compromise from the final production design. Due to differences in materials, processes and design fidelity, it is possible that a prototype may fail to perform acceptably whereas the design may have been sound. In general, it can be expected that individual prototype costs will be greater than the final production costs due to inefficiencies in materials. Prototypes are also used to revise the design for the purposes of reducing costs through optimization and it is possible to use prototype testing to reduce the risk that a design may not perform as intended, however prototypes generally cannot eliminate all risk. As an alternative, rapid prototyping or rapid application development techniques are used for the prototypes, which implement part
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Recycling
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Recycling is the process of converting waste materials into new materials and objects. It is an alternative to conventional waste disposal that can save material, Recycling can prevent the waste of potentially useful materials and reduce the consumption of fresh raw materials, thereby reducing, energy usage, air pollution, and water pollution. Recycling is a key component of waste reduction and is the third component of the Reduce, Reuse. There are some ISO standards related to recycling such as ISO15270,2008 for plastics waste, recyclable materials include many kinds of glass, paper, and cardboard, metal, plastic, tires, textiles, and electronics. The composting or other reuse of biodegradable waste—such as food or garden waste—is also considered recycling, materials to be recycled are either brought to a collection centre or picked up from the curbside, then sorted, cleaned, and reprocessed into new materials destined for manufacturing. However, this is difficult or too expensive, so recycling of many products or materials involves their reuse in producing different materials instead. Another form of recycling is the salvage of materials from complex products, either due to their intrinsic value. Recycling has been a practice for most of human history. In pre-industrial times, there is evidence of bronze and other metals being collected in Europe. Paper recycling was first recorded in 1031 when Japanese shops sold repulped paper, in Britain dust and ash from wood and coal fires was collected by dustmen and downcycled as a base material used in brick making. In 1813, Benjamin Law developed the process of turning rags into shoddy and mungo wool in Batley and this material combined recycled fibers with virgin wool. The West Yorkshire shoddy industry in such as Batley and Dewsbury lasted from the early 19th century to at least 1914. Industrialization spurred demand for materials, aside from rags, ferrous scrap metals were coveted as they were cheaper to acquire than virgin ore. Railroads both purchased and sold scrap metal in the 19th century, and the steel and automobile industries purchased scrap in the early 20th century. Many secondary goods were collected, processed and sold by peddlers who scoured dumps and city streets for discarded machinery, pots, pans, and other sources of metal. By World War I, thousands of such peddlers roamed the streets of American cities, beverage bottles were recycled with a refundable deposit at some drink manufacturers in Great Britain and Ireland around 1800, notably Schweppes. New chemical industries created in the late 19th century both invented new materials (e. g. Bakelite and promised to transform valueless into valuable materials, new and better paths are opened to reach the goals desired. Recycling was a highlight throughout World War II, during the war, financial constraints and significant material shortages due to war efforts made it necessary for countries to reuse goods and recycle materials
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Waste
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Waste and wastes are unwanted or unusable materials. Waste is any substance which is discarded after use, or it is worthless, defective. Examples include municipal solid waste, hazardous waste, wastewater, radioactive waste, according to the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal of 1989, Art. 2, Wastes are substance or objects, which are disposed of or are intended to be disposed of or are required to be disposed of by the provisions of national law. Wastes may be generated during the extraction of raw materials, the processing of raw materials into intermediate and final products, the consumption of final products, residuals recycled or reused at the place of generation are excluded. Under the Waste Framework Directive 2008/98/EC, Art,3, the European Union defines waste as an object the holder discards, intends to discard or is required to discard. For a more structural description of the Waste Directive, see the European Commissions summary and it is most commonly measured by size or weight, and there is a stark difference between the two. For example, organic waste is much heavier when it is wet, on a global scale it is difficult to report waste because countries have different definitions of waste and what falls into waste categories, as well as different ways of reporting. Based on incomplete reports from its parties, the Basel Convention estimated 338 million tonnes of waste was generated in 2001, for the same year, OECD estimated 4 billion tonnes from its member countries. Toxic waste materials can contaminate surface water, groundwater, soil, and air which causes problems for humans, other species. Waste treatment and disposal produces significant green house gas emissions, notably methane, Waste management is a significant environmental justice issue. Many of the environmental burdens cited above are often borne by marginalized groups, such as racial minorities, women. NIMBY is the opposition of residents to a proposal for a new development because it is close to them, however, the need for expansion and siting of waste treatment and disposal facilities is increasing worldwide. Environmental policies such as pay as you throw can reduce the cost of management, Waste recovery can curb economic costs because it avoids extracting raw materials and often cuts transportation costs. Economic assessment of municipal waste management systems – case studies using a combination of life-cycle assessment, the location of waste treatment and disposal facilities often reduces property values due to noise, dust, pollution, unsightliness, and negative stigma. The informal waste sector consists mostly of waste pickers who scavenge for metals, glass, plastic, textiles, and other materials and then trade them for a profit. This sector can significantly alter or reduce waste in a system, but other negative economic effects come with the disease, poverty, exploitation. Resource recovery is the retrieval of recyclable waste, which was intended for disposal and it is the processing of recyclables to extract or recover materials and resources, or convert to energy
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United States Bureau of Mines
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The collection, analysis, and dissemination of information about mining and processing of more than 100 mineral commodities across the Nation and in more than 185 countries around the world. Analysis of the impact of proposed mineral-related laws and regulations upon the national interest, production, conservation, sale, and distribution of helium for essential government activities The first director of the USBM was Joseph Austin Holmes, a pioneer in occupational safety and health. He served from 1910 until his death in 1915, from its creation, the USBM was viewed, both nationally and internationally, as the focal point for new and emerging science and technology in the minerals field. Since entering competition in 1978, the Bureau of Mines won 35 R&D100 Awards and we leave knowing that the proud accomplishments of this agency did make a difference in the quality of life we now enjoy, and they will continue to do so well into the 21st century. — USBM Director Rhea Graham In September 1995, Congress voted to close the Bureau of Mines, with USBMs closure, almost $100 million, or 66%, of its 1995 programs ceased, and approximately 1,000 of its employees were dismissed. The Bureaus archive of mining maps was transferred to the National Mine Map Repository, closure of the Bureau of Mines, and the accompanying transfers of functions and employee layoffs were essentially complete in March 1996. The Bureaus Minerals Information functions were transferred to the U. S. Geological Survey in early 1996, the Mineral Industry Surveys, Mineral Commodity Summaries, and the Minerals Yearbook continued to be published. In fiscal year 1997, it was transferred to the National Institute for Occupational Safety. NIOSH is part of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention within the Department of Health, a total of 413 full-time equivalent employees were transferred to NIOSH on October 11, 1996—336 in Pittsburgh and 77 in Spokane. A position of Associate Director for Mining in the NIOSH headquarters office was created, under NIOSH, the Pittsburgh and Spokane Research Centers were renamed the Pittsburgh Research Laboratory and Spokane Research Laboratory. Both labs currently reside under NIOSHs Office of Mine Safety and Health Research, on May 28,2010, Senator Jay Rockefeller released a list of proposed changes to mine safety laws including re-establishing the Bureau of Mines. Self-rescue equipment to allow miners to continue to breathe when caught in underground disasters, low-cost methods to extract radium for cancer treatment. Production processes for titanium, which is critical for aerospace and automobile manufacturing, and zirconium, techniques to recover strategic and critical minerals, such as cobalt and chromium, to reduce U. S. vulnerability to import blockages in international crises, especially during the Cold War. Construction of manmade wetlands to limit pollution of waterways by acid mine drainage from nearby mining and mineral-processing operations, methods to minimize damage from subsidence, the sinking of the surface of the earth above underground mines. Improved recycling of metals, plastic and paper from municipal wastes, including a technology, now used around the world, non-intrusive ways to recover minerals without disturbing the surface of the land. Use of bacteria to remove arsenic and cyanide from waste waters on public, uncovering the worlds largest deposits of lead and zinc at Alaskas Red Dog Creek, leading to hundreds of millions of dollars in capital investments for mine development. NIOSHs Office of Mining and Construction Safety and Health Research Minerals Yearbook full text Historic technical reports from the Bureau of Mines at the Technical Report Archive and Image Library
14.
