1.
Carl Van Vechten
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Carl Van Vechten was an American writer and artistic photographer who was a patron of the Harlem Renaissance and the literary executor of Gertrude Stein. Born in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, he was the youngest child of Charles and he graduated from Washington High School in 1898, and later the University of Chicago in 1903. In 1906, he moved to New York City and he was hired as the assistant music critic at The New York Times. His interest in opera had him take a leave of absence from the paper in 1907, while in England he married his long-time friend from Cedar Rapids, Anna Snyder. He returned to his job at the New York Times in 1909, at that time, Isadora Duncan, Anna Pavlova, and Loie Fuller were performing in New York City. The marriage to Anna Snyder ended in divorce in 1912 and he wed actress Fania Marinoff in 1914 and their marriage lasted until the end of his life, even while his relationships with men were an open secret. They continued corresponding for the remainder of Steins life, and at her death she appointed Van Vechten her literary executor, several books of Van Vechtens essays on various subjects such as music and literature were published between 1915 and 1920. Van Vechtens controversial novel Nigger Heaven was published in 1926 and his essay Negro Blues Singers was published in Vanity Fair in 1926. Biographer Edward White suggests Van Vechten was convinced that Negro culture was the essence of America, by the start of the 1930s and at age 50, Van Vechten was finished with writing and took up photography, using his apartment at 150 West 55th Street as a studio. After the 1930s Van Vechten published little writing, though he continued writing letters to many correspondents, Van Vechten died in 1964, at the age of 84, in New York City. Most of Van Vechtens personal papers are held by the Beinecke Rare Book, the Beinecke Library also holds a collection titled Living Portraits, Carl Van Vechtens Color Photographs Of African Americans, 1939–1964, a collection of 1,884 color Kodachrome slides. The Library of Congress has a collection of approximately 1,400 photographs, there is also a collection of Van Vechtens photographs in the Prentiss Taylor collection in the Smithsonians Archives of American Art, and a Van Vechten collection at Fisk University. The Museum of the City of New Yorks collection includes 2,174 of Carl Van Vechtens photographs, brandeis Universitys department of Archives & Special Collections holds 1,689 Carl Van Vechten portraits. Van Vechten also donated materials to Fisk University to form the George Gershwin Memorial Collection of Music, the album ’O, Write My Name’, American Portraits, Harlem Heroes was completed in 1983. That year, the National Endowment for the Arts transferred the Eakins Press Foundation’s prototype albums to the permanent collection of the Smithsonian American Art Museum, dust Tracks on a Road, An Autobiography. Guide to the Carl Van Vechten papers, 1833–1965, manuscripts and Archives, New York Public Library. Carl Van Vechten collection of papers, 1911–1964, berg Collection of English and American Literature, New York Public Library
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Lawnton, Pennsylvania
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Lawnton is an unincorporated area and census-designated place in Swatara Township, Dauphin County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 3,813 at the 2010 census and it is part of the Harrisburg–Carlisle Metropolitan Statistical Area. Lawnton is the birthplace of Alexander Calder, a sculptor who is best known as the originator of the mobile, lawnton is located in southern Dauphin County at 40°15′41″N 76°48′11″W. It is in northern Swatara Township and is bordered to the east by the community of Rutherford, interstate 83 forms the western edge of the CDP. Harrisburg, the capital, is 5 miles to the west. According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has an area of 1.2 square miles. As of the census of 2000, there were 3,787 people,1,581 households, the population density was 3,342.3 people per square mile. There were 1,630 housing units at a density of 1,438. 6/sq mi. The racial makeup of the CDP was 80. 09% White,14. 44% African American,0. 08% Native American,1. 77% Asian,1. 35% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 3. 80% of the population. 28. 7% of all households were made up of individuals, the average household size was 2.38 and the average family size was 2.92. In the CDP, the population was out, with 25. 0% under the age of 18,8. 1% from 18 to 24,33. 2% from 25 to 44,20. 8% from 45 to 64. The median age was 37 years, for every 100 females there were 88.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 84.2 males, the median income for a household in the CDP was $49,737, and the median income for a family was $57,003. Males had an income of $42,038 versus $29,125 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $24,342, about 6. 9% of families and 7. 4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 11. 3% of those under age 18 and 8. 4% of those age 65 or over
3.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
4.
Stevens Institute of Technology
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Stevens Institute of Technology is a private, coeducational research university located in Hoboken, New Jersey, United States. The university also has a location in Washington, D. C. Incorporated in 1870, it is one of the oldest technological universities in the United States, the campus encompasses Castle Point, the highest point in Hoboken, and several other buildings around the city. The university is home to three national Centers of Excellence as designated by the U. S. Department of Defense and U. S. Department of Homeland Security. Two members of the Stevens community, as alumni or faculty, have awarded the Nobel Prize, Frederick Reines, in Physics. Dr. Nariman Farvardin is the president of Stevens. He took office on July 1,2011, Stevens Institute of Technology is named after a family of accomplished inventors and engineers who also oversaw the development of Hoboken from an old farm into a thriving city. This innovation would be employed by ferries to Manhattan which still run from Hobokens piers, along with his brother Edwin A. Stevens, Robert created Americas first commercial railroad presently operating as a large portion of Amtrak’s Northeast Corridor. John Cox Stevens, John Stevens eldest son, was the first commodore of the New York Yacht Club, the NY Yacht Club would defend its title until the 1983 race. In his will, he left a bequest for the establishment of an institution of learning, providing his trustees with land, edwin’s will was executed by surviving wife Martha Stevens who would also serve as a lifetime Trustee of the Institute. Stevens Fund for Municipal Research, manual training schools for boys and young girls in Hoboken, the Hoboken Public Library and Manual Training School. Stevens Institute of Technology opened in 1870 and initially was dedicated to mechanical engineering, the original course of study was a single, rigorous curriculum based upon the European Polytechnic model of engineering science, rather than the shop schools that were common at that time. Mechanical Engineer was the degree offered, in addition to a Ph. D. in mechanical engineering, chemistry. Stevens granted several Ph. D. s between 1870 and 1900, making it one of the earliest Ph. D. granting institutions in the United States, the broad-based interdisciplinary philosophy was put into practice by the founders from the first graduating class. Despite the title of the degree and concentration in mechanical engineering, the curriculum included courses in all engineering disciplines of the time, mechanical, civil, chemical, and electrical. In 1880, Robert H. Thurston, professor of engineering, was nominated the first president of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. The campus began on the edge of the estate at Castle Point in Hoboken. It occupied a building now designated the Edwin A. Stevens Building
5.
Art Students League of New York
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The Art Students League of New York is an art school located on West 57th Street in Manhattan, New York City, New York. Although artists may study full-time, there have never been any degree programs or grades, the League also maintains a significant permanent collection of student and faculty work, and publishes an online journal of writing on art-related topics, entitled LINEA. The breakaway group of students included women, and was originally housed in rented rooms at 16th Street. Influential board members from this period included painter Thomas Eakins. Membership continued to increase, forcing the League to relocate to larger spaces. In 1889, the League participated in the founding of the American Fine Arts Society, together with the Society of American Artists, the American Fine Arts Building at 215 West 57th Street, constructed as their joint headquarters, has continued to house the League since 1892. In the late 1890s and early 1900s an increasing number of artists came to study. Among them was a young Miss Wilhelmina Weber Furlong and eventually her husband Thomas Furlong, the avant-garde couple served the league in executive and administrative roles and as student members throughout the American modernism movement. Alice Van Vechten Brown, who would later develop some of the first art programs in American higher education, in the years after World War II, the G. I. Bill played an important role in the history of the League by enabling returning veterans to attend classes. As of 2010, the League remains an important part of New York City art life, from 1906 until 1922, and again after the end of World War II from 1947 until 1979, the League operated a summer school of painting at Woodstock, New York. In 1995, the Leagues facilities expanded to include the Vytlacil campus in Sparkill, New York, named after and based upon a gift of the property, since its inception, the Art Students League has employed notable professional artists as instructors and lecturers. Most engagements have been for a year or two, and some, like those of sculptor George Grey Barnard, were quite brief. Others have taught for decades, notably Frank DuMond and George Bridgman, bridgmans successor was Robert Beverly Hale. In 1988, Robert Cenedella took over the George Grosz Chair, luis Mora, Robert Neffson, Maxfield Parrish, Jules Pascin, Joseph Pennell, Richard C. Pionk, Larry Poons, Richard Pousette-Dart, Abraham Rattner, Peter Reginato, Frank J. Alden Weir, and William Zorach
6.
Sculpture
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Sculpture is the branch of the visual arts that operates in three dimensions. It is one of the plastic arts, a wide variety of materials may be worked by removal such as carving, assembled by welding or modelling, or molded, or cast. However, most ancient sculpture was painted, and this has been lost. Those cultures whose sculptures have survived in quantities include the cultures of the ancient Mediterranean, India and China, the Western tradition of sculpture began in ancient Greece, and Greece is widely seen as producing great masterpieces in the classical period. During the Middle Ages, Gothic sculpture represented the agonies and passions of the Christian faith, the revival of classical models in the Renaissance produced famous sculptures such as Michelangelos David. Relief is often classified by the degree of projection from the wall into low or bas-relief, high relief, sunk-relief is a technique restricted to ancient Egypt. Relief sculpture may also decorate steles, upright slabs, usually of stone, techniques such as casting, stamping and moulding use an intermediate matrix containing the design to produce the work, many of these allow the production of several copies. The term sculpture is used mainly to describe large works. The very large or colossal statue has had an enduring appeal since antiquity, another grand form of portrait sculpture is the equestrian statue of a rider on horse, which has become rare in recent decades. The smallest forms of life-size portrait sculpture are the head, showing just that, or the bust, small forms of sculpture include the figurine, normally a statue that is no more than 18 inches tall, and for reliefs the plaquette, medal or coin. Sculpture is an important form of public art, a collection of sculpture in a garden setting can be called a sculpture garden. One of the most common purposes of sculpture is in form of association with religion. Cult images are common in cultures, though they are often not the colossal statues of deities which characterized ancient Greek art. The actual cult images in the innermost sanctuaries of Egyptian temples, of which none have survived, were rather small. The same is true in Hinduism, where the very simple. Some undoubtedly advanced cultures, such as the Indus Valley civilization, appear to have had no monumental sculpture at all, though producing very sophisticated figurines, the Mississippian culture seems to have been progressing towards its use, with small stone figures, when it collapsed. Other cultures, such as ancient Egypt and the Easter Island culture, from the 20th century the relatively restricted range of subjects found in large sculpture expanded greatly, with abstract subjects and the use or representation of any type of subject now common. Today much sculpture is made for intermittent display in galleries and museums, small sculpted fittings for furniture and other objects go well back into antiquity, as in the Nimrud ivories, Begram ivories and finds from the tomb of Tutankhamun
7.
