1.
Toyota Alessandro Volta
–
The Toyota ES3 was a concept car made by Toyota in 2001. It was designed to use parts made from bioplastics, the ES3 was not made into a production vehicle but the technology was used in the Raum in 2003 under the name of Toyota Eco-Plastic. The Toyota Pod was a car created by Toyota in collaboration with Sony. The Pod was first shown at the October 2001 Tokyo Motor Show, the Pod was unique as it was designed with artificial intelligence systems built in to make the car appear more personal. The Pod was much like a living being due to the artificial intelligence programmed into it, the featured a screen inside with Sony-created software running on it, capable of creating shopping lists and running music and radio. The car could also judge the attitude and mood of the based on their reactions and how they are driving. The seats inside are like stools which could freely spin and rotate, on the exterior, the Pod could express its own feelings with coloured LEDs - red for anger, yellow for happy, blue for sad - and an antenna that wags, much like a dogs tail. The Pod was designed as a car of the future and hence was never put into production, the Pod was featured in the game Gran Turismo Concept and had an exclusive race to itself. The Toyota DMT was a van made by Toyota and first shown at the October 2001 Tokyo Motor Show. The van had a high mounted driving position and a rear cabin designed to be useful as an office or studio. The Toyota FXS was a car made by Toyota and first shown at the October 2001 Tokyo Motor Show. Based on the Soarer, the coupe was powered by a 4.3 L 3UZ-FE V8 engine using a 6-speed sequential manual gearbox, the Toyota RSC was a Toyota 2-door SUV concept car that was first shown at the February 2001 Chicago Auto Show. The RSC was designed by Calty as a concept vehicle, with no intention to go into production. Design cues came from rally cars used in the World Rally Championships, with functional lines, the RSC was based on the RAV4. The RSC was never made into a production vehicle, the FCHV-3 was the third vehicle built by Toyota in its Fuel Cell Vehicle program. In March 2001, it was presented at the International Symposium on Fuel-Cell Vehicles in Tokyo, like the FCHV-1 and FCHV-2, it was based on the Highlander. The FCHV-4 was the fourth vehicle built by Toyota in its Fuel Cell Vehicle program, through leasing programs in the USA and Japan, it was the first to be commercialised. Like the FCHV-1, FCHV-2 and FCHV-3, it was based on the Highlander, the Toyota MR2 Street Affair was a Toyota concept sports car based on the MR2 that was designed by Toyota Germany
Toyota Alessandro Volta
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Toyota Pod
Toyota Alessandro Volta
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Toyota FXS
Toyota Alessandro Volta
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Toyota RSC
Toyota Alessandro Volta
2.
Count
–
Count or countess is a title in European countries for a noble of varying status, but historically deemed to convey an approximate rank intermediate between the highest and lowest titles of nobility. The word count came into English from the French comte, itself from Latin comes—in its accusative comitem—meaning “companion”, the adjective form of the word is comital. The British and Irish equivalent is an earl, alternative names for the count rank in the nobility structure are used in other countries, such as Graf in Germany and Hakushaku during the Japanese Imperial era. In the Western Roman Empire, Count came to indicate generically a military commander, in the Eastern Roman Empire, from about the seventh century, count was a specific rank indicating the commander of two centuries. Military counts in the Late Empire and the Germanic successor kingdoms were often appointed by a dux, the position of comes was originally not hereditary. By virtue of their estates, many counts could pass the title to their heirs—but not always. For instance, in Piast Poland, the position of komes was not hereditary, the title had disappeared by the era of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and the office had been replaced by others. Only after the Partitions of Poland did the title of count resurface in the title hrabia, in the United Kingdom, the equivalent Earl can also be used as a courtesy title for the eldest son of a duke or marquess. In Italy, by contrast, all the sons of certain counts were counts, in Sweden there is a distinction between counts created before and after 1809. All children in comital families elevated before 1809 are called count/countess, the following lists are originally based on a Glossary on Heraldica. org by Alexander Krischnig. The male form is followed by the female, and when available, apart from all these, a few unusual titles have been of comital rank, not necessarily to remain there. Dauphin was a comital title in southern France, used by the Dauphins of Vienne and Auvergne. The Dauphin was the lord of the province known as the région Dauphiné. Conde-Barão Count-Baron is a title used in Portugal, notably by D. Luís Lobo da Silveira, 7th Baron of Alvito. His palace in Lisbon still exists, located in a named after him. The German Graf and Dutch graaf stems from the Byzantine-Greek grapheus meaning he who calls a meeting together), the Ottoman military title of Serdar was used in Montenegro and Serbia as a lesser noble title with the equivalent rank of a Count. Since Louis VII, the highest precedence amongst the vassals of the French crown was enjoyed by those whose benefice or temporal fief was a pairie, i. e. In the eleventh century, conti like the Count of Savoy or the Norman Count of Apulia, were virtually sovereign lords of broad territories
Count
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Countly ephemera: a Count's coronet and crest on a
doily.
Count
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Coronet of a count (Spanish heraldry)
3.
Como
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Como is a city and comune in Lombardy, Italy. It is the capital of the Province of Como. With 215,320 overnight guests, in 2013 Como was the fourth most visited city in Lombardy after Milan, Bergamo, the hills surrounding the current location of Como have been inhabited, since at least the Bronze Age, by a Celtic tribe known as the Orobii. Remains of settlements are still present on the wood covered hills to the South West of town, around the 1st century BC, the territory became subject to the Romans. The newly founded town was named Novum Comum and had the status of municipium, in 774, the town surrendered to invading Franks led by Charlemagne, and became a center of commercial exchange. In 1127, Como lost a war with the nearby town of Milan. A few decades later, with the help of Frederick Barbarossa, Frederick promoted the construction of several defensive towers around the city limits, of which only one, the Baradello, remains. Subsequently, the history of Como followed that of the Ducato di Milano, through the French invasion and the Spanish domination, until 1714, Napoleon descended into Lombardy in 1796 and ruled it until 1815, when the Austrian rule was resumed after the Congress of Vienna. Finally in 1859, with the arrival of Giuseppe Garibaldi, the town was freed from the Austrians, as a curiosity, the Rockefeller fountain that today stands in the Bronx Zoo in New York City was once in the main square by the lakeside. It was bought by William Rockefeller in 1902 for 3,500 lire, nearby major cities are Varese, Lecco and Lugano. Wind is quite rare, only sudden bursts of foehn or thunderstorms manage to sweep the air clean, pollution levels rise significantly in winter when cold air clings to the soil. Rain is more frequent during spring, summer is subject to thunderstorms and, occasionally, Como Cathedral, construction began in 1396 on the site of the previous Romanesque church of Santa Maria Maggiore. The façade was built in 1457, with the rose window. The construction was finished in 1740, the interior is on the Latin cross plan, with Gothic nave and two aisles divided by piers, while the transept wing and the relative apses are from the Renaissance age. It includes a carved 16th century choir and tapestries on cartoons by Giuseppe Arcimboldi, the dome is a rococo structure by Filippo Juvarra. Other artworks include 16th–17th century tapestries and 16th century paintings by Bernardino Luini, San Fedele, a Romanesque church erected around 1120 over a pre-existing central plan edifice. The original bell tower was rebuilt in modern times, the main feature is the famous Door of St. Fedele, carved with medieval decorations. SantAgostino, built by the Cistercians in the early 14th century, the interior and adjoining cloister have 15th–17th century frescoes, but most of the decoration is Baroque
Como
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View from
Lake Como. The tower which tops the hill on the right is the
Castello Baradello.
Como
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City and Lake Como, painted by
Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot, 1834.
Como
–
The lakefront.
Como
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Duomo (Cathedral).
4.
Duchy of Milan
–
The Duchy of Milan was a constituent state of the Holy Roman Empire in northern Italy. It was created in 1395, when it included twenty-six towns, during much of its existence, it was wedged between Savoy to the west, Venice to the east, the Swiss Confederacy to the north, and separated from the Mediterranean by Genoa to the south. The Duchy eventually fell to Habsburg Austria with the Treaty of Baden, after the defeat of Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna of 1815 restored many other states which he had destroyed, but not the Duchy of Milan. Instead, its territory became part of the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia. In 1859, Lombardy was ceded to the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, the House of Visconti had ruled Milan since 1277, in which year Ottone Visconti defeated Napoleone della Torre. The Duchy of Milan as a state of the Holy Roman Empire was created on 1 May 1395 and it was this diploma that installed Visconti as Duke of Milan and Count of Pavia. At its foundation the duchy included 26 towns and spanned from the hills of Montferrat to the Lagoons of Venice, Milan thus became one of the five major states of the Italian peninsula in the 15th century. When the last Visconti Duke, Filippo Maria, died in 1447 without a heir, the Milanese declared the so-called Ambrosian Republic. In 1498, the Duke of Orleans became King of France as Louis XII and he invaded in 1499 and soon ousted Lodovico Sforza. The French ruled the duchy until 1512, when they were ousted by the Swiss, Massimiliano reign did not last very long. The French, now under Francis I, invaded the area in 1515, the French took Massimiliano as their prisoner. The French were again out in 1521, this time by the Austrians. In 1535, Francesco died without heirs, the question of succession again arose, with both the emperor and the King of France claiming the duchy, leading to more wars. The Duchy of Parma was created in 1545 from a part of the Duchy of Milan south of the Po River, as a fief for Pope Paul IIIs illegitimate son, Pier Luigi Farnese, the emperor held the duchy throughout, eventually investing it on his son Philip. The possession of the duchy by Spain was finally recognized by the French in the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis in 1559, the Duchy of Milan remained in Spanish hands until the War of the Spanish Succession, when the Austrians invaded it. The Treaty of Baden, which ended the war in 1714, the duchy remained in Austrian hands until it was overrun by the French army of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1796. The duchy was ceded by Austria in the Treaty of Campo Formio in 1797, after the defeat of Napoleon, based on the decisions of the Congress of Vienna on 9 June 1815, the Duchy of Milan was not restored. The Duchy instead became part of the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, a constituent of the Austrian Empire and this kingdom ceased to exist when the remaining portion of it was annexed to the Kingdom of Italy in 1866
Duchy of Milan
–
Flag
5.
Battery (electricity)
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An electric battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external connections provided to power electrical devices such as flashlights, smartphones, and electric cars. When a battery is supplying power, its positive terminal is the cathode. The terminal marked negative is the source of electrons that when connected to a circuit will flow. It is the movement of ions within the battery which allows current to flow out of the battery to perform work. Historically the term specifically referred to a device composed of multiple cells. Primary batteries are used once and discarded, the materials are irreversibly changed during discharge. Common examples are the battery used for flashlights and a multitude of portable electronic devices. Secondary batteries can be discharged and recharged multiple times using mains power from a wall socket, examples include the lead-acid batteries used in vehicles and lithium-ion batteries used for portable electronics such as laptops and smartphones. According to a 2005 estimate, the battery industry generates US$48 billion in sales each year. Batteries have much lower energy than common fuels such as gasoline. This is somewhat offset by the efficiency of electric motors in producing mechanical work. The usage of battery to describe a group of electrical devices dates to Benjamin Franklin, alessandro Volta built and described the first electrochemical battery, the voltaic pile, in 1800. This was a stack of copper and zinc plates, separated by brine-soaked paper disks, Volta did not understand that the voltage was due to chemical reactions. Although early batteries were of value for experimental purposes, in practice their voltages fluctuated. It consisted of a pot filled with a copper sulfate solution, in which was immersed an unglazed earthenware container filled with sulfuric acid. These wet cells used liquid electrolytes, which were prone to leakage and spillage if not handled correctly, many used glass jars to hold their components, which made them fragile and potentially dangerous. These characteristics made wet cells unsuitable for portable appliances, near the end of the nineteenth century, the invention of dry cell batteries, which replaced the liquid electrolyte with a paste, made portable electrical devices practical. Batteries convert chemical energy directly to electrical energy, a battery consists of some number of voltaic cells
Battery (electricity)
–
Various cells and batteries (top-left to bottom-right): two
AA, one
D, one handheld
ham radio battery, two
9-volt (PP3), two
AAA, one
C, one
camcorder battery, one
cordless phone battery.
Battery (electricity)
–
A
voltaic pile, the first battery
Battery (electricity)
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From top to bottom: a large 4.5-volt (3R12) battery, a
D Cell, a
C cell, an
AA cell, an
AAA cell, an
AAAA cell, an
A23 battery, a 9-volt
PP3 battery, and a pair of
button cells (CR2032 and LR44).
Battery (electricity)
–
A device to check battery voltage
6.
Volt
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The volt is the derived unit for electric potential, electric potential difference, and electromotive force. One volt is defined as the difference in potential between two points of a conducting wire when an electric current of one ampere dissipates one watt of power between those points. It is also equal to the difference between two parallel, infinite planes spaced 1 meter apart that create an electric field of 1 newton per coulomb. Additionally, it is the difference between two points that will impart one joule of energy per coulomb of charge that passes through it. It can also be expressed as amperes times ohms, watts per ampere, or joules per coulomb, for the Josephson constant, KJ = 2e/h, the conventional value KJ-90 is used, K J-90 =0.4835979 GHz μ V. This standard is typically realized using an array of several thousand or tens of thousands of junctions. Empirically, several experiments have shown that the method is independent of device design, material, measurement setup, etc. in the water-flow analogy sometimes used to explain electric circuits by comparing them with water-filled pipes, voltage is likened to difference in water pressure. Current is proportional to the diameter of the pipe or the amount of water flowing at that pressure. A resistor would be a reduced diameter somewhere in the piping, the relationship between voltage and current is defined by Ohms Law. Ohms Law is analogous to the Hagen–Poiseuille equation, as both are linear models relating flux and potential in their respective systems, the voltage produced by each electrochemical cell in a battery is determined by the chemistry of that cell. Cells can be combined in series for multiples of that voltage, mechanical generators can usually be constructed to any voltage in a range of feasibility. High-voltage electric power lines,110 kV and up Lightning, Varies greatly. Volta had determined that the most effective pair of metals to produce electricity was zinc. In 1861, Latimer Clark and Sir Charles Bright coined the name volt for the unit of resistance, by 1873, the British Association for the Advancement of Science had defined the volt, ohm, and farad. In 1881, the International Electrical Congress, now the International Electrotechnical Commission and they made the volt equal to 108 cgs units of voltage, the cgs system at the time being the customary system of units in science. At that time, the volt was defined as the difference across a conductor when a current of one ampere dissipates one watt of power. The international volt was defined in 1893 as 1/1.434 of the emf of a Clark cell and this definition was abandoned in 1908 in favor of a definition based on the international ohm and international ampere until the entire set of reproducible units was abandoned in 1948. Prior to the development of the Josephson junction voltage standard, the volt was maintained in laboratories using specially constructed batteries called standard cells
Volt
–
Josephson junction array chip developed by the
National Bureau of Standards as a standard volt
Volt
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A
multimeter can be used to measure the voltage between two positions.