Lewis & Clark College
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Lewis & Clark College is a private liberal arts college located in Portland, Oregon. It has an undergraduate College of Arts and Sciences, a School of Law, Lewis & Clark is a member of the Annapolis Group of colleges with athletic programs competing in the National Collegiate Athletic Associations Division III Northwest Conference. Just over 2,000 students attend the undergraduate College of Arts and Sciences, the School of Law is best known for its environmental law program, while the Graduate School of Education & Counseling is active in community engagement and social justice. Today, the three schools and their supporting offices occupy a campus of 137 acres, centered on the M. Lloyd Frank Estate on Palatine Hill in the Collins View neighborhood of Southwest Portland. To this end the Presbyterian church incorporated Albany Academy in 1858, within a decade of its founding, Albany Academy began to focus more exclusively on higher education, changing its official name to the Albany Collegiate Institution in 1866. Unlike most Oregon colleges of the pioneer-era, the college has been coeducational since the first class, the early campus of 7 acres in Albany was situated on land donated by the Monteith family. In 1892, the school building was enlarged, and in 1925 the school relocated south of Albany where it remained until 1937. Albany College established a college to the north in Portland in 1934. The campus grounds later became home to the federal governments Albany Research Center, in 1942 the college trustees acquired the Lloyd Frank “Fir Acres” estate in southwest Portland, and the school name was changed to Lewis & Clark College. The original school mascot, the Pirates, was changed to the Pioneers in 1946, the three schools of the college include the College of Arts and Sciences, the Law School, and the Graduate School of Education and Counseling. Lewis & Clark has nationally regarded programs in Biology, International Affairs, Psychology, Foreign Languages, the college has held two worldwide symphonic festivals in the past five years with professional-level performances in Dublin and the Greek islands. Lewis & Clark is also known for its active and diverse overseas study program, the college offers approximately 36 programs in various countries, and since the 1960s, more than 60% of all Lewis & Clark undergraduates have studied abroad. For a small liberal arts college, Lewis & Clarks overseas offerings are impressive in both breadth and scope, there are, for example seven discrete programs in Spanish-speaking countries. Lewis & Clark is also one of the few U. S. institutions with a program in Cuba. For the Class of 2018, Lewis & Clark received 6,244 applications, accepted 4,160 and enrolled 564. In terms of rank, of the 41% of high school seniors who submitted it, 38% of enrolled freshmen were in the top tenth of their high school classes. The middle 50% range of SAT scores for the enrolled freshmen was 610-710 for critical reading, 580-670 for math, the average high school Grade Point Average GPA of enrolled freshmen was 3.91. The 2017 annual ranking of U. S. News & World Report categorizes Lewis & Clark as more selective and ranks it tied for the 87th best liberal arts college in the nation
15.
William Justin Kroll
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See also German classic philologist, Wilhelm Kroll. William Justin Kroll was a Luxembourgish metallurgist and he is best known for inventing the Kroll process in 1940, which is used commercially to extract metallic titanium from ore. He spent the four years there to complete his doctoral thesis under the guidance of legendary professor K. A. Hofmann. Working in Germany, in 1918, Kroll invented a very efficient bearing alloy based on lead, commercialized under the name Lurgi metal, in Austria in 1922, he developed alloys known as Alusil and Alsia used primarily for cast-aluminum pistons. In 1923, Kroll returned to Luxembourg and set up a private laboratory, Kroll invented precipitation hardening stainless steel in 1929, when he added a small amount of titanium to stainless steel and strengthened it by thermally precipitating TiC particles. In the 1930s he began focusing on the study of titanium, before Kroll, titanium as a metal was a laboratory curiosity. In 1938, titanium was machined for the first time at the Cerametal factory in Bereldange, William Kroll visited the USA arriving in New York aboard the SS Queen Mary from Cherbourg, France on October 18,1938. He called on various US non-ferrous industries, showing his titanium samples, as the Nazi cloud began to spread over Germany in 1940 Wilhelm J. Kroll elected to emigrate to the United States. He arrived in New York on February 22,1940, having sailed from Rotterdam, on May 10,1940, German troops invaded Luxembourg, occupying the country for the next four years. On June 25,1940, the United States Patent and Trademark Office awarded patent 2.205.854 for Kroll’s method of manufacturing titanium and alloys thereof, on December 4,1940, Kroll applied for US citizenship. He worked as an engineer for Union Carbide Research Laboratories at Niagara Falls. Slowly the US government and the industry began to recognize the potential of titanium, the US government established a research center in Boulder, Colorado in 1944, and in late 1948, Dupont de Nemours began the commercial production of titanium using the Kroll process. Meanwhile, Kroll’s focus had turned to zirconium and he became a consulting metallurgist to the United States, Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines in 1945 at their research facility at Albany, Oregon. The first zirconium strip was rolled out there in August 1946, in 1951, William Kroll joined the Oregon State University, established a non-profit Metal Research Foundation awarding scholarships and grants in the USA and in Europe. Dr. William J. Kroll returned to Europe in 1961 where he died in Brussels on March 30,1973, Kroll, world-renowned extractive metallurgist best known for his inventions of processes for the production of titanium and zirconium. The financial resources of Dr. Kroll’s bequest were intended to provide for the establishment of a Center for Excellence in Extractive Metallurgy at the Colorado School of Mines. ”Kroll was posthumously inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 2000. Among his other awards were the Francis J. Clamer Medal in 1954, the Albert Sauveur Achievement Award from the American Society for Metals in 1955 and he was also awarded the Acheson Award by the Electrochemical Society in 1958
16.
United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
17.
