1.
Biotechnology Heritage Award
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The Biotechnology Heritage Award recognizes individuals who have made significant contributions to the development of biotechnology through discovery, innovation, and public understanding. It is presented annually at the Biotechnology Industry Organization Annual International Convention by the Biotechnology Industry Organization, the purpose of the award is to encourage emulation, inspire achievement, and promote public understanding of modern science, industry, and economics. The award is given yearly and was first presented in 1999
2.
Montevideo
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Montevideo is the capital and largest city of Uruguay. According to the 2011 census, the city proper has a population of 1,319,108 in an area of 201 square kilometres. The southernmost capital city in the Americas, Montevideo is situated in the southern coast of the country, the city was established in 1724 by a Spanish soldier, Bruno Mauricio de Zabala, as a strategic move amidst the Spanish-Portuguese dispute over the platine region. It was also under brief British rule in 1807, Montevideo hosted all the matches during the first FIFA World Cup. Montevideo is the seat of the headquarters of Mercosur and ALADI, Latin America’s leading trade blocs. Montevideo has consistently rated as having the highest quality of life of any city in Latin America. As of 2010, Montevideo was the 19th largest city economy in the continent, in 2015, it has a GDP of $40.5 billion, and a per capita of $24,400. It is classified as a Beta World City, ranking seventh in Latin America, by 2014, is also regarded as the tenth most gay-friendly city in the world, first in Latin America. It is the hub of commerce and higher education in Uruguay as well as its chief port, the city is also the financial and cultural hub of a larger metropolitan area, with a population of around 2 million. There are several explanations about the word Montevideo, all agree that Monte refers to the Cerro de Montevideo, the hill situated across the Bay of Montevideo, but there is disagreement about the etymological origin of the video part. Monte vide eu is the most widespread belief but is rejected by the majority of experts, who consider it unlikely because it involves a mix of dialects. This is the oldest Spanish document that mentions the promontory with a similar to the one that designates the city. With the passing of time, these words were unified to Montevideo, no conclusive evidence has been found to confirm this academic hypothesis nor can it be asserted with certainty which were the other five mounts observable before the Cerro. Ovidio was the bishop of the Portuguese city of Braga, where he was always revered. Between 1680 and 1683, Portugal founded the city of Colonia do Sacramento in the region across the bay from Buenos Aires and this city met with no resistance from the Spanish until 1723, when they began to place fortifications on the elevations around Montevideo Bay. On 22 November 1723, Field Marshal Manuel de Freitas da Fonseca of Portugal built the Montevieu fort, a Spanish expedition was sent from Buenos Aires, organized by the Spanish governor of that city, Bruno Mauricio de Zabala. There was also one significant early Italian resident by the name of Jorge Burgues, a census of the citys inhabitants was performed in 1724 and then a plan was drawn delineating the city and designating it as San Felipe y Santiago de Montevideo, later shortened to Montevideo. The census counted fifty families of Galician and Canary Islands origin, more than 1000 indigenous, mostly Guaraní, in 1776, Spain made Montevideo its main naval base for the South Atlantic, with authority over the Argentine coast, Fernando Po, and the Falklands
3.
Uruguay
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Uruguay, officially the Oriental Republic of Uruguay, is a country in the southeastern region of South America. It borders Argentina to its west and Brazil to its north and east, with the Río de la Plata to the south and the Atlantic Ocean to the southeast. Uruguay is home to an estimated 3.42 million people, of whom 1.8 million live in the area of its capital and largest city. With an area of approximately 176,000 square kilometres, Uruguay is geographically the second-smallest nation in South America, only larger in size than Suriname. Uruguay was inhabited by the Charrúa people for approximately 4000 years before the Portuguese established Colonia del Sacramento, one of the oldest European settlements in the region, in 1680. Montevideo was founded as a stronghold by the Spanish in the early 18th century. Uruguay won its independence between 1811 and 1828, following a struggle between Spain, Portugal, Argentina and Brazil. It remained subject to influence and intervention throughout the 19th century. Modern Uruguay is a constitutional republic, with a president who serves as both head of state and head of government. Uruguay is ranked first in Latin America in democracy, peace, lack of corruption, e-government, on a per-capita basis, Uruguay contributes more troops to United Nations peace-keeping missions than any other country. It ranks second in the region on economic freedom, income equality, per-capita income, Uruguay is the third-best country on the continent in terms of HDI, GDP growth, innovation and infrastructure. It is regarded as a country by the UN. Uruguay is also the third-best ranked in the world in e-Participation, Uruguay is an important global exporter of combed wool, rice, soybeans, frozen beef, malt and milk. Nearly 95% of Uruguays electricity comes from energy, mostly hydroelectric facilities. The Economist named Uruguay country of the year in 2013, acknowledging the innovative policy of legalizing the production, sale, the name of the namesake river comes from the Spanish pronunciation of the regional Guarani word for it. There are several interpretations, including bird-river, the name could also refer to a river snail called uruguá that was plentiful in the water. The only documented inhabitants of Uruguay before European colonization of the area were the Charrúa, the Portuguese discovered the region of present-day Uruguay in 1512. The Spanish arrived in present-day Uruguay in 1516, the indigenous peoples fierce resistance to conquest, combined with the absence of gold and silver, limited their settlement in the region during the 16th and 17th centuries
4.
Atherton, California
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Atherton is an incorporated town in San Mateo County, California, United States. Its population was 7,159 as of 2013, the entire area was called Menlo Park. It had been part of the Rancho de las Pulgas that had covered most of the area, there were several attempts to incorporate Fair Oaks, one in 1874 and another in 1911. In 1923, Menlo Park wished to incorporate its lands to include the Fair Oaks lands, both groups rushed to Sacramento but the Fair Oaks committee arrived first. It was at time they realized that they could not keep the name Fair Oaks. It was decided to honor Faxon Dean Atherton who had one of the first property owners in the south peninsula. Atherton was incorporated on September 12,1923 and that same year, in 1923, the Menlo Polo Club was founded in Atherton. Faxon D. Atherton, a native of Massachusetts, had spent several years in Chile and Hawaii as a trader in tallow, hides, Atherton purchased 640 acres for ten dollars an acre in 1860. His home, Valparaíso Park, was several years later. It was simple in design and ample for his family of seven children, because of the development of the railroad, other San Franciscans traveled south and established summer homes. Because the dirt roads were impassable in the winter, the families were only in residence from May through September. Thomas H. Selby purchased 420 acres, a successful businessman, he served as mayor of San Francisco. His country estate was called Almendral, john T. Doyle, an attorney, built a home off Middlefield Road, Ringwood. Flood purchased successive parcels and built an extravagant mansion, Linden Towers. This is now Lindenwood, the Joseph A Donohoe estate was Holmgrove and is now the site of Menlo Atherton High School. James Thomas Watkins home was Fair Oaks and after two moves, stands restored today on Alejandra Avenue, the government was established with Edward E. Eyre as the first mayor. In 1928, the residents voted to build a Town Hall, the early residents wanted a Town that would be divided into large parcels and would not contain businesses. The author Gertrude Atherton, daughter-in-law to Faxon D, a few of the large land holdings were subdivided during the 1920s and 1930s, James Flood estate in 1938. In the 1940s and 1950s over eighty subdivisions were recorded, with the minimum size of one acre, the era of the large estates was over
5.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
6.
University of the Republic (Uruguay)
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The University of the Republic is Uruguays public university. It is the most important, oldest, and largest university of the country and it was founded on July 18,1849 in Montevideo, where most of its buildings and facilities are still located. Its current Rector is Dr. Roberto Markarián, the process of founding the countrys public university began on June 11,1833 when a law proposed by then-Senator Dámaso Antonio Larrañaga was passed. It called for the creation of nine departments, the President of the Republic would pass a decree formally creating the departments once the majority of them were in operation. In 1836 the House of General Studies was formed, housing the departments of Latin, philosophy, mathematics, theology, on May 27,1838, Manuel Oribe passed a decree through which created the Greater University of the Republic. That decree had few effects, given the institutional instability of the Oriental Republic of the Uruguay at that time. In 2011, according to University Ranking by Academic Performance, it is the best university in Uruguay, in 2015, according to QS World University Rankings, it ranks #651-700 worldwide and #56 in Latin America. It became a branch of the University of the Republic on July 18,1849 and it is the only branch of the university that hasnt moved from the main building downtown Montevideo. It was the law school in Uruguay until the arrival of the Catholic University in 1984. Many Presidents of Uruguay, senators, representatives and other authorities with a law degree have graduated from this law school. Notable professors include Jorge Gamarra, Alejandro Abal, Alberto Perez Perez, Dora Bagdassarian, Helios Sarthou, Carlos Delpiazzo, Gonzalo Fernandez, the Dean is Dr. Gonzalo Uriarte Audi. Its main executive organ is the Law School Council, integrated by the dean and members in representation of students, former students, in an effort to decentralize higher education, the University has opened schools in cities other than Montevideo. Its Regional Norte in Salto offers degrees in Architecture, Law, fragments of other degrees, which can be completed in Montevideo, are also offered there. At the Casa Universitaria in Rivera, the Faculty of Sciences offers the Technicature in Management of Environmental Resources, which has a duration of two and a half years
7.
University of Rochester
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The University of Rochester is a private, nonsectarian, research university in Rochester, New York. The university grants undergraduate and graduate degrees, including doctoral and professional degrees, the university has six schools and various interdisciplinary programs. The University of Rochester is particularly noted for its Eastman School of Music, the university is also home to the Institute of Optics, founded in 1929, the first educational program in the US devoted exclusively to optics. Rochesters Laboratory for Laser Energetics is home to the second most energetic fusion laser in the world, the University of Rochester, across all of its schools and campuses, enrolls approximately 5,600 undergraduates and 4,600 graduate students. Its 158 buildings house over 200 academic majors, additionally, Rochester is the largest employer in the Greater Rochester area and the sixth largest employer in New York. The University of Rochester was founded in 1850 as a Baptist-sponsored institution, the impetus to form the university came primarily from the town of Hamilton, New York, which has been home to Colgate University since 1819. In 1848, the Baptist Education Society planned to move Colgate University to the city of Rochester, but was halted by legal action in Hamilton. Dissenting Colgate trustees, faculty, and students founded the University of Rochester with a charter granted from the Regents of the University of the State of New York on January 31,1850, classes began that November, with approximately 60 students enrolling, including 28 transfers from Madison. In 1853, the campus moved east to a location on what is now University Avenue. Local businessman and Congressman Azariah Boody donated 8 acres of land for the new campus, UR would remain on this campus until the current River Campus was constructed in 1930, and the university continues to own a small part of the University Avenue campus. The first female students were admitted in 1900, the result of an effort led by Susan B, during the 1890s, a number of women took classes and labs at the university as visitors but were not officially enrolled nor were their records included in the college register. President David Jayne Hill allowed the first woman, Helen E. Wilkinson, to enroll as a normal student, thirty-three women enrolled among the first class in 1900, and Ella S. Wilcoxen was the first to receive a degree, in 1901. When the River Campus was completed in 1930, male students moved there while the students remained on the University Avenue campus until 1955. Major growth occurred under the leadership of Rush Rhees, during his 1900-1935 tenure, during this time, George Eastman became a major donor, giving more than $50 million to the university. The first Ph. D. was awarded in 1925, in 1955, the separate colleges for men and women were merged into The College. In 1958, three new schools were created in engineering, business administration, and education, during World War II, Rochester was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V-12 Navy College Training Program which offered students a path to a Navy commission. The plan also revised the undergraduate curriculum significantly, creating the current system with one required course. In the mid-1980s, the University commissioned a study to determine if the name of the institution should be changed, reports of the latter conclusion led to controversy and criticism in the Rochester community
8.