Kinetic art
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Kinetic art is art from any medium that contains movement perceivable by the viewer or depends on motion for its effect. Canvas paintings that extend the viewers perspective of the artwork and incorporate multidimensional movement are the earliest examples of kinetic art, more pertinently speaking, kinetic art is a term that today most often refers to three-dimensional sculptures and figures such as mobiles that move naturally or are machine operated. The moving parts are generally powered by wind, a motor or the observer, Kinetic art encompasses a wide variety of overlapping techniques and styles. There is also a portion of art that includes virtual movement. This term also clashes frequently with the apparent movement, which many people use when referring to an artwork whose movement is created by motors, machines. Both apparent and virtual movement are styles of art that only recently have been argued as styles of op art. Kinetic art as a developed from a number of sources. This triumvirate of impressionist painters all sought to create art that was more lifelike than their contemporaries, by the early 1900s, certain artists grew closer and closer to ascribing their art to dynamic motion. Naum Gabo, one of the two artists attributed to naming this style, wrote frequently about his work as examples of kinetic rhythm and he felt that his moving sculpture Kinetic Construction was the first of its kind in the 20th century. From the 1920s until the 1960s, the style of art was reshaped by a number of other artists who experimented with mobiles. The strides made by artists to lift the figures and scenery off the page and prove undeniably that art is not rigid took significant innovations, Édouard Manet, Edgar Degas, and Claude Monet were the three artists of the 19th century that initiated those changes in the Impressionist movement. Even though they each took unique approaches to incorporating movement in their works, in the same period, Auguste Rodin was an artist whose early works spoke in support of the developing kinetic movement in art. It is almost impossible to ascribe Manets work to any one era or style of art, one of his works that is truly on the brink of a new style is Le Ballet Espagnol. The figures contours coincide with their gestures as a way to suggest depth in relation to one another, Manet also accentuates the lack of equilibrium in this work to project to the viewer that he or she is on the edge of a moment that is seconds away from passing. The blurred, hazy sense of color and shadow in this work similarly place the viewer in a fleeting moment, in 1863, Manet extended his study of movement on flat canvas with Le déjeuner sur lherbe. The light, color, and composition are the same, the woman bending in the background is not completely scaled as if she were far away from the figures in the foreground. The lack of spacing is Manets method of creating snapshot, near-invasive movement similar to his blurring of the objects in Le Ballet Espagnol. Edgar Degas is believed to be the extension of Manet
8.
Surrealism
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Surrealism is a cultural movement that began in the early 1920s, and is best known for its visual artworks and writings. The aim was to resolve the previously contradictory conditions of dream, leader André Breton was explicit in his assertion that Surrealism was, above all, a revolutionary movement. Surrealism developed out of the Dada activities during World War I, the word surrealist was coined by Guillaume Apollinaire and first appeared in the preface to his play Les Mamelles de Tirésias, which was written in 1903 and first performed in 1917. The Dadaists protested with anti-art gatherings, performances, writings and art works, after the war, when they returned to Paris, the Dada activities continued. Meeting the young writer Jacques Vaché, Breton felt that Vaché was the son of writer. He admired the young writers anti-social attitude and disdain for established artistic tradition, later Breton wrote, In literature, I was successively taken with Rimbaud, with Jarry, with Apollinaire, with Nouveau, with Lautréamont, but it is Jacques Vaché to whom I owe the most. Back in Paris, Breton joined in Dada activities and started the literary journal Littérature along with Louis Aragon and they began experimenting with automatic writing—spontaneously writing without censoring their thoughts—and published the writings, as well as accounts of dreams, in the magazine. Breton and Soupault delved deeper into automatism and wrote The Magnetic Fields, continuing to write, they came to believe that automatism was a better tactic for societal change than the Dada form of attack on prevailing values. They also looked to the Marxist dialectic and the work of such theorists as Walter Benjamin, freuds work with free association, dream analysis, and the unconscious was of utmost importance to the Surrealists in developing methods to liberate imagination. They embraced idiosyncrasy, while rejecting the idea of an underlying madness, as Salvador Dalí later proclaimed, There is only one difference between a madman and me. Beside the use of analysis, they emphasized that one could combine inside the same frame, elements not normally found together to produce illogical. The more the relationship between the two juxtaposed realities is distant and true, the stronger the image will be−the greater its emotional power, the group aimed to revolutionize human experience, in its personal, cultural, social, and political aspects. They wanted to people from false rationality, and restrictive customs. Breton proclaimed that the aim of Surrealism was long live the social revolution. To this goal, at various times Surrealists aligned with communism and anarchism, in 1924 two Surrealist factions declared their philosophy in two separate Surrealist Manifestos. That same year the Bureau of Surrealist Research was established, leading up to 1924, two rival surrealist groups had formed. Each group claimed to be successors of a revolution launched by Guillaume Apollinaire, the other group, led by Breton, included Louis Aragon, Robert Desnos, Paul Éluard, Jacques Baron, Jacques-André Boiffard, Jean Carrive, René Crevel and Georges Malkine, among others. Goll and Breton clashed openly, at one point literally fighting, at the Comédie des Champs-Élysées, in the end, Breton won the battle through tactical and numerical superiority
9.
Presidential Medal of Freedom
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The Presidential Medal of Freedom is an award bestowed by the President of the United States and is—along with the comparable Congressional Gold Medal—the highest civilian award of the United States. The award is not limited to U. S. citizens and, while it is an award, it can also be awarded to military personnel. It was established in 1963 by President John F. Kennedy, President John F. Kennedy established the current decoration in 1963 through Executive Order 11085, with unique and distinctive insignia, vastly expanded purpose, and far higher prestige. It was the first U. S. civilian neck decoration and, in the grade of Awarded With Distinction, is the only U. S. sash and star decoration. The Executive Order calls for the medal to be awarded annually on or around July 4, and at other convenient times as chosen by the president, Recipients are selected by the president, either on his own initiative or based on recommendations. The order establishing the medal also expanded the size and the responsibilities of the Distinguished Civilian Service Awards Board so it could serve as a source of such recommendations. The medal may be awarded to a more than once. It may also be awarded posthumously, examples include John F, golden American bald eagles with spread wings stand between the points of the star. It is worn around the neck on a ribbon with white edge stripes. When the medal With Distinction is awarded, the star may be presented descending from a neck ribbon, the sash and medal of the Presidential Medal of Freedom with distinction has never been worn in public since its inception. Andrew Presidential Medal of Freedom, an article from jfklibrary. org, Presidential Medal of Freedom Recipients, a list of recipients from May 5,1993, through August 19,2009, from senate. gov, the U. S. Senates official website. Hosted on georgewbush-whitehouse. archives. gov, a section of the U. S. National Archives, Medal of Freedom Ceremony, a news release, August 12,2009, from the White House Press Secretary at whitehouse. gov, the White Houses official website. War Figures Honored With Medal of Freedom, The New York Times, December 15,2004
10.
Mobile (sculpture)
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A mobile is a type of kinetic sculpture constructed to take advantage of the principle of equilibrium. It consists of a number of rods, from which weighted objects or further rods hang, the objects hanging from the rods balance each other, so that the rods remain more or less horizontal. Each rod hangs from one string, which gives it freedom to rotate about the string. An ensemble of these balanced parts hang freely in space, by design without coming into contact with each other, Mobiles are popular in the nursery, where they hang over cribs to give infants entertainment and visual stimulation. Mobiles have inspired many composers, including Morton Feldman and Earle Brown who were inspired by Alexander Calders mobiles to create mobile-like indeterminate pieces, frank Zappa also claimed that his compositions were modelled on Calder mobiles. The meaning of the term mobile as applied to sculpture has evolved since it was first suggested by Marcel Duchamp in 1931 to describe the early, at this point, mobile was synonymous with the term kinetic art, describing sculptural works in which motion is a defining property. While motor or crank-driven moving sculptures may have prompted it. Influenced by the work of Piet Mondrian, Joan Miró and Sophie Taeuber-Arp. Thus, mobile has become a more well-defined term with its origin in the many such hanging constructs Calder produced in a prolific manner between the 1930s until his death in 1976. Calders work is the one defined by the term mobile, however. Man Ray experimented with this idea around 1920 and Bruno Munari created his Useless Machines in 1933, made in cardboard, wind chime The Creation of Calder Mobiles Alexander Calders Mobiles by Jean-Paul Sartre, Les Temps Modernes,1963
11.
Museum of Modern Art
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The Museum of Modern Art is an art museum located in Midtown Manhattan in New York City, on 53rd Street between Fifth and Sixth Avenues. MoMA has been important in developing and collecting modernist art, and is identified as one of the largest and most influential museums of modern art in the world. The MoMA Library includes approximately 300,000 books and exhibition catalogs, over 1,000 periodical titles, the archives holds primary source material related to the history of modern and contemporary art. The idea for The Museum of Modern Art was developed in 1929 primarily by Abby Aldrich Rockefeller and they became known variously as the Ladies, the daring ladies and the adamantine ladies. They rented modest quarters for the new museum in the Heckscher Building at 730 Fifth Avenue in Manhattan, and it opened to the public on November 7,1929, nine days after the Wall Street Crash. Abby had invited A. Conger Goodyear, the president of the board of trustees of the Albright Art Gallery in Buffalo, New York. At the time, it was Americas premier museum devoted exclusively to art. One of Abbys early recruits for the staff was the noted Japanese-American photographer Soichi Sunami. Goodyear enlisted Paul J. Sachs and Frank Crowninshield to join him as founding trustees, Sachs, the associate director and curator of prints and drawings at the Fogg Museum at Harvard University, was referred to in those days as a collector of curators. Goodyear asked him to recommend a director and Sachs suggested Alfred H. Barr, under Barrs guidance, the museums holdings quickly expanded from an initial gift of eight prints and one drawing. Its first successful exhibition was in November 1929, displaying paintings by Van Gogh, Gauguin, Cézanne. Abbys husband was opposed to the museum and refused to release funds for the venture. Nevertheless, he donated the land for the current site of the museum, plus other gifts over time. During that time it initiated many more exhibitions of noted artists, the museum also gained international prominence with the hugely successful and now famous Picasso retrospective of 1939–40, held in conjunction with the Art Institute of Chicago. In its range of presented works, it represented a significant reinterpretation of Picasso for future art scholars, Boy Leading a Horse was briefly contested over ownership with the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum. In 1941, MoMA hosted the exhibition, Indian Art of the United States. His brother, David Rockefeller, also joined the board of trustees in 1948. David subsequently employed the noted architect Philip Johnson to redesign the garden and name it in honor of his mother
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Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum
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It is the permanent home of a continuously expanding collection of Impressionist, Post-Impressionist, early Modern and contemporary art and also features special exhibitions throughout the year. The museum was established by the Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation in 1939 as the Museum of Non-Objective Painting, under the guidance of its first director and it adopted its current name after the death of its founder, Solomon R. Guggenheim, in 1952. In 1959, the museum moved from rented space to its current building, designed by Frank Lloyd Wright, the cylindrical building, wider at the top than the bottom, was conceived as a temple of the spirit. Its unique ramp gallery extends up from ground level in a long, the building underwent extensive expansion and renovations in 1992 and from 2005 to 2008. The museums collection has grown organically, over eight decades, and is founded several important private collections. The collection is shared with the museums sister museums in Bilbao, Spain, in 2013, nearly 1.2 million people visited the museum, and it hosted the most popular exhibition in New York City. Solomon R. Guggenheim, a member of a mining family, had been collecting works of the old masters since the 1890s. In 1926, he met artist Hilla von Rebay, who introduced him to European avant-garde art, in abstract art that she felt had a spiritual. Guggenheim completely changed his strategy, turning to the work of Wassily Kandinsky. He began to display his collection to the public at his apartment in the Plaza Hotel in New York City, as the collection grew, he established the Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation, in 1937, to foster the appreciation of modern art. The foundations first venue for the display of art, the Museum of Non-Objective Painting, opened in 1939 under the direction of Rebay, in midtown Manhattan. By the early 1940s, the foundation had accumulated such a collection of avant-garde paintings that the need for a permanent museum building had become apparent. In 1943, Rebay and Guggenheim wrote a letter to Frank Lloyd Wright asking him to design a structure to house, Wright accepted the opportunity to experiment with his organic style in an urban setting. It took him 15 years,700 sketches, and six sets of working drawings to create the museum, in 1948, the collection was greatly expanded through the purchase of art dealer Karl Nierendorfs estate of some 730 objects, notably German expressionist paintings. By that time, the collection included a broad spectrum of expressionist and surrealist works, including paintings by Paul Klee, Oskar Kokoschka. Nevertheless, she left a portion of her collection to the foundation in her will, including works by Kandinsky, Klee, Alexander Calder, Albert Gleizes, Mondrian. The museum was renamed the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in 1952, Rebay conceived of the space as a temple of the spirit that would facilitate a new way of looking at the modern pieces in the collection. She wrote to Wright that each of these great masterpieces should be organized into space, would test the possibilities to do so
13.
Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago
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The Museum of Contemporary Art Chicago is a contemporary art museum near Water Tower Place in downtown Chicago in Cook County, Illinois, United States. The museum, which was established in 1967, is one of the worlds largest contemporary art venues, the museums collection is composed of thousands of objects of Post-World War II visual art. The museum is run gallery-style, with individually curated exhibitions throughout the year, each exhibition may be composed of temporary loans, pieces from their permanent collection, or a combination of the two. The museum has hosted several notable debut exhibitions including Frida Kahlos first U. S. exhibition, Koons later presented an exhibit at the Museum that broke the museums attendance record. To date, the most attended exhibition has been the 2015 David Bowie Is exhibit, the museum also presents dance, theater, music, and multidisciplinary arts. The current location at 220 East Chicago Avenue is in the Streeterville neighborhood of the Near North Side community area, Josef Paul Kleihues designed the current building after the museum conducted a 12-month search, reviewing more than 200 nominations. The museum opened at its new location June 21–22,1996, the museum was originally located at 237 East Ontario Street, which was originally designed as a bakery. It opened in fall 1967 in a space at 237 East Ontario Street that had for a time served as the corporate offices of Playboy Enterprises. Its first director was Jan van der Marck, in 1970 he invited Wolf Vostell to make the Concrete Traffic sculpture in Chicago. Initially, the museum was conceived primarily as a space for temporary exhibitions, however, in 1974, the museum began acquiring a permanent collection of contemporary art objects created after 1945. In 1978, Gordon Matta-Clark executed his major project in the townhouse. In his work Circus Or The Caribbean Orange, Matta-Clark made circle cuts in the walls, in 1991, the museums Board of Trustees contributed $37 million of the expected $55 million construction costs for Chicagos first new museum building in 65 years. In fact, none of the finalists had made any prior structures in Chicago, the selection process, which started with 209 contenders, was based on professional qualifications, recent projects, and the ability to work closely with the staff of the aspiring museum. The physical structure is said to reference the modernism of Mies van der Rohe as well as the tradition of Chicago architecture, the museum operates as a tax-exempt non-profit organization, and its exhibitions, programming, and operations are member-supported and privately funded. It has a board of trustees consisting of four officers,18 life trustees, the current board chair is King Harris. The museum also has a director, who oversees the MCAs staff of about 100, Madeleine Grynsztejn replaced 10-year director Robert Fitzpatrick during the 2008 fiscal year in this capacity, and she is the MCAs first female director. The museum operates with three programming departments, curatorial, performance, and education, peter Taub is the director of performance programs, Heidi Reitmaier is the Beatrice C. Mayer Director of Education, and Teresa Samala de Guzman is the Chief Operating Officer. The curatorial staff consists of Chief Curator Michael Darling, Curator Naomi Beckwith, Curator Lynne Warren, in 2009, the museum reported $17.5 million in both operating income, 50% of which came from contributions, and operating expenses
14.
National Gallery of Art
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The National Gallery of Art, and its attached Sculpture Garden, is a national art museum in Washington, D. C. located on the National Mall, between 3rd and 9th Streets, at Constitution Avenue NW. Open to the public and free of charge, the museum was established in 1937 for the American people by a joint resolution of the United States Congress. Andrew W. Mellon donated an art collection and funds for construction. The Gallery often presents temporary special exhibitions spanning the world and the history of art and it is one of the largest museums in North America. In 1930 Mellon formed the A. W. Mellon Educational and Charitable Trust, when quizzed by Abbot, he explained that the project was in the hands of the Trust and that its decisions were partly dependent on the attitude of the Government towards the gift. Designed by architect John Russell Pope, the new structure was completed and accepted by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on behalf of the American people on March 17,1941. Neither Mellon nor Pope lived to see the completed, both died in late August 1937, only two months after excavation had begun. At the time of its inception it was the largest marble structure in the world, as anticipated by Mellon, the creation of the National Gallery encouraged the donation of other substantial art collections by a number of private donors. The Gallerys East Building was constructed in the 1970s on much of the land left over from the original congressional joint resolution. It was funded by Mellons children Paul Mellon and Ailsa Mellon Bruce, designed by famed architect I. M. Pei, the contemporary structure was completed in 1978 and was opened on June 1 of that year by President Jimmy Carter. The new building was built to house the Museums collection of paintings, drawings, sculptures. The design received a National Honor Award from the American Institute of Architects in 1981, the final addition to the complex is the National Gallery of Art Sculpture Garden. Completed and opened to the public on May 23,1999, the National Gallery of Art is supported through a private-public partnership. The United States federal government provides funds, through annual appropriations, to support the museums operations, all artwork, as well as special programs, are provided through private donations and funds. The museum is not part of the Smithsonian Institution, noted directors of the National Gallery have included David E. Finley, Jr. John Walker, and J. Carter Brown. Rusty Powell III is the current director, entry to both buildings of the National Gallery of Art is free of charge. From Monday through Saturday, the museum is open from 10 a. m. –5 p. m. it is open from 11 –6 p. m. on Sundays and it is closed on December 25 and January 1. The museum comprises two buildings, the West Building and the East Building linked by an underground passage
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Centre Georges Pompidou
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It was designed in the style of high-tech architecture by the architectural team of Richard Rogers and Renzo Piano, along with Gianfranco Franchini. Because of its location, the Centre is known locally as Beaubourg and it is named after Georges Pompidou, the President of France from 1969 to 1974 who commissioned the building, and was officially opened on 31 January 1977 by President Valéry Giscard dEstaing. As of 2006, the Centre Pompidou has had over 180 million visitors since 1977 and more than 5,209,678 visitors in 2013, including 3,746,899 for the museum. The sculpture Horizontal by Alexander Calder, a mobile that is 7.6 m tall, was placed in front of the Centre Pompidou in 2012. Hoping to renew the idea of Paris as a city of culture and art. Paris also needed a large, free library, as one did not exist at this time. At first the debate concerned Les Halles, but as the settled, in 1968. A year later in 1969, the new president adopted the Beaubourg project, in the process of developing the project, the IRCAM was also housed in the complex. By the mid-1980s, the Centre Pompidou was becoming the victim of its huge and unexpected popularity, its activities. By 1992, the Centre de Création Industrielle was incorporated into the Centre Pompidou, since re-opening in 2000 after a three-year renovation, the Centre Pompidou has improved accessibility for visitors. Now they can access the escalators if they pay to enter the museum. The Centre was designed by Italian architect Renzo Piano, British architect Richard Rogers, the project was awarded to this team in an architectural design competition, the results of which were announced in 1971. It was the first time in France that international architects were allowed to participate, world-renowned architects Oscar Niemeyer, Jean Prouvé and Philip Johnson made up the jury which would select one design out of the 681 entries. National Geographic described the reaction to the design as love at second sight, an article in Le Figaro declared Paris has its own monster, just like the one in Loch Ness. The Pritzker jury said the Pompidou revolutionised museums, transforming what had once been elite monuments into popular places of social and cultural exchange, the Centre was built by GTM and completed in 1977. The building cost 993 million 1972 French francs, renovation work conducted from October 1996 to January 2000 was completed on a budget of 576 million 1999 francs. The black-painted mechanical sculptures are by Tinguely, the works by de Saint-Phalle. Video footage of the fountain appeared frequently throughout the French language telecourse, the Place Georges Pompidou in front of the museum is noted for the presence of street performers, such as mimes and jugglers
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Flamingo (sculpture)
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Flamingo, created by noted American artist Alexander Calder, is a 53-foot tall stabile located in the Federal Plaza in front of the Kluczynski Federal Building in Chicago, Illinois, United States. It was commissioned by the United States General Services Administration and was unveiled in 1974, Flamingo weighs 50 tons, is composed of steel, and is vermilion in color. The stabile is an art form which Calder pioneered and it is an abstract structure that is completely stationary, as opposed to a mobile, which can move with air currents. In 2012, the sculpture was repainted using the historic Calder Red color, Flamingo was the first work of art commissioned by the General Services Administration under the federal Percent for Art program, which allocates a percentage of a projects budget to public art. The day was proclaimed Alexander Calder Day and featured a circus parade, despite the large size of the sculpture, its design is such that viewers can walk underneath and around it, thus enabling one to perceive it in human scale. The shape of Flamingo alludes to the natural and animal realm, Calders structure is a prominent example of the constructivist movement, first popularized in Russia in the early 20th century. Constructivism refers to sculpture that is made from pieces which are joined together. A maquette of the stabile was formerly displayed inside the Loop Station post office in the Federal Plaza and it currently resides in the Art Institute of Chicagos Modern Wing. List of public art in Chicago Entry in Inventory of American Sculpture/Save Outdoor Sculpture
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Mountains and Clouds
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Mountains and Clouds is a sculpture by Alexander Calder located in the Hart Senate Office Building. The Hart Senate Office Building, first occupied in 1982 and named for Michigan Senator Philip A. Hart, unlike its predecessors, the Hart Building boasted a contemporary, energy-efficient design that could accommodate a growing number of staff members and various technological innovations. The building’s centerpiece is a towering, asymmetrical 90-foot -high atrium whose skylight brightens corridors, Alexander Calder and four other artists were invited to submit proposals. Calder was approached through his dealer, Klaus Perls, on July 29,1975, a sketch and a model for Mountains and Clouds were submitted by November and, in April 1976, Calder’s innovative design was accepted. After making minor adjustments to two of the clouds, he expressed satisfaction with the maquette as positioned in a model of the atrium and this proved to be a final visit, Calder died of a heart attack that night after he returned to New York City. Despite his death, the approval of the maquette and the siting of the work meant that fabrication of the sculpture could proceed. But in 1979, fabrication was delayed and nearly terminated when public funds for the sculpture were eliminated from the construction budget for the Hart Building. Financial assistance materialized in 1982 through Senator Nicholas F. Brady, as New Jersey’s senator for eight months—appointed to a vacancy pending election of a successor—Brady wished to present a gift to the Senate on his departure and offered to raise the needed funds. Together with art collector and philanthropist Paul Mellon and former Treasury Secretary C. Douglas Dillon, Brady formed the Capitol Art Foundation, the Calder sculpture was installed in the atrium of the Hart Building in 1986. Because the interior of the atrium presents a complex background of doors, windows, balconies and stairwells capped by a coffered ceiling, similarly, because of the polished white marble that dominates the space, he decided on a matte black surface for the entire piece. The mountains–- the stabile–- are made up of four flat, angular steel plates with five mountain peaks among them, the clouds–- the mobile–- consist of four overlapping, curvilinear aluminum plates. In the absence of any air source to propel them, they are turned by a computer-controlled motor, shortly after their installation, the clouds ceased to move when a mechanical problem with the design of the main bearing prevented the motor-driven shaft from turning the clouds. The placement of Mountains and Clouds makes the part of the entire irregularly shaped public space of the building. Calder’s genius in positioning it led to the great success. The atrium is entered from the east doors to the building. As one passes through a low lobby, only a section of the steel sheets of the mountains appears. The whole complex composition becomes apparent only when one reaches the junction of lobby, suddenly, the full height of the atrium and the sculpture astonishes the viewer. Had the enormous work been centered in the atrium, it might have produced a sense of oppression or confinement
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Hart Senate Office Building