United States Atomic Energy Commission
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President Harry S. Truman signed the McMahon/Atomic Energy Act on August 1,1946, transferring the control of atomic energy from military to civilian hands, effective from January 1,1947. This shift gave the first members of the AEC complete control of the plants, laboratories, equipment, during its initial establishment and subsequent operationalization, the AEC played a key role in the institutional development of Ecosystem ecology. Specifically, it provided financial resources, allowing for ecological research to take place. Perhaps even more importantly, it enabled ecologists with a range of groundbreaking techniques for the completion of their research. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the AEC also approved funding for numerous projects in the Arctic and near-Arctic. These projects were designed to examine the effects of energy upon the environment and were a part of the Commission’s attempt at creating peaceful applications of atomic energy. By 1974, the AECs regulatory programs had come under strong attack that Congress decided to abolish the agency. On August 4,1977, President Jimmy Carter signed into law The Department of Energy Organization Act of 1977, at the same time, the McMahon Act which created the AEC also gave it unprecedented powers of regulation over the entire field of nuclear science and technology. President Truman appointed David Lilienthal as the first Chairman of the AEC, Congress gave the new civilian Commission extraordinary power and considerable independence to carry out its mission. To provide the Commission exceptional freedom in hiring scientists and professionals, the National Laboratory system was established from the facilities created under the Manhattan Project. Argonne National Laboratory was one of the first laboratories authorized under this legislation as a facility dedicated to fulfilling the new Commissions mission. The Commissions first order of business was to inspect the scattered empire of plants, the AEC was furthermore in charge of developing the United States nuclear arsenal, taking over these responsibilities from the wartime Manhattan Project. It also implemented the program to develop the hydrogen bomb. It began a program of nuclear testing both in the Pacific Proving Grounds and at the continental Nevada Test Site. While it also supported much basic research, the vast majority of its budget was devoted to atomic weapons development. Within the AEC, high-level scientific and technical advice was provided by the General Advisory Committee, in its early years, the GAC provided a number of controversial decisions, notably its decision against building the hydrogen bomb in 1949. As a result, Senator Brien McMahon influenced the decision not to reappoint J. Robert Oppenheimer to the GAC in 1952 after his six-year statutory term expired. David Lilienthal, then AEC Chair, agreed with Oppenheimer and opposed a program to build the hydrogen bomb ahead of any other nation
18.
USS Nautilus (SSN-571)
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USS Nautilus was the worlds first operational nuclear-powered submarine. The vessel was the first submarine to complete a submerged transit of the North Pole on 3 August 1958, in operation, she revealed a number of limitations in her design and construction. This information was used to improve subsequent submarines, Nautilus was decommissioned in 1980 and designated a National Historic Landmark in 1982. The submarine has been preserved as a ship in Groton, Connecticut. On 12 December 1951 the US Department of the Navy announced that the submarine would be called Nautilus, the boat carried the hull number SSN-571. The Nautilus benefited from the GUPPY improvements to the American Gato-, Balao-, nautiluss keel was laid at General Dynamics Electric Boat Division in Groton, Connecticut by Harry S. Truman on 14 June 1952. She was christened on 21 January 1954 and launched into the Thames River, nuclear power had the crucial advantage in submarine propulsion because it is a zero-emission process that consumes no air. This design is the basis for all of the US nuclear-powered submarine and surface combat ships. The first actual prototype was constructed and tested by the Argonne National Laboratory in 1953 at the S1W facility, part of the National Reactor Testing Station in Idaho. Nautilus ships patch was designed by The Walt Disney Company, and her wardroom currently displays a set of made of zirconium. Following her commissioning, Nautilus remained dockside for further construction and testing, at 11 a. m. on 17 January 1955 she put to sea for the first time and signaled her historic message, Underway on nuclear power. On 10 May, she headed south for shakedown, submerged throughout, she traveled 1,100 nautical miles from New London to San Juan, Puerto Rico and covered 1,200 nautical miles in less than ninety hours. At the time, this was the longest submerged cruise by a submarine, from 1955 to 1957, Nautilus continued to be used to investigate the effects of increased submerged speeds and endurance. The improvements rendered the progress made in anti-submarine warfare during World War II virtually obsolete, on 4 February 1957, Nautilus logged her 60, 000th nautical mile, matching the endurance of her namesake, the fictional Nautilus described in Jules Vernes novel Twenty Thousand Leagues Under The Sea. Nautilus returned to New London, Connecticut, on 21 July and she arrived back at New London on 28 October, underwent upkeep, and then conducted coastal operations until the spring. On 25 April 1958, Nautilus was underway again for the West Coast, now commanded by Commander William R. Anderson, USN. Stopping at San Diego, San Francisco, and Seattle, she began her history-making polar transit, operation Sunshine, on 19 June she entered the Chukchi Sea, but was turned back by deep drift ice in those shallow waters. On 28 June she arrived at Pearl Harbor to await better ice conditions, by 23 July 1958 her wait was over, and she set a course northward
19.
Titanium
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Titanium is a chemical element with symbol Ti and atomic number 22. It is a transition metal with a silver color, low density. Titanium is resistant to corrosion in sea water, aqua regia, titanium was discovered in Cornwall, Great Britain, by William Gregor in 1791, and it is named by Martin Heinrich Klaproth for the Titans of Greek mythology. The metal is extracted from its principal mineral ores by the Kroll, the most common compound, titanium dioxide, is a popular photocatalyst and is used in the manufacture of white pigments. Other compounds include titanium tetrachloride, a component of smoke screens and catalysts, and titanium trichloride, the two most useful properties of the metal are corrosion resistance and strength-to-density ratio, the highest of any metallic element. In its unalloyed condition, titanium is as strong as some steels, there are two allotropic forms and five naturally occurring isotopes of this element, 46Ti through 50Ti, with 48Ti being the most abundant. Although they have the number of valence electrons and are in the same group in the periodic table. As a metal, titanium is recognized for its high strength-to-weight ratio and it is a strong metal with low density that is quite ductile, lustrous, and metallic-white in color. The relatively high melting point makes it useful as a refractory metal and it is paramagnetic and has fairly low electrical and thermal conductivity. Commercial grades of titanium have ultimate tensile strength of about 434 MPa, equal to that of common, low-grade steel alloys, titanium is 60% denser than aluminium, but more than twice as strong as the most commonly used 6061-T6 aluminium alloy. Certain titanium alloys achieve tensile strengths of over 1400 MPa, however, titanium loses strength when heated above 430 °C. Titanium is not as hard as some grades of heat-treated steel, it is non-magnetic, machining requires precautions, because the material might gall unless sharp tools and proper cooling methods are used. Like steel structures, those made from titanium have a limit that guarantees longevity in some applications. The metal is an allotrope of an hexagonal α form that changes into a body-centered cubic β form at 882 °C. The specific heat of the α form increases dramatically as it is heated to this transition temperature but then falls, similar to zirconium and hafnium, an additional omega phase exists, which is thermodynamically stable at high pressures, but metastable at ambient pressures. This phase is usually hexagonal or trigonal and can be considered to be due to a soft longitudinal acoustic phonon of the β phase causing collapse of planes of atoms, like aluminium and magnesium, titanium metal and its alloys oxidize immediately upon exposure to air. Titanium readily reacts with oxygen at 1,200 °C in air and it is, however, slow to react with water and air at ambient temperatures because it forms a passive oxide coating that protects the bulk metal from further oxidation. When it first forms, this layer is only 1–2 nm thick but continues to grow slowly
20.