Entrepreneurship
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What appears as a real opportunity ex ante might actually be a non-opportunity or one that cannot be actualized by entrepreneurs lacking the necessary business skills, financial or social capital. Traditionally, an entrepreneur has been defined as a person who starts, organizes and manages any enterprise, especially a business, usually with considerable initiative and risk. Rather than working as an employee, an entrepreneur runs a business and assumes all the risk and reward of a given business venture, idea. The entrepreneur is commonly seen as a leader and innovator of new ideas. They act as the manager and oversee the launch and growth of an enterprise, Entrepreneurship is the process by which an individual identifies a business opportunity and acquires and deploys the necessary resources required for its exploitation. For Schumpeter, the changes and dynamic disequilibrium brought on by the innovating entrepreneur, the ‘norm’ of a healthy economy. Entrepreneurial spirit is characterized by innovation and risk-taking, for example, in the 2000s, the field of social entrepreneurship has been identified, in which entrepreneurs combine business activities with humanitarian, environmental or community goals. In the 2010s, entrepreneurship can be studied in college or university as part of the disciplines of management or business administration, Entrepreneur, is a loanword from French. First used in 1723, today the term entrepreneur implies qualities of leadership, initiative, economist Robert Reich has called team-building, leadership, and management ability essential qualities for the entrepreneur. Historically the study of entrepreneurship reaches back to the work in the late 17th and early 18th centuries of Richard Cantillon and Adam Smith, which was foundational to classical economics. In the 20th century, entrepreneurship was studied by Joseph Schumpeter in the 1930s and other Austrian economists such as Carl Menger, Ludwig von Mises, the term entrepreneurship was coined around the 1920s, while the loan from French of the word entrepreneur dates to the 1850s. According to Schumpeter, an entrepreneur is willing and able to convert a new idea or invention into a successful innovation, thus, creative destruction is largely responsible for long-term economic growth. The idea that leads to economic growth is an interpretation of the residual in endogenous growth theory. For Schumpeter, entrepreneurship resulted in new industries and in new combinations of currently existing inputs, Schumpeters initial example of this was the combination of a steam engine and then current wagon making technologies to produce the horseless carriage. In this case the innovation, the car, was transformational and it did not immediately replace the horse-drawn carriage, but in time, incremental improvements reduced the cost and improved the technology, leading to the modern auto industry. Despite Schumpeters early 20th-century contributions, traditional microeconomic theory did not formally consider the entrepreneur in its theoretical frameworks, in this treatment, the entrepreneur was an implied but unspecified actor, consistent with the concept of the entrepreneur being the agent of x-efficiency. For Schumpeter, the entrepreneur did not bear risk, the capitalist did, Schumpeter was of the opinion that entrepreneurs shift the Production Possibility Curve to a higher level using innovations. Cantillon emphasized the willingness of the entrepreneur to assume risk and to deal with uncertainty, thus, he draws attention to the function of the entrepreneur, and distinguishes clearly between the function of the entrepreneur and the owner who provides the money
9.
Biotechnology
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Depending on the tools and applications, it often overlaps with the fields of bioengineering, biomedical engineering, biomanufacturing, molecular engineering, etc. For thousands of years, humankind has used biotechnology in agriculture, food production, the term is largely believed to have been coined in 1919 by Hungarian engineer Károly Ereky. Modern usage also includes genetic engineering as well as cell and tissue culture technologies, as per European Federation of Biotechnology, biotechnology is the integration of natural science and organisms, cells, parts thereof, and molecular analogues for products and services. Biotechnology also writes on the biological sciences. By contrast, bioengineering is generally thought of as a field that more heavily emphasizes higher systems approaches for interfacing with. Bioengineering is the application of the principles of engineering and natural sciences to tissues, cells and this can be considered as the use of knowledge from working with and manipulating biology to achieve a result that can improve functions in plants and animals. Although not normally what first comes to mind, many forms of human-derived agriculture clearly fit the definition of utilizing a biotechnological system to make products. Indeed, the cultivation of plants may be viewed as the earliest biotechnological enterprise, Agriculture has been theorized to have become the dominant way of producing food since the Neolithic Revolution. Through early biotechnology, the earliest farmers selected and bred the best suited crops, having the highest yields and these processes also were included in early fermentation of beer. These processes were introduced in early Mesopotamia, Egypt, China and India, in brewing, malted grains convert starch from grains into sugar and then adding specific yeasts to produce beer. In this process, carbohydrates in the grains were broken down into alcohols such as ethanol, later other cultures produced the process of lactic acid fermentation which allowed the fermentation and preservation of other forms of food, such as soy sauce. Fermentation was also used in time period to produce leavened bread. Although the process of fermentation was not fully understood until Louis Pasteurs work in 1857, before the time of Charles Darwins work and life, animal and plant scientists had already used selective breeding. Darwin added to body of work with his scientific observations about the ability of science to change species. These accounts contributed to Darwins theory of natural selection, for thousands of years, humans have used selective breeding to improve production of crops and livestock to use them for food. In selective breeding, organisms with desirable characteristics are mated to produce offspring with the same characteristics, for example, this technique was used with corn to produce the largest and sweetest crops. In the early twentieth century scientists gained an understanding of microbiology. Biotechnology has also led to the development of antibiotics, in 1928, Alexander Fleming discovered the mold Penicillium
10.
Silicon Valley
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Silicon Valley is a nickname for the southern portion of the San Francisco Bay Area, in the northern part of the U. S. state of California. The valley in its name refers to the Santa Clara Valley in Santa Clara County, which includes the city of San Jose and surrounding cities and towns, where the region has been traditionally centered. The region has expanded to include the half of the San Francisco Peninsula in San Mateo County. It was in the Valley that the integrated circuit, the microprocessor. As of 2013, the region employed about a quarter of an information technology workers. The term is now used as a synecdoche for the American high-technology economic sector. The first published use of Silicon Valley is credited to Don Hoefler, hostler used the phrase as the title of a series of articles in the weekly trade newspaper Electronic News. The series, entitled Silicon Valley in the USA, began in the papers January 11,1971, the term gained widespread use in the early 1980s, at the time of the introduction of the IBM PC and numerous related hardware and software products to the consumer market. The silicon part of the name refers to the concentration of companies involved in the making of semiconductors. These firms slowly replaced the orchards and the fruits which gave the area its initial nickname — the Valley of Hearts Delight, Stanford University leadership was especially important in the valleys early development. Together these elements formed the basis of its growth and success, the ship had been outfitted with a wireless telegraph transmitter by a local newspaper, so that they could prepare a celebration on the return of the American sailors. Local historian Clyde Arbuckle states in Clyde Arbuckles History of San Jose that California first heard the click of a key on September 11,1853. It marked completion of an enterprise begun by a couple of San Francisco Merchants Exchange members named George Sweeney and it was known as the Inner Station, the second, as the Outer Station. Both used their primitive mode of communication until Messrs, Sweeney and Baugh connected the Outer Station directly with the Merchantss Exchange by electric telegraph Wire. According to Arbuckle Sweeney and Baughs line was strictly an intra-city, San Francisco-based service, allen and C. Burnham led the way to build a line from San Francisco to Marysville via San Jose, Stockton, and Sacramento. Delays to construction occurred until September 1853, but, …San Jose became the first station on the line when the wire arrived here on October 15, the line was completed when Gambles northbound crew met a similar crew working southward from Marysville on October 24. The Bay Area had long been a site of United States Navy research. In 1909, Charles Herrold started the first radio station in the United States with regularly scheduled programming in San Jose
11.
Birth control pill
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The combined oral contraceptive pill, often referred to as the birth control pill or colloquially as the pill, is a birth control method that includes a combination of an estrogen and a progestogen. When taken by every day, these pills inhibit female fertility. They were first approved for use in the United States in 1960. They are currently used by more than 100 million women worldwide, as of 2012, 16% of U. S. women aged 15-44 reported being on the birth control pill, making it the most widely used contraceptive method among women of that age range. Use varies widely by country, age, education, and marital status, one third of women aged 16–49 in the United Kingdom currently use either the combined pill or progestogen-only pill, compared with only 1% of women in Japan. Two forms are on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, the pill was a catalyst for the sexual revolution. Combined oral contraceptive pills should be taken at the time each day. If one or more tablets are forgotten for more than 12 hours, most brands of combined pills are packaged in one of two different packet sizes, with days marked off for a 28-day cycle. For the 21-pill packet, a pill is consumed daily for three weeks, followed by a week of no pills, for the 28-pill packet,21 pills are taken, followed by a week of placebo or sugar pills. A woman on the pill will have a withdrawal bleed sometime during the placebo week, there are also two newer combination birth control pills that have 24 days of active hormone pills, followed by 4 days of placebo. The placebo pills allow the user to take a pill every day, placebo pills may contain an iron supplement, as iron requirements increase during menstruation. Failure to take pills during the placebo week does not impact the effectiveness of the pill, the withdrawal bleeding that occurs during the break from active pills was thought to be reassuring, as a physical confirmation of not being pregnant. The 28-day pill package also simulates the average menstrual cycle, though the events during a pill cycle are significantly different from those of a normal ovulatory menstrual cycle. The pill suppresses the normal cycle, and the withdrawal bleeding occurs while the pills are taken. The withdrawal bleeding is also predictable, unexpected breakthrough bleeding can be a possible side effect of longer term active regimens. Attempting this with bi- or tri-phasic pill formulations carries a risk of breakthrough bleeding. It will not, however, increase the risk of getting pregnant, starting in 2003, women have also been able to use a three-month version of the Pill. Seasonique is another version in which the week every three months is replaced with a week of low-dose estrogen
12.