Volt
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1.5 V C-cell batteries
Volt
–
Alessandro Volta
7.
Voltage
–
Voltage, electric potential difference, electric pressure or electric tension is the difference in electric potential energy between two points per unit electric charge. The voltage between two points is equal to the work done per unit of charge against an electric field to move the test charge between two points. This is measured in units of volts, voltage can be caused by static electric fields, by electric current through a magnetic field, by time-varying magnetic fields, or some combination of these three. A voltmeter can be used to measure the voltage between two points in a system, often a reference potential such as the ground of the system is used as one of the points. A voltage may represent either a source of energy or lost, used, given two points in space, x A and x B, voltage is the difference in electric potential between those two points. Electric potential must be distinguished from electric energy by noting that the potential is a per-unit-charge quantity. Like mechanical potential energy, the zero of electric potential can be chosen at any point, so the difference in potential, i. e. the voltage, is the quantity which is physically meaningful. The voltage between point A to point B is equal to the work which would have to be done, per unit charge, against or by the electric field to move the charge from A to B. The voltage between the two ends of a path is the energy required to move a small electric charge along that path. Mathematically this is expressed as the integral of the electric field. In the general case, both an electric field and a dynamic electromagnetic field must be included in determining the voltage between two points. Historically this quantity has also called tension and pressure. Pressure is now obsolete but tension is used, for example within the phrase high tension which is commonly used in thermionic valve based electronics. Voltage is defined so that negatively charged objects are pulled towards higher voltages, therefore, the conventional current in a wire or resistor always flows from higher voltage to lower voltage. Current can flow from lower voltage to higher voltage, but only when a source of energy is present to push it against the electric field. This is the case within any electric power source, for example, inside a battery, chemical reactions provide the energy needed for ion current to flow from the negative to the positive terminal. The electric field is not the only factor determining charge flow in a material, the electric potential of a material is not even a well defined quantity, since it varies on the subatomic scale. A more convenient definition of voltage can be found instead in the concept of Fermi level, in this case the voltage between two bodies is the thermodynamic work required to move a unit of charge between them
Voltage
–
Batteries are sources of voltage in many
electric circuits
Voltage
–
Working on
high voltage power lines
Voltage
–
Multimeter set to measure voltage
8.
Voltmeter
–
A voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring electrical potential difference between two points in an electric circuit. Analog voltmeters move a pointer across a scale in proportion to the voltage of the circuit, a voltmeter in a circuit diagram is represented by the letter V in a circle. Voltmeters are made in a range of styles. Instruments permanently mounted in a panel are used to monitor generators or other fixed apparatus, portable instruments, usually equipped to also measure current and resistance in the form of a multimeter, are standard test instruments used in electrical and electronics work. Any measurement that can be converted to a voltage can be displayed on a meter that is calibrated, for example, pressure, temperature. General purpose analog voltmeters may have an accuracy of a few percent of full scale, digital meters can be made with high accuracy, typically better than 1%. Specially calibrated test instruments have higher accuracies, with instruments capable of measuring to accuracies of a few parts per million. Meters using amplifiers can measure tiny voltages of microvolts or less, part of the problem of making an accurate voltmeter is that of calibration to check its accuracy. In laboratories, the Weston Cell is used as a voltage for precision work. Precision voltage references are based on electronic circuits. A moving coil galvanometer can be used as a voltmeter by inserting a resistor in series with the instrument, the galvanometer has a coil of fine wire suspended in a strong magnetic field. When an electric current is applied, the interaction of the field of the coil and of the stationary magnet creates a torque. The torque is proportional to the current through the coil, the coil rotates, compressing a spring that opposes the rotation. The deflection of the coil is proportional to the current, which in turn is proportional to the applied voltage. One of the objectives of the instrument is to disturb the circuit as little as possible. This is achieved by using a galvanometer in series with a high resistance. The sensitivity of such a meter can be expressed as ohms per volt, for multi-range instruments, the input resistance varies as the instrument is switched to different ranges. Moving-coil instruments with a permanent-magnet field respond only to direct current, measurement of AC voltage requires a rectifier in the circuit so that the coil deflects in only one direction
Voltmeter
–
Demonstration voltmeter from a physics class
Voltmeter
–
Two digital voltmeters. Note the 40 microvolt difference between the two
measurements, an offset of 34 parts per million.
9.
Copley Medal
–
The Copley Medal is a scientific award given by the Royal Society, London, for outstanding achievements in research in any branch of science. It alternates between the physical and the biological sciences, the medal was created following a donation of £100 to be used for carrying out experiments by Sir Godfrey Copley, for which the interest on the amount was used for several years. A second donation of £1666 13s, 4d. was made by Sir Joseph William Copley in 1881, and the interest from that amount is used to pay for the medal. The medal in its current format is made of silver gilt, since its inception, it has been awarded to many notable scientists, including 52 winners of the Nobel Prize,17 in Physics,21 in Physiology or Medicine, and 14 in Chemistry. John Theophilus Desaguliers has won the medal the most often, winning in 1734,1736 and 1741, in 1976, Dorothy Hodgkin became the first and as of 2015 the only female recipient
Copley Medal
–
The Copley Medal awarded to
Mendeleev in 1905.
Copley Medal
–
John Theophilus Desaguliers, who won the medal three times, more than any other individual.
Copley Medal
10.
Legion of Honour
–
The Legion of Honour, full name National Order of the Legion of Honour, is the highest French order of merit for military and civil merits, established 1802 by Napoléon Bonaparte. The order is divided into five degrees of increasing distinction, Chevalier, Officier, Commandeur, Grand Officier and Grand-Croix. The orders motto is Honneur et Patrie and its seat is the Palais de la Légion dHonneur next to the Musée dOrsay, in the French Revolution, all French orders of chivalry were abolished, and replaced with Weapons of Honour. The Légion however did use the organization of old French orders of chivalry, the badges of the legion also bear a resemblance to the Ordre de Saint-Louis, which also used a red ribbon. Napoleon originally created this to ensure political loyalty, the organization would be used as a facade to give political favours, gifts, and concessions. The Légion was loosely patterned after a Roman legion, with legionaries, officers, commanders, regional cohorts, the highest rank was not a grand cross but a Grand Aigle, a rank that wore all the insignia common to grand crosses. The members were paid, the highest of them extremely generously,5,000 francs to an officier,2,000 francs to a commandeur,1,000 francs to an officier,250 francs to a légionnaire. Napoleon famously declared, You call these baubles, well, it is with baubles that men are led, do you think that you would be able to make men fight by reasoning. That is good only for the scholar in his study, the soldier needs glory, distinctions, rewards. This has been quoted as It is with such baubles that men are led. The order was the first modern order of merit, under the monarchy, such orders were often limited to Roman Catholics, and all knights had to be noblemen. The military decorations were the perks of the officers, the Légion, however, was open to men of all ranks and professions—only merit or bravery counted. The new legionnaire had to be sworn in the Légion and it is noteworthy that all previous orders were crosses or shared a clear Christian background, whereas the Légion is a secular institution. The jewel of the Légion has five arms, in a decree issued on the 10 Pluviôse XIII, a grand decoration was instituted. This decoration, a cross on a sash and a silver star with an eagle, symbol of the Napoleonic Empire, became known as the Grand Aigle. After Napoleon crowned himself Emperor of the French in 1804 and established the Napoleonic nobility in 1808, the title was made hereditary after three generations of grantees. Napoleon had dispensed 15 golden collars of the legion among his family and this collar was abolished in 1815. The Légion dhonneur was prominent and visible in the French Empire, the Emperor always wore it and the fashion of the time allowed for decorations to be worn most of the time
Legion of Honour
–
Order's
streamer
Legion of Honour
Legion of Honour
–
A depiction of Napoleon making some of the first awards of the Légion d'honneur, at a camp near
Boulogne on 16 August 1804
Legion of Honour
–
First Légion d'Honneur investiture, 15 July 1804, at
Saint-Louis des Invalides by
Jean-Baptiste Debret (1812)
11.
Order of the Iron Crown
–
The Order of the Iron Crown was an order of merit that was established on June 5,1805, by Napoleon Bonaparte under his title of King Napoleon I of Italy. The order took its name from the ancient Iron Crown of Lombardy and this crown also gave its name to the Order of the Crown of Italy, which was established in 1868. After the fall of the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy, the order was re-established in 1815 by the Emperor of Austria, Francis I, as the Austrian Imperial Order of the Iron Crown. The Iron Crown of Lombardy, made for Theodelinda, Queen of the Lombards, was alleged to be crafted from one of the nails in the True Cross used in the Crucifixion of Jesus. Regardless of origin, her crown was crafted of six hinged plates of gold, set with precious gems, thus came the term of “Iron Crown”. Upon Theolinda’s death in 628, her crown was donated to the Church at Monza and it was used during the coronation of Holy Roman Emperor Charlemagne, as he took the throne of Lombardy in 774. Later Holy Roman Emperors followed suit in this tradition, during his continued expansion of power, Napoleon Bonaparte conquered Italy in much the same manner as Charlemagne. As a symbolic gesture, he had crowned as King of Italy using the Iron Crown of Lombardy for the coronation. Soon after, Napoleon founded the Order of the Iron Crown on June 5,1805, the Order was divided into three classes, with an allowance of up to 20 grand cross knights,100 commander knights, and 500 ordinary knights. With the eventual end of the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy, the French version of this order ceased to exist, however, the Emperor of Austria, Francis I, re-established the order in 1815 as the Austrian Imperial Order of the Iron Crown. The ribbon colors of the order were gold and green, with the badge of the order being an imperial eagle set upon a representation of the Iron Crown of Lombardy, knights wore a traditional military style medal on the left chest. Commanders wore a military style medal on the left chest. Holders of the Grand Cross wore a sash over the right shoulder, Napoleon I, Emperor of the French and King of Italy,1806 –1814,1815 Blom, Philipp. To Have and to Hold, An Intimate History of Collectors, leipzig, Kingdom of Saxony, Georg Joachim Goeschen,1819. Media related to Order of the Iron Crown at Wikimedia Commons
Order of the Iron Crown
–
Neck badge and breast star
Order of the Iron Crown
–
Badge of the Order
12.
Physics
–
Physics is the natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion and behavior through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. One of the most fundamental disciplines, the main goal of physics is to understand how the universe behaves. Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy, Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, and the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. New ideas in physics often explain the mechanisms of other sciences while opening new avenues of research in areas such as mathematics. Physics also makes significant contributions through advances in new technologies that arise from theoretical breakthroughs, the United Nations named 2005 the World Year of Physics. Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences, the stars and planets were often a target of worship, believed to represent their gods. While the explanations for these phenomena were often unscientific and lacking in evidence, according to Asger Aaboe, the origins of Western astronomy can be found in Mesopotamia, and all Western efforts in the exact sciences are descended from late Babylonian astronomy. The most notable innovations were in the field of optics and vision, which came from the works of many scientists like Ibn Sahl, Al-Kindi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Farisi and Avicenna. The most notable work was The Book of Optics, written by Ibn Al-Haitham, in which he was not only the first to disprove the ancient Greek idea about vision, but also came up with a new theory. In the book, he was also the first to study the phenomenon of the pinhole camera, many later European scholars and fellow polymaths, from Robert Grosseteste and Leonardo da Vinci to René Descartes, Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton, were in his debt. Indeed, the influence of Ibn al-Haythams Optics ranks alongside that of Newtons work of the same title, the translation of The Book of Optics had a huge impact on Europe. From it, later European scholars were able to build the devices as what Ibn al-Haytham did. From this, such important things as eyeglasses, magnifying glasses, telescopes, Physics became a separate science when early modern Europeans used experimental and quantitative methods to discover what are now considered to be the laws of physics. Newton also developed calculus, the study of change, which provided new mathematical methods for solving physical problems. The discovery of new laws in thermodynamics, chemistry, and electromagnetics resulted from greater research efforts during the Industrial Revolution as energy needs increased, however, inaccuracies in classical mechanics for very small objects and very high velocities led to the development of modern physics in the 20th century. Modern physics began in the early 20th century with the work of Max Planck in quantum theory, both of these theories came about due to inaccuracies in classical mechanics in certain situations. Quantum mechanics would come to be pioneered by Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger, from this early work, and work in related fields, the Standard Model of particle physics was derived. Areas of mathematics in general are important to this field, such as the study of probabilities, in many ways, physics stems from ancient Greek philosophy
Physics
–
Further information:
Outline of physics
Physics
–
Ancient
Egyptian astronomy is evident in monuments like the
ceiling of Senemut's tomb from the
Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt.
Physics
–
Sir Isaac Newton (1643–1727), whose
laws of motion and
universal gravitation were major milestones in classical physics
Physics
–
Albert Einstein (1879–1955), whose work on the
photoelectric effect and the
theory of relativity led to a revolution in 20th century physics
13.