ASM International (society)
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ASM International, formerly known as the American Society for Metals, is a professional organization for materials scientists and engineers. ASM provides several information resources, including the ASM Handbooks, a series of books that provide data on various types of metals. These handbooks are recognized as a reference in the field of materials science. Examples of topics covered by the ASM Handbooks are mechanical properties of metals, corrosion studies, other publications include technical journals such as Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A and Journal of Phase Equilibria and Diffusion. ASM also hosts numerous international conferences each year, each society is led by volunteers, produces specific technical content for members, and holds its own international event. As the charitable arm of ASM, the ASM Materials Education Foundation also operates several Materials Camps in the summers for high school students and these camps are intended to educate the public about the materials field, and encourage young people to pursue careers in materials science and engineering. ASM has been in existence, under various names, since 1913, during World War I, the Steel Treaters Club became the Steel Treating Research Society, with groups in Detroit, Chicago, and Cleveland. After World War I, the Chicago group seceded and formed the American Steel Treaters Society, in 1920 the local chapters were reunified into the new American Society for Steel Treating. The society expanded its scope beyond steel during the 1920s. In 1933 it became the American Society for Metals, gradually the society expanded its geographic scope beyond the U. S. and its technical scope beyond metals to include other materials. It became known as ASM International in 1986, as of 2015, ASM claims 29,000 members worldwide
21.
Oregon Department of Transportation
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The Oregon Department of Transportation is a department of the state government of the U. S. state of Oregon responsible for systems of transportation. It was first established in 1969 and it had been preceded by the Oregon State Highway Department which, along with the Oregon State Highway Commission, was created by an act of the Oregon Legislative Assembly in 1913. It works closely with the five-member Oregon Transportation Commission in managing the states transportation systems. S, State of Oregon, in conjunction with the Oregon Department of Transportation. The first State Highway Commission was created on August 12,1913, on January 12,1915, James Withycombe became Governor and replaced Oswald West on the commission. The 1917 Oregon Legislative Assembly redesigned the State Highway Commission, with citizens appointed to replace the elected officials, the new commissioners held their first meeting on March 6, and the commission was then known as the Oregon Highway Division. As Oregons transportation needs started to grow, the expanded and, in 1919, it employed their first State Bridge Engineer. By 1920, Oregon had 620 miles of paved roads and 297 and this work was complete when the construction of the bridges over the Yaquina, Alsea, Siuslaw, and Umpqua rivers and Coos Bay were completed, closing the last gaps in the highway. By 1940, the division was managing more than 7,000 miles of state, market and country roads in Oregon. In 2007, the department entered into an agreement with Aurigo Software, several unusual events occurred in the departments history. They were given responsibility for this task because Oregon beaches were designated as highways when the division was initially formed and this became known as the exploding whale incident. 1913 - Get Oregon Out of the Mud 1957 - Building Oregon Thru Better Highways 1958 - Oregon Freeways
22.
United States Congress
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The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the Capitol in Washington, D. C, both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election, though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment. Members are usually affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party, Congress has 535 voting members,435 Representatives and 100 Senators. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members in addition to its 435 voting members and these members can, however, sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation. Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, the members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms representing the people of a single constituency, known as a district. Congressional districts are apportioned to states by using the United States Census results. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, currently, there are 100 senators representing the 50 states. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a term, with terms staggered. The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process—legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers, however, the Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue-raising bills, the House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before a person can be forcibly removed from office. The term Congress can also refer to a meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years, the current one, the 115th Congress, began on January 3,2017, the Congress starts and ends on the third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators, members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen. One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played a role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress, Congress reflects us in all our strengths, Congress is the governments most representative body. Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the public policy issues of the day. —Smith, Roberts, and Wielen Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux, most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent
23.
Energy Research and Development Administration
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The United States Energy Research and Development Administration was a United States government organization formed from the split of the Atomic Energy Commission in 1975. It assumed the functions of the AEC not assumed by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, the agency was created as part of the Energy Reorganization Act of 1974, which was passed on October 11,1974 in the wake of the 1973 oil crisis. The Energy Research and Development Administration was activated on January 19,1975, the first Administrator was Robert Seamans, followed by Robert W. Fri. In 1977, ERDA was combined with the Federal Energy Administration to form the United States Department of Energy, DOE. gov, History of ERDA—Energy Research and Development Administration
24.
Hanford Site
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The Hanford Site is a mostly decommissioned nuclear production complex operated by the United States federal government on the Columbia River in the U. S. state of Washington. The site has been known by names, including, Hanford Project, Hanford Works, Hanford Engineer Works. Established in 1943 as part of the Manhattan Project in Hanford, south-central Washington, the site was home to the B Reactor, the first full-scale plutonium production reactor in the world. Plutonium manufactured at the site was used in the first nuclear bomb, tested at the Trinity site, and in Fat Man, Nuclear technology developed rapidly during this period, and Hanford scientists produced major technological achievements. DOE later found water intruding into at least 14 single-shell tanks, in 2012, DOE discovered a leak also from a double-shell tank caused by construction flaws and corrosion in the bottom, and that 12 double-shell tanks have similar construction flaws. Since then, DOE changed to monitoring single-shell tanks monthly and double-shell tanks every 3 years, in March 2014, DOE announced further delays in the construction of the Waste Treatment Plant, which will affect the schedule for removing waste from the tanks. Intermittent discoveries of undocumented contamination have slowed the pace and raised the cost of cleanup, in 2007, the Hanford site represented two-thirds of the nations high-level radioactive waste by volume. Hanford is currently the most contaminated site in the United States and is the focus of the nations largest environmental cleanup. On November 10,2015, it was designated as part of the Manhattan Project National Historical Park alongside other sites in Oak Ridge, the Hanford Site occupies 586 square miles —roughly equivalent to half of the total area of Rhode Island—within Benton County, Washington. This land is closed to the general public and it is a desert environment receiving under 10 inches of annual precipitation, covered mostly by shrub-steppe vegetation. The Columbia River flows along the site for approximately 50 miles, the original site was 670 square miles and included buffer areas across the river in Grant and Franklin counties. Some of this land has returned to private use and is now covered with orchards. In 2000, large portions of the site were turned over to the Hanford Reach National Monument, the site is divided by function into three main areas. The site is bordered on the southeast by the Tri-Cities, an area composed of Richland, Kennewick, Pasco, and smaller communities. Hanford is an economic base for these cities. The confluence of the Yakima, Snake, and Columbia rivers has been a place for native peoples for centuries. The archaeological record of Native American habitation of this area back over ten thousand years. Tribes and nations including the Yakama, Nez Perce, and Umatilla used the area for hunting, fishing, Native American use of the area continued into the 20th century, even as the tribes were relocated to reservations
25.