Nicotine patch
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A nicotine patch is a transdermal patch that releases nicotine into the body through the skin. It is used as an aid in nicotine replacement therapy, a process for smoking cessation, dozens of clinical trials have shown that the patch approximately doubles success rates over placebo treatment. Placebo tests show a 5. 9% success rate, in comparison to the 7. 2% blind active tests, analysis of nicotine patches has shown that they contain tobacco-specific nitrosamines, known cancer-causing agents, in quantities of up to 173 mg per patch. Frank Etscorn Ph. D. filed a patent in the United States on January the 23rd 1985 and was issued the patent on July 1,1986. The University of California filed a patent application nearly 3 years after Etscorns filing on February the 19th,1988. Nicotine patches are under study to relieve the symptoms of post-surgical pain. Studies are being conducted about the use of nicotine patches to treat anxiety, depression. Transdermal nicotine patches can be used to relieve ulcerative colitis symptoms, however, this is not the case with Crohns disease, a similar health condition, where smoking and nicotine intake in general worsen the diseases effects. Smoking cessation Nicotine replacement therapy Nicotine lozenge Nicotine gum Transdermal patch
13.
Corticosteroid
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Corticosteroids are a class of steroid hormones that are produced in the adrenal cortex of vertebrates, as well as the synthetic analogues of these hormones. Some common naturally occurring steroid hormones are cortisol, corticosterone, cortisone and aldosterone, the main corticosteroids produced by the adrenal cortex are cortisol and aldosterone. Glucocorticoids such as cortisol affect carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism, and have anti-inflammatory, immunosuppressive, anti-proliferative, anti-inflammatory effects are mediated by blocking the action of inflammatory mediators and inducing anti-inflammatory mediators. Immunosuppressive effects are mediated by suppressing delayed hypersensitivity reactions by direct action on T-lymphocytes, anti-proliferative effects are mediated by inhibition of DNA synthesis and epidermal cell turnover. Vasoconstrictive effects are mediated by inhibiting the action of inflammatory mediators such as histidine, synthetic pharmaceutical drugs with corticosteroid-like effects are used in a variety of conditions, ranging from brain tumors to skin diseases. Dexamethasone and its derivatives are almost pure glucocorticoids, while prednisone, hydrocortisone is typically used for replacement therapy, e. g. for adrenal insufficiency and congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Corticosteroids are also used supportively to prevent nausea, often in combination with 5-HT3 antagonists, typical undesired effects of glucocorticoids present quite uniformly as drug-induced Cushings syndrome. Typical mineralocorticoid side-effects are hypertension, hypokalemia, hypernatremia without causing peripheral edema, metabolic alkalosis, there may also be impaired wound healing or ulcer formation because of the immunosuppressive effects. Clinical and experimental evidence indicates that corticosteroids can cause permanent eye damage by inducing central serous retinopathy, a variety of steroid medications, from anti-allergy nasal sprays to topical skin creams, to eye drops, to prednisone have been implicated in the development of CSR. Corticosteroids have been used in treating people with traumatic brain injury. A systematic review identified 20 randomised controlled trials and included 12,303 participants, the authors recommended people with traumatic head injury should not be routinely treated with corticosteroids. There is some basis for genetic variation in response to inhaled corticosteroids. Two genes of interest are CHRH1 and TBX21, both genes display some degree of polymorphic variation in humans, which may explain how some patients respond better to inhaled corticosteroid therapy than others. Use of corticosteroids has numerous side-effects, some of which may be severe, Neuropsychiatric, steroid psychosis, therapeutic doses may cause a feeling of artificial well-being. The neuropsychiatric effects are mediated by sensitization of the body to the actions of adrenaline. Therapeutically, the bulk of corticosteroid dose is given in the morning to mimic the bodys diurnal rhythm, if given at night, an extensive review is provided by Flores and Gumina. Cardiovascular, Corticosteroids can cause sodium retention through an action on the kidney. This can result in retention and hypertension
14.
DNA microarray
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A DNA microarray is a collection of microscopic DNA spots attached to a solid surface. Scientists use DNA microarrays to measure the levels of large numbers of genes simultaneously or to genotype multiple regions of a genome. Each DNA spot contains picomoles of a specific DNA sequence, known as probes and these can be a short section of a gene or other DNA element that are used to hybridize a cDNA or cRNA sample under high-stringency conditions. The original nucleic acid arrays were macro arrays approximately 9 cm ×12 cm, a high number of complementary base pairs in a nucleotide sequence means tighter non-covalent bonding between the two strands. After washing off non-specific bonding sequences, only strongly paired strands will remain hybridized, fluorescently labeled target sequences that bind to a probe sequence generate a signal that depends on the hybridization conditions, and washing after hybridization. Total strength of the signal, from a spot, depends upon the amount of target sample binding to the present on that spot. Thousands of these features can be placed in locations on a single DNA microarray. DNA microarrays can be used to detect DNA, or detect RNA that may or may not be translated into proteins, the process of measuring gene expression via cDNA is called expression analysis or expression profiling. Arrays may have as few as 10 probes or up to 2.1 million micrometre-scale probes from commercial vendors, in spotted microarrays, the probes are oligonucleotides, cDNA or small fragments of PCR products that correspond to mRNAs. The probes are synthesized prior to deposition on the surface and are then spotted onto glass. The resulting grid of probes represents the nucleic acid profiles of the probes and is ready to receive complementary cDNA or cRNA targets derived from experimental or clinical samples. This technique is used by scientists around the world to produce in-house printed microarrays from their own labs. These arrays may be customized for each experiment, because researchers can choose the probes and printing locations on the arrays, synthesize the probes in their own lab. They can then generate their own labeled samples for hybridization, hybridize the samples to the array, in oligonucleotide microarrays, the probes are short sequences designed to match parts of the sequence of known or predicted open reading frames. Although oligonucleotide probes are used in spotted microarrays, the term oligonucleotide array most often refers to a specific technique of manufacturing. After many repetitions, the sequences of every probe become fully constructed, more recently, Maskless Array Synthesis from NimbleGen Systems has combined flexibility with large numbers of probes. Two-color microarrays or two-channel microarrays are typically hybridized with cDNA prepared from two samples to be compared and that are labeled with two different fluorophores. Fluorescent dyes commonly used for cDNA labeling include Cy3, which has an emission wavelength of 570 nm
15.
Bachelor of Science
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A Bachelor of Science is an undergraduate academic degree awarded for completed courses that generally last three to five years. Whether a student of a subject is awarded a Bachelor of Science degree or a Bachelor of Arts degree can vary between universities. For one example, a degree may be given as a Bachelor of Arts by one university but as a B. Sc. by another. Some liberal arts colleges in the United States offer only the BA, even in the natural sciences, in both instances, there are historical and traditional reasons. Northwestern Universitys School of Communication grants B. Sc. degrees in all of its programs of study, including theater, dance, the first university to admit a student to the degree of Bachelor of Science was the University of London in 1860. Prior to this, science subjects were included in the B. A. bracket, notably in the cases of mathematics, physics, physiology, in Argentina and Chile, most university degrees are given as a license in a field or discipline. For instance, besides the courses, biochemistry and biology require 1–2 years hands-on training either in a clinical laboratory plus a final exam or in a research laboratory plus a thesis defense. The degrees are term licenses in the field of study or profession i. e. biology, nutrition, physical therapy or kinesiology, etc. However, a masters degree requires 2-3 more years of specific training, engineering and medical degrees are also different and are six-year programs of specific classes and training starting immediately after high school. No intermediate degrees count towards the admission examination or even exist, medical degrees are complemented with a 3–4 years of hospital residence plus 1–2 years of specialization training. In Australia, the B. Sc. is generally a three-four year degree, an honours year or a Master of Science is required to progress on to the Doctor of Philosophy. In New Zealand, in cases, the honours degree comprises an additional postgraduate qualification. In South Africa, the B. Sc. is taken three years, while the postgraduate B. Sc. Entails an additional year of study, admission to the honours degree is on the basis of a sufficiently high average in the B. Sc. major, an honours degree is required for M. Sc. Level study, and admission to a doctorate is via the M. Sc, commonly in British Commonwealth countries and Ireland graduands are admitted to the degree of Bachelor of Science after having completed a programme in one or more of the sciences. These programmes may take different lengths of time to complete, note that in British English, no full stops are used in the title, hence BSc, not B. Sc. A Bachelor of Science receives the designation BSc or BS for a major/pass degree, in England, Wales and Northern Ireland an honours degree is typically completed over a three-year period, though there are a few intensified two-year courses. Bachelors degrees were typically completed in two years for most of the twentieth century, in Scotland, where access to university is possible after one less year of secondary education, degree courses have a foundation year making the total course length four years
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Biochemistry
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Biochemistry, sometimes called biological chemistry, is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms. By controlling information flow through biochemical signaling and the flow of energy through metabolism. Biochemistry is closely related to biology, the study of the molecular mechanisms by which genetic information encoded in DNA is able to result in the processes of life. Depending on the definition of the terms used, molecular biology can be thought of as a branch of biochemistry, or biochemistry as a tool with which to investigate. The chemistry of the cell depends on the reactions of smaller molecules. These can be inorganic, for water and metal ions, or organic, for example the amino acids. The mechanisms by which cells harness energy from their environment via chemical reactions are known as metabolism, the findings of biochemistry are applied primarily in medicine, nutrition, and agriculture. In medicine, biochemists investigate the causes and cures of diseases, in nutrition, they study how to maintain health and study the effects of nutritional deficiencies. In agriculture, biochemists investigate soil and fertilizers, and try to discover ways to improve crop cultivation, crop storage and pest control. However, biochemistry as a scientific discipline has its beginning sometime in the 19th century, or a little earlier. Gowland Hopkins on enzymes and the nature of biochemistry. The term biochemistry itself is derived from a combination of biology, the German chemist Carl Neuberg however is often cited to have coined the word in 1903, while some credited it to Franz Hofmeister. Then, in 1828, Friedrich Wöhler published a paper on the synthesis of urea and these techniques allowed for the discovery and detailed analysis of many molecules and metabolic pathways of the cell, such as glycolysis and the Krebs cycle. Another significant historic event in biochemistry is the discovery of the gene and this part of biochemistry is often called molecular biology. In the 1950s, James D. Watson, Francis Crick, Rosalind Franklin, in 1958, George Beadle and Edward Tatum received the Nobel Prize for work in fungi showing that one gene produces one enzyme. In 1988, Colin Pitchfork was the first person convicted of murder with DNA evidence, mello received the 2006 Nobel Prize for discovering the role of RNA interference, in the silencing of gene expression. Around two dozen of the 92 naturally occurring elements are essential to various kinds of biological life. Most rare elements on Earth are not needed by life, while a few common ones are not used, most organisms share element needs, but there are a few differences between plants and animals
17.