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Construction began in January 1975, and it was first occupied in November 1982. Rapidly rising construction costs plagued the building, creating several scandals, the structure is named for Philip Hart, who served 18 years as a senator from Michigan. The Dirksen Senate Office Building was intended to occupy the block bounded by 1st Street NE, Constitution Avenue NE, 2nd Street NE. However, due to the resource and financial demands of the Korean War, in 1969, Congress voted to acquire the eastern half of the block for a New Senate Office Building. Originally, the Senate intended only to build a $21 million underground parking garage here and that effort was approved in June 1971. But in May 1972, the Subcommittee on Buildings of the Senate Committee on Public Works approved a plan to construct the New Senate Office Building above the parking garage, the buildings cost was estimated at $48 million in June 1972. The full Senate approved the plan in September 1972. Warneckes design for the building was approved by the Senate Committee on Public Works on August 8,1974. Warnecke was given just two weeks to come up with the cost estimate, which the Architect of the Capitol later claimed was far too little time to generate an accurate cost forecast, by the end of the year, the estimated cost of construction had risen to $69 million. Ground for the new structure was broken in January 1975, the poor and uneven condition of the soil at the site caused delays in the excavation, and major cost increases. When the foundations were finished, it was discovered many of the anchoring bolts were misaligned and had to be replaced. This also added new costs to the project. On August 30,1976, the Senate voted to name the new building the Philip A. Hart Senate Office Building in honor of retiring Senator Philip Hart. Hart died on December 26,1976, of melanoma, having declined to run for reelection the previous November, by August 1978, actual construction costs were now $85 million and were expected to top $122 million. The Senate approved a plan to spend another $54 million on the structure, initially, the House approved this plan. But when constituents bitterly complained, the House reversed itself on both counts, by 1979, construction estimates had soared to $179 million, and the General Accounting Office said it would rise to $230 million without changes. In July 1979, the Senate agreed to cap costs at $137.7 million after an acrimonious three-hour debate during which some suggested the building be torn down. The Hart Senate Office Building was completed in September 1982 at a cost of $137.7 million, Architect of the Capitol George M. White argued the construction cost was a reasonable $110 per square foot
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Cirque Calder
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Cirque Calder is an artistic rendering of a circus created by the American artist Alexander Calder. It involves wire models rigged to perform the functions of the circus performers they represent. The models are made of items, generally wire and wood. Calder began improvising performances of this circus during his time in Paris and he would comment in French during the performance. The Cirque Calder is part of the permanent collection of the Whitney Museum in New York
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Alexander Milne Calder
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Alexander Milne Calder was a Scottish American sculptor best known for the architectural sculpture of Philadelphia City Hall. Both his son, Alexander Stirling Calder, and grandson, Alexander Sandy Calder, Alexander Milne Calder was born in Aberdeen, Scotland, the son of a tombstone carver. He began his career in Scotland, working for sculptor John Rhind and he moved to London and worked on the Albert Memorial. Calder immigrated to the United States in 1868 and settled in Philadelphia, where he studied with Joseph A. Bailly, in 1873, he was hired by architect John McArthur, Jr. to produce models for the architectural sculpture of Philadelphia City Hall. The commission involved more than 250 pieces in marble and bronze and that same year, he was commissioned by the Association for Public Art to create an equestrian statue of Major General George Gordon Meade for Fairmount Park. In 1875 he won the competition for the bronze statue of William Penn that was to crown its tower. He is buried in West Laurel Hill Cemetery in Bala Cynwyd, Philadelphia City Hall architectural sculpture, John McArthur, Jr. architect, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 1873 –1893. General Meade, West Fairmount Park, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 1887, William Warner Tomb, Laurel Hill Cemetery, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 1889. William Penn, 37-foot-tall statue atop Philadelphia City Hall, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, placed in 1894
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William Penn
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He was an early advocate of democracy and religious freedom, notable for his good relations and successful treaties with the Lenape Native Americans. Under his direction, the city of Philadelphia was planned and developed, in 1681, King Charles II handed over a large piece of his American land holdings to William Penn to appease the debts the king owed to Penns father. This land included present-day Pennsylvania and Delaware, Penn immediately set sail and took his first step on American soil in New Castle in 1682 after his trans-Atlantic journey. On this occasion, the colonists pledged allegiance to Penn as their new proprietor, afterwards, Penn journeyed up the Delaware River and founded Philadelphia. However, Penns Quaker government was not viewed favourably by the Dutch, Swedish and they had no historical allegiance to Pennsylvania, so they almost immediately began petitioning for their own assembly. In 1704 they achieved their goal when the three southernmost counties of Pennsylvania were permitted to split off and become the new colony of Lower Delaware. As the most prominent, prosperous and influential city in the new colony, as one of the earlier supporters of colonial unification, Penn wrote and urged for a union of all the English colonies in what was to become the United States of America. The democratic principles that he set forth in the Pennsylvania Frame of Government served as an inspiration for the United States Constitution, as a pacifist Quaker, Penn considered the problems of war and peace deeply. He developed a project for a United States of Europe through the creation of a European Assembly made of deputies that could discuss. He is therefore considered the very first thinker to suggest the creation of a European Parliament, a man of extreme religious convictions, Penn wrote numerous works in which he exhorted believers to adhere to the spirit of Primitive Christianity. He was imprisoned several times in the Tower of London due to his faith, and his book No Cross, No Crown, William Penn, Sr. served in the Commonwealth Navy during the English Civil War and was rewarded by Oliver Cromwell with estates in Ireland. The lands were seized from Irish Catholics in retaliation for the failed Irish Rebellion of 1641, Admiral Penn took part in the restoration of Charles II and was eventually knighted and served in the Royal Navy. At the time of his sons birth, Captain Penn was twenty-three, William Penn grew up during the rule of Oliver Cromwell, who succeeded in leading a Puritan rebellion against King Charles I, the king was beheaded when Penn was age 5. Penns father was often at sea, little William caught smallpox at a young age, losing all his hair, prompting his parents to move from the suburbs to an estate in Essex. The country life made an impression on young Penn. Penn was educated first at Chigwell School, by private tutors whilst in Ireland, at that time, there were no state schools and nearly all educational institutions were affiliated with the Anglican Church. Children from poor families had to have a sponsor to get an education. Penns education heavily leaned on the authors and no novelties or conceited modern writers were allowed including William Shakespeare
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Philadelphia City Hall
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Philadelphia City Hall, built in 1901 and located at 1 Penn Square, is the seat of government for the city of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The building was designed by Scottish-born architect John McArthur, Jr. in the Second Empire style, City Hall was topped off in 1894, although the interior wasnt finished until 1901. Designed to be the worlds tallest building, it was surpassed during construction by the Washington Monument, with almost 700 rooms, City Hall is the largest municipal building in the United States. The building houses three branches of government, playing host to the executive branch, its legislature. The statue is the tallest atop any building in the world, Calder wished the statue to face south so that its face would be lit by the sun most of the day, the better to reveal the details of his work. Beyond Penn Treaty Park is Pennsbury Manor, Penns country home in Bucks County, yet another version for why the statue pointed generally north instead of south is that it was the current architects method of showing displeasure with the style of the work. By 1894, the design was not in the current. Penns statue is hollow, and an access tunnel through it leads to a small hatch atop the hat. The abrogation of this agreement supposedly brought a curse onto local sports teams, during the 1990s, whenever one of Philadelphias four major sports teams was in contention for a championship, the statue was decorated with the jersey or hat of that team. Other architectural features and history The tower features clocks 8 m in diameter on all four sides of the portion of the tower. This clock was designed by Warren Johnson, City Halls observation deck is located directly below the base of the statue, about 152 m above street level. Once enclosed with chain link fence, the deck is now enclosed by glass. It is reached in a 6-person elevator whose glass panels allow visitors to see the wooden superstructure that supports the tower, stairs within the tower are only used for emergency exit. The ornamentation of the tower has been simplified, the huge garlands that festooned the top panels of the tower were removed, in the 1950s, the city fathers investigated tearing down City Hall for a new building elsewhere. They found that the demolition would have bankrupted the city due to the masonry construction. City Hall became a National Historic Landmark in 1976, in 2006, it was also named a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Civil Engineers. City Hall is a fully bearing masonry structure with walls up to 22 feet thick, the principal exterior materials are limestone, granite, and marble. City Hall is topped with a 37 foot tall statue of William Penn, City Hall was the tallest building in Pennsylvania from 1901 until 1932, when it was surpassed by the Gulf Tower in Pittsburgh
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Alexander Stirling Calder
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Alexander Stirling Calder was an American sculptor and teacher. Calder was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in 1870, at the age of 16, A. Stirling Calder attended the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts where he studied under Thomas Eakins. He apprenticed as a sculptor the following year, working on his fathers sculpture program for Philadelphia City Hall. In 1890, he moved to Paris where he studied at the Académie Julian under Henri Michel Chapu, in 1892 he returned to Philadelphia and began his career as a sculptor in earnest. His first major commission, won in a competition, was for a larger-than-life-size statue of Dr. Samuel Gross for the National Mall in Washington. Calder replicated the pose of Dr. Gross from Eakinss 1876 painting The Gross Clinic and that was followed by a set of twelve larger-than-life-size statues of Presbyterian clergymen for the facade of the Witherspoon Building in Philadelphia. In 1906, he was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Associate member and he contracted tuberculosis in 1906, and moved to Arizona and then California, for his health. In Pasadena, he modeled architectural sculpture for the Throop Polytechnic Institute and he returned to the east coast in 1910. In 1912, he was named acting-chief of the program for the Panama-Pacific Exposition. He obtained a studio in NYC and there employed the services of model Audrey Munson who posed for him – Star Maiden – and a host of other artists. For the Exposition, Calder completed three massive sculpture groups, The Nations of the East and The Nations of the West, which crowned triumphal arches, following Bitters sudden death in April 1915, Calder completed the Depew Memorial Fountain in Indianapolis, Indiana. Hermon Atkins MacNeil and Calder were commissioned to create sculptures for the Washington Square Arch in New York City. George Washington as Commander-in-Chief, Accompanied by Fame and Valor was sculpted by MacNeil and these are sometimes referred to as Washington at War and Washington at Peace. He sculpted a number of works for Vizcaya, the James Deering estate outside Miami. These included the famous Italian Barge, a folly in the shape of a boat. He was one of a dozen sculptors invited to compete in Oklahomas Pioneer Woman statue competition in 1927 and that year he was also commissioned by the Berkshire Museum to sculpt the woodwork and fountain of the Museums Ellen Crane Memorial Room in Pittsfield, Massachusetts. An institution that would see his more famous son, Alexander. In 1929, he won the competition for a monumental statue of Leif Eriksson
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Philadelphia
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In 1682, William Penn, an English Quaker, founded the city to serve as capital of the Pennsylvania Colony. Philadelphia was one of the capitals in the Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, Philadelphia became an industrial center. It became a destination for African-Americans in the Great Migration. The areas many universities and colleges make Philadelphia a top international study destination, as the city has evolved into an educational, with a gross domestic product of $388 billion, Philadelphia ranks ninth among world cities and fourth in the nation. Philadelphia is the center of activity in Pennsylvania and is home to seven Fortune 1000 companies. The Philadelphia skyline is growing, with a market of almost 81,900 commercial properties in 2016 including several prominent skyscrapers. The city is known for its arts, culture, and rich history, Philadelphia has more outdoor sculptures and murals than any other American city. Fairmount Park, when combined with the adjacent Wissahickon Valley Park in the watershed, is one of the largest contiguous urban park areas in the United States. The 67 National Historic Landmarks in the city helped account for the $10 billion generated by tourism, Philadelphia is the only World Heritage City in the United States. Before Europeans arrived, the Philadelphia area was home to the Lenape Indians in the village of Shackamaxon, the Lenape are a Native American tribe and First Nations band government. They are also called Delaware Indians and their territory was along the Delaware River watershed, western Long Island. Most Lenape were pushed out of their Delaware homeland during the 18th century by expanding European colonies, Lenape communities were weakened by newly introduced diseases, mainly smallpox, and violent conflict with Europeans. Iroquois people occasionally fought the Lenape, surviving Lenape moved west into the upper Ohio River basin. The American Revolutionary War and United States independence pushed them further west, in the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the eastern United States to the Indian Territory under the Indian removal policy. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in the US state of Oklahoma, with communities living also in Wisconsin, Ontario. The Dutch considered the entire Delaware River valley to be part of their New Netherland colony, in 1638, Swedish settlers led by renegade Dutch established the colony of New Sweden at Fort Christina and quickly spread out in the valley. In 1644, New Sweden supported the Susquehannocks in their defeat of the English colony of Maryland