Radioactive contamination
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Such contamination presents a hazard because of the radioactive decay of the contaminants, which emit harmful ionising radiation such as alpha particles or beta particles, gamma rays or neutrons. It is important to be clear that the contamination gives rise to the hazard. Contamination may affect a person, a place, an animal, a spilled vial of radioactive material like uranyl nitrate may contaminate the floor and any rags used to wipe up the spill. Radioactive contamination is typically the result of a spill or accident during the production, or use of, radionuclides, less typically, nuclear fallout is the distribution of radioactive contamination by a nuclear explosion. The amount of material released in an accident is called the source term. Contamination may occur from radioactive gases, liquids or particles, for example, if a radionuclide used in nuclear medicine is spilled, the material could be spread by people as they walk around. Radioactive contamination may also be a result of certain processes. In cases that radioactive material cannot be contained, it may be diluted to safe concentrations, for a discussion of environmental contamination by alpha emitters please see actinides in the environment. Contamination does not include residual radioactive material remaining at a site after the completion of decommissioning, therefore, radioactive material in sealed and designated containers is not properly referred to as contamination, although the units of measurement might be the same. Containment is the way of preventing contamination being released into the environment or coming into contact or being ingested by humans. Being within the intended Containment differentiates radioactive material from radioactive contamination, when radioactive materials are concentrated to a detectable level outside a containment, the area affected is generally referred to as contaminated. There are a number of techniques for containing radioactive material so that it does not spread beyond the containment. In the case of liquids this is by the use of high integrity tanks or containers, where material is likely to become airborne, then extensive use is made of the glovebox, which is a common technique in hazardous laboratory and process operations in many industries. A variety of radionuclides occur naturally in the environment, elements like uranium and thorium, and their decay products, are present in rock and soil. Potassium-40, a nuclide, makes up a small percentage of all potassium and is present in the human body. Other nuclides, like carbon-14, which is present in all living organisms, are created by cosmic rays. These levels of radioactivity pose little danger but can confuse measurement, a particular problem is encountered with naturally generated radon gas which can affect instruments which are set to detect contamination close to normal background levels and can cause false alarms. Because of this skill is required by the operator of radiological survey equipment to differentiate between background radiation and the radiation emanates from contamination
26.
Fossil fuel
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Fossil fuels are fuels formed by natural processes such as anaerobic decomposition of buried dead organisms, containing energy originating in ancient photosynthesis. The age of the organisms and their resulting fossil fuels is typically millions of years, Fossil fuels contain high percentages of carbon and include petroleum, coal, and natural gas. Other commonly used derivatives include kerosene and propane, Fossil fuels range from volatile materials with low carbon, hydrogen ratios like methane, to liquids like petroleum, to nonvolatile materials composed of almost pure carbon, like anthracite coal. Methane can be found in hydrocarbon fields either alone, associated with oil, non-fossil sources in 2006 included nuclear 8. 5%, hydroelectric 6. 3%, and others amounting to 0. 9%. World energy consumption was growing about 2. 3% per year, the use of fossil fuels raises serious environmental concerns. The burning of fossil fuels produces around 21.3 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide per year and it is estimated that natural processes can only absorb about half of that amount, so there is a net increase of 10.65 billion tonnes of atmospheric carbon dioxide per year. Carbon dioxide is a gas that increases radiative forcing and contributes to global warming. A global movement towards the generation of energy is underway to help reduce global greenhouse gas emissions. Over geological time, this matter, mixed with mud. Despite these heat driven transformations, the energy is still photosynthetic in origin. There is a range of organic, or hydrocarbon, compounds in any given fuel mixture. The specific mixture of hydrocarbons gives a fuel its characteristic properties, such as boiling point, melting point, density, viscosity, some fuels like natural gas, for instance, contain only very low boiling, gaseous components. Others such as gasoline or diesel contain much higher boiling components, terrestrial plants, on the other hand, tend to form coal and methane. Many of the coal fields date to the Carboniferous period of Earths history, terrestrial plants also form type III kerogen, a source of natural gas. Fossil fuels are of importance because they can be burned. The use of coal as a fuel predates recorded history, coal was used to run furnaces for the melting of metal ore. Semi-solid hydrocarbons from seeps were also burned in ancient times, commercial exploitation of petroleum, largely as a replacement for oils from animal sources, for use in oil lamps began in the 19th century. Natural gas, once flared-off as an byproduct of petroleum production, is now considered a very valuable resource
27.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
28.
Binford & Mort
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Binford & Mort Publishing is a book publishing company located in Hillsboro, Oregon, United States. Founded in 1930, the company was known as Metropolitan Press. At one time they were the largest book publisher in the Pacific Northwest, the privately owned company focuses on books from the Pacific Northwest, and has printed many important titles covering Oregon’s history. Maurice M. Binford was born in Indiana in 1878, Peter A. Binford, also from Indiana, was born on March 23,1876, in Crawfordsville in the west-central part of that state. Peter and Maurice moved to Klickitat County, Washington, in 1884 with their older sister Julia, Julia raised the two along with five other younger siblings. Peter later worked in the industry in Klickitat County for his brother in law Lee at several newspapers. In 1891, Maurice and his brother Peter moved to Portland and worked for Lee at Lee’s company, in 1899, the brothers purchased the printing company from Lee. Maurice served as the secretary and treasurer in the early years. In 1920, Ralph Mort, their nephew, was added to the company and they established a publishing company in 1930 under the name of Metropolitan Press, and published Northwest books, primarily history titles. Some of these books were re-prints of titles that were no longer protected by copyright, early authors included Thomas Nelson Strong, Charles Henry Carey, Howard McKinley Corning, and Frederic Homer Balch among others. The company became the first large publisher in Oregon, in 1938, the Binfords changed the named to Binfords & Mort after taking on Ralph Mort as a new partner in the business. Publishing house William Morrow and Company suggested this change as they wanted a more original name as they took on national distribution of the Binfords’ titles. Peter retired from the company by 1957, and he died on October 19,1959, the name of the company was then changed to Binford & Mort, and its ownership passed to Thomas P. Binford, who was Peters son and Maurices nephew. Taking over for his father Maurice, from its founding until about 1960, the companys publications did much to promote works and authors from the Pacific Northwest. By 1957, they were the largest book publisher in the Northwest and had more than 350 titles, the companys name was altered slightly in 1973, from Binfords & Mort to Binford & Mort, after Thomas Binford bought out all other interests. After the older Binfords left, Thomas failed to maintain the quality of the process for new books. Thus, even though Binford & Mort averaged ten new titles a year, by 1980, the company had moved to Salem. Thomas died in 1983 and Binford & Mort was purchased by the Gardeniers of Hillsboro, by 1996 they had relocated to Portland, and by 2000 Binford & Mort was in Hillsboro
29.
Albany Democrat-Herald
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The Albany Democrat-Herald is a daily newspaper published in Albany, Oregon, United States. The two daily papers publish a joint Sunday edition, called Mid-Valley Sunday, the Democrat-Herald covers the cities of Albany, Lebanon, and Sweet Home, Oregon, as well as the towns of Jefferson, Halsey, Tangent, Harrisburg, Brownsville, and Shedd. The first newspaper published in Albany, Oregon, county seat of Linn County, was the Oregon Democrat, founding publisher Smith died in November 1860, on the eve of the American Civil War. It was not until the summer of 1865 that a Democratic newspaper was able to be reestablished in Albany and this was a weekly called the State Rights Democrat, launched on August 1,1865, by publisher James OMeara. It is this publication — issued continuously from 1865 into the 21st Century — to which the Albany Democrat-Herald itself traces its roots. This name remained in place for six years, until the 1888 move of the paper from a weekly to a publication schedule. In 1879 a rival Republican newspaper was launched in Albany by William Gladstone Steel, the dual partisan newspapers battled for market share for nearly half a century until on February 24,1925, the dominant Albany Democrat absorbed its younger rival. For about six weeks the title Albany Democrat & Albany Herald was clumsily used, with a made to the current moniker, Albany Democrat-Herald. The Democrat-Herald was privately owned by individuals for most of the 20th Century, in 1919 the Albany Democrat had been purchased by local school superintendent William L. Jackson and his business partner, Ralph Cronise. It would be this pair who owned the publication from its establishment in 1925, with ownership passing to William Jacksons son, Grant Jackson. Late in the 1970s the Democrat-Herald moved from individual to corporate ownership, so-called CapCities would purchase the American Broadcast Company in 1985, only to themselves be acquired in 1996 by the Walt Disney Company. As of 2016, the Democrat-Herald has a circulation of about 11,700. The combined Sunday edition has a circulation of approximately 12,600, robert J. Chandler, Crushing Dissent, The Pacific Coast Tests Lincolns Policy of Suppression,1862, Civil War History, vol. Floyd J. McKay, Albany Democrat-Herald, The Oregon Encyclopedia, george Turnbull, History of Oregon Newspapers. Portland, OR, Binfords & Mort,1939
30.