Palo Alto, California
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Palo Alto is a charter city located in the northwest corner of Santa Clara County, California, in the San Francisco Bay Area of the United States. The city shares its borders with East Palo Alto, Mountain View, Los Altos, Los Altos Hills, Stanford, Portola Valley and it is named after a coast redwood tree called El Palo Alto. Palo Alto was established by Leland Stanford Sr. when he founded Stanford University, following the death of his son and it has also served as an incubator to several other high-technology companies such as Google, Facebook, Logitech, Intuit, Pinterest, and PayPal. As of the 2010 census, the total resident population is 64,403. Palo Alto is one of the most expensive cities in the United States, the recorded history of Palo Alto dates back to 1769, when Gaspar de Portolá noted an Ohlone settlement. This remains an area of known Indian mounds, a plaque at Middlefield Road and Embarcadero Road commemorates the area. The city got its name from a tall coast redwood tree, named El Palo Alto, a plaque there recounts the story of the Portolà expedition, a 63-man, 200-horse expedition from San Diego to Monterey from November 7–11,1769. The group overshot Monterey in the fog and when they reached modern-day Pacifica, they ascended Sweeney Ridge, thinking the bay was too wide to cross, the group retraced their journey to Monterey, never becoming aware of the Golden Gate entrance to the Bay. Located south of the San Francisquito Creek, west of todays I-280, in 1835, Rafael Soto and family settled near the San Francisquito Creek near Newell and Middlefield, selling goods to travelers. Rafael Soto died in 1839, but his wife, Maria Antonia Mesa, was granted Rancho Rinconada del Arroyo de San Francisquito in 1841, in 1839, their daughter María Luisa Soto married John Coppinger, who was the grantee of Rancho Cañada de Raymundo. Rancho Cañada de Raymundo was West of San Francisquito Creek, and began at Alambique Creek, the border of Rancho Corte de Madera. Bear Gulch Creek flowed on his land in Portola Valley, the rancho also abutted Buelnas grant near Skyline Boulevard and Matadero Creek. Upon Coppingers death, Maria inherited it and later married a visiting boat captain, Greer owned a home on the site that is now Town & Country Village on Embarcadero and El Camino Real. Greer Avenue and Court are named for him, to the west of Rafael Soto, near El Camino and following the Creek, was Rancho San Francisquito granted in 1839 to Antonio Buelna and wife Maria Concepcion. To the south of the Sotos, the brothers Secundino and Teodoro Robles in 1849 bought Rancho Rincon de San Francisquito from José Peña, where the Joness house was, then east down Arastradero Rd. to the north property line of Alta Mesa Memorial Park and Terman Park. The property then went along the bay to the Embarcadero, a boundary in the day, then up to the Stanford University gates, up Galvez. The grant was bounded on the south by Mariano Castros Rancho Pastoria de las Borregas grant across San Antonio Road, thats the Robles Rancho, about 80% of Palo Alto and Stanford University. It was whittled down by 1863 through courts to 6,981 acres, stories say their grand hacienda was built on the former meager adobe of José Peña near Ferne off San Antonio Road, midway between Middlefield and Alma Street
18.
ALZA
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ALZA Corporation was a pharmaceutical and medical systems company. Founded in 1968 by Dr Alejandro Zaffaroni, the name is a portmanteau of his name. ALZA was a pioneer in the field of drug delivery systems, bringing over 20 prescription pharmaceutical products to market. In 2001, ALZA was acquired by Johnson & Johnson via a transaction worth US$10.5 billion. In 1999, ALZA moved its headquarters to Shoreline Business Park, where it remained until July 2007 when ALZA was acquired by Johnson & Johnson, the remaining employees were relocated to two buildings elsewhere in the Shoreline Business Park. ALZA is now in operation in Vacaville, California, googles Googleplex is located just east of ALZA Plaza. In August–September 2008, Google moved into the ALZA plaza buildings, ALZA operated a large-scale manufacturing facility in Vacaville, California and previously operated a large-scale facility in Cashel, Ireland
19.
Portmanteau
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In linguistics, a portmanteau is defined as a single morph that represents two or more morphemes. A portmanteau also differs from a compound, which not involve the truncation of parts of the stems of the blended words. For instance, starfish is a compound, not a portmanteau, of star and fish, whereas a hypothetical portmanteau of star and fish might be stish. Humpty Dumpty explains the practice of combining words in various ways by telling Alice, for instance, take the two words fuming and furious. Make up your mind that you will say both words, but leave it unsettled which you will say first … if you have the rarest of gifts, in then-contemporary English, a portmanteau was a suitcase that opened into two equal sections. The etymology of the word is the French porte-manteau, from porter, to carry, in modern French, a porte-manteau is a clothes valet, a coat-tree or similar article of furniture for hanging up jackets, hats, umbrellas and the like. It has also used especially in Europe as a formal description for hat racks from the French words porter. An occasional synonym for portmanteau word is frankenword, an autological word exemplifying the phenomenon it describes, blending Frankenstein, many neologisms are examples of blends, but many blends have become part of the lexicon. In Punch in 1896, the word brunch was introduced as a portmanteau word, in 1964, the newly independent African republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar chose the portmanteau word Tanzania as its name. Similarly Eurasia is a portmanteau of Europe and Asia, a scientific example is a liger, which is a cross between a male lion and a female tiger. Jeoportmanteau. is a category on the American television quiz show Jeopardy. The categorys name is itself a portmanteau of the words Jeopardy, responses in the category are portmanteaus constructed by fitting two words together. The term gerrymander has itself contributed to portmanteau terms bjelkemander and playmander, oxbridge is a common portmanteau for the UKs two oldest universities, those of Oxford and Cambridge. Many portmanteau words receive some use but do not appear in all dictionaries, for example, a spork is an eating utensil that is a combination of a spoon and a fork, and a skort is an item of clothing that is part skirt, part shorts. On the other hand, turducken, a made by inserting a chicken into a duck. Similarly, the word refudiate was first used by Sarah Palin when she misspoke, though initially a gaffe, the word was recognized as the New Oxford American Dictionarys Word of the Year in 2010. The business lexicon is replete with newly coined portmanteau words like permalance, advertainment, advertorial, infotainment, a company name may also be portmanteau as well as a product name. By contrast, the public, including the media, use portmanteaux to refer to their favorite pairings as a way to. giv people an essence of who they are within the same name and this is particularly seen in cases of fictional and real-life supercouples
20.
Endocrinology
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Endocrinology is a branch of biology and medicine dealing with the endocrine system, its diseases, and its specific secretions known as hormones. Specializations include behavioral endocrinology and comparative endocrinology, the endocrine system consists of several glands, all in different parts of the body, that secrete hormones directly into the blood rather than into a duct system. Endocrinology is the study of the system in the human body. This is a system of glands which secrete hormones, hormones are chemicals which affect the actions of different organ systems in the body. Examples include thyroid hormone, growth hormone, and insulin, the endocrine system involves a number of feedback mechanisms, so that often one hormone will control the action or release of another secondary hormone. If there is too much of the hormone, it may provide negative feedback to the primary hormone. This definition holds for most classical hormones, but there are also paracrine mechanisms, autocrine signals, a neuroendocrine signal is a classical hormone that is released into the blood by a neurosecretory neuron. Peptide hormones and protein hormones consist of three to more than 200 amino acid residues and can have a mass as large as 30,000 grams per mole. All hormones secreted by the pituitary gland are peptide hormones, as are leptin from adipocytes, ghrelin from the stomach, steroid hormones are converted from their parent compound, cholesterol. Mammalian steroid hormones can be grouped into five groups by the receptors to which they bind, glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, androgens, estrogens, and progestogens. Some forms of vitamin D, such as calcitriol, are steroid-like and bind to homologous receptors and these organs include the pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, ovaries, testes, and pancreas. An endocrinologist is a physician who specializes in treating disorders of the system, such as diabetes, hyperthyroidism. The diagnosis and treatment of diseases are guided by laboratory tests to a greater extent than for most specialties. Many diseases are investigated through excitation/stimulation or inhibition/suppression testing and this might involve injection with a stimulating agent to test the function of an endocrine organ. Blood is then sampled to assess the changes of the relevant hormones or metabolites, an endocrinologist needs extensive knowledge of clinical chemistry and biochemistry to understand the uses and limitations of the investigations. A second important aspect of the practice of endocrinology is distinguishing human variation from disease, atypical patterns of physical development and abnormal test results must be assessed as indicative of disease or not. Diagnostic imaging of endocrine organs may reveal incidental findings called incidentalomas, Endocrinology involves caring for the person as well as the disease. Most endocrine disorders are diseases that need lifelong care
21.
Insulin
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Insulin is a peptide hormone produced by beta cells of the pancreatic islets. It regulates the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats and protein by promoting the absorption of, especially, glucose from the blood into fat, liver and skeletal muscle cells. In these tissues the absorbed glucose is converted into either glycogen via glycogenesis or fats via lipogenesis, or, in the case of the liver, Glucose production by the liver is strongly inhibited by high concentrations of insulin in the blood. Circulating insulin also affects the synthesis of proteins in a variety of tissues. It is therefore an anabolic hormone, promoting the conversion of small molecules in the blood into large molecules inside the cells, low insulin levels in the blood have the opposite effect by promoting widespread catabolism. Pancreatic beta cells are known to be sensitive to concentrations in the blood. When glucose concentrations in the blood are high, the pancreatic β cells secrete insulin into the blood, glucagon, through stimulating the liver to release glucose by glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis, has the opposite effect of insulin. If pancreatic beta cells are destroyed by an reaction, insulin can no longer be synthesized or be secreted into the blood. This results in type 1 diabetes mellitus, which is characterized by high blood glucose concentrations. In type 2 diabetes mellitus the destruction of cells is less pronounced than in type 1 diabetes. Instead there is an accumulation of amyloid in the pancreatic islets, Type 2 diabetes is characterized by high rates of glucagon secretion into the blood which are unaffected by, and unresponsive to the concentration of glucose in the blood glucose. Insulin is still secreted into the blood in response to the blood glucose, as a result, the insulin levels, even when the blood sugar level is normal, are much higher than they are in healthy persons. There are a variety of treatment regimens, none of which is entirely satisfactory, when the pancreas’s capacity to secrete insulin can no longer keep the blood sugar level within normal bounds, insulin injections are given. The human insulin protein is composed of 51 amino acids, and has a mass of 5808 Da. It is a dimer of an A-chain and a B-chain, which are linked together by disulfide bonds, insulins structure varies slightly between species of animals. Insulin from animal sources differs somewhat in effectiveness from human insulin because of these variations, porcine insulin is especially close to the human version, and was widely used to treat type 1 diabetics before human insulin could be produced in large quantities by recombinant DNA technologies. The crystal structure of insulin in the state was determined by Dorothy Hodgkin. It is on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines, the most important medications needed in a health system
22.