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Painting
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Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a solid surface. The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives, sponges, Painting is a mode of creative expression, and the forms are numerous. Drawing, gesture, composition, narration, or abstraction, among other aesthetic modes, may serve to manifest the expressive, Paintings can be naturalistic and representational, photographic, abstract, narrative, symbolistic, emotive, or political in nature. A portion of the history of painting in both Eastern and Western art is dominated by motifs and ideas. In art, the term painting describes both the act and the result of the action, the term painting is also used outside of art as a common trade among craftsmen and builders. What enables painting is the perception and representation of intensity, every point in space has different intensity, which can be represented in painting by black and white and all the gray shades between. In practice, painters can articulate shapes by juxtaposing surfaces of different intensity, thus, the basic means of painting are distinct from ideological means, such as geometrical figures, various points of view and organization, and symbols. In technical drawing, thickness of line is ideal, demarcating ideal outlines of an object within a perceptual frame different from the one used by painters. Color and tone are the essence of painting as pitch and rhythm are the essence of music, color is highly subjective, but has observable psychological effects, although these can differ from one culture to the next. Black is associated with mourning in the West, but in the East, some painters, theoreticians, writers and scientists, including Goethe, Kandinsky, and Newton, have written their own color theory. Moreover, the use of language is only an abstraction for a color equivalent, the word red, for example, can cover a wide range of variations from the pure red of the visible spectrum of light. There is not a register of different colors in the way that there is agreement on different notes in music. For a painter, color is not simply divided into basic, painters deal practically with pigments, so blue for a painter can be any of the blues, phthalocyanine blue, Prussian blue, indigo, cobalt, ultramarine, and so on. Psychological and symbolical meanings of color are not, strictly speaking, colors only add to the potential, derived context of meanings, and because of this, the perception of a painting is highly subjective. The analogy with music is quite clear—sound in music is analogous to light in painting, shades to dynamics and these elements do not necessarily form a melody of themselves, rather, they can add different contexts to it. Modern artists have extended the practice of painting considerably to include, as one example, collage, some modern painters incorporate different materials such as sand, cement, straw or wood for their texture. Examples of this are the works of Jean Dubuffet and Anselm Kiefer, there is a growing community of artists who use computers to paint color onto a digital canvas using programs such as Adobe Photoshop, Corel Painter, and many others. These images can be printed onto traditional canvas if required, rhythm is important in painting as it is in music
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Sorbonne
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The Sorbonne is an edifice of the Latin Quarter, in Paris, France, which was the historical house of the former University of Paris. The name is derived from the Collège de Sorbonne, initiated during 1257 by the eponymous Robert de Sorbon as one of the first significant colleges of the medieval University of Paris. The university predates the college by about a century, and minor colleges had been founded already during the late 12th century, during the 16th century, the Sorbonne became involved with the intellectual struggle between Catholics and Protestants. The Collège de Sorbonne was suppressed during the French Revolution, reopened by Napoleon during 1808 and this was only one of the many colleges of the University of Paris that existed until the French revolution. After months of conflicts between students and authorities at the University of Paris at Nanterre, the administration closed that university on May 2,1968. Students at the Sorbonne campus in Paris met on May 3 to protest against the closure and the threatened expulsion of several students at Nanterre. More than 20,000 students, teachers and other endorsers marched towards the Sorbonne, still sealed off by the police, who charged, wielding their batons, as soon as the marchers approached. While the crowd dispersed, some began to make out of whatever was at hand, while others threw paving stones. The police then responded with tear gas and charged the crowd again, may 10 marked the Night of Barricades, where students used cars, wood, and cobblestones to barricade the streets of the Latin Quarter. Brutal street fighting ensued between students and riot police, most notably on Rue Gay-Lussac, early the next morning, as the fighting disbanded, Daniel Cohn-Bendit sent out a radio broadcast calling for a general strike. On Monday,13 May, more than one million workers went on strike, negotiations ended, and students returned to their campuses after a false report that the government had agreed to reopen them, only to discover police still occupying the schools. When the Sorbonne reopened, students occupied it and declared it an autonomous Peoples University, during 1970, the University of Paris was divided into thirteen universities, managed by a common rectorate, the Chancellerie des Universités de Paris, with offices in the Sorbonne. The building also houses the École Nationale des Chartes, the École pratique des hautes études, the Cours de Civilisation Française de la Sorbonne, nowadays, the use of the name refers more often to Panthéon-Sorbonne University for French public especially students in France. But, all Parisian universities like to refer as their ancestor, some alliances of universities use that name, like Sorbonne University. Listing of the works of Alexandre Falguière List of works by Henri Chapu La Sorbonne
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Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts
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The Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts is a museum and art school in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It was founded in 1805 and is the first and oldest art museum, the academys museum is internationally known for its collections of 19th- and 20th-century American paintings, sculptures, and works on paper. Its archives house important materials for the study of American art history, museums, the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts was founded in 1805 by painter and scientist Charles Willson Peale, sculptor William Rush, and other artists and business leaders. The growth of the Academy of Fine Arts was slow and it opened as a museum in 1807 and held its first exhibition in 1811, where more than 500 paintings and statues were on display. The first school classes held in the building were with the Society of Artists in 1810, in 1876, former Academy student Thomas Eakins returned to teach as a volunteer. Fairman Rogers, chairman of the Committee on Instruction from 1878 to 1883, made him a faculty member in 1878, Eakins revamped the certificate curriculum to what it remains today. From 1811 to 1969, the Academy also organized important annual art exhibitions from which significant acquisitions were made, harrison S. Morris, Managing Director from 1892 to 1905, collected contemporary American art for the institution. Among the many masterpieces acquired during his tenure were works by Cecilia Beaux, William Merritt Chase, Frank Duveneck, Thomas Eakins, Winslow Homer, Childe Hassam, and Edmund Tarbell. Work by The Eight, which included former Academy students Robert Henri and John Sloan, is represented in the collection. From 1890 to 1906, Edward Hornor Coates served as the president of the Academy. In 1915, Coates was awarded the Academys gold medal, rich endowments were made to the schools, a gallery of national portraiture was formed, and some of the best examples of Gilbert Stuarts work acquired. The annual exhibitions attained a brilliancy and éclat hitherto unknown, mr. Coates wisely established the schools upon a conservative basis, building almost unconsciously the dykes high against the oncoming flow of insane novelties in art patterns. In this last struggle against modernism the President was ably supported by Eakins, Anschutz, Grafly, Thouron, Vonnoh and his unfailing courtesy, his disinterested thoughtfulness, his tactfulness, and his modesty endeared him to scholars and masters alike. No sacrifice of time or of means was too great, if he thought he could accomplish the end he always had in view—the honour, during World War I, Academy students were actively involved in war work. About sixty percent of the men enlisted or entered Government service. A war service club was formed by students and a monthly publication, George Harding, a former PAFA student, was commissioned Captain during the war and created official combat sketches for the American Expeditionary Forces. Prior to the founding of the Academy, there were limited opportunities for women to receive training in the United States. Realizing the rise in interest of women, this period between the mid-19th and early 20th century shows a remarkable growth of formally trained women artists
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Berkeley Art Museum and Pacific Film Archive
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The Berkeley Art Museum and Pacific Film Archive are a combined art museum and repertory movie theater and archive, associated with the University of California, Berkeley. The director is Lawrence Rinder who was appointed in 2008, the building underwent updates beginning in 2009 and which finished in 2015. The archive and art moved from its original home to a new location on Center Street. The museum was founded in 1963 after a donation was made to the university from artist, a competition to design the building was announced in 1964, and the museum opened in 1970. It also offers the The MATRIX Program for Contemporary Art, the Pacific Film Archive was founded by Sheldon Renan and began screening films in 1966 and specializes in international films. The PFA also includes a library which includes a database of documentation associated with the films. The museum is a member of the North American Reciprocal Museums program, the former Berkeley Art Museum building was built in 1970 and designed by Mario Ciampi. The building was deemed unsafe in 1997, and iron braces were added in 2001 to slightly improve its safety. In 1999, the Pacific Film Archive moved to a building across the street. In 2008, BAM/PFA unveiled plans for a new arts center, to be designed by the Japanese architect Toyo Ito and located in downtown Berkeley. However, in 2009, those plans were cancelled, in 2011, BAM/PFA presented the schematic design for the $100 million transformation of a former printing plant into its new home, designed by the New York firm Diller Scofidio + Renfro. Construction began in 2013 and the building was expected to be completed in 2015 and it opened to the public on January 31,2016. List of film archives Official BAM/PFA Website Blook CineFiles Film Document Database
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Metropolitan Museum of Art
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The Metropolitan Museum of Art, colloquially the Met, is located in New York City and is the largest art museum in the United States, and is among the most visited art museums in the world. Its permanent collection contains two million works, divided among seventeen curatorial departments. The main building, on the edge of Central Park along Manhattans Museum Mile, is by area one of the worlds largest art galleries. A much smaller second location, The Cloisters at Fort Tryon Park in Upper Manhattan, contains a collection of art, architecture. On March 18,2016, the museum opened the Met Breuer museum at Madison Avenue in the Upper East Side, it extends the museums modern, the Met maintains extensive holdings of African, Asian, Oceanian, Byzantine, Indian, and Islamic art. The museum is home to collections of musical instruments, costumes and accessories, as well as antique weapons. Several notable interiors, ranging from first-century Rome through modern American design, are installed in its galleries, the Metropolitan Museum of Art was founded in 1870. The founders included businessmen and financiers, as well as leading artists and thinkers of the day and it opened on February 20,1872, and was originally located at 681 Fifth Avenue. The Met maintains extensive holdings of African, Asian, Oceanian, Byzantine, the museum is also home to encyclopedic collections of musical instruments, costumes and accessories, and antique weapons and armor from around the world. A number of interiors, ranging from 1st century Rome through modern American design, are permanently installed in the Mets galleries. In addition to its permanent exhibitions, the Met organizes and hosts traveling shows throughout the year. The director of the museum is Thomas P. Campbell, a long-time curator and it was announced on February 28th,2017 that Campbell will be stepping down as the Mets director and CEO, effective June. On March 1st,2017 the BBC reported that Daniel Weiss shall be the acting CEO until a replacement is found, Beginning in the late 19th century, the Met started to acquire ancient art and artifacts from the Near East. From a few tablets and seals, the Mets collection of Near Eastern art has grown to more than 7,000 pieces. The highlights of the include a set of monumental stone lamassu, or guardian figures. The Mets Department of Arms and Armor is one of the museums most popular collections. Among the collections 14,000 objects are many pieces made for and used by kings and princes, including armor belonging to Henry VIII of England, Henry II of France, Rockefeller donated his more than 3, 000-piece collection to the museum. The Mets Asian department holds a collection of Asian art, of more than 35,000 pieces, the collection dates back almost to the founding of the museum, many of the philanthropists who made the earliest gifts to the museum included Asian art in their collections
30.