James V. Forrestal Building
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The James V. Forrestal Building is a low-rise Brutalist office building located in Washington, D. C. in the United States. Originally known as Federal Office Building 5, and nicknamed the Little Pentagon and it is named after James Forrestal, the first United States Secretary of Defense. It became the headquarters of the United States Department of Energy after that agencys creation in 1977, the 1,688, 484-square-foot Forrestal Building is located at 1000 Independence Avenue SW. It consists of three structures, an East Building with eight floors above ground, the North Building with four floors above ground, all three structures are connected by two floors of underground office space. In order to access to LEnfant Plaza, the North Building is raised up on 35-foot-high pilotis. The area of Southwestern Washington, D. C. where the Forrestal Building is located was originally out in a grid pattern as specified by the LEnfant Plan of 1791. By the early 1900s, Victorian-style rowhouses lined the side of B Street SW. In 1901, the Senate Park Commission proposed a plan for the development of the monumental core, the plan called for federal office buildings and museums to line the north and south sides of the National Mall. But little development of the area occurred, the first building proposed for the site was the Smithsonian Institutions National Air Museum. The museum, which was chartered in 1946, needed a new structure to house its expanding collection of aircraft. In June 1954, the Smithsonian sought the approval of the National Capital Planning Commission, however, a major redevelopment of much of Southwestern D. C. conflicted with the Smithsonian proposal. At the time, Southwest D. C. was mostly a slum which suffered from high concentrations of old and poorly maintained buildings, overcrowding, Congress also gave the National Capital Planning Commission the authority to designate which land would be redeveloped, and how. Wholesale razing of hundreds of acres of land in Southwest D. C. was contemplated, as early as 1952, there were already several proposals to transform 10th Street SW. Some of these proposals had won the support of the NCPC. In February 1954, New York City developer William Zeckendorf proposed the creation of LEnfant Plaza — a major development consisting of five buildings, a cultural center. Zeckendorfs plan would replace 10th Street SW with a 400-foot wide, the NCPC subsequently approved nearly all of Zeckendorfs proposal in April 1955, including the 10th Street mall. Conflict between the Smithsonian and Zeckendorf plans came to a head in late 1955, the Smithsonian had approached Zeckendorf in February 1954 and proposed that their airplane museum become the cultural center envisioned by the redevelopment plan. But nothing came of this proposal, in September 1954, the NCPC came close to reversing itself and approving the Smithsonian plan
31.
Rick Perry
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James Richard Rick Perry is an American politician who is the 14th and current United States Secretary of Energy, serving in the Trump Administration. Perry previously served as the 47th Governor of Texas from December 2000 to January 2015, a Republican, he was elected Lieutenant Governor of Texas in 1998 and assumed the governorship in December 2000 when then-governor George W. Bush resigned to become President of the United States. Perry was the governor in Texas history. Perry was elected three times to full terms and is the fourth Texas governor to serve three terms. With a tenure in office of 14 years,30 days, Perry was, at the time he left office, Perry ran unsuccessfully for the Republican nomination for President of the United States in 2012 and 2016. On December 14,2016, Donald Trump announced his intention to nominate the longtime Texas governor as his Secretary of Energy, on March 2,2017, he was confirmed by the United States Senate in a 62–37 vote. Perrys ancestry is almost entirely English, dating as far back as the original Thirteen Colonies and his family has been in Texas since before the Texas Revolution. His father, a Democrat, was a long-time Haskell County commissioner, Perry has said that his interest in politics probably began in November 1961, when his father took him to the funeral of U. S. Perry was in the Boy Scouts and earned the rank of Eagle Scout, the BSA has honored Perry with the Distinguished Eagle Scout Award. Perry graduated from Paint Creek High School in 1968 and he graduated in 1972 with a Bachelor of Science in animal science. Perry said that the Corps of Cadets gave him the discipline to complete his animal sciences degree, I would have hit the fraternity scene and lasted about one semester. In the early 1970s, Perry interned during several summers with the Southwestern Company, I count my time working for Dortch Oldham as one of the most important formative experiences of my life, Perry said in 2010. There is nothing that tests your commitment to a goal like getting a few doors closed in your face. He said that Mr. Oldham taught legions of people to communicate quickly, clearly and with passion. Upon graduation from college in 1972, Perry was commissioned as an officer in the United States Air Force and he was then assigned as a C-130 pilot to the 772nd Tactical Airlift Squadron at Dyess Air Force Base. Perrys duties included two-month overseas rotations at RAF Mildenhall in England and his missions included a 1974 U. S. State Department drought relief effort in Mali, Mauritania and Chad, and two years later, earthquake relief in Guatemala. He left the United States Air Force in 1977 with the rank of Captain, returned to Texas, in 1984, Perry was elected to the Texas House of Representatives as a Democrat from district 64, which included his home county of Haskell. He served on the House Appropriations and Calendars committees during his three terms in office
32.
United States Secretary of Energy
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The United States Secretary of Energy is the head of the U. S. Department of Energy, a member of the Cabinet of the United States, and fourteenth in the presidential line of succession. The position was formed on October 1,1977 with the creation of the Department of Energy when President Jimmy Carter signed the Department of Energy Organization Act, originally the post focused on energy production and regulation. The emphasis soon shifted to developing technology for better and more efficient energy sources as well as energy education, after the end of the Cold War, the departments attention also turned toward radioactive waste disposal and maintenance of environmental quality. Schlesinger is also the secretary to be dismissed from the post. Hazel OLeary, Bill Clintons first Secretary of Energy, was the first female, the first Hispanic to serve as Energy Secretary was Clintons second, Federico Peña. Spencer Abraham became the first Arab American to hold the position on November 15,2004, steven Chu became the first Asian American to hold the position on January 20,2009, serving under the administration of Barack Obama. He is also the longest-serving Secretary of Energy, parties Democratic Republican As of April 2017, there are ten living former Secretaries of Energy, the oldest being Charles Duncan, Jr. The most recent Secretary of Energy to die was James B, the most recently serving Secretary to die was James D. Watkins on July 26,2012. United States Secretary of Transportation White House Office of Energy and Climate Change Policy Official site of U. S. Department of Energy
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United States Deputy Secretary of Energy
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The Deputy Secretary of Energy is a high-ranking position within the United States Department of Energy. The Deputy Secretary is the official of the Department and assists the Secretary of Energy in the supervision and direction of the Department. The Deputy Secretary succeeds the Secretary in his absence, sickness, the Deputy Secretary is appointed by the President with the consent of the Senate to serve at the request of the President. Since January 20,2017 the office has been vacant, the position of Deputy Secretary of Energy was formed on October 1,1977 with the creation of the Department of Energy when President Jimmy Carter signed the Department of Energy Organization Act. *acting The official biography of Daniel Poneman, the Deputy Secretary
34.