Fentanyl
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Fentanyl is a potent, synthetic opioid pain medication with a rapid onset and short duration of action. It is a potent agonist at receptors in the brain. Fentanyl was first made by Paul Janssen in 1960, following the inception of pethidine several years earlier. Janssen developed fentanyl by assaying analogues of the related drug pethidine for opioid activity. The widespread use of fentanyl triggered the production of fentanyl citrate, following this, many other fentanyl analogues were developed and introduced into medical practice, including sufentanil, alfentanil, remifentanil, and lofentanil. As of 2012, fentanyl was the most widely used synthetic opioid in medicine, in 2013,1700 kilograms were used globally. Fentanyl is also used as a drug, leading to thousands of overdose deaths from 2000 to 2017. Deaths have also resulted from improper medical use, intravenous fentanyl is often used for anesthesia and analgesia. During anaesthesia it is used along with a hypnotic agent like propofol. Fentanyl may be included in a solution along with local anesthetic for neuraxial administration and it is also administered in combination with a benzodiazepine, such as midazolam, to produce sedation for procedures such as endoscopy, cardiac catheterization, and oral surgery. It is often used in the management of pain including cancer pain. Fentanyl transdermal patches are used in pain management. The patches work by slowly releasing fentanyl through the skin into the bloodstream over 48 to 72 hours, dosage is based on the size of the patch, since, in general, the transdermal absorption rate is constant at a constant skin temperature. Rate of absorption is dependent on a number of factors, body temperature, skin type, amount of body fat, and placement of the patch can have major effects. The different delivery systems used by different makers will also affect rates of absorption. Under normal circumstances, the patch will reach its full effect within 12 to 24 hours, thus and it is unclear if fentanyl gives pain relief to people with neuropathic pain. People with moderate to severe renal failure, troublesome side effects of oral morphine, hydromorphone, or oxycodone. Care must be taken to guard against the application of heat sources which in certain circumstances can trigger the release of too much medication
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Smoking cessation
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Smoking cessation is the process of discontinuing tobacco smoking. Tobacco contains nicotine, which is addictive, nicotine makes the process of quitting often very prolonged and difficult. Smoking is the leading cause of death worldwide, and quitting smoking significantly reduces the risk of dying from tobacco-related diseases such as heart disease. Seventy percent of smokers would like to quit smoking, and 50 percent report attempting to quit within the past year, the majority of smokers who try to quit do so without assistance, though only 3% to 6% of quit attempts without assistance are successful. Use of medications and behavioral counseling both increase success rates, and a combination of medication and behavioral interventions has been shown to be even more effective. Because nicotine is addictive, quitting smoking leads to symptoms of withdrawal such as craving, anxiety and irritability, depression. Professional smoking cessation support methods generally endeavor to address both nicotine addiction and nicotine withdrawal symptoms, major reviews of the scientific literature on smoking cessation include, Systematic reviews of the Cochrane Tobacco Addiction Group of the Cochrane Collaboration. Clinical Practice Guideline, Treating Tobacco Use and Dependence,2008 Update of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, the Guideline was originally published in 1996 and revised in 2000. For the 2008 Guideline, experts screened over 8700 research articles published between 1975 and 2007, more than 300 studies were used in meta-analyses of relevant treatments, an additional 600 reports were not included in meta-analyses, but helped formulate the recommendations. Studies of the cost-effectiveness of smoking cessation include, In a 1997 U. S, among National Health Service smoking cessation clients in Glasgow, pharmacy one-to-one counselling cost £2,600 per QALY gained and group support cost £4,800 per QALY gained. The frequency of smoking cessation among smokers varies across countries, Smoking cessation increased in Spain between 1965 and 2000, in Scotland between 1998 and 2007, and in Italy after 2000. In contrast, in the U. S. the cessation rate was stable between 1998 and 2008, and in China smoking cessation rates declined between 1998 and 2003. Nevertheless, in a number of countries there are now more ex-smokers than smokers For example, in the U. S. as of 2010. In 2014, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reports that the number of smokers,18 years and older. Henningfield J, Fant R, Buchhalter A, Stitzer M. Pharmacotherapy for nicotine dependence, hughes JR, Keely J, Naud S. Shape of the curve and long-term abstinence among untreated smokers. Hutter H, Moshammer H, Neuberger M. Smoking cessation at the workplace,1 year success of short seminars, overcoming your smoking habit, a self-help guide using cognitive behavioral techniques. How to stop smoking in five days
24.
Hyoscine
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Hyoscine, also known as scopolamine, is a medication used to treat motion sickness and postoperative nausea and vomiting. It is also used before surgery to decrease saliva. When used by injection effects begin after about 20 minutes and last for up to 8 hours and it may also be used by mouth and as a skin patch. Common side effects include sleepiness, blurred vision, dilated pupils and it is not recommended in people with glaucoma or bowel obstruction. It is unclear if use during pregnancy is safe, however, hyoscine is in the antimuscarinic family of medications and works by blocking some of the effects of acetylcholine within the nervous system. Hyoscine was first written about in 1881 and came into use in 1947. It is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, hyoscine is produced from plants of the nightshade family. The name scopolamine is derived from one type of known as Scopolia while hyoscine is from another type known as Hyoscyamus niger. Scopolamine crosses the placenta and is a pregnancy category C medication, either studies in animals have revealed adverse effects on the fetus and no controlled studies in women have been made, or studies in women and animals are not available. Drugs should be only if the potential benefits justify the potential risk to the fetus. It may cause respiratory depression and/or neonatal hemorrhage when used during pregnancy, transdermal scopolamine has been used as an adjunct to epidural anesthesia for Caesarean delivery without adverse CNS effects on the newborn. Except when used prior to Caesarean section, it should only be used during pregnancy if the benefit to the mother outweighs the risk to the fetus. Scopolamine enters breast milk by secretion, although no human studies exist to document the safety of scopolamine while nursing, the manufacturer recommends that caution be taken if scopolamine is administered to a breastfeeding woman. The likelihood of experiencing adverse effects from scopolamine is increased in the relative to younger people. This phenomenon is true for older people who are also on several other medications. It is recommended that use should be avoided in this age group because of these potent anticholinergic adverse effects. Other than this treatment, gastric lavage and induced emesis are usually recommended as treatments for oral overdoses. In June 2008, more than 20 people were hospitalized with psychosis in Norway after ingesting counterfeit Rohypnol tablets containing scopolamine, due to interactions with metabolism of other drugs, scopolamine can cause significant unwanted side effects when taken with other medications
25.
Macromolecule
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A macromolecule is a very large molecule, such as protein, commonly created by polymerization of smaller subunits. They are typically composed of thousands of atoms or more, the most common macromolecules in biochemistry are biopolymers and large non-polymeric molecules. Synthetic macromolecules include common plastics and synthetic fibres as well as materials such as carbon nanotubes. The term macromolecule was coined by Nobel laureate Hermann Staudinger in the 1920s, usage of the term to describe large molecules varies among the disciplines. According to the standard IUPAC definition, the term macromolecule as used in science refers only to a single molecule. For example, a polymeric molecule is appropriately described as a macromolecule or polymer molecule rather than a polymer. Because of their size, macromolecules are not conveniently described in terms of stoichiometry alone, the structure of simple macromolecules, such as homopolymers, may be described in terms of the individual monomer subunit and total molecular mass. Complicated biomacromolecules, on the hand, require multi-faceted structural description such as the hierarchy of structures used to describe proteins. In British English. Macromolecules often have physical properties that do not occur for smaller molecules. For example, DNA in a solution can be simply by sucking the solution through an ordinary straw because the physical forces on the molecule can overcome the strength of its covalent bonds. The 1964 edition of Linus Paulings College Chemistry asserted that DNA in nature is never longer than about 5,000 base pairs and this error arose because biochemists were inadvertently breaking their samples into fragments. In fact, the DNA of chromosomes can be hundreds of millions of base pairs long, another common macromolecular property that does not characterize smaller molecules is their relative insolubility in water and similar solvents, instead forming colloids. Many require salts or particular ions to dissolve in water, similarly, many proteins will denature if the solute concentration of their solution is too high or too low. High concentrations of macromolecules in a solution can alter the rates and equilibrium constants of the reactions of other macromolecules and this comes from macromolecules excluding other molecules from a large part of the volume of the solution, thereby increasing the effective concentrations of these molecules. All living organisms are dependent on three essential biopolymers for their functions, DNA, RNA and Proteins. Each of these molecules is required for life since each plays a distinct, the simple summary is that DNA makes RNA, and then RNA makes proteins. DNA, RNA and proteins all consist of a structure of related building blocks. In general, they are all unbranched polymers, and so can be represented in the form of a string
26.
Genetic engineering
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Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification, is the direct manipulation of an organisms genome using biotechnology. It is a set of used to change the genetic makeup of cells, including the transfer of genes within. Genes may be removed, or knocked out, using a nuclease, gene targeting is a different technique that uses homologous recombination to change an endogenous gene, and can be used to delete a gene, remove exons, add a gene, or introduce point mutations. An organism that is generated through genetic engineering is considered to be a modified organism. The first GMOs were bacteria generated in 1973 and GM mice in 1974, insulin-producing bacteria were commercialized in 1982 and genetically modified food has been sold since 1994. GloFish, the first GMO designed as a pet, was first sold in the United States in December 2003, Genetic engineering techniques have been applied in numerous fields including research, agriculture, industrial biotechnology, and medicine. However the European Commission has also defined genetic engineering broadly as including selective breeding, cloning and stem cell research, although not considered genetic engineering, are closely related and genetic engineering can be used within them. Synthetic biology is a discipline that takes genetic engineering a step further by introducing artificially synthesized material from raw materials into an organism. If genetic material from another species is added to the host, if genetic material from the same species or a species that can naturally breed with the host is used the resulting organism is called cisgenic. Genetic engineering can also be used to remove material from the target organism. In Europe genetic modification is synonymous with genetic engineering while within the United States of America it can refer to conventional breeding methods. The Canadian regulatory system is based on whether a product has novel features regardless of method of origin, within the scientific community, the term genetic engineering is not commonly used, more specific terms such as transgenic are preferred. Plants, animals or micro organisms that have changed through genetic engineering are termed genetically modified organisms or GMOs, bacteria were the first organisms to be genetically modified. Plasmid DNA containing new genes can be inserted into the bacterial cell and these genes can code for medicines or enzymes that process food and other substrates. Plants have been modified for insect protection, herbicide resistance, virus resistance, enhanced nutrition, tolerance to environmental pressures, most commercialised GMOs are insect resistant and/or herbicide tolerant crop plants. Genetically modified animals have used for research, model animals. The genetically modified animals include animals with genes knocked out, increased susceptibility to disease, hormones for extra growth, humans have altered the genomes of species for thousands of years through selective breeding, or artificial selection as contrasted with natural selection, and more recently through mutagenesis. Genetic engineering as the manipulation of DNA by humans outside breeding
27.