Oracle, Arizona
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Oracle is a census-designated place in Pinal County, Arizona, United States. The population was 3,686 at the 2010 census, buffalo Bill Cody owned the High Jinks Gold Mine in Oracle briefly and, in 1911, appeared as Santa for a group of local children. The community is the location of the Biosphere 2 experiment, Oracle was also the postal address for environmentalist author Edward Abbey, who never lived in the town but visited often. Oracle is becoming a community for Tucson, Arizona. The Arizona Trail passes through the Park and community, Oracle is the gateway to the road up the back side of Mount Lemmon, which starts off of American Avenue and currently offers a secondary route to the top. Prior to the construction of the Catalina Highway on the side of the Santa Catalina range. This route is now popular mainly with off-road 4x4 drivers and with off-road or dual-purpose motorcyclists and this road ends at the Catalina Highway near Loma Linda. The name Oracle comes from early prospectors, albert Weldon came to the area looking for gold and silver. He and some other companions named their first mine The Oracle after the ship Weldon had traveled on, the community was later named after its first mine, and thus, indirectly, after a ship. The community began to grow in the late 1870s, as gold and silver were discovered, by 1880, a post office had been established. The community also became a retreat for people suffering from tuberculosis, the Acadia Ranch – built in Oracle in 1882 by Edwin S. and Lillian Dodge – was, during this time, a sanitorium. A. D. Woods ship Oracle around Cape Horn, at the tip of South America, Weldon enlisted as a private in Company E, 5th California Infantry, of the Union Army, in 1861. After his military service, he returned to California and was involved in mining and also lumber, within a couple years, he found a partner in Irishman Jimmie Lee and both men traveled northeast of Tucson, into the Santa Catalina Mountains in search of precious metal. Soon he found a mining claim and named it Oracle, in honor of his uncles ship, the ship Oracle was built under the supervision of Captain Charles E. Ranlett and was constructed for the shipbuilding firm Chapman & Flint of Maine. It was launched in 1853 and was a ship and sailed to ports across the globe including Melbourne, Australia and Shanghai. It was captained by Weldons uncle for several years, Weldon was soon joined by Alexander McKay, an immigrant form Scotland who located two mining claims named Christmas and New Years because of the days they were discovered. McKay also built a house, the first in the area, and from it. When it was time for a post office to be named, at an altitude of 4,500 feet, Oracles vegetation consists of mostly emory oak and grasses
31.
Pasadena, California
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Pasadena /ˌpæsəˈdiːnə/ is a city in Los Angeles County, California, United States. As of 2013, the population of Pasadena was 139,731. Pasadena is the ninth-largest city in Los Angeles County, Pasadena was incorporated on June 19,1886, becoming one of the first cities be incorporated in what is now Los Angeles County, the only one being incorporated earlier being its namesake. It is one of the cultural centers of the San Gabriel Valley. The city is known for hosting the annual Rose Bowl football game, the original inhabitants of Pasadena and surrounding areas were members of the Native American Hahamog-na tribe, a branch of the Tongva Nation. They spoke the Tongva language and had lived in the Los Angeles Basin for thousands of years, Tongva dwellings lined the Arroyo Seco in present day Pasadena and south to where it joins the Los Angeles River and along other natural waterways in the city. The native people lived in thatched, dome-shape lodges and they lived on a diet of acorn meal, seeds and herbs, venison, and other small animals. They traded for fish with the coastal Tongva. They made cooking vessels from steatite soapstone from Catalina Island, the trail has been in continuous use for thousands of years. An arm of the trail is still in use in what is now known as Salvia Canyon. When the Spanish occupied the Los Angeles Basin they built the San Gabriel Mission and renamed the local Tongva people Gabrielino Indians, today, several bands of Tongva people live in the Los Angeles area. The Rancho comprised the lands of todays communities of Pasadena, Altadena, before the annexation of California in 1848, the last of the Mexican owners was Manuel Garfias who retained title to the property after statehood in 1850. Garfias sold sections of the property to the first Anglo settlers to come into the area, Dr. Benjamin Eaton, the father of Fred Eaton, much of the property was purchased by Benjamin Wilson, who established his Lake Vineyard property in the vicinity. Wilson, known as Don Benito to the local Indians, also owned the Rancho Jurupa and was mayor of Los Angeles and he was the grandfather of WWII General George S. Patton, Jr. and the namesake of Mount Wilson. Berry was an asthmatic and claimed that he had his best three nights sleep at Rancho San Pascual, to keep the find a secret, Berry code-named the area Muscat after the grape that Wilson grew. To raise funds to bring the company of people to San Pascual, Berry formed the Southern California Orange and Citrus Growers Association and sold stock in it. The newcomers were able to purchase a portion of the property along the Arroyo Seco and on January 31,1874. As a gesture of good will, Wilson added 2,000 acres of then-useless highland property, at the time, the Indiana Colony was a narrow strip of land between the Arroyo Seco and Fair Oaks Avenue
32.
Rose Parade
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The Rose Parade, also known as the Tournament of Roses Parade and the Rose Parade presented by Honda, is part of Americas New Year Celebration held in Pasadena, California each year on New Years Day. The parade includes flower-covered floats, marching bands, and equestrian units and is followed by the Rose Bowl college football game and it is produced by the nonprofit Pasadena Tournament of Roses Association. It is seen by millions more on television worldwide in more than 100 international territories and countries, the Rose Bowl is a college football game that was added in 1902 to help fund the cost of staging the parade. Since 2011, the parade has been sponsored by Honda, accordingly, the company has the parades first float, which like all floats, follows the parades theme. The 2017 parade featured 44 floats,19 equestrian units with approximately 400 horses, the Grand Marshals of the parade were Greg Louganis, Janet Evans and Allyson Felix. Members of Pasadenas Valley Hunt Club first staged the parade in 1890, since then the parade has been held in Pasadena every New Years Day, except when January 1 falls on a Sunday. In that case, it is held on the subsequent Monday and this exception was instituted in 1893, as organizers did not wish to disturb horses hitched outside Sunday church services. Many of the members of the Valley Hunt Club were former residents of the American East and Midwest and they wished to showcase their new California homes mild winter weather. At a club meeting, Professor Charles F, holder announced, In New York, people are buried in the snow. Here our flowers are blooming and our oranges are about to bear, lets hold a festival to tell the world about our paradise. So the club organized horse-drawn carriages covered in flowers, followed by foot races, polo matches, upon seeing the scores of flowers on display, the professor decided to suggest the name Tournament of Roses. Over the next few founding years, marching bands and motorized floats were added, by 1895, the event was too large for the Valley Hunt Club to handle, hence the Pasadena Tournament of Roses Association was formed. Activities soon included ostrich races, bronco busting demonstrations, and an odd novelty race between a camel and an elephant, soon reviewing stands were built along the parade route and newspapers in Eastern Seaboard cities started to take notice of the event. Tournament House is the given the former home where the organization is headquartered. The first associated football game was played on January 1,1902, originally titled the Tournament East-West football game, it is considered to be the first Rose Bowl. The next game was not played until New Years Day 1916, the game derives its modern name from Rose Bowl Stadium, which was built for the 1923 game. In 2002 and 2006, the Granddaddy of em all was not held the day as the parade. Not all fans were pleased with the change, some thought the atmosphere, once the BCS title game was separated from the host bowl, it no longer affected the date of the Rose Bowl Game
33.
Germantown Academy
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Germantown Academy, informally known as GA and originally known as the Union School, is the oldest nonsectarian day school in the United States. The school was founded on December 6,1759, by a group of prominent Germantown citizens in the Green Tree Tavern on the Germantown Road, Germantown Academy ranks within the nations top 100 private and public schools that send the most students to the Ivy Leagues. The original campus is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the school shares the oldest continuous high school football rivalry with the William Penn Charter School. The academy recently completed the first two phases of a rebuilding plan. The Union School was founded on the evening of December 6,1759, the school was founded by prominent members of the Germantown community who wished to provide a country school for their children. As some of the founders and residents of Germantown were of German descent, the founders chose David James Dove to head the English department and Hilarius Becker of Bernheim, Germany, to head the German school. In 1761, land was given to the school by trustee Charles Bensell, the school found itself in the crossroads of early American history. In 1777, the Battle of Germantown was fought on the front lawn of trustee Benjamin Chew at his home Cliveden less than a mile from campus, during the American Revolution, the school served as a hospital and camp for British soldiers. Legend says that the British officers played the first game of cricket in America on the Academys front lawn, after the war, the school was visited by President George Washington. Washington sent his adopted step-grandson George Washington Parke Custis to the Academy during the 1793 yellow fever epidemic in Philadelphia, the school was visited by the Marquis de Lafayette on his 1825 visit to America and hosted Fernando, the adopted son of South American liberator Simón Bolívar. In 1830, Amos Bronson Alcott, father of Louisa May Alcott, was appointed headmaster, after the Civil War, the school was in decline, with a small student body and outdated facilities. In 1877, Dr. William Kershaw was appointed headmaster, during his headmastership, GA graduated a future University of Pennsylvania president, a Supreme Court justice, and a primate of the Episcopal Church. In 1915, Dr. Kershaw retired and Dr. Samuel E. Osbourn was appointed headmaster, under Dr. Osbourns leadership, the school increased in size, focused on scholarship and continued to produce some of Philadelphias finest citizens. Under Osbourn, GA established the eighth oldest Cum Laude Society chapter in the nation, after the World Wars, GA was led by headmaster Donald Miller who was instrumental in the move from Germantown to the current Fort Washington campus. By the 1960s, GA families had left Germantown for nearby suburbs, in five years, The Miracle of Fort Washington occurred as the school moved from city to suburb. In this transition, GA coeducated, accepting girls in 1961 with the first co-ed class graduating in 1968, the school colors are red, black, and blue. Originally, red, white, and blue, the white was changed to black upon the death of Abraham Lincoln in 1865. GA/PC Day is a tradition where GA plays against its rival William Penn Charter School in football, soccer, field hockey, cross country, girls tennis, water polo
34.
Croton-on-Hudson, New York
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Croton-on-Hudson is a village in Westchester County, New York, United States. The population was 8,070 at the 2010 census and it is located in the town of Cortlandt, in New York Citys northern suburbs. The village was incorporated in 1898, Croton-on-Hudson is located at 41°12′15″N 73°53′10″W on the shores of the Hudson River. The zip codes are 10520 and 10521. According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has an area of 10.8 square miles, of which 4.8 square miles is land and 6.1 square miles. As of the census of 2000, there were 7,606 people,2,798 households, the population density was 1,601.7 people per square mile. There were 2,859 housing units at a density of 602.1 per square mile. The racial makeup of the village was 91. 5% White,1. 9% African American,0. 26% Native American,2. 06% Asian,0. 01% Pacific Islander,2. 58% from other races, and 1. 70% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 6. 93% of the population,22. 2% of all households were made up of individuals and 7. 7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.65 and the family size was 3.11. In the village, the population was out with 25. 7% under the age of 18,4. 5% from 18 to 24,30. 1% from 25 to 44,26. 1% from 45 to 64. The median age was 40 years, for every 100 females there were 90.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.7 males, the median income for a household in the village was $84,744, and the median income for a family was $100,182. Males had an income of $65,938 versus $46,029 for females. The per capita income for the village was $39,441, about 1. 8% of families and 3. 4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3. 2% of those under age 18 and 1. 2% of those age 65 or over. He gave part of the land to the New York Central Railroad to build a station, on the condition that the station would forever be named after him. Today it is called the Croton-Harmon station of the Metro-North Railroad, in 1906, the station became a major service facility for the railroad. The station expanded further in 1913, when it became the stop at which electric trains from New York City switched to steam engines
35.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
36.