Office of Intelligence and Counterintelligence
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The Office of Intelligence and Counterintelligence, established in 1977, is an office of the United States Department of Energy that focuses on gathering intelligence for the department. It provides information to the Secretary of Energy and senior policy makers. As a member of the Intelligence Community, it provides the other intelligence agencies with technical analysis of foreign intelligence. The Office of Intelligence utilizes all of the Department of Energys resources to gather and analyze intelligence and its expertise is in nuclear weapons, nuclear proliferation, nuclear energy, radioactive waste and energy security. Its most important function to the Intelligence Community is its assessments of foreign nuclear weapons programs, however, it also provides scientific expertise, analysis and technology. Currently, the office does not perform counterintelligence activities and these are handled by the National Nuclear Security Administration and the Office of the National Counterintelligence Executive. DOE – Office of Intelligence Intelligence Reform at the Department of Energy Office of Intelligence Appropriations Hearings
35.
Energy Information Administration
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The U. S. Energy Information Administration is a principal agency of the U. S. EIA programs cover data on coal, petroleum, natural gas, electric, renewable and nuclear energy. EIA is part of the U. S. Department of Energy, the EIA disseminates its data products, analyses, reports, and services to customers and stakeholders primarily through its website and the customer contact center. Located in Washington, D. C. the EIA has about 325 federal employees, by law, the EIA’s products are prepared independently of policy considerations. The EIA neither formulates nor advocates any policy conclusions. ”More than 2 million people use the EIA’s information online each month, some of the EIA’s products include, General Interest Energy Information Energy Explained, Energy information written for a general, non-technical audience. A nonpartisan guide to the range of energy topics from biodiesel to uranium. Energy Kids Page, A very popular product from the EIA is its “Kid’s Page”, which students, citizens. Energy Glossary, Common energy terms defined in plain language and this Week in Petroleum, Weekly summary and explanation of events in U. S. and world petroleum markets, including weekly data. Natural Gas Weekly Update, Weekly summary and discussion of events, Data and Surveys Gasoline and Diesel Fuel Update, Weekly price data for U. S. national and regional averages. Monthly Energy Review, Provides statistics on monthly and annual U. S. national energy consumption going back in some cases to 1949, the figures are given in units of quads Annual Energy Review, EIAs primary report of historical annual energy statistics. For many series, data begin with the year 1949 and this report has been superseded by the Monthly Energy Review and was not produced for 2012. Country Energy Profiles, Data by country, region, and commercial group for 219 countries with additional country analysis notes for 87 of these, country Analysis Briefs, EIAs in-depth analyses of energy production, consumption, imports, and exports for 36 individual countries and regions. Residential Energy Consumption Survey, EIAs comprehensive survey and analysis of energy consumption, household characteristics. Projections and Outlooks Short-Term Energy Outlook, Energy projections for the next 13-24 months, Annual Energy Outlook, Projection and analysis of U. S. energy supply, demand, and prices through 2040 based on EIAs National Energy Modeling System. Projections are currently based on existing legislation, without assumption of any future Congressional action or technological advancement, international Energy Outlook, EIAs assessment of the outlook for international energy markets through 2040. It also provided the FEA with data collection enforcement authority for gathering data from energy producing, Section 205 of this law established the Energy Information Administration as the primary federal government authority on energy statistics and analysis to carry out a. The same law established that EIA’s processes and products are independent from review by Executive Branch officials, the majority of EIA energy data surveys are based on the general mandates set forth above. However, there are some surveys specifically mandated by law, including, EIA-28, eIA-1605 and 1605EZ, Voluntary Reporting of Greenhouse Gases - Section 1605 of the Energy Policy Act of 1992. EIA-886, Annual Survey of Alternative Fueled Vehicle Suppliers and Users - Section 503 of the Energy Policy Act of 1992, eIA-858, Uranium Marketing Annual Survey - Section 1015 of the Energy Policy Act of 1992
36.
ARPA-E
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ARPA-E, or Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy is a United States government agency tasked with promoting and funding research and development of advanced energy technologies. It is modeled after the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, the concept of ARPA-E was initially conceived by a report by the National Academies entitled Rising Above the Gathering Storm, Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future. The report recognized a U. S. need to stimulate innovation and develop clean, affordable, ARPA-E was officially created by the America COMPETES Act, authored by Congressman Bart Gordon, within the United States Department of Energy in 2007, though without a budget. The initial budget of about $400 million was a part of the stimulus bill of February 2009. Like DARPA does for military technology, ARPA-E is intended to fund high-risk, like DARPA, it is intended to fund projects involving government labs, private industry, and universities. Soon after its launch, ARPA-E released its first Funding Opportunity Announcement for the new agency, applicants submitted eight-page concept papers that outlined the technical concept, some were invited to submit full applications. August 9,2007 President George W. Bush signed into law the America COMPETES Act that codified many of the recommendations in the National Academies report, April 27,2009 President Barack Obama allocated $400 million in funding to ARPA-E from the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009. September 18,2009 President Barack Obama announced his intent to nominate Dr. Arun Majumdar, October 22,2009 Senate confirmed Dr. Arun Majumdar as ARPA-E’s first Director. October 26,2009 Department of Energy awarded $151 million in Recovery Act funds for 37 energy research projects under ARPA-E’s first Funding Opportunity Announcement. December 7,2009 U. S. ” March 1 –3,2010 ARPA-E hosted the inaugural “Energy Innovation Summit, April 29,2010 Vice President Joe Biden announced 37 awarded projects under ARPA-E’s second funding opportunity. July 12,2010 Department of Energy Awarded $92 Million for 42 cutting-edge research projects under ARPA-Es third funding opportunity, December 8,2014 Ellen Williams confirmed by Senate as Director of ARPA-E. This goal is similar to the work of the U. S. Department of Energys Office of Energy Efficiency, ARPA-E does not fund incremental improvements to existing technologies, nor roadmaps established by existing DOE programs. The detailed program creation process begins with a “deep dive”, a process of exploring an aspect of the energy problem to identify potential topics for program development. By bringing together experts from all walks of science, technology and this cross-disciplinary inquiry is essential to bridge the gap between basic and applied research and development. To date, ARPA-E has hosted or co-hosted 13 technical workshops, following each workshop, the Program Director proposes a new program and defends the program against a set of criteria that justifies its creation. If successful, a new ARPA-E program is created, and a solicitation, or funding opportunity announcement, is released, the ARPA-E peer review process is designed to help drive toward subsequent program success. During proposal review, ARPA-E solicits external inputs to make sure that it is funding the best technologies, ARPA-E taps the expertise of dozens of the leading experts in the world in a particular field for in-depth proposal reviews. The involvement of scientists, engineers, and leaders from the technical community brings expertise
37.