Chemistry
–
Chemistry is a branch of physical science that studies the composition, structure, properties and change of matter. Chemistry is sometimes called the science because it bridges other natural sciences, including physics. For the differences between chemistry and physics see comparison of chemistry and physics, the history of chemistry can be traced to alchemy, which had been practiced for several millennia in various parts of the world. The word chemistry comes from alchemy, which referred to a set of practices that encompassed elements of chemistry, metallurgy, philosophy, astrology, astronomy, mysticism. An alchemist was called a chemist in popular speech, and later the suffix -ry was added to this to describe the art of the chemist as chemistry, the modern word alchemy in turn is derived from the Arabic word al-kīmīā. In origin, the term is borrowed from the Greek χημία or χημεία and this may have Egyptian origins since al-kīmīā is derived from the Greek χημία, which is in turn derived from the word Chemi or Kimi, which is the ancient name of Egypt in Egyptian. Alternately, al-kīmīā may derive from χημεία, meaning cast together, in retrospect, the definition of chemistry has changed over time, as new discoveries and theories add to the functionality of the science. The term chymistry, in the view of noted scientist Robert Boyle in 1661, in 1837, Jean-Baptiste Dumas considered the word chemistry to refer to the science concerned with the laws and effects of molecular forces. More recently, in 1998, Professor Raymond Chang broadened the definition of chemistry to mean the study of matter, early civilizations, such as the Egyptians Babylonians, Indians amassed practical knowledge concerning the arts of metallurgy, pottery and dyes, but didnt develop a systematic theory. Greek atomism dates back to 440 BC, arising in works by such as Democritus and Epicurus. In 50 BC, the Roman philosopher Lucretius expanded upon the theory in his book De rerum natura, unlike modern concepts of science, Greek atomism was purely philosophical in nature, with little concern for empirical observations and no concern for chemical experiments. Work, particularly the development of distillation, continued in the early Byzantine period with the most famous practitioner being the 4th century Greek-Egyptian Zosimos of Panopolis. He formulated Boyles law, rejected the four elements and proposed a mechanistic alternative of atoms. Before his work, though, many important discoveries had been made, the Scottish chemist Joseph Black and the Dutchman J. B. English scientist John Dalton proposed the theory of atoms, that all substances are composed of indivisible atoms of matter. Davy discovered nine new elements including the alkali metals by extracting them from their oxides with electric current, british William Prout first proposed ordering all the elements by their atomic weight as all atoms had a weight that was an exact multiple of the atomic weight of hydrogen. The inert gases, later called the noble gases were discovered by William Ramsay in collaboration with Lord Rayleigh at the end of the century, thereby filling in the basic structure of the table. Organic chemistry was developed by Justus von Liebig and others, following Friedrich Wöhlers synthesis of urea which proved that organisms were, in theory
Chemistry
–
Solutions of substances in reagent bottles, including
ammonium hydroxide and
nitric acid, illuminated in different colors
Chemistry
–
Democritus ' atomist philosophy was later adopted by
Epicurus (341–270 BCE).
Chemistry
–
Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier is considered the "Father of Modern Chemistry".
Chemistry
–
Laboratory, Institute of Biochemistry,
University of Cologne.
14.
Italian people
–
Italians are a nation and ethnic group native to Italy who share a common culture, ancestry and speak the Italian language as a native tongue. The majority of Italian nationals are speakers of Standard Italian. Italians have greatly influenced and contributed to the arts and music, science, technology, cuisine, sports, fashion, jurisprudence, banking, Italian people are generally known for their localism and their attention to clothing and family values. The term Italian is at least 3,000 years old and has a history that goes back to pre-Roman Italy. According to one of the common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The Etruscan civilization reached its peak about the 7th century BC, but by 509 BC, when the Romans overthrew their Etruscan monarchs, its control in Italy was on the wane. By 350 BC, after a series of wars between Greeks and Etruscans, the Latins, with Rome as their capital, gained the ascendancy by 272 BC, and they managed to unite the entire Italian peninsula. This period of unification was followed by one of conquest in the Mediterranean, in the course of the century-long struggle against Carthage, the Romans conquered Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica. Finally, in 146 BC, at the conclusion of the Third Punic War, with Carthage completely destroyed and its inhabitants enslaved, octavian, the final victor, was accorded the title of Augustus by the Senate and thereby became the first Roman emperor. After two centuries of rule, in the 3rd century AD, Rome was threatened by internal discord and menaced by Germanic and Asian invaders. Emperor Diocletians administrative division of the empire into two parts in 285 provided only temporary relief, it became permanent in 395, in 313, Emperor Constantine accepted Christianity, and churches thereafter rose throughout the empire. However, he moved his capital from Rome to Constantinople. The last Western emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was deposed in 476 by a Germanic foederati general in Italy and his defeat marked the end of the western part of the Roman Empire. During most of the period from the fall of Rome until the Kingdom of Italy was established in 1861, Odoacer ruled well for 13 years after gaining control of Italy in 476. Then he was attacked and defeated by Theodoric, the king of another Germanic tribe, Theodoric and Odoacer ruled jointly until 493, when Theodoric murdered Odoacer. Theodoric continued to rule Italy with an army of Ostrogoths and a government that was mostly Italian, after the death of Theodoric in 526, the kingdom began to grow weak
Italian people
–
Amerigo Vespucci, the notable geographer and traveller from whose name the word
America is derived.
Italian people
Italian people
–
Christopher Columbus, the discoverer of the
New World.
Italian people
–
Laura Bassi, the first chairwoman of a university in a scientific field of studies.
15.
Physicist
–
A physicist is a scientist who has specialized knowledge in the field of physics, the exploration of the interactions of matter and energy across the physical universe. A physicist is a scientist who specializes or works in the field of physics, physicists generally are interested in the root or ultimate causes of phenomena, and usually frame their understanding in mathematical terms. Physicists can also apply their knowledge towards solving real-world problems or developing new technologies, some physicists specialize in sectors outside the science of physics itself, such as engineering. The study and practice of physics is based on a ladder of discoveries. Many mathematical and physical ideas used today found their earliest expression in ancient Greek culture and Asian culture, the bulk of physics education can be said to flow from the scientific revolution in Europe, starting with the work of Galileo and Kepler in the early 1600s. New knowledge in the early 21st century includes an increase in understanding physical cosmology. The term physicist was coined by William Whewell in his 1840 book The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, many physicist positions require an undergraduate degree in applied physics or a related science or a Masters degree like MSc, MPhil, MPhys or MSci. In a research oriented level, students tend to specialize in a particular field, Physics students also need training in mathematics, and also in computer science and programming. For being employed as a physicist a doctoral background may be required for certain positions, undergraduate students like BSc Mechanical Engineering, BSc Electrical and Computer Engineering, BSc Applied Physics. etc. With physics orientation are chosen as research assistants with faculty members, the highest honor awarded to physicists is the Nobel Prize in Physics, awarded since 1901 by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. The three major employers of career physicists are academic institutions, laboratories, and private industries, with the largest employer being the last, physicists in academia or government labs tend to have titles such as Assistants, Professors, Sr. /Jr. As per the American Institute for Physics, some 20% of new physics Ph. D. s holds jobs in engineering development programs, while 14% turn to computer software, a majority of physicists employed apply their skills and training to interdisciplinary sectors. For industry or self-employment. and also in science and programming. Hence a majority of Physics bachelors degree holders are employed in the private sector, other fields are academia, government and military service, nonprofit entities, labs and teaching
Physicist
–
Albert Einstein, physicist who developed the theory of general relativity.
16.
Chemist
–
A chemist is a scientist trained in the study of chemistry. Chemists study the composition of matter and its properties, chemists carefully describe the properties they study in terms of quantities, with detail on the level of molecules and their component atoms. Chemists carefully measure substance proportions, reaction rates, and other chemical properties, the word chemist is also used to address Pharmacists in Commonwealth English. Chemists may specialize in any number of subdisciplines of chemistry, materials scientists and metallurgists share much of the same education and skills with chemists. The roots of chemistry can be traced to the phenomenon of burning, fire was a mystical force that transformed one substance into another and thus was of primary interest to mankind. It was fire that led to the discovery of iron and glasses, after gold was discovered and became a precious metal, many people were interested to find a method that could convert other substances into gold. This led to the protoscience called alchemy, the word chemist is derived from the New Latin noun chimista, an abbreviation of alchimista. Alchemists discovered many chemical processes that led to the development of modern chemistry, Chemistry as we know it today, was invented by Antoine Lavoisier with his law of conservation of mass in 1783. The discoveries of the elements has a long history culminating in the creation of the periodic table by Dmitri Mendeleev. The Nobel Prize in Chemistry created in 1901 gives an excellent overview of chemical discovery since the start of the 20th century. Jobs for chemists usually require at least a degree, but many positions, especially those in research. At the Masters level and higher, students tend to specialize in a particular field, postdoctoral experience may be required for certain positions. Workers whose work involves chemistry, but not at a complexity requiring an education with a degree, are commonly referred to as chemical technicians. Such technicians commonly do such work as simpler, routine analyses for quality control or in clinical laboratories, there are also degrees specific to become a Chemical Technologist, which are somewhat distinct from those required when a student is interested in becoming a professional Chemist. A Chemical technologist is more involved in the management and operation of the equipment and they are part of the team of a chemical laboratory in which the quality of the raw material, intermediate products and finished products is analyzed. They also perform functions in the areas of quality control. The higher the level achieved in the field of Chemistry, the higher the responsibility given to that chemist. Chemistry, as a field, have so many applications that different tasks/objectives can be given to workers/scientists with these different levels of education and/or experience
Chemist
–
The Apothecary or The Chemist by
Gabriël Metsu (c. 1651–67)
Chemist
–
Russian chemist
Dmitri Mendeleev - author of the first modern
periodic table of elements
Chemist
–
Antoine Lavoisier (1743–94) is considered the "
Father of Modern Chemistry ".
Chemist
–
A chemist prepares a new
fuel cell for testing.
17.
Electricity
–
Electricity is the set of physical phenomena associated with the presence of electric charge. Although initially considered a separate to magnetism, since the development of Maxwells Equations both are recognized as part of a single phenomenon, electromagnetism. Various common phenomena are related to electricity, including lightning, static electricity, electric heating, electric discharges, in addition, electricity is at the heart of many modern technologies. The presence of a charge, which can be either positive or negative. On the other hand, the movement of charges, which is known as electric current. When a charge is placed in a location with non-zero electric field, the magnitude of this force is given by Coulombs Law. Thus, if that charge were to move, the field would be doing work on the electric charge. Electrical phenomena have been studied since antiquity, though progress in theoretical understanding remained slow until the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Even then, practical applications for electricity were few, and it would not be until the nineteenth century that engineers were able to put it to industrial and residential use. The rapid expansion in electrical technology at this time transformed industry, electricitys extraordinary versatility means it can be put to an almost limitless set of applications which include transport, heating, lighting, communications, and computation. Electrical power is now the backbone of modern industrial society, long before any knowledge of electricity existed, people were aware of shocks from electric fish. Ancient Egyptian texts dating from 2750 BCE referred to these fish as the Thunderer of the Nile, Electric fish were again reported millennia later by ancient Greek, Roman and Arabic naturalists and physicians. Patients suffering from such as gout or headache were directed to touch electric fish in the hope that the powerful jolt might cure them. Ancient cultures around the Mediterranean knew that certain objects, such as rods of amber, Thales was incorrect in believing the attraction was due to a magnetic effect, but later science would prove a link between magnetism and electricity. He coined the New Latin word electricus to refer to the property of attracting small objects after being rubbed and this association gave rise to the English words electric and electricity, which made their first appearance in print in Thomas Brownes Pseudodoxia Epidemica of 1646. Further work was conducted by Otto von Guericke, Robert Boyle, Stephen Gray, in the 18th century, Benjamin Franklin conducted extensive research in electricity, selling his possessions to fund his work. In June 1752 he is reputed to have attached a key to the bottom of a dampened kite string. A succession of jumping from the key to the back of his hand showed that lightning was indeed electrical in nature
Electricity
–
Lightning is one of the most dramatic effects of electricity.
Electricity
–
Thales, the earliest known researcher into electricity
Electricity
–
Benjamin Franklin conducted extensive research on electricity in the 18th century, as documented by
Joseph Priestley (1767) History and Present Status of Electricity, with whom Franklin carried on extended correspondence.
Electricity
–
Michael Faraday 's discoveries formed the foundation of electric motor technology
18.
Power (physics)
–
In physics, power is the rate of doing work. It is the amount of energy consumed per unit time, having no direction, it is a scalar quantity. In the SI system, the unit of power is the joule per second, known as the watt in honour of James Watt, another common and traditional measure is horsepower. Being the rate of work, the equation for power can be written, because this integral depends on the trajectory of the point of application of the force and torque, this calculation of work is said to be path dependent. As a physical concept, power requires both a change in the universe and a specified time in which the change occurs. This is distinct from the concept of work, which is measured in terms of a net change in the state of the physical universe. The output power of a motor is the product of the torque that the motor generates. The power involved in moving a vehicle is the product of the force of the wheels. The dimension of power is divided by time. The SI unit of power is the watt, which is equal to one joule per second, other units of power include ergs per second, horsepower, metric horsepower, and foot-pounds per minute. One horsepower is equivalent to 33,000 foot-pounds per minute, or the required to lift 550 pounds by one foot in one second. Other units include dBm, a logarithmic measure with 1 milliwatt as reference, food calories per hour, Btu per hour. This shows how power is an amount of energy consumed per unit time. If ΔW is the amount of work performed during a period of time of duration Δt and it is the average amount of work done or energy converted per unit of time. The average power is simply called power when the context makes it clear. The instantaneous power is then the value of the average power as the time interval Δt approaches zero. P = lim Δ t →0 P a v g = lim Δ t →0 Δ W Δ t = d W d t. In the case of constant power P, the amount of work performed during a period of duration T is given by, W = P t
Power (physics)
–
Ansel Adams photograph of electrical wires of the Boulder Dam Power Units, 1941–1942
19.