Everett Shinn
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Everett Shinn was an American realist painter and member of the Ashcan School. He also exhibited with the group known as The Eight. He is best known for his robust paintings of life in New York and London, a hallmark of Ashcan art. His style varied considerably over the years, from gritty and realistic to decorative, Shinn was born in Woodstown, New Jersey, a large Quaker-dominated community. His parents Isaiah Conklin Shinn and Josephine Ransley Shinn were rural farmers and their second son, he was named for the author Edward Everett Hale, of whom his father was a great fan. Shinns ability to draw was evident from early childhood. At age 15 he was enrolled at the Spring Garden Institute in Philadelphia, the following year he took classes at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, and by age 17 was working as a staff artist for the Philadelphia Press. Moving to New York City in 1897, he was known as one of the more talented urban realists who were chronicling in paint the energy. In 1898 Shinn married Florence Flossie Scovel, another artist from New Jersey, in 1912 they divorced, by 1933 Shinn had divorced two more wives and was the subject of many tabloid rumors. He died of cancer in New York City in 1953. Shinn was reportedly a model for the talented, promiscuous artist-protagonist of Theodore Dreisers 1915 novel The Genius, with his well-known taste for the good life, Shinn was dubbed by art historian Sam Hunter the dandy of the realists. Most art historians, as well as Shinn himself, consider his employment by the Philadelphia Press the true beginning of his art career and he was entering the field of newspaper illustration in its heyday, and he was a draughtsman of great facility. Shinn moved from paper to paper for the rest of his illustrating career, the ability to convey animated movement and the attention to detail necessary for his newspaper illustrations is reflected in Shinns paintings and pastels, especially those treating urban themes. He ultimately illustrated for a range of popular journals over the next twenty years, including Harpers, Vanity Fair, Life, Look. Shinn also started displaying his paintings and pastels publicly in 1899 to mixed reactions, in 1900, he and Flossie traveled to Europe to allow him an opportunity to study other painters and to prepare to produce enough work for another exhibition. The trip influenced his art in years to come, he was taken with Impressionism. It was during Shinns time in Philadelphia that artists Robert Henri, John Sloan, the club, which was both ribaldly social and intellectual, is often thought of a point of origin for what became known as the Ashcan school of American art. To his friends and fellow artists, Henri urged the study of Whitman, Emerson, Zola, and Ibsen and the need for painters to forge a new style of art that spoke more to their time and experience
37.
Spuyten Duyvil, Bronx
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Spuyten Duyvil /ˈspaɪtən ˈdaɪvəl/ is an upper middle class neighborhood of the Bronx, New York City. The area is named after Spuyten Duyvil Creek, Spuyten Duyvil may be literally translated as Spouting Devil or Spuitende Duivel in Dutch, a reference to the strong and wild tidal currents found at that location. It may also be translated as Spewing Devil or Spinning Devil, spui is a Dutch word involving outlets for water. Historian Reginald Pelham Bolton, however, argues that the phrase means sprouting meadow, an additional translation, to spite the Devil or in spite of the devil, was popularized by a story in Washington Irvings A Knickerbockers History of New York published in 1809. The creek was referred to as Shorakapok by Lenape Native Americans in the area and this may be the earliest recorded shark attack in the New World. In the late 17th century, Frederick Philipse, the lord of Philipse Manor in Westchester County, received permission to construct a bridge across Spuyten Duyvil Creek, kings Bridge, which was located roughly south of and parallel to where West 230th Street lies today, opened in 1693. Development of the began in the latter half of the 19th century once the New York Central. This is the still used by Metro-North today. Through the 1920s development of the Spuyten Duyvil neighborhood continued, on July 18,2013, a freight train derailed near the Spuyten Duyvil station due to an excessively wide gauge at one point. No one was killed or injured, less than six months later on December 1, a commuter train derailment near the Spuyten Duyvil station resulted in 4 deaths and over 70 injuries,11 of them critical. The cause of the derailment was determined to be excessive speed. Spuyten Duyvil Bridge, a swing bridge that carries Amtraks Empire Corridor line between New York City and Albany, spans Spuyten Duyvil Creek. The north end of the Henry Hudson Bridge connects the neighborhood to the island of Manhattan via the Henry Hudson Parkway, the church was designated a New York City landmark in 1980. Villa Charlotte Bronte is an apartment house built in 1926 and designed by Robert Gardner, hell Gate List of place names of Dutch origin John Jay McKelvey, Sr. Attorney, Park District Protection League Trustee. Notes Bibliography Burrows, Edwin G. & Wallace, Mike, Gotham, A History of New York City to 1898, New York, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-195-11634-8 Fernicola, twelve Days of Terror, A Definitive Investigation of the 1916 New Jersey Shark Attacks. The Encyclopedia of New York City, New Haven, Yale University Press, ISBN0300055366 New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission, Dolkart, Andrew S. Postal, Matthew A. Postal, Matthew A. ed
38.
Yonkers, New York
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Yonkers is the fourth most populous city in the U. S. state of New York, and the most populous city in Westchester County, with a population of 195,976. It is an suburb of New York City, directly to the north of the Bronx. Yonkerss downtown is centered on a known as Getty Square. The area also houses significant local businesses and non-profits, and serves as a retail hub for Yonkers. This grant was purchased in July 1645 by Adriaen van der Donck, van der Donck was known locally as the Jonkheer or Jonker, a word from which the name Yonkers is directly derived. Van der Donck built a saw mill near where the Nepperhan Creek met the Hudson, van der Donck was killed in the Peach War. His wife, Mary Doughty, was taken captive and ransomed later, near the site of van der Doncks mill is Philipse Manor Hall, a Colonial-era manor house which today serves as a museum and archive, offering many glimpses into life before the American Revolution. The original structure was built around 1682 by Frederick Philipse and his wife Margaret Hardenbroeck, Frederick was a wealthy Dutchman who by the time of his death had amassed an enormous estate, which encompassed the entire modern City of Yonkers, as well as several other Hudson River towns. Philipses great-grandson, Frederick Philipse III, was a prominent Loyalist during the American Revolution, all the lands that belonged to the Philipse family were confiscated and sold. For its first two hundred years, Yonkers was a farming town with an active industrial waterfront. Yonkerss later growth rested largely on developing industry, in 1853, Elisha Otis invented the first safety elevator and the Otis Elevator Company, opened the first elevator factory in the world on the banks of the Hudson near what is now Vark Street. It relocated to larger quarters in the 1880s, the community was incorporated as a village in the northern part of the Town of Yonkers in 1854 and as a city in 1872. In 1874 the southern part of Yonkers, including Kingsbridge and Riverdale, was annexed by New York City as The Bronx, in 1898, Yonkers voted on a referendum to determine if they wanted to become part of New York City. Still, some call the city the Sixth Borough referring to its location on the New York City border, its urban character. The New York City and Northern Railway Company connected Yonkers to Manhattan, a three-mile spur to Getty Square existed until 1943. Aside from being a center, Yonkers also played a key role in the development of entertainment in the United States. In 1888, Scottish-born John Reid founded the first golf course in the United States, St. Andrews Golf Club, bakelite, the first completely synthetic plastic, was invented in Yonkers circa 1906 by Leo Baekeland, and manufactured there until the late 1920s. Early in the 20th century, Yonkers also hosted a brass era automobile maker, Colt Runabout Company, despite the cars seemingly glowing performance, Yonkers was also the headquarters of the Waring Hat Company, at the time the nations largest hat manufacturer
39.
San Francisco
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San Francisco, officially the City and County of San Francisco, is the cultural, commercial, and financial center of Northern California. It is the birthplace of the United Nations, the California Gold Rush of 1849 brought rapid growth, making it the largest city on the West Coast at the time. San Francisco became a consolidated city-county in 1856, after three-quarters of the city was destroyed by the 1906 earthquake and fire, San Francisco was quickly rebuilt, hosting the Panama-Pacific International Exposition nine years later. In World War II, San Francisco was a port of embarkation for service members shipping out to the Pacific Theater. Politically, the city votes strongly along liberal Democratic Party lines, San Francisco is also the headquarters of five major banking institutions and various other companies such as Levi Strauss & Co. Dolby, Airbnb, Weebly, Pacific Gas and Electric Company, Yelp, Pinterest, Twitter, Uber, Lyft, Mozilla, Wikimedia Foundation, as of 2016, San Francisco is ranked high on world liveability rankings. The earliest archaeological evidence of habitation of the territory of the city of San Francisco dates to 3000 BC. Upon independence from Spain in 1821, the became part of Mexico. Under Mexican rule, the system gradually ended, and its lands became privatized. In 1835, Englishman William Richardson erected the first independent homestead, together with Alcalde Francisco de Haro, he laid out a street plan for the expanded settlement, and the town, named Yerba Buena, began to attract American settlers. Commodore John D. Sloat claimed California for the United States on July 7,1846, during the Mexican–American War, montgomery arrived to claim Yerba Buena two days later. Yerba Buena was renamed San Francisco on January 30 of the next year, despite its attractive location as a port and naval base, San Francisco was still a small settlement with inhospitable geography. The California Gold Rush brought a flood of treasure seekers, with their sourdough bread in tow, prospectors accumulated in San Francisco over rival Benicia, raising the population from 1,000 in 1848 to 25,000 by December 1849. The promise of fabulous riches was so strong that crews on arriving vessels deserted and rushed off to the gold fields, leaving behind a forest of masts in San Francisco harbor. Some of these approximately 500 abandoned ships were used at times as storeships, saloons and hotels, many were left to rot, by 1851 the harbor was extended out into the bay by wharves while buildings were erected on piles among the ships. By 1870 Yerba Buena Cove had been filled to create new land, buried ships are occasionally exposed when foundations are dug for new buildings. California was quickly granted statehood in 1850 and the U. S. military built Fort Point at the Golden Gate, silver discoveries, including the Comstock Lode in Nevada in 1859, further drove rapid population growth. With hordes of fortune seekers streaming through the city, lawlessness was common, and the Barbary Coast section of town gained notoriety as a haven for criminals, prostitution, entrepreneurs sought to capitalize on the wealth generated by the Gold Rush
40.