Under Secretary of Energy for Nuclear Security
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The Under Secretary for Nuclear Security, in the United States Department of Energy, is the Administrator for the National Nuclear Security Administration. The incumbent Under Secretary, Frank Klotz, was approved by the Senate on April 8,2014, the Under Secretary for Nuclear Security is appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate. The Under Secretary is required to have background in national security, organizational management. The Under Secretary is also a member of the Nuclear Weapons Council, the Under Secretary is paid at level III of the Executive Schedule, meaning he or she receives a basic annual salary of $152,000 as of 2006
38.
National Nuclear Security Administration
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The National Nuclear Security Administration is the U. S. agency responsible for enhancing national security through the military application of nuclear science. Established by the United States Congress in 2000, NNSA is an agency within the United States Department of Energy. S. The first NNSA administrator appointed was Air Force General John A. Gordon, NNSA has four missions with regard to national security, To manage the U. S. nuclear weapon stockpile. To reduce global danger from weapons of destruction and to promote international nuclear safety. To provide the United States Navy with safe, militarily effective nuclear propulsion plants and to ensure the safe, to support United States leadership in science and technology. One of NNSAs primary missions is to maintain the safety, security, after the Cold War, the U. S. stopped production of new nuclear warheads and voluntarily ended underground nuclear testing. NNSA also uses multiple supercomputers to run simulations and validate experimental data, the organization provides safe and secure transportation of nuclear weapons and components and special nuclear materials, and conducts other missions supporting national security. It has responsibility to develop, operate, and manage a system for the safe, shipments are transported in specially designed equipment and are escorted by armed federal agents. Among its goals are to prevent proliferation, ensure peaceful nuclear uses, NNSAs Naval Nuclear Propulsion Program is responsible for providing militarily effective nuclear propulsion plants. It provides the design, development and operational support required to power the U. S. Navys aircraft carriers, NNSA is responsible for responding to radiological and nuclear emergencies and working with law enforcement agencies to prevent nuclear or radiological terrorism. Experts at its national laboratories maintain a level of readiness to deploy resources capable of responding to nuclear or radiological incidents worldwide. Key capabilities looking for and identifying radiological material, rendering safe nuclear devices, NNSA provides expertise, practical tools and technically informed policy recommendations to advance U. S. nuclear counterterrorism and counterproliferation objectives. It is responsible for understanding nuclear threat devices and foreign nuclear weapons that cause proliferation concerns. S, in June 2006, The New York Times reported that sensitive information on nuclear weapons workers had been stolen from the NNSA. In 2008, the NNSA, in cooperation with Russia and other agencies and this operation was conducted by American and Russian officials to ensure the safe disposal of the radioactive uranium that is highly enriched and weapons-grade. The Hungarian reactor is now being converted to use low-enriched uranium that cannot be used in a weapon and will not be a potential terrorist target. S. S
39.
Under Secretary of Energy for Science
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The Under Secretary for Science is a high-ranking position within the United States Department of Energy. The position was created by the Energy Policy Act of 2005, the Under Secretary is appointed by the President of the United States and confirmed by the United States Senate. In March 2009, Steven E. Koonin was nominated to replace Orbach, dr. Franklin M. Orr was sworn in as the Under Secretary for Science and Energy on December 17,2014, and served in this position through the end of the Obama administration. The Under Secretary advises the Secretary on the management and the state of the national laboratories overseen by the Department, the Under Secretary also advises the Secretary on the Departments educational and training activities
40.
Office of Science
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The Office of Science is a component of the United States Department of Energy. The Office of Science is the federal agency supporting fundamental scientific research for energy. The Office of Science also has responsibility for 10 of the 17 United States Department of Energy National Laboratories, the office is the predominant U. S. The Office of Advanced Scientific Computing Research supports research and development in applied mathematics, computer science, the programs it supports represent the largest and most active computer science research effort within the U. S. federal government. The ASCR supports the Energy Sciences Network, which more than 40 DOE sites at speeds up to 100 gigabits per second. ESnet is a successor to a network that the Office of Science created in 1974 to connect geographically dispersed researchers through a single network, BER initiated the Human Genome Project in 1986 and has continued to support activity in genomics-based systems biology and initiatives related to biotechnology applications. The Joint Genome Institute, formed in 1997, initially conducted sequencing of human DNA in support of the Human Genome Project and its current focus is on sequencing the genomes of microbes, microbial communities, fungi, plants, and other organisms. Environmental efforts include research on the carbon cycle and possible mitigation of the impacts of climate change. When it started in 1978, BERs Climate Change Research Program was the first U. S. research program to investigate the effects of gases on climate. The Office of Science climate change research program is now the third largest in the U. S, the Fusion Energy Sciences organization supports efforts to expand the fundamental understanding of plasma physics and the knowledge needed to develop a fusion energy source. This organization supports U. S. participation in the ITER project through the U. S. ITER Project Office, more than 90 percent of the Office of Science budget is allocated to research and scientific facilities. The fundamental research areas in which the Office of Science has programs include physics and other basic sciences, biological and environmental sciences. Support is provided for research activities in the laboratories and universities. The office is the source of U. S. federal government support for research in high-energy physics, nuclear physics, fusion energy, materials science. The Office of Science is estimated to provide 40 percent of the funding for research in the physical sciences in the United States. It is also a source of funding for government-supported research in climate change, geophysics, genomics, life sciences. In constant dollars, Office of Science annual budgets for Basic Energy Science, budgets for High Energy Physics and Biological and Energy Research remained relatively constant through that 14-year period. Nuclear Physics and Fusion Energy Sciences budgets were relatively static through most of the period, the increase in the Fusion budget reinstated the U. S. contribution to ITER, which was reduced significantly in the previous year
41.
Office of Scientific and Technical Information
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The Office of Scientific and Technical Information is a component of the Office of Science within the U. S. Department of Energy. DOE Data Explorer searches collections of DOE scientific research data, such as simulations, figures and plots, interactive maps, multimedia, numeric files. DOepatents provides a database of patent information resulting from DOE-sponsored research. Energy Science and Technology Software Center provides a database of DOEs centralized software management facility. Science Conference Proceedings provides single-query searching of conference papers and proceedings on multiple websites and databases, eDUconnections, highlights university research departments and libraries across the nation to increase awareness of DOEs valuable scientific and technical information. Science. gov OSTI hosts this USA. gov science portal in collaboration with 17 organizations within 13 Federal science agencies and these agencies are also members of CENDI, a cooperative group of scientific and technical information managers from the 13 federal agencies and programs. Science. gov provides a gateway to over 2,100 websites and offers deep web searching of more than 50 databases containing science information, worldWideScience. org provides a global science gateway through a multilateral partnership to enable federated searching of national and international scientific databases and portals
42.
Assistant Secretary of Energy for Nuclear Energy
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The Assistant Secretary of Energy for Nuclear Energy is the head of the Office of Nuclear Energy within the United States Department of Energy. The Assistant Secretary is responsible for the Departments nuclear technology research, the Assistant Secretary executes a budget totaling $870 million in Fiscal Year 2011. The Assistant Secretary is appointed by the President with the advice, the current Assistant Secretary is Dr. Peter B