Electrical battery
–
An electric battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external connections provided to power electrical devices such as flashlights, smartphones, and electric cars. When a battery is supplying power, its positive terminal is the cathode. The terminal marked negative is the source of electrons that when connected to a circuit will flow. It is the movement of ions within the battery which allows current to flow out of the battery to perform work. Historically the term specifically referred to a device composed of multiple cells. Primary batteries are used once and discarded, the materials are irreversibly changed during discharge. Common examples are the battery used for flashlights and a multitude of portable electronic devices. Secondary batteries can be discharged and recharged multiple times using mains power from a wall socket, examples include the lead-acid batteries used in vehicles and lithium-ion batteries used for portable electronics such as laptops and smartphones. According to a 2005 estimate, the battery industry generates US$48 billion in sales each year. Batteries have much lower energy than common fuels such as gasoline. This is somewhat offset by the efficiency of electric motors in producing mechanical work. The usage of battery to describe a group of electrical devices dates to Benjamin Franklin, alessandro Volta built and described the first electrochemical battery, the voltaic pile, in 1800. This was a stack of copper and zinc plates, separated by brine-soaked paper disks, Volta did not understand that the voltage was due to chemical reactions. Although early batteries were of value for experimental purposes, in practice their voltages fluctuated. It consisted of a pot filled with a copper sulfate solution, in which was immersed an unglazed earthenware container filled with sulfuric acid. These wet cells used liquid electrolytes, which were prone to leakage and spillage if not handled correctly, many used glass jars to hold their components, which made them fragile and potentially dangerous. These characteristics made wet cells unsuitable for portable appliances, near the end of the nineteenth century, the invention of dry cell batteries, which replaced the liquid electrolyte with a paste, made portable electrical devices practical. Batteries convert chemical energy directly to electrical energy, a battery consists of some number of voltaic cells
Electrical battery
–
Various cells and batteries (top-left to bottom-right): two
AA, one
D, one handheld
ham radio battery, two
9-volt (PP3), two
AAA, one
C, one
camcorder battery, one
cordless phone battery.
Electrical battery
–
A
voltaic pile, the first battery
Electrical battery
–
From top to bottom: a large 4.5-volt (3R12) battery, a
D Cell, a
C cell, an
AA cell, an
AAA cell, an
AAAA cell, an
A23 battery, a 9-volt
PP3 battery, and a pair of
button cells (CR2032 and LR44).
Electrical battery
–
A device to check battery voltage
20.
Voltaic pile
–
The voltaic pile was the first electrical battery that could continuously provide an electric current to a circuit. It was invented by Alessandro Volta, who published his experiments in 1799, the entire 19th century electrical industry was powered by batteries related to Voltas until the advent of the dynamo in the 1870s. Voltas invention built on Luigi Galvanis 1780s discovery of how a circuit of two metals and a leg can cause the frogs leg to respond. Volta demonstrated in 1794 that when two metals and brine-soaked cloth or cardboard are arranged in a circuit they produce an electric current, in 1800, Volta stacked several pairs of alternating copper and zinc discs separated by cloth or cardboard soaked in brine to increase the electrolyte conductivity. When the top and bottom contacts were connected by a wire, an electric current flowed through the voltaic pile, on 20 March 1800, Volta wrote to the London Royal Society to describe the technique for producing electric current using his device. On learning of the pile, William Nicholson and Anthony Carlisle used it to discover the electrolysis of water. He also used the voltaic pile to decompose chemicals and to produce new chemicals, William Hyde Wollaston showed that electricity from voltaic piles had identical effects to those of electricity produced by friction. In 1802 Vasily Petrov used voltaic piles in the discovery and research of electric arc effects, sir Humphry Davy and Andrew Crosse were among the first to develop large voltaic piles. Davy used a 2000-pair pile made for the Royal Institution in 1808 to demonstrate carbon arc discharge and isolate five new elements, barium, calcium, boron, strontium and magnesium. Because Volta believed that the electromotive force occurred at the contact between the two metals, Voltas piles had a different design than the modern design illustrated on this page. His piles had one extra disc of copper at the top, in contact with the zinc, expanding on Volta’s work and the electro-magnetism work of his mentor Humphry Davy, Michael Faraday utilized both magnets and the voltaic pile in his experiments with electricity. Faraday believed that all “electricities” being studied at the time were one and his work to prove this theory led him to propose two laws of electrochemistry which stood in direct conflict with the current scientific beliefs of the day as laid down by Volta thirty years earlier. Because of their contributions to the understanding of field of study, Faraday. The words electrode and electrolyte, used above to describe Voltas work, are due to Faraday, indeed, Volta himself experimented with a pile whose cardboard discs had dried out, most likely accidentally. The first to publish was Johann Wilhelm Ritter in 1802, albeit in an obscure journal, one form of dry pile is the Zamboni pile. The dry pile could be referred to as the ancestor of the dry cell. The strength of the pile is expressed in terms of its force, or emf. Alessandro Voltas theory of contact tension considered that the emf, which drives the current through a circuit containing a voltaic cell
Voltaic pile
–
A voltaic pile on display in the
Tempio Voltiano (the Volta Temple) near Volta's home in
Como.
Voltaic pile
–
Schematic diagram of a
copper –
zinc voltaic pile. The copper and zinc discs were separated by cardboard or felt spacers soaked in salt water (the electrolyte). Volta's original piles contained an additional zinc disk at the bottom, and an additional copper disk at the top. These were later shown to be unnecessary.
21.
Royal Society
–
Founded in November 1660, it was granted a royal charter by King Charles II as The Royal Society. The society is governed by its Council, which is chaired by the Societys President, according to a set of statutes and standing orders. The members of Council and the President are elected from and by its Fellows, the members of the society. As of 2016, there are about 1,600 fellows, allowed to use the postnominal title FRS, there are also royal fellows, honorary fellows and foreign members, the last of which are allowed to use the postnominal title ForMemRS. The Royal Society President is Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, who took up the post on 30 November 2015, since 1967, the society has been based at 6–9 Carlton House Terrace, a Grade I listed building in central London which was previously used by the Embassy of Germany, London. The Royal Society started from groups of physicians and natural philosophers, meeting at variety of locations and they were influenced by the new science, as promoted by Francis Bacon in his New Atlantis, from approximately 1645 onwards. A group known as The Philosophical Society of Oxford was run under a set of rules still retained by the Bodleian Library, after the English Restoration, there were regular meetings at Gresham College. It is widely held that these groups were the inspiration for the foundation of the Royal Society, I will not say, that Mr Oldenburg did rather inspire the French to follow the English, or, at least, did help them, and hinder us. But tis well known who were the men that began and promoted that design. This initial royal favour has continued and, since then, every monarch has been the patron of the society, the societys early meetings included experiments performed first by Hooke and then by Denis Papin, who was appointed in 1684. These experiments varied in their area, and were both important in some cases and trivial in others. The Society returned to Gresham in 1673, there had been an attempt in 1667 to establish a permanent college for the society. Michael Hunter argues that this was influenced by Solomons House in Bacons New Atlantis and, to a lesser extent, by J. V. The first proposal was given by John Evelyn to Robert Boyle in a letter dated 3 September 1659, he suggested a scheme, with apartments for members. The societys ideas were simpler and only included residences for a handful of staff and these plans were progressing by November 1667, but never came to anything, given the lack of contributions from members and the unrealised—perhaps unrealistic—aspirations of the society. During the 18th century, the gusto that had characterised the early years of the society faded, with a number of scientific greats compared to other periods. The pointed lightning conductor had been invented by Benjamin Franklin in 1749, during the same time period, it became customary to appoint society fellows to serve on government committees where science was concerned, something that still continues. The 18th century featured remedies to many of the early problems
Royal Society
–
The entrance to the Royal Society in Carlton House Terrace, London
Royal Society
–
The President, Council, and Fellows of the Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge
Royal Society
–
John Evelyn, who helped to found the Royal Society
Royal Society
–
Mace granted by Charles II
22.
Electrochemistry
–
These reactions involve electric charges moving between electrodes and an electrolyte. Thus electrochemistry deals with the interaction between electrical energy and chemical change, chemical reactions where electrons are transferred directly between molecules and/or atoms are called oxidation-reduction or reactions. In general, electrochemistry describes the reactions when individual redox reactions are separate but connected by an external electric circuit. Understanding of electrical matters began in the sixteenth century, during this century, the English scientist William Gilbert spent 17 years experimenting with magnetism and, to a lesser extent, electricity. For his work on magnets, Gilbert became known as the Father of Magnetism and he discovered various methods for producing and strengthening magnets. In 1663, the German physicist Otto von Guericke created the first electric generator, the generator was made of a large sulfur ball cast inside a glass globe, mounted on a shaft. The ball was rotated by means of a crank and a spark was produced when a pad was rubbed against the ball as it rotated. The globe could be removed and used as source for experiments with electricity, by the mid—18th century the French chemist Charles François de Cisternay du Fay had discovered two types of static electricity, and that like charges repel each other whilst unlike charges attract. Du Fay announced that electricity consisted of two fluids, vitreous, or positive, electricity, and resinous, or negative, electricity and this was the two-fluid theory of electricity, which was to be opposed by Benjamin Franklins one-fluid theory later in the century. Galvani refuted this by obtaining muscular action with two pieces of the same material, in 1800, William Nicholson and Johann Wilhelm Ritter succeeded in decomposing water into hydrogen and oxygen by electrolysis. Soon thereafter Ritter discovered the process of electroplating and he also observed that the amount of metal deposited and the amount of oxygen produced during an electrolytic process depended on the distance between the electrodes. By 1801, Ritter observed thermoelectric currents and anticipated the discovery of thermoelectricity by Thomas Johann Seebeck, by the 1810s, William Hyde Wollaston made improvements to the galvanic cell. This work led directly to the isolation of sodium and potassium from their compounds, andré-Marie Ampère quickly repeated Ørsteds experiment, and formulated them mathematically. In 1821, Estonian-German physicist Thomas Johann Seebeck demonstrated the potential in the juncture points of two dissimilar metals when there is a heat difference between the joints. In 1827, the German scientist Georg Ohm expressed his law in this famous book Die galvanische Kette, in 1832, Michael Faradays experiments led him to state his two laws of electrochemistry. In 1836, John Daniell invented a primary cell which solved the problem of polarization by eliminating hydrogen gas generation at the positive electrode, later results revealed that alloying the amalgamated zinc with mercury would produce a higher voltage. William Grove produced the first fuel cell in 1839, in 1846, Wilhelm Weber developed the electrodynamometer. In 1868, Georges Leclanché patented a new cell which became the forerunner to the worlds first widely used battery
Electrochemistry
–
Sir Humphry Davy's portrait in the 19th century.
Electrochemistry
–
English chemist
John Daniell (
left) and physicist
Michael Faraday (
right), both credited as founders of electrochemistry today.
Electrochemistry
–
Swedish chemist
Svante Arrhenius portrait circa 1880s.
Electrochemistry
–
German scientist
Walther Nernst portrait in the 1910s.
23.
Napoleon
–
Napoleon Bonaparte was a French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led several successful campaigns during the French Revolutionary Wars. As Napoleon I, he was Emperor of the French from 1804 until 1814, Napoleon dominated European and global affairs for more than a decade while leading France against a series of coalitions in the Napoleonic Wars. He won most of these wars and the vast majority of his battles, one of the greatest commanders in history, his wars and campaigns are studied at military schools worldwide. Napoleons political and cultural legacy has ensured his status as one of the most celebrated and he was born Napoleone di Buonaparte in Corsica to a relatively modest family from the minor nobility. When the Revolution broke out in 1789, Napoleon was serving as an officer in the French army. Seizing the new opportunities presented by the Revolution, he rose through the ranks of the military. The Directory eventually gave him command of the Army of Italy after he suppressed a revolt against the government from royalist insurgents, in 1798, he led a military expedition to Egypt that served as a springboard to political power. He engineered a coup in November 1799 and became First Consul of the Republic and his ambition and public approval inspired him to go further, and in 1804 he became the first Emperor of the French. Intractable differences with the British meant that the French were facing a Third Coalition by 1805, in 1806, the Fourth Coalition took up arms against him because Prussia became worried about growing French influence on the continent. Napoleon quickly defeated Prussia at the battles of Jena and Auerstedt, then marched the Grand Army deep into Eastern Europe, France then forced the defeated nations of the Fourth Coalition to sign the Treaties of Tilsit in July 1807, bringing an uneasy peace to the continent. Tilsit signified the high watermark of the French Empire, hoping to extend the Continental System and choke off British trade with the European mainland, Napoleon invaded Iberia and declared his brother Joseph the King of Spain in 1808. The Spanish and the Portuguese revolted with British support, the Peninsular War lasted six years, featured extensive guerrilla warfare, and ended in victory for the Allies. The Continental System caused recurring diplomatic conflicts between France and its client states, especially Russia, unwilling to bear the economic consequences of reduced trade, the Russians routinely violated the Continental System and enticed Napoleon into another war. The French launched an invasion of Russia in the summer of 1812. The resulting campaign witnessed the collapse of the Grand Army, the destruction of Russian cities, in 1813, Prussia and Austria joined Russian forces in a Sixth Coalition against France. A lengthy military campaign culminated in a large Allied army defeating Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813, the Allies then invaded France and captured Paris in the spring of 1814, forcing Napoleon to abdicate in April. He was exiled to the island of Elba near Rome and the Bourbons were restored to power, however, Napoleon escaped from Elba in February 1815 and took control of France once again. The Allies responded by forming a Seventh Coalition, which defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in June, the British exiled him to the remote island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic, where he died six years later at the age of 51
Napoleon
–
The Emperor Napoleon in His Study at the Tuileries, by
Jacques-Louis David, 1812
Napoleon
–
Imperial coat of arms
Napoleon
–
Napoleon's father
Carlo Buonaparte was
Corsica 's representative to the court of
Louis XVI of France.
Napoleon
–
Napoleon Bonaparte, aged 23, Lieutenant-Colonel of a battalion of Corsican
Republican volunteers
24.
Institut de France
–
The Institut de France is a French learned society, grouping five académies, the most famous of which is the Académie française. The Institute, located in Paris, manages approximately 1,000 foundations, as well as museums and it also awards prizes and subsidies, which amounted to a total of €5,028,190.55 for 2002. Most of these prizes are awarded by the Institute on the recommendation of the académies, the Institut de France was established on 25 October 1795, by the French government. Académie française – initiated 1635, suppressed 1793, restored 1803 as a division of the institute, Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres – initiated 1663. Académie des sciences – initiated 1666, the Royal Society of Canada, initiated 1882, was modeled after the Institut de France and the Royal Society of London
Institut de France
–
Institut de France, from the
pont des Arts
Institut de France
–
Cupola of the Institut de France
Institut de France
–
Henri Grégoire was a founding member of the Institut de France.