Lowell High School (San Francisco)
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Lowell High School is a public magnet school in San Francisco, California. The school opened in 1856 as the Union Grammar School and attained its current name in 1896, Lowell moved to its current location in the Merced Manor neighborhood in 1962. Run by the San Francisco Unified School District, Lowell is open to all San Francisco residents, admission is contingent on submission of an application and based primarily on evaluation of test scores and prior academic record. Lowell contains a wide-ranging and rigorous curriculum and is noted for its academic excellence, the school has been named a California Distinguished School seven times and a National Blue Ribbon School four times. Lowell is currently ranked 52nd by U. S. News & World Report in its Best High Schools in America for 2015, Lowell was also ranked 49th by Newsweeks Americas Best High Schools 2012 list and 66th by Newsweeks 2013 list. Lowell High School began in 1856 as the Union Grammar School, in 1894, the school was renamed to honor the distinguished poet James Russell Lowell, chiefly by Pelham W. Ames, a member of the school board and ardent admirer of James Russell Lowell. The school relocated in January 1913 to a block on Hayes Street between Ashbury and Masonic. Lowell remained there for 50 years and established its position as the college preparatory high school. In 1952, the school sought a new location near Lake Merced and moved there in 1962, U. S. Supreme Court Justice Stephen Breyer visited. 2009 Lowell ranked 3rd internationally in AP exam scores,2010 Because of state class-time requirements, modular schedule abandoned in favor of mod/block schedule. School day lengthened to eight hours and twenty three minutes, Lowell ranked 2nd internationally in AP exam scores. San Francisco Unified School District and the 1983 Consent Decree settlement, in 1994, a group of Chinese-American community activists organized a lawsuit to challenge the 1983 Consent Decree race-based admissions policies used by SFUSD for its public schools. Critics of the diversity index created by Ho v. San Francisco Unified School District point out that many schools, as a result, these policies may be challenged at the community and local levels as well instead of just at the judicial level by filing a lawsuit. Lowell is located north of Lake Merced, south of San Franciscos Parkside District, the school spans several blocks between Sylvan Ave. in the west and 25th Ave. in the east, and Eucalyptus Drive in the north to Winston Drive in the south. The school is accessible via the San Francisco Municipal Railway K, M,57,18,23,28, 28R, the campus is located next to Lakeshore Elementary School, a public school, and St. Stephen School, a private K-8 school. Lowell is one of the two schools in the San Francisco Unified School District that is permitted to admit only students who meet special admission requirements. The Lowell admission process is based on a combination of standardized test scores, GPA, a writing sample, Lowell High School is ranked 3rd in terms of test scores among the Top 10 Public Schools in California, behind Gretchen Whitney High School and Oxford Academy. Lowell was also named a California Distinguished School in 1986,1990,1992,1994,2001, and 2009 as well as a National Blue Ribbon School in 1982,1994,2001, and 2012
41.
Mechanical engineering
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Mechanical engineering is the discipline that applies the principles of engineering, physics, and materials science for the design, analysis, manufacturing, and maintenance of mechanical systems. It is the branch of engineering that involves the design, production and it is one of the oldest and broadest of the engineering disciplines. The mechanical engineering field requires an understanding of areas including mechanics, kinematics, thermodynamics, materials science, structural analysis. Mechanical engineering emerged as a field during the Industrial Revolution in Europe in the 18th century, however, Mechanical engineering science emerged in the 19th century as a result of developments in the field of physics. The field has evolved to incorporate advancements in technology, and mechanical engineers today are pursuing developments in such fields as composites, mechatronics. Mechanical engineers may work in the field of biomedical engineering, specifically with biomechanics, transport phenomena, biomechatronics, bionanotechnology. Mechanical engineering finds its application in the archives of various ancient, in ancient Greece, the works of Archimedes deeply influenced mechanics in the Western tradition and Heron of Alexandria created the first steam engine. In China, Zhang Heng improved a water clock and invented a seismometer, during the 7th to 15th century, the era called the Islamic Golden Age, there were remarkable contributions from Muslim inventors in the field of mechanical technology. Al-Jazari, who was one of them, wrote his famous Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices in 1206 and he is also considered to be the inventor of such mechanical devices which now form the very basic of mechanisms, such as the crankshaft and camshaft. Newton was reluctant to publish his methods and laws for years, gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz is also credited with creating Calculus during the same time frame. On the European continent, Johann von Zimmermann founded the first factory for grinding machines in Chemnitz, education in mechanical engineering has historically been based on a strong foundation in mathematics and science. Degrees in mechanical engineering are offered at universities worldwide. In Spain, Portugal and most of South America, where neither B. Sc. nor B. Tech, programs have been adopted, the formal name for the degree is Mechanical Engineer, and the course work is based on five or six years of training. In Italy the course work is based on five years of education, and training, in Greece, the coursework is based on a five-year curriculum and the requirement of a Diploma Thesis, which upon completion a Diploma is awarded rather than a B. Sc. In Australia, mechanical engineering degrees are awarded as Bachelor of Engineering or similar nomenclature although there are a number of specialisations. The degree takes four years of study to achieve. To ensure quality in engineering degrees, Engineers Australia accredits engineering degrees awarded by Australian universities in accordance with the global Washington Accord, before the degree can be awarded, the student must complete at least 3 months of on the job work experience in an engineering firm. Similar systems are present in South Africa and are overseen by the Engineering Council of South Africa
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Hoboken, New Jersey
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Hoboken is a city in Hudson County, New Jersey, United States. Hoboken is part of the New York metropolitan area and is the site of Hoboken Terminal, Hoboken was first settled as part of the Pavonia, New Netherland colony in the 17th century. During the early 19th century the city was developed by Colonel John Stevens, first as a resort and it became a township in 1849 and was incorporated as a city in 1855. Hoboken is the location of the first recorded game of baseball and of the Stevens Institute of Technology, located on the Hudson Waterfront, the city was an integral part of the Port of New York and New Jersey and home to major industries for most of the 20th century. The character of the city has changed from a blue collar town to one of upscale shops, the name Hoboken was chosen by Colonel John Stevens when he bought land, on a part of which the city still sits. Like Weehawken, its neighbor to the north, Communipaw and Harsimus to the south, Hoebuck, old Dutch for high bluff and likely referring to Castle Point, was used during the colonial era and later spelled as Hobuck, Hobock, Hobuk and Hoboocken. The origin of Hobokens name was not related to the Hoboken district of Antwerp, however, in the nineteenth century, a folk etymology had emerged linking the town of to the similarly-named Flemish town. Hoboken was originally an island, surrounded by the Hudson River on the east and it was a seasonal campsite in the territory of the Hackensack, a phratry of the Lenni Lenape, who used the serpentine rock found there to carve pipes. Soon after it part of the province of New Netherland. Three Lenape sold the land that was to become Hoboken for 80 fathoms of wampum,20 fathoms of cloth,12 kettles, six guns and these transactions, variously dated as July 12,1630 and November 22,1630, represent the earliest known conveyance for the area. Pauw failed to settle the land, and he was obliged to sell his holdings back to the Company in 1633 and it was later acquired by Hendrick Van Vorst, who leased part of the land to Aert Van Putten, a farmer. In 1643, north of what would be known as Castle Point, Van Putten built a house. In series of Indian and Dutch raids and reprisals, Van Putten was killed and his buildings destroyed, deteriorating relations with the Lenape, its isolation as an island, or relatively long distance from New Amsterdam may have discouraged more settlement. In 1664, the English took possession of New Amsterdam with little or no resistance, english-speaking settlers interspersed with the Dutch, but it remained scarcely populated and agrarian. At the end of the Revolutionary War, Bayards property was confiscated by the Revolutionary Government of New Jersey, in 1784, the land described as William Bayards farm at Hoebuck was bought at auction by Colonel John Stevens for £18,360. In the early 19th century, Colonel John Stevens developed the waterfront as a resort for Manhattanites, on October 11,1811, Stevens ship the Juliana, began to operate as a ferry between Manhattan and Hoboken, making it the worlds first commercial steam ferry. In 1825, he designed and built a locomotive capable of hauling several passenger cars at his estate. Sybils Cave, a cave with a spring, was opened in 1832
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Delta Tau Delta
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Delta Tau Delta is a United States-based international Greek letter college fraternity. Delta Tau Delta was founded in 1858 at Bethany College, Bethany and it currently has around 140 student chapters nationwide, as well as few regional alumni groups. Its national philanthropic partner is the research organization JDRF. Delta Tau Delta Fraternity was founded in 1858, though some early documents reference the founding in 1859 or 1860, at Bethany College in Bethany, the social life on campus at that time centered around the Neotrophian Society, a literary society. The underlying controversy was that the Neotrophian Society, in the opinion of the eight men who formed Delta Tau Delta, had awarded a prize after a rigged vote. A constitution, name, badge, ritual and motto were devised, member Henry King Bell of Lexington, Kentucky, heard of the Civil Wars effects on Bethany College and the membership of Delta Tau Delta. After riding to Bethany and realizing that the longevity of Delta Tau Delta was at risk, Bell traveled to Canonsburg, Pennsylvania. On February 22,1861 Bell rode to Jefferson College from Bethany to bring the designation of the Alpha Chapter, in response to Jefferson College merging with the Washington Academy, an election was held at the General Convention. Ohio Wesleyan then assumed the Alpha designation, before the Alpha designation was finally transferred to Allegheny College, the Ohio Wesleyan chapter dissolved temporarily because of a lack of membership. After the Ohio Wesleyan chapter disappeared in 1875, the Allegheny College chapter, Allegheny College member James S. Eaton, traveled to Delaware, Ohio, to collect what remained of the organizations records and to investigate what had happened the Ohio Wesleyan chapter. Eaton brought the Alpha designation back with him to Allegheny College, during that time a magazine was established and 15 chapters were founded, of which eight survive. In 1886, Delta Tau Delta merged with the society known as the Rainbow Fraternity. The Delta Tau Delta Founders House was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979, members of Delta Tau Delta are informally referred to as Delts. The eight men considered to be the Founders of the Delta Tau Delta fraternity are, In 2017, in 2016, the chapter at West Virginia University was kicked off campus for filming an inappropriate audition for the Real World TV series. In 2015, the chapter at the University of Arizona was kicked off campus for hazing pledges, in February 2015, the chapter at Boston University lost its recognition status on campus due to facilitating underage drinking on two separate occasions. The chapter was reinstated that September year, in 2014, the chapter at the University of South Carolina was closed by the fraternitys national leadership for multiple alcohol citations. In 2014, the chapter was closed at Western Kentucky University for repeated poor academic performance, in 2012, the chapter at the University of Oklahoma was temporarily suspended for hazing pledges. In 2011, the chapter at Lehigh University was suspended for three years for hazing pledges, list of social fraternities and sororities Official Delta Tau Delta page Official Delta Tau Delta Educational Foundation
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Hydraulic engineer
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Hydraulic engineering as a sub-discipline of civil engineering is concerned with the flow and conveyance of fluids, principally water and sewage. One feature of these systems is the use of gravity as the motive force to cause the movement of the fluids. This area of engineering is intimately related to the design of bridges, dams, channels, canals, and levees. Hydraulic engineering is the application of the principles of mechanics to problems dealing with the collection, storage, control, transport, regulation, measurement. Before beginning a hydraulic engineering project, one must figure out how water is involved. The hydraulic engineer is concerned with the transport of sediment by the river, the interaction of the water with its boundary. Fundamentals of Hydraulic Engineering defines hydrostatics as the study of fluids at rest, in a fluid at rest, there exists a force, known as pressure, that acts upon the fluids surroundings. This pressure, measured in N/m2, is not constant throughout the body of fluid, pressure, p, in a given body of fluid, increases with an increase in depth. Four basic devices for measurement are a piezometer, manometer, differential manometer, Bourdon gauge. As Prasuhn states, On undisturbed submerged bodies, pressure acts along all surfaces of a body in a liquid and this reaction is known as equilibrium. More advanced applications of pressure are that on plane surfaces, curved surfaces, dams, the main difference between an ideal fluid and a real fluid is that for ideal flow p1 = p2 and for real flow p1 > p2. Ideal fluid is incompressible and has no viscosity, ideal fluid is only an imaginary fluid as all fluids that exist have some viscosity. A viscous fluid will deform continuously under a force, whereas an ideal fluid doesnt deform. The various effects of disturbance on a flow are stable, transition. For an ideal fluid, Bernoullis equation holds along streamlines, as the flow comes into contact with the plate, the layer of fluid actually adheres to a solid surface. There is then a considerable shearing action between the layer of fluid on the surface and the second layer of fluid. The second layer is forced to decelerate, creating a shearing action with the third layer of fluid. As the fluid passes further along the plate, the zone in which shearing action occurs tends to spread further outwards and this zone is known as the boundary layer
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