Immunobiology
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Immunology is a branch of biology that covers the study of immune systems in all organisms. It was the Russian biologist Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov who boosted studies on immunology and he jabbed the thorn of a rose on a starfish and noted that,24 hours later, cells were surrounding the tip. It was a response of the body, trying to maintain its integrity. It was Mechnikov who first observed the phenomenon of phagocytosis, in which the body defends itself against a foreign body, Immunology has applications in numerous disciplines of medicine, particularly in the fields of organ transplantation, oncology, virology, bacteriology, parasitology, psychiatry, and dermatology. The important lymphoid organs of the system are the thymus and bone marrow, and chief lymphatic tissues such as spleen, tonsils, lymph vessels, lymph nodes, adenoids. Classical immunology ties in with the fields of epidemiology and medicine and it studies the relationship between the body systems, pathogens, and immunity. The earliest written mention of immunity can be traced back to the plague of Athens in 430 BCE, thucydides noted that people who had recovered from a previous bout of the disease could nurse the sick without contracting the illness a second time. Many other ancient societies have references to this phenomenon, but it was not until the 19th and 20th centuries before the concept developed into scientific theory. The study of the molecular and cellular components that comprise the immune system, the immune system has been divided into a more primitive innate immune system and, in vertebrates, an acquired or adaptive immune system. The latter is divided into humoral and cell-mediated components. The humoral response is defined as the interaction between antibodies and antigens, antibodies are specific proteins released from a certain class of immune cells known as B lymphocytes, while antigens are defined as anything that elicits the generation of antibodies. Immunology rests on an understanding of the properties of two biological entities and the cellular response to both. Immunological research continues to more specialized, pursuing non-classical models of immunity and functions of cells, organs. Clinical immunology is the study of diseases caused by disorders of the immune system and it also involves diseases of other systems, where immune reactions play a part in the pathology and clinical features. Other immune system include various hypersensitivities that respond inappropriately to otherwise harmless compounds. Clinical immunologists also study ways to prevent the immune systems attempts to destroy allografts, the body’s capability to react to antigen depends on a persons age, antigen type, maternal factors and the area where the antigen is presented. Neonates are said to be in a state of physiological immunodeficiency, once born, a child’s immune system responds favorably to protein antigens while not as well to glycoproteins and polysaccharides. In fact, many of the infections acquired by neonates are caused by low virulence organisms like Staphylococcus, in neonates, opsonic activity and the ability to activate the complement cascade is very limited
28.
Combinatorial chemistry
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Combinatorial chemistry comprises chemical synthetic methods that make it possible to prepare a large number of compounds in a single process. These compound libraries can be made as mixtures, sets of compounds or chemical structures generated by computer software. Combinatorial chemistry can be used for the synthesis of small molecules, strategies that allow identification of useful components of the libraries are also part of combinatorial chemistry. The methods used in chemistry are applied outside chemistry, too. Synthesis of molecules in a fashion can quickly lead to large numbers of molecules. The basic principle of combinatorial chemistry is to prepare libraries of very large number of compounds then identify the components of the libraries. In its modern form, combinatorial chemistry has probably had its biggest impact in the pharmaceutical industry, researchers attempting to optimize the activity profile of a compound create a library of many different but related compounds. Advances in robotics have led to an approach to combinatorial synthesis, enabling companies to routinely produce over 100,000 new. Such a library can consist of thousands to millions of virtual compounds, the researcher will select a subset of the virtual library for actual synthesis, based upon various calculations and criteria. The combinatorial split-mix synthesis is based on the solid phase synthesis developed by Merrifield, if a combinatorial peptide library is synthesized using 20 amino acids the bead form solid support is divided into 20 equal portions. This is followed by coupling a different amino acid to each portion, the third step is mixing of all portions. These three steps comprise a cycle, elongation of the peptide chains can be realized by simply repeating the steps of the cycle. The procedure is illustrated by the synthesis of a library using the same three amino acids as building blocks in both cycles. Each component of this contains two amino acids arranged in different orders. The amino acids used in couplings are represented by yellow, blue, divergent arrows show dividing solid support resin into equal portions, vertical arrows mean coupling and convergent arrows represent mixing and homogenizing the portions of the support. The figure shows that in the two synthetic cycles 9 dipeptides are formed, in a third and fourth cycles 27 tripeptides and 81 tetrapeptides would form, respectively. The split-mix synthesis has several outstanding features, It is highly efficient, as the figure demonstrates the number of peptides formed in the synthetic process increases exponentially with the number of executed cycles. Using 20 amino acids in each cycle the number of formed peptides are,400,8,000,160,000 and 3,200,000
29.
Affymetrix
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Affymetrix, Inc. is an American company that manufactures DNA microarrays, it is based in Santa Clara, California, United States. The company was founded by Dr. Stephen Fodor in 1992 and it began as a unit in Affymax N. V. The companys first product, an HIV genotyping GeneChip, was introduced in 1994, as a result of its pioneering work and the ensuing popularity of microarray products, Affymetrix derives significant benefit from its patent portfolio in this area. Thermo Fisher Scientific announced on January 8,2016 the acquisition of Affymetrix for approximately $1.3 billion, the acquisition is anticipated to close in the second quarter of 2016. The acquisition will enhance their diagnostic equipment offerings and lead to 10s of millions of dollars in savings in the first few years after completion of the deal, Affymetrix makes quartz chips for analysis of DNA Microarrays called GeneChip arrays. Affymetrixs GeneChip arrays assist researchers in quickly scanning for the presence of genes in a biological sample. Within this area, Affymetrix is focused on oligonucleotide microarrays and these microarrays are used to determine which genes exist in a sample by detecting specific pieces of mRNA. A single chip can be used to analyze thousands of genes in one assay, chips can be used only once. Affymetrix sells both mass-produced GeneChip arrays intended to match scientifically important parts of human and other animal genomes, Affymetrix manufactures its GeneChip arrays using photolithography. The company also manufactures machinery for high speed analysis of biological samples, Affymetrix GeneChip Operating Software is a software system for managing Affymetrix microarray data. Competitors in the DNA Microarray business include Illumina, GE Healthcare, Applied Biosystems, Beckman Coulter, Eppendorf Biochip Systems, there are also various inexpensive plastic-based technologies under development in small companies and laboratories around the world. It has been speculated that mass-produced plastic chips can be produced at lower prices than Affymetrixs quartz chips. This test, known as CytoScan Dx Assay, is designed to diagnose these disabilities earlier to expedite appropriate care, about 2 to 3 percent of U. S. children have some sort of intellectual disability, according to the National Institutes of Health. Affymetrix Homepage DNAVision, Gene Logic - Affymetrix official service provider, archived from the original on 2006-11-07. Note, reference includes all child pages and documents of this page, there is some contradiction in specific details of the founding of Affymetrix among documents found here
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Corporate spin-off
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A corporate spin-off, also known as a spin-out, or starburst, is a type of corporate action where a company splits off a section as a separate business. Shareholders of the parent company receive equivalent shares in the new company in order to compensate for the loss of equity in the original stocks. In contrast, divestment can also sever one business from another, many times the management team of the new company are from the same parent organization. Spin-offs also allow high-growth divisions, once separated from other low-growth divisions, the United States Securities and Exchange Commissions definition of spin-off is more precise. Spin-offs occur when the equity owners of the parent company receive equity stakes in the spun off company. For example, when Agilent Technologies was spun off from Hewlett-Packard in 1999, a company not considered a spin-off in the SECs definition may also be called a spin-off in common usage. A second definition of a spin-out is a firm formed when an employee or group of leaves a existing entity to form an independent start-up firm. The prior employer can be a firm, a university, or another organization, spin-outs typically operate at arms length from the previous organizations and have independent sources of financing, products, services, customers, and other assets. In some cases, the spin-out may license technology from the parent or supply the parent with products or services, conversely, such spin-outs are important sources of technological diffusion in high-tech industries. For example, Fosters Group, an Australian beverage company, was prepared to sell its wine business, but due to the lack of a decent offer, it decided to spin off the wine business, which is now called Treasury Wine Estates. Some examples of spin-offs, Guidant was spun off from Eli Lilly and Company in 1994, formed from Lillys Medical Devices, Agilent Technologies spun off from Hewlett-Packard in 1999, formed from HPs former test-and-measurement equipment division. Cenovus Energy was spun off from Encana Corporation in 2009, ocean Rig UDW Inc was spun off from Dryships Inc in September 2011. AOL was a Time Warner spin-off, this effectively was a demerger, DreamWorks Animation was spun off from DreamWorks Studios in 2004. Nuage Networks was spun off from Alcatel Lucent in 2012 News Corporations publishing operations were spun off as News Corp in 2013, the previous News Corporations remaining media properties were retained under the name 21st Century Fox. Over £266 million in external investment has been raised by Isis spin-out companies since 2000, mirror company formation is a specialized form of spin-off used to create a new public company. It simplifies the process of listing the shares on a stock exchange. It works by a public company issuing a bonus share at a 1-for-1 rate in the new company. This new company is sold to another company that does not want to go through the complex
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Symyx Technologies
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Symyx Technologies, Inc. was a company that specialized in informatics and automation products. Symyx provided software solutions for scientific research, including Enterprise Laboratory Notebooks, the software part of the business became part of Accelrys, Inc. in 2010. Symyx also offered laboratory robotics systems for performing automated chemical research, Symyx offered high-speed combinatorial technologies for the discovery of new materials. This approach can deliver results hundreds to thousands of times faster than traditional research methods, Symyx applied this technology to revolutionize materials discovery in the life sciences, chemical, and electronics industries. Symyx screens about a million materials a year and has produced a product pipeline with several materials that have the potential to be commercialized in the few years. Examples of their discovery efforts include X-ray storage phosphors for radiography, polymers to speed DNA research and catalysts for the manufacture of pharmaceuticals, chemicals and plastics. In 2008, Symyx sold non-RTECS portions of the health and safety component of the MDL business to ChemAdvisor, Inc. of Pittsburgh. Subsequent innovations derived from these components included an enterprise electronic laboratory notebook capable of supporting multiple scientific disciplines. In 2010 Symyx spun off their laboratory robotics business as Freeslate, Freeslate develops high throughput systems for automating chemical research. In 2010, the remaining Symyx software business merged with Accelrys, the concept of combinatory chemistry was the focus of Symyx. The initial Symyx business model was to provide research for large chemical companies at a contract size from $0.5 Million to $200 Million. The company had success in gaining enough contracts to reach profitability, with small deals with few initial customers which led to large deals. Symyx then started to sell equipment, one other key point was the company had to develop new tools and hire new people when a new project came up because the contract was in a brand new research area and required different expertise. Therefore, the contract business was not scalable. This is seen as the reason for failure, even though the company had over 500 patents. Intermolecular licensed Symyx patents on electronic materials and is developing tools for the electronic materials companies