Institut de France
–
Esplanade in front of the Institut, 1898.
25.
University of Pavia
–
The University of Pavia is a university located in Pavia, Lombardy, Italy. It was founded in 1361 and has thirteen faculties, an edict issued by the Frankish king of Italy Lothar I mentions the existence of a higher education institution at Pavia as early as AD825. This institution, mainly devoted to ecclesiastical and civil law as well as to divinity studies, was selected as the prime educational centre for northern Italy. In 1858, the University was the scene of student protests against Austrian rule in northern Italy. The authorities responded by ordering the universitys temporary closure, the incidents at Pavia were typical of the wave of nationalist demonstrations all over Italy that immediately preceded the Unification. During the following centuries, through periods of both adversity and prosperity, the fame of the University of Pavia grew over the last years due to the number of applicants. Three Nobel Prize winners also taught in Pavia, physician Camillo Golgi, chemist Giulio Natta, also critical to the universitys reputation was its distinguished record of public education, epitomised by the establishment of 5 private and public colleges. In 1997 the IUSS, was established, a Higher Learning Institution analogous to the Scuola Normale Superiore, the IUSS is the federal body that links the 5 colleges of Pavia which constitute the Pavia University System. Today, the University continues to offer a variety of disciplinary and inter-disciplinary teaching. Research is carried out in departments, institutes, clinics, centres and laboratories, in association with public and private institutions, enterprises. English - One single-cycle masters degree and seven masters degrees are offered in English
University of Pavia
–
Borromeo college
University of Pavia
–
University of Pavia
University of Pavia
–
Ghislieri college
26.
International System of Units
–
The International System of Units is the modern form of the metric system, and is the most widely used system of measurement. It comprises a coherent system of units of measurement built on seven base units, the system also establishes a set of twenty prefixes to the unit names and unit symbols that may be used when specifying multiples and fractions of the units. The system was published in 1960 as the result of an initiative began in 1948. It is based on the system of units rather than any variant of the centimetre-gram-second system. The motivation for the development of the SI was the diversity of units that had sprung up within the CGS systems, the International System of Units has been adopted by most developed countries, however, the adoption has not been universal in all English-speaking countries. The metric system was first implemented during the French Revolution with just the metre and kilogram as standards of length, in the 1830s Carl Friedrich Gauss laid the foundations for a coherent system based on length, mass, and time. In the 1860s a group working under the auspices of the British Association for the Advancement of Science formulated the requirement for a coherent system of units with base units and derived units. Meanwhile, in 1875, the Treaty of the Metre passed responsibility for verification of the kilogram, in 1921, the Treaty was extended to include all physical quantities including electrical units originally defined in 1893. The units associated with these quantities were the metre, kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin, in 1971, a seventh base quantity, amount of substance represented by the mole, was added to the definition of SI. On 11 July 1792, the proposed the names metre, are, litre and grave for the units of length, area, capacity. The committee also proposed that multiples and submultiples of these units were to be denoted by decimal-based prefixes such as centi for a hundredth, on 10 December 1799, the law by which the metric system was to be definitively adopted in France was passed. Prior to this, the strength of the magnetic field had only been described in relative terms. The technique used by Gauss was to equate the torque induced on a magnet of known mass by the earth’s magnetic field with the torque induced on an equivalent system under gravity. The resultant calculations enabled him to assign dimensions based on mass, length, a French-inspired initiative for international cooperation in metrology led to the signing in 1875 of the Metre Convention. Initially the convention only covered standards for the metre and the kilogram, one of each was selected at random to become the International prototype metre and International prototype kilogram that replaced the mètre des Archives and kilogramme des Archives respectively. Each member state was entitled to one of each of the prototypes to serve as the national prototype for that country. Initially its prime purpose was a periodic recalibration of national prototype metres. The official language of the Metre Convention is French and the version of all official documents published by or on behalf of the CGPM is the French-language version
International System of Units
–
Stone marking the
Austro-Hungarian /Italian border at
Pontebba displaying
myriametres, a unit of 10 km used in
Central Europe in the 19th century (but since
deprecated).
International System of Units
–
The seven base units in the International System of Units
International System of Units
–
Carl Friedrich Gauss
International System of Units
–
Thomson
27.
Electric potential
–
An electric potential is the amount of work needed to move a unit positive charge from a reference point to a specific point inside the field without producing any acceleration. Typically, the point is Earth or a point at Infinity. By dividing out the charge on the particle a remainder is obtained that is a property of the field itself. This value can be calculated in either a static or an electric field at a specific time in units of joules per coulomb. The electric potential at infinity is assumed to be zero, a generalized electric scalar potential is also used in electrodynamics when time-varying electromagnetic fields are present, but this can not be so simply calculated. The electric potential and the vector potential together form a four vector. Classical mechanics explores concepts such as force, energy, potential etc, force and potential energy are directly related. A net force acting on any object will cause it to accelerate, as it rolls downhill its potential energy decreases, being translated to motion, inertial energy. It is possible to define the potential of certain force fields so that the energy of an object in that field depends only on the position of the object with respect to the field. Two such force fields are the field and an electric field. Such fields must affect objects due to the properties of the object. Objects may possess a property known as charge and an electric field exerts a force on charged objects. If the charged object has a charge the force will be in the direction of the electric field vector at that point while if the charge is negative the force will be in the opposite direction. The magnitude of the force is given by the quantity of the charge multiplied by the magnitude of the field vector. The electric potential at a point r in an electric field E is given by the line integral where C is an arbitrary path connecting the point with zero potential to r. When the curl ∇ × E is zero, the integral above does not depend on the specific path C chosen. The concept of electric potential is linked with potential energy. A test charge q has a potential energy UE given by U E = q V
Electric potential
–
Electromagnetism
Electric potential
–
The electric potential created by a charge Q is V = Q /(4πε o r). Different values of Q will make different values of electric potential V (shown in the image).
28.
Italy
–
Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
Italy
–
The
Colosseum in Rome, built c. 70 – 80 AD, is considered one of the greatest works of
architecture and
engineering of ancient history.
Italy
–
Flag
Italy
–
The
Iron Crown of Lombardy, for centuries symbol of the
Kings of Italy.
Italy
–
Castel del Monte, built by German Emperor
Frederick II,
UNESCO World Heritage site
29.
Switzerland
–
Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a federal republic in Europe. It consists of 26 cantons, and the city of Bern is the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in western-Central Europe, and is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland is a country geographically divided between the Alps, the Swiss Plateau and the Jura, spanning an area of 41,285 km2. The establishment of the Old Swiss Confederacy dates to the medieval period, resulting from a series of military successes against Austria. Swiss independence from the Holy Roman Empire was formally recognized in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The country has a history of armed neutrality going back to the Reformation, it has not been in a state of war internationally since 1815, nevertheless, it pursues an active foreign policy and is frequently involved in peace-building processes around the world. In addition to being the birthplace of the Red Cross, Switzerland is home to international organisations. On the European level, it is a member of the European Free Trade Association. However, it participates in the Schengen Area and the European Single Market through bilateral treaties, spanning the intersection of Germanic and Romance Europe, Switzerland comprises four main linguistic and cultural regions, German, French, Italian and Romansh. Due to its diversity, Switzerland is known by a variety of native names, Schweiz, Suisse, Svizzera. On coins and stamps, Latin is used instead of the four living languages, Switzerland is one of the most developed countries in the world, with the highest nominal wealth per adult and the eighth-highest per capita gross domestic product according to the IMF. Zürich and Geneva have each been ranked among the top cities in the world in terms of quality of life, with the former ranked second globally, according to Mercer. The English name Switzerland is a compound containing Switzer, a term for the Swiss. The English adjective Swiss is a loan from French Suisse, also in use since the 16th century. The name Switzer is from the Alemannic Schwiizer, in origin an inhabitant of Schwyz and its associated territory, the Swiss began to adopt the name for themselves after the Swabian War of 1499, used alongside the term for Confederates, Eidgenossen, used since the 14th century. The data code for Switzerland, CH, is derived from Latin Confoederatio Helvetica. The toponym Schwyz itself was first attested in 972, as Old High German Suittes, ultimately related to swedan ‘to burn’
Switzerland
–
Founded in 44 BC by
Lucius Munatius Plancus,
Augusta Raurica was the first Roman settlement on the Rhine and is now among the most important archaeological sites in Switzerland.
Switzerland
–
Flag
Switzerland
–
The 1291 Bundesbrief (Federal charter)
Switzerland
–
The Old Swiss Confederacy from 1291 (dark green) to the sixteenth century (light green) and its associates (blue). In the other colors are shown the subject territories.
30.
Electrophorus
–
An electrophorus is a simple manual capacitive generator used to produce electrostatic charge via the process of electrostatic induction. The word electrophorus was coined by Volta from the Greek ήλεκτρον, the electrophorus consists of a dielectric plate and a metal plate with an insulating handle. The dielectric plate is first charged through the effect by rubbing it with fur or cloth. For this discussion, imagine the dielectric gains negative charge by rubbing, the metal plate is then placed onto the dielectric plate. The dielectric does not transfer a significant fraction of its charge to the metal because the microscopic contact is poor. Instead the electrostatic field of the charged dielectric causes the charges in the plate to separate. Then, the side facing up is momentarily grounded, draining off the negative charge, finally, the metal plate, now carrying only one sign of charge, is lifted. This can be repeated as often as desired, so in principle an unlimited amount of induced charge can be obtained from a charge on the dielectric. For this reason Volta called it elettroforo perpetuo, in actual use the charge on the dielectric will eventually leak off through the surface of the cake or the atmosphere to recombine with opposite charges around to restore neutrality. One of the largest examples of an electrophorus was built in 1777 by German scientist Georg Christoph Lichtenberg and it was 6 feet in diameter, with the metal plate raised and lowered using a pulley system. It could reportedly produce 15 inch sparks, Lichtenberg used its discharges to create the strange treelike marks known as Lichtenberg figures. Charge in the universe is conserved, the electrophorus simply separates positive and negative charges. A positive or negative charge ends up on the plate. This separation takes work since the lowest energy state implies uncharged objects, work is done by raising the charged metal plate away from the oppositely charged resinous plate. Volta, Science and Culture in the Age of Enlightenment, pp. 73–105 Voltas invention of the electrophorus Jones, Thomas B. Draw the Lightning Down, Benjamin Franklin and electrical technology in the Age of Enlightenment, place of electrophorus in history of electrostatics, although the author does not mention Wilckes contribution. The Encyclopaedia Britannica Publishing Co.1910
Electrophorus
–
Electrophorus from the 1800s.
31.
Static electricity
–
Static electricity is an imbalance of electric charges within or on the surface of a material. The charge remains until it is able to move away by means of a current or electrical discharge. Static electricity is named in contrast with current electricity, which flows through wires or other conductors, a static electric charge can be created whenever two surfaces contact and separate, and at least one of the surfaces has a high resistance to electric current. The familiar phenomenon of a static shock–more specifically, an electrostatic discharge–is caused by the neutralization of charge, materials are made of atoms that are normally electrically neutral because they contain equal numbers of positive charges and negative charges. The phenomenon of static electricity requires a separation of positive and negative charges, when two materials are in contact, electrons may move from one material to the other, which leaves an excess of positive charge on one material, and an equal negative charge on the other. When the materials are separated they retain this charge imbalance and this is known as the triboelectric effect and results in one material becoming positively charged and the other negatively charged. The polarity and strength of the charge on a material once they are separated depends on their positions in the triboelectric series. The triboelectric effect is the cause of static electricity as observed in everyday life. Contact-induced charge separation causes your hair to stand up and causes static cling, pressure-induced charge separation Applied mechanical stress generates a separation of charge in certain types of crystals and ceramics molecules. Heat-induced charge separation Heating generates a separation of charge in the atoms or molecules of certain materials, all pyroelectric materials are also piezoelectric. The atomic or molecular properties of heat and pressure response are closely related, charge-induced charge separation A charged object brought close to an electrically neutral object causes a separation of charge within the neutral object. Charges of the same polarity are repelled and charges of the opposite polarity are attracted, as the force due to the interaction of electric charges falls off rapidly with increasing distance, the effect of the closer charges is greater and the two objects feel a force of attraction. The effect is most pronounced when the object is an electrical conductor as the charges are more free to move around. Careful grounding of part of an object with a charge separation can permanently add or remove electrons, leaving the object with a global. This process is integral to the workings of the Van de Graaff generator, removing or preventing a buildup of static charge can be as simple as opening a window or using a humidifier to increase the moisture content of the air, making the atmosphere more conductive. Air ionizers can perform the same task, fabric softeners and dryer sheets used in washing machines and clothes dryers are an example of an antistatic agent used to prevent and remove static cling. Many semiconductor devices used in electronics are particularly sensitive to static discharge, conductive antistatic bags are commonly used to protect such components. People who work on circuits that contain these devices often ground themselves with an antistatic strap
Static electricity
–
Contact with the slide has left this child's hair positively charged so that the individual hairs repel one another. The hair can also be attracted to the negatively charged slide surface.
Static electricity
–
A
network card inside an
antistatic bag.
Static electricity
–
An
antistatic wrist strap with
crocodile clip.
Static electricity
–
Natural static discharge
32.
Johan Wilcke
–
Johan Carl Wilcke was a Swedish physicist. Wilcke was born in Wismar, son of a clergyman who in 1739 was appointed pastor of the German Church in Stockholm. He went to the German school in Stockholm and enrolled at the University of Uppsala in 1749 and he spent the years from 1751 travelling abroad and received the magister degree from the University of Rostock in 1757, after having published the dissertation De electricitatibus contrariis. He became a professor in 1770, and permanent secretary of the Academy of Sciences in 1784. He died in Stockholm in 1796 and his two areas of significant research were electricity and caloric theory. In 1762 he invented a generator that was a first version of the electrophorus. In 1772 he calculated the latent heat of ice, in 1789 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society Svenskt biografiskt handlexikon, vol 2, p.732 Encyclopedia. com, Wilcke, Johan Carl Johan Carl Wilcke in Rostock Matrikelportal
Johan Wilcke
–
Johan Carl Wilcke
33.
H. B. de Saussure
–
Horace-Bénédict de Saussure was born February 17,1740, in Conches, near Geneva, Savoy, and died in Geneva January 22,1799. His father, Nicolas de Saussure, was an agriculturist and author who may have sparked Horace-Bénédicts early interest in botany, after attending the Collège of his hometown, he completed his studies at the Geneva Academy in 1759 with a dissertation on heat. In 1760, he made the first of numerous trips to Chamonix Valley, at the foot of Mont Blanc, in 1760, Saussure offered a reward to the first man to reach the summit of Mont Blanc. Inspired by his uncle, the naturalist Charles Bonnet, the young Saussure also did research on the physiology of plants and published Observations sur lécorce des feuilles et des pétales. The same year, at 22, he was elected professor of philosophy at the Academy of Geneva, where he lectured on physics one year and he taught there until 1786, occasionally also lecturing on geography, geology, chemistry, and even astronomy. His early interest in studies and glaciers soon led Saussure to undertake other journeys across the Alps. In 1767, he completed his first tour of Mont-Blanc, a trip that did much to reveal the topography of the portions of the Alps of Savoy. He also carried out experiments on heat and cold, on the weight of the atmosphere and on electricity, for this, he devised what became one of the first electrometers. Other trips led him to Italy, where he studied Mt. Etna and other volcanoes and he was more successful in advocating the creation of the Société des Arts, inspired by the London Society for the Improvement of Arts. Beginning in 1774 Saussure sought to reach the summit of Mont-Blanc on the Italian side accompanied by the Courmayeur alpine guide Jean-Laurent Jordaney on the Miage glacier, in 1776 he ascended the Buet. He climbed the Crammont in 1774 and again in 1778, in which year he explored the Valsorey glacier. In 1780 he climbed the Roche Michel, above the Mont Cenis Pass, in 1785, he made an unsuccessful attempt on Mont-Blanc by the Aiguille du Goûter route. Two Chamonix men, Michel Paccard and Jacques Balmat, attained the summit in 1786, by way of the Grands Mulets and his achievements did much to attract tourists to places such as Chamonix. Of particular importance was a hair hygrometer that he devised and used for a series of investigations on atmospheric humidity, evaporation, clouds, fogs and this instrument sparked a bitter controversy with Jean-André Deluc, who invented a whalebone hygrometer. In 1788 Saussure spent 17 days making meteorological observations and physical measurements on the Col du Géant. In 1789 Saussure climbed the Pizzo Bianco near Macugnaga, to observe the east wall of Monte Rosa, and crossed the Theodulpass to Zermatt, which he was the first traveler to visit. All of Saussures observations and experiments from seven Alpine journeys were summed up and published in four quarto volumes, the non-scientific portions of the work were first published in 1834, and often since, as Partie pittoresque des ouvrages de M. de Saussure. The Alps were the focus of Saussures investigations and he saw them as the grand key to the true theory of the earth, and they gave him the opportunity to study geology in a manner never previously attempted
H. B. de Saussure
–
Portrait of Horace-Bénédict de Saussure (after the picture by Juehl, in the Library at Geneva)
H. B. de Saussure
–
Christian von Mechel, Descent from Mont-Blanc in 1787 by H.B. de Saussure, copper engraving. Collection
Teylers Museum, Haarlem.
H. B. de Saussure
–
Horace-Bénédict de Saussure monument at
Chamonix. Beside him is
Jacques Balmat.
H. B. de Saussure
–
Saussurea pygmaea, from the genus named after Saussure
34.
Benjamin Franklin
–
Benjamin Franklin was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. Franklin was a polymath and a leading author, printer, political theorist, politician, freemason, postmaster, scientist, inventor, civic activist, statesman. As a scientist, he was a figure in the American Enlightenment. As an inventor, he is known for the rod, bifocals. He facilitated many civic organizations, including Philadelphias fire department and the University of Pennsylvania, Franklin earned the title of The First American for his early and indefatigable campaigning for colonial unity, initially as an author and spokesman in London for several colonies. As the first United States Ambassador to France, he exemplified the emerging American nation, in the words of historian Henry Steele Commager, In a Franklin could be merged the virtues of Puritanism without its defects, the illumination of the Enlightenment without its heat. To Walter Isaacson, this makes Franklin the most accomplished American of his age, Franklin became a successful newspaper editor and printer in Philadelphia, the leading city in the colonies, publishing the Pennsylvania Gazette at the age of 23. He became wealthy publishing this and Poor Richards Almanack, which he authored under the pseudonym Richard Saunders, after 1767, he was associated with the Pennsylvania Chronicle, a newspaper that was known for its revolutionary sentiments and criticisms of the British policies. He pioneered and was first president of The Academy and College of Philadelphia which opened in 1751 and he organized and was the first secretary of the American Philosophical Society and was elected president in 1769. Franklin became a hero in America as an agent for several colonies when he spearheaded an effort in London to have the Parliament of Great Britain repeal the unpopular Stamp Act. An accomplished diplomat, he was widely admired among the French as American minister to Paris and was a figure in the development of positive Franco-American relations. His efforts proved vital for the American Revolution in securing shipments of crucial munitions from France, during the Revolution, he became the first US Postmaster General. He was active in community affairs and colonial and state politics, from 1785 to 1788, he served as governor of Pennsylvania. He initially owned and dealt in slaves but, by the 1750s, he argued against slavery from an economic perspective, Franklins father, Josiah Franklin, was a tallow chandler, a soap-maker and a candle-maker. Josiah was born at Ecton, Northamptonshire, England on December 23,1657, the son of Thomas Franklin, a blacksmith-farmer, and Jane White. His mother, Abiah Folger, was born in Nantucket, Massachusetts, on August 15,1667, to Peter Folger, a miller and schoolteacher, and his wife, Mary Morrill, Josiah Franklin had seventeen children with his two wives. He married his first wife, Anne Child, in about 1677 in Ecton and emigrated with her to Boston in 1683, after her death, Josiah was married to Abiah Folger on July 9,1689 in the Old South Meeting House by Samuel Willard. Benjamin, their child, was Josiah Franklins fifteenth child and tenth
Benjamin Franklin
–
Benjamin Franklin
Benjamin Franklin
–
Franklin's birthplace on
Milk Street, Boston, Massachusetts
Benjamin Franklin
–
Benjamin Franklin (center) at work on a
printing press. Reproduction of a Charles Mills painting by the
Detroit Publishing Company.
Benjamin Franklin
–
Deborah Read Franklin (c. 1759). Common-law wife of Benjamin Franklin
35.
Lake Maggiore
–
Lake Maggiore or Lago Verbàno is a large lake located on the south side of the Alps. It is the second largest lake in Italy and the largest in southern Switzerland, the lake and its shoreline are divided between the Italian regions of Piedmont and Lombardy and the Swiss canton of Ticino. Located halfway between Lake Orta and Lake Lugano, Lake Maggiore extends for about 65 kilometres between Locarno and Arona, the climate is mild in both summer and winter, producing Mediterranean vegetation, with many gardens growing rare and exotic plants. Well-known gardens include those of the Borromean and Brissago Islands, that of the Villa Taranto in Verbania, and the Alpinia botanical garden above Stresa. Lake Maggiore is 64.37 km long, and 3 to 5 km wide and it is the longest Italian lake, although Lake Garda has a greater area. Its mean height above the sea level is 193 metres, a lake, its bottom is almost everywhere below sea-level. Its form is very sinuous, so there are few points from which any considerable part of its surface can be seen at a single glance. If this lessens the effect of the apparent size, it increases the variety of its scenery, while the upper end is completely alpine in character, the middle region lies between hills of gentler form, and the lower end advances to the verge of the plain of Lombardy. Lake Maggiore is the most westerly of the three great southern prealpine lakes, the others being Lake Como and Lake Garda, the lake basin has tectonic-glacial origins and its volume is 37 cubic kilometres. The lake has an area of about 213 square kilometres. Its main tributaries are the Ticino, the Maggia, the Toce, the rivers Verzasca, Giona, and Cannobino also flow into the lake. Its outlet is the Ticino which, in turn, joins the river Po just south-east of Pavia, the lake’s jagged banks are surrounded by the Pennine, Lepontine and Lugano Alps. Prominent peaks around the lake are the Gridone, Monte Tamaro, Monte Nudo, the highest mountain overlooking Lake Maggiore is Monte Rosa, located about 50 kilometres west of it. The culminating point of the drainage basin is the Grenzgipfel summit of Monte Rosa at 4,618 metres above sea level. Lake Maggiore weather is humid subtropical, during winter, the lake helps to maintain a higher temperature in the surrounding region. The temperatures are cooled down in summer by the breezes that blow on the waters surface changing its colour, the area enjoys nearly 2300 hours of sunshine a year and an average annual temperature of 15.5 °C. The water of the lake has a temperature of 20 °C to 22 °C in July. In winter snowfall is erratic and primarily affects the higher elevations, rainfall is heaviest in May and lowest during the winter months
Lake Maggiore
–
View of Lake Maggiore towards the Alps and
Monte Rosa from above
Laveno
Lake Maggiore
–
View of the upper lake and the
Brissago Islands from above
Brissago
Lake Maggiore
–
Isola Bella
Lake Maggiore
–
Sacro Monte di Ghiffa
36.
Combustion
–
Combustion in a fire produces a flame, and the heat produced can make combustion self-sustaining. Combustion is often a sequence of elementary radical reactions. Solid fuels, such as wood, first undergo endothermic pyrolysis to produce gaseous fuels whose combustion then supplies the required to produce more of them. Combustion is often hot enough that light in the form of either glowing or a flame is produced, a simple example can be seen in the combustion of hydrogen and oxygen into water vapor, a reaction commonly used to fuel rocket engines. The bond energies in the play only a minor role, since they are similar to those in the combustion products. The heat of combustion is approximately -418 kJ per mole of O2 used up in the combustion reaction, uncatalyzed combustion in air requires fairly high temperatures. Complete combustion is stoichiometric with respect to the fuel, where there is no remaining fuel, thermodynamically, the chemical equilibrium of combustion in air is overwhelmingly on the side of the products. Thus, the smoke is usually toxic and contains unburned or partially oxidized products. Since combustion is rarely clean, flue gas cleaning or catalytic converters may be required by law, fires occur naturally, ignited by lightning strikes or by volcanic products. Combustion was the first controlled chemical reaction discovered by humans, in the form of campfires and bonfires, usually, the fuel is carbon, hydrocarbons or more complicated mixtures such as wood that contains partially oxidized hydrocarbons. Combustion is also currently the only used to power rockets. Combustion is also used to destroy waste, both nonhazardous and hazardous, oxidants for combustion have high oxidation potential and include atmospheric or pure oxygen, chlorine, fluorine, chlorine trifluoride, nitrous oxide and nitric acid. For instance, hydrogen burns in chlorine to form hydrogen chloride with the liberation of heat, although usually not catalyzed, combustion can be catalyzed by platinum or vanadium, as in the contact process. In complete combustion, the reactant burns in oxygen, producing a number of products. When a hydrocarbon burns in oxygen, the reaction will yield carbon dioxide. When elements are burned, the products are primarily the most common oxides, carbon will yield carbon dioxide, sulfur will yield sulfur dioxide, and iron will yield iron oxide. Nitrogen is not considered to be a combustible substance when oxygen is the oxidant, Combustion is not necessarily favorable to the maximum degree of oxidation, and it can be temperature-dependent. For example, sulfur trioxide is not produced quantitatively by the combustion of sulfur, NOx species appear in significant amounts above about 2,800 °F, and more is produced at higher temperatures
Combustion
–
The
flames caused as a result of a
fuel undergoing combustion (burning)
Combustion
–
The combustion of
methane, a
hydrocarbon.
Combustion
–
Container of ethanol vapour mixed with air, undergoing rapid combustion
Combustion
–
Colourized gray-scale composite image of the individual frames from a video of a backlit fuel droplet burning in microgravity.
37.
Electrostatic discharge
–
Electrostatic discharge is the sudden flow of electricity between two electrically charged objects caused by contact, an electrical short, or dielectric breakdown. A buildup of static electricity can be caused by tribocharging or by electrostatic induction, the ESD occurs when differently-charged objects are brought close together or when the dielectric between them breaks down, often creating a visible spark. ESD can create electric sparks, but also less dramatic forms which may be neither seen nor heard. Electric sparks require a field strength above approximately 40 kV/cm in air, other forms of ESD include corona discharge from sharp electrodes and brush discharge from blunt electrodes. These can suffer permanent damage when subjected to high voltages, ESD simulators may be used to test electronic devices, for example with a human body model or a charged device model. One of the causes of ESD events is static electricity, static electricity is often generated through tribocharging, the separation of electric charges that occurs when two materials are brought into contact and then separated. In all these cases, the breaking of contact between two materials results in tribocharging, thus creating a difference of potential that can lead to an ESD event. Another cause of ESD damage is through electrostatic induction and this occurs when an electrically charged object is placed near a conductive object isolated from the ground. The presence of the object creates an electrostatic field that causes electrical charges on the surface of the other object to redistribute. Even though the net charge of the object has not changed. An ESD event may occur when the object comes into contact with a conductive path, ESD can also be caused by energetic charged particles impinging on an object. This causes increasing surface and deep charging and this is a known hazard for most spacecraft. The most spectacular form of ESD is the spark, which occurs when an electric field creates an ionized conductive channel in air. This can cause discomfort to people, severe damage to electronic equipment. However, many ESD events occur without a visible or audible spark, a person carrying a relatively small electric charge may not feel a discharge that is sufficient to damage sensitive electronic components. Some devices may be damaged by discharges as small as 30V and these invisible forms of ESD can cause outright device failures, or less obvious forms of degradation that may affect the long term reliability and performance of electronic devices. The degradation in some devices may not become evident until well into their service life, a spark is triggered when the electric field strength exceeds approximately 4–30 kV/cm — the dielectric field strength of air. Perhaps the best known example of a spark is lightning
Electrostatic discharge
–
A portion of a
static discharger on an aircraft. Note the two sharp 3/8" metal micropoints and the protective yellow plastic.