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Maxygen
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Maxygen Inc. was a biopharmaceutical company focused on developing improved versions of protein drugs using DNA shuffling and other protein modification technologies. The company was headquartered in Redwood City, CA, maxygen’s clinical programs include a novel G-CSF for the treatment of chemotherapy-induced neutropenia, which entered clinical trials in 2006. Maxygen also has a program, MAXY-4, to develop a novel CTLA4-Ig therapeutic for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Maxygen was established to exploit its proprietary recombination-based technologies for creating genetic diversity. These technologies allow the generation of millions of variant genes and proteins and this laboratory process mimics the powerful natural process of evolution. Maxygen’s work has led to scientific publications and patents. Other protein engineering and protein modification technologies used by Maxygen include mutagenesis, rational design, PEGylation, glycosylation, Maxygen was founded in 1997 by Dr. Alejandro Zaffaroni, a San Francisco Bay Area scientist and entrepreneur, and three co-founders, Dr. Willem P. C. Stemmer, Dr. Russell Howard and Isaac Stein, Dr. Zaffaroni has founded multiple companies including ALZA Corporation, DNAX Research Institute, Affymax, Affymetrix, Symyx Technologies, and Alexza. To accelerate its development of improved biopharmaceuticals, Maxygen acquired the Danish company Profound Pharma A/S in 2000, created by Christian Karsten Hansen, maxyAg was later renamed Verdia Inc. and Verdia was sold to DuPont in 2004 for $64 million. In addition, Maxygen established Avidia in 2003 to develop protein subunits as commercial products, Avidia was purchased by Amgen in 2006 for $290 million. The company reported a fourth-quarter 2007 loss of $11. 3M, Maxygen filed a certificate of dissolution on August 29,2013. The company has ceased all operations, tassos Gianakakos is a former Director of Business Development for Maxygen. Official website Maxygen Publications Maxygen Intellectual Property
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Protein
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Proteins are large biomolecules, or macromolecules, consisting of one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, responding to stimuli, a linear chain of amino acid residues is called a polypeptide. A protein contains at least one long polypeptide, short polypeptides, containing less than 20–30 residues, are rarely considered to be proteins and are commonly called peptides, or sometimes oligopeptides. The individual amino acid residues are bonded together by peptide bonds, the sequence of amino acid residues in a protein is defined by the sequence of a gene, which is encoded in the genetic code. In general, the code specifies 20 standard amino acids, however. Sometimes proteins have non-peptide groups attached, which can be called prosthetic groups or cofactors, proteins can also work together to achieve a particular function, and they often associate to form stable protein complexes. Once formed, proteins only exist for a period of time and are then degraded and recycled by the cells machinery through the process of protein turnover. A proteins lifespan is measured in terms of its half-life and covers a wide range and they can exist for minutes or years with an average lifespan of 1–2 days in mammalian cells. Abnormal and or misfolded proteins are degraded more rapidly due to being targeted for destruction or due to being unstable. Like other biological macromolecules such as polysaccharides and nucleic acids, proteins are essential parts of organisms, many proteins are enzymes that catalyse biochemical reactions and are vital to metabolism. Proteins also have structural or mechanical functions, such as actin and myosin in muscle and the proteins in the cytoskeleton, other proteins are important in cell signaling, immune responses, cell adhesion, and the cell cycle. In animals, proteins are needed in the diet to provide the essential amino acids that cannot be synthesized, digestion breaks the proteins down for use in the metabolism. Methods commonly used to study structure and function include immunohistochemistry, site-directed mutagenesis, X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance. Most proteins consist of linear polymers built from series of up to 20 different L-α-amino acids, all proteinogenic amino acids possess common structural features, including an α-carbon to which an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a variable side chain are bonded. Only proline differs from this structure as it contains an unusual ring to the N-end amine group. The amino acids in a chain are linked by peptide bonds. Once linked in the chain, an individual amino acid is called a residue, and the linked series of carbon, nitrogen. The peptide bond has two forms that contribute some double-bond character and inhibit rotation around its axis, so that the alpha carbons are roughly coplanar
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National Medal of Technology and Innovation
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The award may be granted to a specific person, to a group of people or to an entire organization or corporation. It is the highest honor the United States can confer to a US citizen for achievements related to technological progress, the National Medal of Technology was created in 1980 by the United States Congress under the Stevenson-Wydler Technology Innovation Act. It was an effort to foster technological innovation and the technological competitiveness of the United States in the international arena. The first National Medals of Technology were issued in 1985 by then-U. S, President Ronald Reagan to 12 individuals and one company. Among the first recipients were Steve Jobs and Stephen Wozniak, founders of Apple Computer, the medal has since been awarded annually. On August 9,2007, President George Bush signed the America COMPETES Act of 2007, the Act amended Section 16 of the Stevenson-Wydler Technology Innovation Act of 1980, changing the name of the Medal to the National Medal of Technology and Innovation. Each year the Technology Administration under the U. S. Department of Commerce calls for the nomination of new candidates for the National Medal of Technology, candidates are nominated by their peers who have direct, first-hand knowledge of the candidates achievements. Candidates may be individuals, teams of individuals, organizations or corporations, individuals and all members of teams nominated must be U. S. citizens and organizations and corporations must be U. S. -owned. All nominations are referred to the National Medal of Technology Evaluation Committee which issues recommendations to the U. S. Secretary of Commerce, all nominees selected as finalists through the merit review process will be subject to an FBI security check. Information collected through the security check may be considered in the selection of winners. The Secretary of Commerce is then able to advise the President of the United States as to which candidates ought to receive the National Medal of Technology. The new National Medal of Technology laureates are announced by the U. S. President once the final selections have been made. As of 2005, there have more than 135 individuals and 12 companies recognized. Summarized here is a list of laureates and a summary of their accomplishments
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Bill Clinton
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William Jefferson Clinton is an American politician who served as the 42nd President of the United States from 1993 to 2001. Prior to the Presidency he was the 40th Governor of Arkansas from 1979 to 1981, before that, he served as Arkansas Attorney General from 1977 to 1979. A member of the Democratic Party, Clinton was ideogically a New Democrat, Clinton is married to Hillary Clinton, who served as United States Secretary of State from 2009 to 2013 and U. S. Senator from New York from 2001 to 2009, and served the Democratic nominee for President in 2016, Bill Clinton and Hillary Rodham both earned degrees from Yale Law School, where they met and began dating. As Governor of Arkansas, Clinton overhauled the states education system, Clinton was elected President of the United States in 1992, defeating incumbent George H. W. Bush. At age 46, he was the third-youngest president and the first from the Baby Boomer generation, Clinton presided over the longest period of peacetime economic expansion in American history and signed into law the North American Free Trade Agreement. After failing to pass health care reform, the Democratic House was ousted when the Republican Party won control of the Congress in 1994. Two years later, in 1996, Clinton became the first Democrat since Franklin D. Roosevelt to be elected to a second term, Clinton passed welfare reform and the State Childrens Health Insurance Program, providing health coverage for millions of children. Clinton was acquitted by the U. S. Senate in 1999, the Congressional Budget Office reported a budget surplus between the years 1998 and 2000, the last three years of Clintons presidency. In foreign policy, Clinton ordered U. S. Clinton left office with the highest end-of-office approval rating of any U. S. President since World War II, since then, Clinton has been involved in public speaking and humanitarian work. He created the William J. Clinton Foundation to address international causes, such as the prevention of AIDS, in 2004, Clinton published his autobiography, My Life. In 2009, Clinton was named the United Nations Special Envoy to Haiti, since leaving office, Clinton has been rated highly in public opinion polls of U. S. Presidents. Clinton was born on August 19,1946, at Julia Chester Hospital in Hope, Arkansas and he was the son of William Jefferson Blythe Jr. a traveling salesman who had died in an automobile accident three months before his birth, and Virginia Dell Cassidy. His parents had married on September 4,1943, but this later proved to be bigamous. Soon after their son was born, his mother traveled to New Orleans to study nursing, leaving her son in Hope with her parents Eldridge and Edith Cassidy, who owned and ran a small grocery store. At a time when the Southern United States was segregated racially, in 1950, Bills mother returned from nursing school and married Roger Clinton Sr. who owned an automobile dealership in Hot Springs, Arkansas, with his brother and Earl T. Ricks. The family moved to Hot Springs in 1950, although he immediately assumed use of his stepfathers surname, it was not until Clinton turned fifteen that he formally adopted the surname Clinton as a gesture toward his stepfather. In Hot Springs, Clinton attended St. Johns Catholic Elementary School, Ramble Elementary School, and Hot Springs High School—where he was a student leader, avid reader
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Chemical Heritage Foundation