Electrostatic discharge
–
Lightning over Rymań. Northern
Poland.
Electrostatic discharge
–
A
network card inside an
antistatic bag, a bag made of a partially conductive plastic that acts as a
Faraday cage, shielding the card from ESD.
Electrostatic discharge
–
Electric discharge showing the ribbon-like
plasma filaments from multiple discharges from a
Tesla coil.
38.
Capacitance
–
Capacitance is the ability of a body to store an electric charge. There are two related notions of capacitance--self capacitance and mutual capacitance--that are usually both designated by the same term, capacitance. Any object that can be electrically charged exhibits self capacitance, a material with a large self capacitance holds more electric charge at a given voltage, than one with low capacitance. The notion of mutual capacitance is important for understanding the operations of the capacitor. The capacitance is a function only of the geometry of the design, for many dielectric materials, the permittivity and thus the capacitance, is independent of the potential difference between the conductors and the total charge on them. The SI unit of capacitance is the farad, named after the English physicist Michael Faraday, a 1 farad capacitor, when charged with 1 coulomb of electrical charge, has a potential difference of 1 volt between its plates. In electrical circuits, the capacitance is usually a shorthand for the mutual capacitance between two adjacent conductors, such as the two plates of a capacitor. It is actually mutual capacitance between the turns of the coil and is a form of stray, or parasitic capacitance. This self-capacitance is an important consideration at high frequencies and it changes the impedance of the coil and gives rise to parallel resonance. In many applications this is an effect and sets an upper frequency limit for the correct operation of the circuit. The inverse of capacitance is called elastance, the unit of elastance is the daraf, but is not recognised by SI. A common form is a capacitor, which consists of two conductive plates insulated from each other, usually sandwiching a dielectric material. In a parallel capacitor, capacitance is very nearly proportional to the surface area of the conductor plates. If the charges on the plates are +q and −q, and V gives the voltage between the plates, then the capacitance C is given by C = q V. which gives the voltage/current relationship I = C d V d t. Historically, a farad was regarded as a large unit. Its subdivisions were invariably used, namely the microfarad, nanofarad and picofarad, more recently, technology has advanced such that capacitors of 1 farad and greater can be constructed in a structure little larger than a coin battery. Such capacitors are used for energy storage replacing more traditional batteries. The energy stored in a capacitor is found by integrating the work W, W charging =12 C V2 The discussion above is limited to the case of two conducting plates, although of arbitrary size and shape
Capacitance
39.
Luigi Galvani
–
Luigi Aloisio Galvani was an Italian physician, physicist, biologist and philosopher, who discovered animal electricity. He is recognized as the pioneer of bioelectromagnetics, in 1780, he discovered that the muscles of dead frogs legs twitched when struck by an electrical spark. This was one of the first forays into the study of bioelectricity, Luigi Galvani was born to Domenico and Barbara Foschi, in Bologna, Papal State. Domenico was a goldsmith and Barbara was his fourth wife and his family was not aristocratic, but they could afford to send at least one of their sons to study at a university. At first Galvani wished to enter the church, so he joined a religious institution, Oratorio dei Padri Filippini, at 15 years old. He planned to take vows, but his parents persuaded him not to do so. Around 1755, Galvani entered the Faculty of the Arts of the University of Bologna, Galvani attended the medicine course, which lasted four years, and was characterized by its bookish teaching. Texts that dominated this course were by Hippocrates, Galen, another discipline Galvani learned alongside medicine was surgery. He learned the theory and the practice and this part of his biography is typically overlooked, but it helped with his experiments with animals and helped familiarize Galvani with the manipulation of a living body. In 1759, Galvani graduated with degrees in medicine and philosophy and he applied for a position as a lecturer at the university. Part of this required him to defend his thesis on 21 June 1761. In the following year,1762, he became a permanent anatomist of the university and was appointed lecturer of surgery. That same year he married Lucia Galeazzi, daughter of one of his professors, Galvani moved into the Galeazzi house and helped with his father-in-laws research. When Galeazzi died in 1775, Galvani was appointed professor and lecturer in Galeazzis place, Galvani moved from the position of lecturer of surgery to theoretical anatomy and obtained an appointment at the Academy of Sciences in 1776. His new appointment consisted of the teaching of anatomy, which was conducted by human dissection. As a Benedectine member of the Academy of Sciences, Galvani had specific responsibilities and his main responsibility was to present at least one research paper every year at the Academy, which Galvani did until his death. There was a publication that collected a selection of the memoirs presented at the institution and was sent around to main scientific academies. However, since then was so slow, sometimes there were debates on priority of the topics used
Luigi Galvani
–
Luigi Galvani Italian physician famous for pioneering bioelectricity
Luigi Galvani
–
Electrodes touch a frog, and the legs twitch into the upward position
Luigi Galvani
–
Luigi Galvani's
monument in Piazza Luigi Galvani (Luigi Galvani Square), in
Bologna
40.
Electrolyte
–
An electrolyte is a substance that produces an electrically conducting solution when dissolved in a polar solvent, such as water. The dissolved electrolyte separates into cations and anions, which disperse uniformly through the solvent, electrically, such a solution is neutral. The movement of anions and cations in opposite directions within the solution amounts to a current and this includes most soluble salts, acids, and bases. Some gases, such as chloride, under conditions of high temperature or low pressure can also function as electrolytes. Electrolyte solutions can also result from the dissolution of some biological and synthetic polymers, termed polyelectrolytes, a substance that dissociates into ions in solution acquires the capacity to conduct electricity. Sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, magnesium, and phosphate are examples of electrolytes, in medicine, electrolyte replacement is needed when a patient has prolonged vomiting or diarrhea, and as a response to strenuous athletic activity. Commercial electrolyte solutions are available, particularly for children and athletes. Electrolyte monitoring is important in the treatment of anorexia and bulimia, the word electrolyte derives from the Greek lytós, meaning able to be untied or loosened. Arrheniuss explanation was that in forming a solution, the salt dissociates into charged particles, faradays belief had been that ions were produced in the process of electrolysis. Arrhenius proposed that, even in the absence of an electric current and he thus proposed that chemical reactions in solution were reactions between ions. For example, carbon dioxide gas dissolves in water to produce a solution that contains hydronium, carbonate, molten salts can also be electrolytes as, for example, when sodium chloride is molten, the liquid conducts electricity. An electrolyte in a solution may be described as concentrated if it has a concentration of ions. If a high proportion of the solute dissociates to form ions, the electrolyte is strong, if most of the solute does not dissociate. The properties of electrolytes may be exploited using electrolysis to extract constituent elements, in physiology, the primary ions of electrolytes are sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, hydrogen phosphate, and hydrogen carbonate. The electric charge symbols of plus and minus indicate that the substance is ionic in nature and has a distribution of electrons. Sodium is the main electrolyte found in extracellular fluid and potassium is the main intracellular electrolyte, all known higher lifeforms require a subtle and complex electrolyte balance between the intracellular and extracellular environments. In particular, the maintenance of precise osmotic gradients of electrolytes is important, such gradients affect and regulate the hydration of the body as well as blood pH, and are critical for nerve and muscle function. Various mechanisms exist in living species that keep the concentrations of different electrolytes under tight control, both muscle tissue and neurons are considered electric tissues of the body
Electrolyte
–
Types
41.
Electromotive force
–
Electromotive force, also called emf, is the voltage developed by any source of electrical energy such as a battery or dynamo. It is generally defined as the potential for a source in a circuit. A device that supplies electrical energy is called electromotive force or emf, emfs convert chemical, mechanical, and other forms of energy into electrical energy. The product of such a device is known as emf. The word force in case is not used to mean mechanical force, measured in newtons. In electromagnetic induction, emf can be defined around a loop as the electromagnetic work that would be done on a charge if it travels once around that loop. This potential difference can drive a current if a circuit is attached to the terminals. Devices that can provide emf include electrochemical cells, thermoelectric devices, solar cells, photodiodes, electrical generators, transformer, in nature, emf is generated whenever magnetic field fluctuations occur through a surface. The shifting of the Earths magnetic field during a geomagnetic storm, … By chemical, mechanical or other means, the source of emf performs work dW on that charge to move it to the high potential terminal. The emf ℰ of the source is defined as the work dW done per charge dq, in the open-circuit case, charge separation continues until the electrical field from the separated charges is sufficient to arrest the reactions. Again the emf is countered by the voltage due to charge separation. If a load is attached, this voltage can drive a current, the general principle governing the emf in such electrical machines is Faradays law of induction. Electromotive force is often denoted by E or ℰ, in a device without internal resistance, if an electric charge Q passes through that device, and gains an energy W, the net emf for that device is the energy gained per unit charge, or J/Q. Like other measures of energy per charge, emf has SI units of volts, Electromotive force in electrostatic units is the statvolt. Inside a source of emf that is open-circuited, the electrostatic field created by separation of charge exactly cancels the forces producing the emf. Thus, the emf has the same value but opposite sign as the integral of the field aligned with an internal path between two terminals A and B of a source of emf in open-circuit condition. This equation applies only to locations A and B that are terminals and this equation involves the electrostatic electric field due to charge separation Ecs and does not involve any non-conservative component of electric field due to Faradays law of induction. The electrostatic field does not contribute to the net emf around a circuit because the portion of the electric field is conservative
Electromotive force
–
A typical reaction path requires the initial reactants to cross an energy barrier, enter an intermediate state and finally emerge in a lower energy configuration. If charge separation is involved, this energy difference can result in an emf. See Bergmann et al. and
Transition state.
Electromotive force
–
Solar cell voltage as a function of solar cell current delivered to a load for two light-induced currents I L; currents as a ratio with reverse saturation current I 0. Compare with Fig. 1.4 in Nelson.
42.
Galvanic cell
–
It generally consists of two different metals connected by a salt bridge, or individual half-cells separated by a porous membrane. Volta was the inventor of the pile, the first electrical battery. In common usage, the battery has come to include a single galvanic cell. In 1780, Luigi Galvani discovered that two different metals are connected and then both touched at the same time to two different parts of a nerve of a frog leg, then the leg contracts. The voltaic pile, invented by Alessandro Volta in the 1800s, however, Volta built it entirely out of non-biological material in order to challenge Galvanis animal electricity theory in favour of his own metal-metal contact electricity theory. Carlo Matteucci in his turn constructed a battery out of biological material in answer to Volta. These discoveries paved the way for electrical batteries, Voltas cell was named an IEEE Milestone in 1999 and it was suggested by Wilhelm König in 1940 that the object known as the Baghdad battery might represent galvanic cell technology from ancient Parthia. Replicas filled with acid or grape juice have been shown to produce a voltage. However, it is far from certain that this was its purpose—other scholars have pointed out that it is similar to vessels known to have been used for storing parchment scrolls. In its simplest form, a half-cell consists of a metal that is submerged in a solution. This reduction reaction causes the electrons throughout the metal-B electrode, the wire. By definition, The anode is the electrode where oxidation takes place, in a cell, it is the negative electrode, as when oxidation occurs. These electrons then migrate to the cathode, however, in electrolysis, an electric current stimulates electron flow in the opposite direction. Thus, the anode is positive, and the statement anode attracts anions is true, the metal-A electrode is the anode. Instead, there is a tendency for aqueous ions to be reduced by the incoming electrons from the anode. However, in electrolysis, the cathode is the negative terminal, in this situation, the statement the cathode attracts cations is true. The metal-B electrode is the cathode, copper readily oxidizes zinc, for the Daniell cell depicted in the figure, the anode is zinc and the cathode is copper, and the anions in the solutions are sulfates of the respective metals. When an electrically conducting device connects the electrodes, the reaction is, Zn + Cu2+ → Zn2++ Cu The zinc electrode is dissolved
Galvanic cell
–
Contents
43.
Electrode
–
An electrode is an electrical conductor used to make contact with a nonmetallic part of a circuit. The word was coined by William Whewell at the request of the scientist Michael Faraday from the Greek words elektron, meaning amber, and hodos, an electrode in an electrochemical cell is referred to as either an anode or a cathode. The anode is now defined as the electrode at which electrons leave the cell and oxidation occurs, each electrode may become either the anode or the cathode depending on the direction of current through the cell. A bipolar electrode is an electrode that functions as the anode of one cell, a primary cell is a special type of electrochemical cell in which the reaction cannot be reversed, and the identities of the anode and cathode are therefore fixed. The anode is always the negative electrode, the cell can be discharged but not recharged. A secondary cell, for example a rechargeable battery, is a cell in which the reactions are reversible. When the cell is being charged, the anode becomes the positive and this is also the case in an electrolytic cell. When the cell is being discharged, it behaves like a cell, with the anode as the negative. In a vacuum tube or a semiconductor having polarity the anode is the positive electrode, the electrons enter the device through the cathode and exit the device through the anode. Many devices have other electrodes to control operation, e. g. base, gate, control grid. In a three-electrode cell, an electrode, also called an auxiliary electrode, is used only to make a connection to the electrolyte so that a current can be applied to the working electrode. The counter electrode is made of an inert material, such as a noble metal or graphite. In arc welding an electrode is used to conduct current through a workpiece to fuse two pieces together. Depending upon the process, the electrode is either consumable, in the case of gas metal arc welding or shielded metal arc welding, or non-consumable, such as in gas tungsten arc welding. For a direct current system the weld rod or stick may be a cathode for a filling type weld or an anode for other welding processes, for an alternating current arc welder the welding electrode would not be considered an anode or cathode. Electrodes are used to provide current through nonmetal objects to them in numerous ways. These electrodes are used for advanced purposes in research and investigation
Electrode
–
Electrodes used in
arc welding
44.
Zinc
–
Zinc is a chemical element with the symbol Zn and atomic number 30. It is the first element in group 12 of the periodic table, in some respects zinc is chemically similar to magnesium, both elements exhibit only one normal oxidation state, and the Zn2+ and Mg2+ ions are of similar size. Zinc is the 24th most abundant element in Earths crust and has five stable isotopes, the most common zinc ore is sphalerite, a zinc sulfide mineral. The largest workable lodes are in Australia, Asia, and the United States, Zinc is refined by froth flotation of the ore, roasting, and final extraction using electricity. Zinc metal was not produced on a large scale until the 12th century in India and was unknown to Europe until the end of the 16th century, the mines of Rajasthan have given definite evidence of zinc production going back to the 6th century BC. To date, the oldest evidence of pure zinc comes from Zawar, in Rajasthan, alchemists burned zinc in air to form what they called philosophers wool or white snow. The element was named by the alchemist Paracelsus after the German word Zinke. German chemist Andreas Sigismund Marggraf is credited with discovering pure metallic zinc in 1746, work by Luigi Galvani and Alessandro Volta uncovered the electrochemical properties of zinc by 1800. Corrosion-resistant zinc plating of iron is the application for zinc. Other applications are in batteries, small non-structural castings. A variety of compounds are commonly used, such as zinc carbonate and zinc gluconate, zinc chloride, zinc pyrithione, zinc sulfide. Zinc is an essential mineral perceived by the public today as being of exceptional biologic and public health importance, Zinc deficiency affects about two billion people in the developing world and is associated with many diseases. In children, deficiency causes growth retardation, delayed sexual maturation, infection susceptibility, enzymes with a zinc atom in the reactive center are widespread in biochemistry, such as alcohol dehydrogenase in humans. Consumption of excess zinc can cause ataxia, lethargy and copper deficiency, Zinc is a bluish-white, lustrous, diamagnetic metal, though most common commercial grades of the metal have a dull finish.6 pm. The metal is hard and brittle at most temperatures but becomes malleable between 100 and 150 °C, above 210 °C, the metal becomes brittle again and can be pulverized by beating. Zinc is a conductor of electricity. For a metal, zinc has relatively low melting and boiling points, the melting point is the lowest of all the transition metals aside from mercury and cadmium. Many alloys contain zinc, including brass, Other metals long known to form binary alloys with zinc are aluminium, antimony, bismuth, gold, iron, lead, mercury, silver, tin, magnesium, cobalt, nickel, tellurium, and sodium
Zinc
–
Zinc, 30 Zn
Zinc
–
Sphalerite (ZnS)
Zinc
–
Zinc acetate
Zinc
–
Zinc chloride
45.
Copper
–
Copper is a chemical element with symbol Cu and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of copper has a reddish-orange color. Copper is one of the few metals that occur in nature in directly usable metallic form as opposed to needing extraction from an ore and this led to very early human use, from c.8000 BC. Copper used in buildings, usually for roofing, oxidizes to form a green verdigris, Copper is sometimes used in decorative art, both in its elemental metal form and in compounds as pigments. Copper compounds are used as agents, fungicides, and wood preservatives. Copper is essential to all living organisms as a trace dietary mineral because it is a key constituent of the enzyme complex cytochrome c oxidase. In molluscs and crustaceans, copper is a constituent of the blood pigment hemocyanin, replaced by the hemoglobin in fish. In humans, copper is found mainly in the liver, muscle, the adult body contains between 1.4 and 2.1 mg of copper per kilogram of body weight. The filled d-shells in these elements contribute little to interatomic interactions, unlike metals with incomplete d-shells, metallic bonds in copper are lacking a covalent character and are relatively weak. This observation explains the low hardness and high ductility of single crystals of copper, at the macroscopic scale, introduction of extended defects to the crystal lattice, such as grain boundaries, hinders flow of the material under applied stress, thereby increasing its hardness. For this reason, copper is supplied in a fine-grained polycrystalline form. The softness of copper partly explains its high conductivity and high thermal conductivity. The maximum permissible current density of copper in open air is approximately 3. 1×106 A/m2 of cross-sectional area, Copper is one of a few metallic elements with a natural color other than gray or silver. Pure copper is orange-red and acquires a reddish tarnish when exposed to air, as with other metals, if copper is put in contact with another metal, galvanic corrosion will occur. A green layer of verdigris can often be seen on old structures, such as the roofing of many older buildings. Copper tarnishes when exposed to sulfur compounds, with which it reacts to form various copper sulfides. There are 29 isotopes of copper, 63Cu and 65Cu are stable, with 63Cu comprising approximately 69% of naturally occurring copper, both have a spin of 3⁄2
Copper
–
Native copper (~4 cm in size)
Copper
–
A copper disc (99.95% pure) made by
continuous casting;
etched to reveal
crystallites.
Copper
–
Copper just above its melting point keeps its pink luster color when enough light outshines the orange
incandescence color.
Copper
–
Unoxidized copper wire (left) and oxidized copper wire (right).
46.
Brine
–
Brine is a solution of salt in water. In different contexts, brine may refer to salt solutions ranging from about 3. 5% up to about 26%, fahrenheit could reliably reproduce by freezing brine. By reference, seawater usually freezes at −2 °C, at 100 °C, saturated sodium chloride brine is about 28% salt by weight. At 0 °C, brine can only hold about 26% salt, the thermal conductivity of seawater is 0.6 W/mK at 25 °C. The majority of hydrogen produced through electrolysis is a side product in the production of chlorine. 2 NaCl +2 H2O →2 NaOH + H2 + Cl2 Brine is a fluid used in large refrigeration installations for the transport of thermal energy from place to place. The lowest freezing point obtainable for NaCl brine is −21.1 °C at 23. 3wt% NaCl and this is called the eutectic point. In lower temperatures, a solution can be used to de-ice or reduce freezing temperatures on roads. In cooking, brine is used for food brining and salting, in hydrology, brine is a form of salt water, namely, water with relatively high concentration of salt. Brine mining Saline water Brackish water
Brine
–
A NASA technician measures the concentration level of brine using a
hydrometer at a
salt evaporation pond in San Francisco.
47.
William Nicholson (chemist)
–
William Nicholson was a renowned English chemist and writer on natural philosophy and chemistry, as well as a translator, journalist, publisher, scientist, inventor, patent agent and civil engineer. Nicholson was educated in Yorkshire, and after leaving school, he made two voyages as a midshipman in the service of the British East India Company and his first ship was reportedly called The Boston and the second voyage was on board The Gatton. Subsequently, having become acquainted with Josiah Wedgwood in 1775, he moved to Amsterdam, meanwhile, he devoted himself to the preparation of An Introduction to Natural Philosophy, which was published in 1781 and was at once successful. A translation of Voltaires Elements of the Newtonian Philosophy soon followed and he gave much attention to the construction of various machines for comb-cutting, file-making, cylinder printing and other uses—he also invented an areometer. On 12 December 1783, Nicholson was elected to the Chapter Coffee House Philosophical Society and he was proposed by Jean-Hyacinthe Magellan and seconded by horologist John Whitehurst. Nicholson communicated to the Royal Society in 1789 two papers on electrical subjects, the journal included the first comprehensive descriptions of aerodynamics with George Cayleys On Aerial Navigation, which inspired the Wright brothers a hundred years later. In 1799 he established a school in Londons Soho Square, where he taught philosophy and chemistry. In May 1800 he with Anthony Carlisle discovered electrolysis, the decomposition of water into hydrogen and oxygen by voltaic current, the two were then appointed to a chemical investigation committee of the new Royal Institution. But his own interests shortly turned elsewhere, during the later years of his life, Nicholsons attention was chiefly directed to water supply engineering at Portsmouth, at Gosport and in Hammersmith. William Nicholson died in Bloomsbury at the age of 61 on 21 May 1815, attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Nicholson, William
William Nicholson (chemist)
–
William Nicholson
48.
Tiberius Cavallo
–
Tiberius Cavallo was an Italian physicist and natural philosopher. He was born at Naples, where his father was a physician, in 1771 he came to England with the intention of pursuing a mercantile career, but he soon turned his attention to scientific work. He made several improvements in scientific instruments. He became a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1779, and he also worked on refrigeration, and his work influenced pioneer balloonist Jean-Pierre Blanchard. He died in London on 21 December 1809 and he is buried in Old St Pancras Churchyard. The grave is lost but he is listed on the Burdett Coutts memorial of 1879 to the important persons buried therein. For Reess Cyclopædia he contributed articles on Electricity, Machinery and Mechanics and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Cavallo, Tiberius. An Account of some new Electrical Experiments by Mr. Tiberius Cavallo communicated by Mr. Henley, F. R. S. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society Vol.67 December 1777 pages 48–55
Tiberius Cavallo
–
Tiberius Cavallo
Tiberius Cavallo
–
Tiberius Cavallo, 1790, National Portrait Gallery, London
Tiberius Cavallo
–
The Burdett Coutts memorial, Old St Pancras - Cavallo's name is towards the bottom
49.
Abraham Bennet
–
Abraham Bennet FRS was an English clergyman and physicist, the inventor of the gold-leaf electroscope and developer of an improved magnetometer. Though he was cited by Alessandro Volta as a key influence on his own work, Abraham was baptised in Taxal, Derbyshire, the son of another Abraham Bennet, a schoolmaster, and his wife Ann née Fallowes. There is no record of him having attended university but he is recorded as a teacher at Wirksworth Grammar School as MA. He was ordained in London in 1775 and appointed curate at Tideswell and, one year later and he further became rector of Fenny Bentley, domestic chaplain to the Duke of Devonshire, perpetual curate of Woburn and librarian to the Duke of Bedford. Bennet had broad interests in philosophy and was associated with, though not a member of, the Lunar Society. He was particularly close to Erasmus Darwin, Darwin suggested that Bennet make electrical measurements as part of an investigation into electricity and weather. Bennet published New Experiments on Electricity in 1789, Bennets work was a key element in leading Volta to the contact theory and the development of the voltaic pile. Bennet described experiments with an electrophorus and the generation of electricity by evaporation, Bennet extended his thinking into various theories about electricity and weather, with electrical explanations of the aurora borealis and meteors. He interpreted lightning as the release of charge from clouds. Among Bennets other patrons were Joseph Banks, George Adams and the Wirksworth squires, Bennet found it increasingly necessary to take sides, signing the Gells petition against Jacobinism in 1795. Bennets scientific work ends around this date, possibly from ill-health and he married Jane and the couple had six daughters and two sons. Bennet died of a severe illness, fellow of the Royal Society, There is a memorial plaque in St Marys Church, Wirksworth and a portrait by an unknown artist. Obituary, Derby Mercury,23 May 1799 Elliott, P, a provincial electrician in eighteenth-century England. Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London, Electricity in the 17th and 18th Centuries, A Study of Early Modern Physics. A Bibliographical History of Electricity and Magnetism, schaffer, S. Bennet, Abraham, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, accessed 2 September 2007 Shurlock, F. W. Abraham Bennet FRS. The detection and estimation of electric charges in the eighteenth century
Abraham Bennet
–
Portrait of Bennet by an unknown artist (Wirksworth Church)
50.
Sulfuric acid
–
Sulfuric acid is a highly corrosive strong mineral acid with the molecular formula H2SO4 and molecular weight 98.079 g/mol. It is a pungent-ethereal, colorless to slightly yellow liquid that is soluble in water at all concentrations. Sometimes, it is dyed dark brown during production to alert people to its hazards, the historical name of this acid is oil of vitriol. Sulfuric acid is an acid and shows different properties depending upon its concentration. Its corrosiveness on other materials, like metals, living tissues or even stones, can be ascribed to its strong acidic nature and, if concentrated. It is also hygroscopic, readily absorbing water vapour from the air, Sulfuric acid at a high concentration can cause very serious damage upon contact, since not only does it cause chemical burns via hydrolysis, but also secondary thermal burns through dehydration. It can lead to permanent blindness if splashed onto eyes and irreversible damage if swallowed, Sulfuric acid has a wide range of applications including in domestic acidic drain cleaners, as an electrolyte in lead-acid batteries and in various cleaning agents. It is also a central substance in the chemical industry, principal uses include mineral processing, fertilizer manufacturing, oil refining, wastewater processing, and chemical synthesis. It is widely produced with different methods, such as process, wet sulfuric acid process, lead chamber process. The study of vitriol, a category of glassy minerals from which the acid can be derived, sumerians had a list of types of vitriol that they classified according to the substances color. Some of the earliest discussions on the origin and properties of vitriol is in the works of the Greek physician Dioscorides, galen also discussed its medical use. Ibn Sina focused on its uses and different varieties of vitriol. Sulfuric acid was called oil of vitriol by medieval European alchemists because it was prepared by roasting green vitriol in an iron retort, there are references to it in the works of Vincent of Beauvais and in the Compositum de Compositis ascribed to Saint Albertus Magnus. A passage from Pseudo-Geber´s Summa Perfectionis was long considered to be the first recipe for sulfuric acid, in the seventeenth century, the German-Dutch chemist Johann Glauber prepared sulfuric acid by burning sulfur together with saltpeter, in the presence of steam. As saltpeter decomposes, it oxidizes the sulfur to SO3, in 1736, Joshua Ward, a London pharmacist, used this method to begin the first large-scale production of sulfuric acid. This process allowed the effective industrialization of sulfuric acid production, after several refinements, this method, called the lead chamber process or chamber process, remained the standard for sulfuric acid production for almost two centuries. Sulfuric acid created by John Roebucks process approached a 65% concentration, later refinements to the lead chamber process by French chemist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and British chemist John Glover improved concentration to 78%. However, the manufacture of dyes and other chemical processes require a more concentrated product
Sulfuric acid
–
Sulfuric acid
Sulfuric acid
Sulfuric acid
–
John Dalton 's 1808 sulfuric acid molecule shows a central
sulfur atom bonded to three oxygen atoms, or
sulfur trioxide, the
anhydride of sulfuric acid.
Sulfuric acid
–
Drops of concentrated sulfuric acid rapidly decompose a piece of cotton towel by dehydration.
.jpeg)
Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Alessandro Volta". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "