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The Chemical Heritage Foundation is an institution that preserves and promotes understanding of the history of science. Located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, it includes a library, museum, archive, research center and it was founded in 1982 as a joint venture of the American Chemical Society and the University of Pennsylvania, as the Center for the History of Chemistry. The American Institute of Chemical Engineers became a co-founder in 1984 and it was renamed the Chemical Heritage Foundation in 1992, and moved two years later to its current location,315 Chestnut Street in Old City. It supports a community of scholars and an oral history program. As of 2012, CHF was the largest U. S. grantor of research fellowships for the history of science, CHF fosters dialogue on science and technology in society. Our staff and fellows study the past in order to understand the present and we collect, preserve, and exhibit historical artifacts, engage communities of scientists and engineers, and tell the stories of the people behind breakthroughs and innovations. The idea of creating a a library of reference and a museum in the United States can be found in the Proceedings of the first meeting of the American Chemical Society in 1876. In 1979, the ACS formed a task force chaired by Ned D. Heindel to investigate the possibility of creating a center for the history of chemistry. He was able to obtain promises of support from chemist John C. Haas, and institutional support from the Dow Chemical Company and DuPont, an agreement to create Center for the History of Chemistry was signed by officers of the American Chemical Society and the University of Pennsylvania on January 22 and 26,1982. A policy council was appointed by the institutions to oversee routine operations of the center. The official inauguration of the center was held on March 11,1983, the Centers first home was in several vacant basement rooms on the University of Pennsylvania campus. A National Advisory Board was also formed, reaching out to a group of people from academia. As of 1982, its members included John C, haas, historians Margaret W. Rossiter and Alfred D. Chandler, Jr. and at least three Nobel Prize winners, Christian B. The American Institute of Chemical Engineers became a co-founder of the Center, however, the center did not yet have exhibit or collections space to allow for the acquisition of any but the most limited quantities of documents. During the 1980s the center came to the attention of Arnold Orville Beckman, the National Foundation for History of Chemistry was established in 1987 as a supporting Pennsylvania nonprofit. The renamed Beckman Center began a capital campaign, listing as its needs offices, an exhibit gallery, a reading room, library stacks. It celebrated its inauguration on November 5,1987, with support from the American Chemical Societys Campaign for Chemistry, the Center was able to move to 3401 Walnut Street, on the University of Pennsylvania campus, as of March 9,1988
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George Rosenkranz
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George Rosenkranz is a pioneering Mexican scientist in the field of steroid chemistry, who used native Mexican plant sources as raw materials. He was born in Hungary, studied in Switzerland and emigrated to the Americas to escape the Nazis, Syntex synthesized a progestin used in some of the first combined oral contraceptive pills and numerous other useful steroids. Under Rosenkranzs leadership, Syntex became an international force in the development of steroidal pharmaceuticals. Rosenkranz stepped down as CEO in 1982, at the age of 65, in 2012, he was awarded the Biotechnology Heritage Award, in recognition of his significant contributions to the development of biotechnology through discovery, innovation, and public understanding. He turned 100 in August 2016, Rosenkranz is also an American Contract Bridge League Grand Life Master at his hobby of duplicate bridge, with more than 13,000 masterpoints and 12 NABC titles. He has written or co-written more than 10 books on bridge, born in Budapest, Hungary, in 1916, Rosenkranz studied chemistry at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, where he received his doctorate. His mentor, future Nobel Prize winner Lavoslav Ružička, began Rosenkranzs interest in steroid research, however, Nazi sympathizers were active in Zurich. Ružička shielded Rosenkranz and other Jewish colleagues, but their presence put their mentor at risk and we got together and we decided to leave Switzerland to protect him, Rosenkranz said in a 2002 article for the Pan American Health Organizations magazine. Ružička arranged a position for Rosenkranz in Quito, Ecuador. While Rosenkranz was waiting in Havana, Cuba for a ship to Ecuador, the United States immediately entered World War II. Unable to go to Ecuador, Rosenkranz accepted the Cuban president Fulgencio Batistas offer allowing refugees to stay in the country and he found work at the Vieta Plasencia Lab, where he was asked to develop treatments for venereal disease. The important role of hormones in human health was already known, George Rosenkranzs skills as a chemist attracted the interest of Emeric Somlo, a Hungarian immigrant, and Dr. Federico Lehmann at Syntex in Mexico City, Mexico. After a disagreement Marker left, taking his steroid knowledge with him, Rosenkranz was recruited to replace him, and moved to Mexico City in 1945. Rosenkranz faced the challenge of analyzing Markers samples to identify their ingredients and he didnt have much help, his initial staff included nine lab assistants and only one other chemist, and Mexico lacked a Ph. D. program in chemistry. When he couldnt find enough fully trained local chemists, Rosenkranz recruited researchers from Mexico, Rosenkranz also helped to create an institute of chemistry, the Instituto de Quimica, now considered a flagship in Mexicos ethnobotanical research. He was able to attract significant synthetic organic chemists as researchers and instructors and he and his colleagues regularly worked at Syntex during the day and then spent the evenings teaching chemistry. Rosenkranz also helped to start the Institute for Molecular Biology in Palo Alto, attracting young chemists such as Carl Djerassi, Luis E. Miramontes and Alejandro Zaffaroni was critical to Syntexs first big success. The Mayo clinic had reported that the hormone cortisone was an effective anti-inflammatory
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The Franklin Institute Awards
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The Franklin Institute Awards is a science and engineering award presented since 1824 by the Franklin Institute, of Philadelphia, PA, USA. The first Benjamin Franklin Medals were presented in 1998, medalists are selected by Committee on Science and the Arts after thorough investigation. The Bower Award and Prize for Achievement in Science and the Bower Award for Business Leadership are the newest awards,1998 - Emmanuel Desurvire 1998 - Robert B. Laughlin 1998 - David N. Payne 1998 - Stanley B. Prusiner 1998 - Horst L. Stormer 1998 - Daniel C, tsui 1998 - Ahmed H. Zewail 1999 - Noam Chomsky 1999 - Douglas C. Engelbart 1999 - Walter Kaminsky 1999 - Barry J. Marshall 1999 - John C. Leopold 2006 - Donald Norman 2006 - Fernando Nottebohm 2006 - Giacinto Scoles 2006 - J. Peter Toennies 2006 - M. Gordon Wolman 2007 - Klaus Biemann 2007 - Robert H. Dennard 2007 - Merton C. Nowell 2010 - Gerhard M. Sessler 2010 - D. Brian Spalding 2010 - JoAnne Stubbe 2010 - James E
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Franklin Institute
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The Franklin Institute is a science museum and the center of science education and research in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, US. It is named after the American scientist and statesman, Benjamin Franklin, founded in 1824, the Franklin Institute is one of the oldest centers of science education and development in the United States. On February 5,1824, Samuel Vaughan Merrick and William H. Keating founded the Franklin Institute of the State of Pennsylvania for the Promotion of the Mechanic Arts, in the late twentieth century the Institutes research roles gave way to educating the general public through its museum. The Bartol Research Foundation of the Franklin Institute, founded in 1924 to conduct research in the sciences, is now part of the University of Delaware. The Franklin Institute Laboratories for Research and Development operated from the Second World War into the 1980s, many scientists have demonstrated groundbreaking new technology at the Franklin Institute. From September 2 to October 11,1884, it hosted the International Electrical Exhibition of 1884, the worlds first public demonstration of an all-electronic television system was later given by Philo Taylor Farnsworth on August 25,1934. The first female member, Elizabeth Skinner, was elected to membership in 1833, the Franklin Institute was integrated in 1870, when Philadelphia teacher and activist Octavius Catto was admitted as a member. The Institutes original building at 15 South 7th Street, now the home of the Atwater Kent Museum, eventually proved too small for the Institutes research, educational programs, and library. The Institute moved into its current home on the Benjamin Franklin Parkway, near the intersection with 20th Street, in 1934. Funds to build the new Institute and Franklin Memorial came from the Poor Richard Club, the City Board of Trust, the Benjamin Franklin Memorial, Inc. and the Franklin Institute. John T. Windrims original design was a square building surrounding the Benjamin Franklin Statue. Despite the effects of the Great Depression, the Benjamin Franklin Memorial, only two of the four wings envisioned by Windrim were built, these face the Parkway and share design elements with other cultural and civic structures around Logan Circle. On March 31,1940, press agent William Castellini issued a release stating that the world would end the next day. The story was picked up by KYW, which reported, Your worst fears that the world will end are confirmed by astronomers of Franklin Institute, scientists predict that the world will end at 3 p. m. Eastern Standard Time tomorrow. This is no April Fool joke, confirmation can be obtained from Wagner Schlesinger, director of the Fels Planetarium of this city. This caused a panic in the city which only subsided when the Franklin Institute assured people it had no such prediction. James Ronaldson Samuel V. Merrick John C, cresson William Sellers John Vaughan Merrick Coleman Sellers Robert Empie Rogers William Penn Tatham Joseph Miller Wilson Dr. Walton Clark Dr. W. Laurence LePage Dr. Athelstan F. Spilhaus Dr. Bowen C. Dees Dr. Joel N. Bloom Dr. James L. Powell Dr. Dennis M. Wint Larry Dubinski In 2006, in 2011, the Franklin Institute received a $10 million gift from Athena and Nicholas Karabots towards the Inspire Science
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Gregory Goodwin Pincus
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Dr. Gregory Goodwin Pincus was an American biologist and researcher who co-invented the combined oral contraceptive pill. Gregory Goodwin Pincus was born in Woodbine, New Jersey, into a Jewish family, the son of Polish-born immigrants Elizabeth and Joseph Pincus and he credited two uncles, both agricultural scientists, for his interest in research. He went to Cornell University and received a degree in agriculture in 1924. He attended Harvard University where he was an instructor in zoology while working toward his masters. From 1927 to 1930 he moved from Harvard to Cambridge University in England to the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Biology with Richard Goldschmidt in Berlin where he performed research and he became an instructor in general physiology at Harvard University in 1930 and was promoted in 1931 to an assistant professor. Dr. Pincus began studying biology and steroidal hormones early in his career. He was interested in the way that hormones affected mammals reproductive systems and his first breakthrough came early, when he was able to produce in vitro fertilization in rabbits in 1934. In 1936, he published his discoveries after his experiments and his experiments involving parthenogenesis produced a rabbit that appeared on the cover of Look magazine in 1937. To create the in vitro rabbit baby, Pincus removed the ovum from the mother rabbit, afterwards, he placed the fertilized ovum back into the rabbit. Pincus experiment became known as Pincogenesis because other scientists were unable to attain the same results when conducting the experiment, after he was misquoted in an interview, it was believed that his experiment was the beginning of the use of in vitro for humans. In 1944, Dr. Pincus co-founded the Worcester Foundation for Experimental Biology in Shrewsbury and he wanted to continue his research of the relationship between hormones and diseases such as, but not limited to, cancer, heart disease, and schizophrenia. By the end of the 1960s, more than 300 international researchers came to participate in the Worcester Foundation of Experimental Biology, Pincus never lost interest in mammals reproduction systems. Pincus, along with Min Chueh Chang, confirmed earlier research that progesterone would act as an inhibitor to ovulation, in 1952, Sanger told her friend Katharine McCormick about Pincus and Changs research. Frustrated by PPFAs meager interest and support, McCormick and Sanger met with Pincus in 1953 to dramatically expand the scope of the research with 50-fold increase in funding from McCormick. Pincus was fascinated by Sanger because she revealed what life was like for poor women who had to endure many pregnancies and she indirectly influenced him to create a successful contraceptive to prevent unwanted pregnancies. In order to prove the safety of the pill, human trials had to be conducted and these were initiated on infertility patients of Dr. John Rock in Brookline, Massachusetts using progesterone in 1953 and then three different progestins in 1954. Puerto Rico was selected as a site in 1955, in part because there was an existing network of 67 birth control clinics serving low-income women on the island. Trials began there in 1956 and were supervised by Dr. Edris Rice-Wray, Pincus and Rock disagreed based on their experience with patients in Massachusetts and conducted research showing that placebos caused similar side effects
