1.
Communist Party of Czechoslovakia
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The Communist Party of Czechoslovakia was a Communist and Marxist–Leninist political party in Czechoslovakia that existed between 1921 and 1992. It was a member of the Comintern, between 1929 and 1953 it was led by Klement Gottwald. After its election victory in 1946 it seized power in the 1948 Czechoslovak coup détat, nationalization of virtually all private enterprises followed. In 1968, party leader Alexander Dubček proposed reforms that included a democratic process, under pressure from the Kremlin, all reforms were repealed, party leadership became taken over by its more authoritarian wing and a massive non-bloody purge of party members was conducted. In 1989 the party leadership bowed to pressure during the Velvet revolution. In 1990, the centre-based Civic Forum won the election and the Communist party stood down, in October 1990, the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia became a federation of the Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia and the Communist Party of Slovakia. The Communist Party of Czechoslovakia was declared to be an organisation by the 1993 Act on Illegality of the Communist Regime. The Communist Party of Czechoslovakia was founded at the congress of the Czechoslovak Social-Democratic Party, Rudé právo, previously the organ of the Left Social-Democrats, became the main organ of the new party. As a first chairman was elected Václav Šturc, first vice-chairman was Bohumír Šmeral, the party was one of some twenty political parties that competed within the democratic framework of the First Czechoslovak Republic but it was never in government. In 1925 parliamentary election party gained 934,223 votes and 41 mandates, the party was the Czechoslovak section of the Communist International. As of 1928 the party was the second-largest section of the International, in 1929 parliamentary election party gained 753,220 votes and 30 mandates. In 1935 parliamentary election party held its 30 mandates with 849,495 votes The party was banned in October 1938, following the signing of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, anti-German protests broke out in Prague in October 1939. In response, the Comintern ordered the party to oppose the protests, during World War II many KSČ leaders sought refuge in the Soviet Union, where they prepared to broaden the partys power base once the war ended. In the early period the Soviet-supported Czechoslovak communists launched a sustained drive that culminated in their seizure of power in 1948. Once in control, the KSČ developed a structure and mode of rule patterned closely after those of the CPSU. The Communist Party of Czechoslovakia was in a government from 1945 to 1948. At the 1946 elections, it became the largest party, however, the KSČ held a de facto absolute monopoly on political power, and the other parties within the National Front were little more than auxiliaries. Even the governmental structure of Czechoslovakia existed primarily to implement policy decisions made within the KSČ, in 1951, Slánský and several other senior Communists were arrested and charged with participating in a Trotskyite-Titoite-Zionist conspiracy
Communist Party of Czechoslovakia
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Communist Party of Czechoslovakia Komunistická strana Československa
2.
Federal Assembly (Czechoslovakia)
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The Federal Assembly was the federal parliament of Czechoslovakia from January 1,1969 to the dissolution of Czechoslovakia on December 31,1992. It was Czechoslovakias highest legislative institution, chapter 3 of the 1960 Constitution of Czechoslovakia recognized it as the supreme organ of state power and the sole statewide legislative body. The Federal Assembly was divided into two chambers, the Chamber of the People and the Chamber of the Nations. The Chamber of the People reflected a system of proportional representation, the Chamber of Nations had 150 members,75 from each republic. Deputies were selected through popular elections and served five terms of office. After an election each chamber met to select its own Praesidium consisting of three to six members, together, the chambers elected the forty-member Presidium of the Federal Assembly, which served as the legislative authority when the assembly was not in session. A joint session of the Federal Assembly selected its chairman and vice chairman, alois Indra served as chairman from 1971 to 1989. The Federal Assembly met in session at least twice a year, in the spring. Constitutionally, the Federal Assembly was vested with great lawmaking powers, in theory, it had exclusive jurisdiction in all matters of foreign policy, fundamental matters of domestic policy, the economic plan, and supervision of the executive branch of government. In practice, however, as in other Communist states, its function was largely confined to rubber-stamping measures placed before it by the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia. Laws in Czechoslovakia were drafted in advance by the Presidium of the KSČ and presented to the Federal Assembly, the democratic centralist principle extended to elections as well. Voters were presented with a single list from the National Front, great pressure was brought to bear on citizens to turn out at the polls, and those who dared to cross out the name of the single Front-approved candidate on the ballot risked severe reprisals. Under these circumstances, elections were almost always a formality, with the Front list winning well over 99 percent of the vote, the Assembly building was originally a stock exchange, designed by Jaroslav Rössler and completed in 1938. The space proved insufficient, and after a design competition Karel Prager was appointed to add an extension and he added a modern glass, metal and stone structure around and over the top of the original building. The project was both expensive and controversial, between 1995 and 2008, The Federal Assembly Building housed the headquarters of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. As of 2015, it houses the Federal Assembly National Museum, nevertheless, it was copied elsewhere, notably in what is now the Bank of Georgia headquarters in Tblisi
Federal Assembly (Czechoslovakia)
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Building of former Czechoslovak Federal assembly in Prague
3.
Uhrovec
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Uhrovec is a village and municipality in the Bánovce nad Bebravou District of the Trenčín Region of Slovakia. In historical records the village was first mentioned in 1258, the village lies at an altitude of 258 metres and covers an area of 22. 95km². It has a population of 1478 people, jános Fadrusz, sculptor, started to learn in the sculptor-school in Uhrovec Municipal website
Uhrovec
4.
Czechoslovakia
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From 1939 to 1945, following its forced division and partial incorporation into Nazi Germany, the state did not de facto exist but its government-in-exile continued to operate. From 1948 to 1990, Czechoslovakia was part of the Soviet bloc with a command economy and its economic status was formalized in membership of Comecon from 1949, and its defense status in the Warsaw Pact of May 1955. A period of liberalization in 1968, known as the Prague Spring, was forcibly ended when the Soviet Union, assisted by several other Warsaw Pact countries. In 1993, Czechoslovakia split into the two states of the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Form of state 1918–1938, A democratic republic, 1938–1939, After annexation of Sudetenland by Nazi Germany in 1938, the region gradually turned into a state with loosened connections among the Czech, Slovak, and Ruthenian parts. A large strip of southern Slovakia and Carpatho-Ukraine was annexed by Hungary, 1939–1945, The region was split into the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and the Slovak Republic. A government-in-exile continued to exist in London, supported by the United Kingdom, United States and its Allies, after the German invasion of Russia, Czechoslovakia adhered to the Declaration by United Nations and was a founding member of the United Nations. 1946–1948, The country was governed by a government with communist ministers, including the prime minister. Carpathian Ruthenia was ceded to the Soviet Union, 1948–1989, The country became a socialist state under Soviet domination with a centrally planned economy. In 1960, the country became a socialist republic, the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic. It was a state of the Soviet Union. 1989–1990, The federal republic consisted of the Czech Socialist Republic, 1990–1992, Following the Velvet Revolution, the state was renamed the Czech and Slovak Federal Republic, consisting of the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic. Neighbours Austria 1918–1938, 1945–1992 Germany Hungary Poland Romania 1918–1938 Soviet Union 1945–1991 Ukraine 1991–1992 Topography The country was of irregular terrain. The western area was part of the north-central European uplands, the eastern region was composed of the northern reaches of the Carpathian Mountains and lands of the Danube River basin. Climate The weather is mild winters and mild summers, influenced by the Atlantic Ocean from the west, Baltic Sea from the north, and Mediterranean Sea from the south. The area was long a part of the Austro Hungarian Empire until the Empire collapsed at the end of World War I, the new state was founded by Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk, who served as its first president from 14 November 1918 to 14 December 1935. He was succeeded by his ally, Edvard Beneš. The roots of Czech nationalism go back to the 19th century, nationalism became a mass movement in the last half of the 19th century
Czechoslovakia
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Czechoslovak troops in Vladivostok (1918)
Czechoslovakia
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Flag since 1920
Czechoslovakia
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The car in which Reinhard Heydrich was killed
Czechoslovakia
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Spartakiad in 1960
5.
Slovakia
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Slovakia, officially the Slovak Republic, is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Austria to the west, Poland to the north, Ukraine to the east, Slovakias territory spans about 49,000 square kilometres and is mostly mountainous. The population is over 5 million and comprises mostly ethnic Slovaks, the capital and largest city is Bratislava. The Slavs arrived in the territory of present-day Slovakia in the 5th and 6th centuries, in the 7th century, they played a significant role in the creation of Samos Empire and in the 9th century established the Principality of Nitra. In the 10th century, the territory was integrated into the Kingdom of Hungary, which became part of the Habsburg Empire. After World War I and the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, a separate Slovak Republic existed in World War II as a client state of Nazi Germany. In 1945, Czechoslovakia was reëstablished under Communist rule as a Soviet satellite, in 1989 the Velvet Revolution ended authoritarian Communist rule in Czechoslovakia. Slovakia became an independent state on 1 January 1993 after the dissolution of Czechoslovakia. The country maintains a combination of economy with universal health care. The country joined the European Union in 2004 and the Eurozone on 1 January 2009, Slovakia is also a member of the Schengen Area, NATO, the United Nations, the OECD, the WTO, CERN, the OSCE, the Council of Europe and the Visegrád Group. The Slovak economy is one of the fastest growing economies in Europe and its legal tender, the Euro, is the worlds 2nd most traded currency. Although regional income inequality is high, 90% of citizens own their homes, in 2016, Slovak citizens had visa-free or visa-on-arrival access to 165 countries and territories, ranking the Slovak passport 11th in the world. Slovakia is the world’s biggest per-capita car producer with a total of 1,040,000 cars manufactured in the country in 2016 alone, the car industry represents 43 percent of Slovakia’s industrial output, and a quarter of its exports. Radiocarbon datingputs the oldest surviving archaeological artefacts from Slovakia – found near Nové Mesto nad Váhom – at 270,000 BC and these ancient tools, made by the Clactonian technique, bear witness to the ancient habitation of Slovakia. Other stone tools from the Middle Paleolithic era come from the Prévôt cave near Bojnice, the most important discovery from that era is a Neanderthal cranium, discovered near Gánovce, a village in northern Slovakia. The most well-known finds include the oldest female statue made of mammoth-bone, the statue was found in the 1940s in Moravany nad Váhom near Piešťany. Numerous necklaces made of shells from Cypraca thermophile gastropods of the Tertiary period have come from the sites of Zákovská, Podkovice, Hubina and these findings provide the most ancient evidence of commercial exchanges carried out between the Mediterranean and Central Europe. The Bronze Age in the territory of modern-day Slovakia went through three stages of development, stretching from 2000 to 800 BC
Slovakia
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A
Venus from
Moravany nad Váhom, which dates back to 22,800 BC.
Slovakia
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Flag
Slovakia
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Left: A
Celtic Biatec coin Right: Five
Slovak crowns
Slovakia
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A Roman inscription at the castle hill of
Trenčín (178–179 AD).
6.
Prague
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Prague is the capital and largest city of the Czech Republic. It is the 14th largest city in the European Union and it is also the historical capital of Bohemia. Situated in the north-west of the country on the Vltava river, the city has a temperate climate, with warm summers and chilly winters. Prague has been a political, cultural, and economic centre of central Europe with waxing and waning fortunes during its history and it was an important city to the Habsburg Monarchy and its Austro-Hungarian Empire. Prague is home to a number of cultural attractions, many of which survived the violence. Main attractions include the Prague Castle, the Charles Bridge, Old Town Square with the Prague astronomical clock, since 1992, the extensive historic centre of Prague has been included in the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites. The city has more than ten major museums, along with theatres, galleries, cinemas. An extensive modern public transportation system connects the city, also, it is home to a wide range of public and private schools, including Charles University in Prague, the oldest university in Central Europe. Prague is classified as an Alpha- global city according to GaWC studies, Prague ranked sixth in the Tripadvisor world list of best destinations in 2016. Its rich history makes it a popular tourist destination, and the city more than 6.4 million international visitors annually. Prague is the fifth most visited European city after London, Paris, Istanbul, the region was settled as early as the Paleolithic age. In the last century BC, the Celts were slowly driven away by Germanic tribes, around the area where present-day Prague stands, the 2nd century map of Ptolemaios mentioned a Germanic city called Casurgis. In the following century, the Czech tribes built several fortified settlements in the area, most notably in Levý Hradec, Butovice and in the Šárka valley. The construction of what came to be known as the Prague Castle began near the end of the 9th century, the first masonry under Prague Castle dates from the year 885 at the latest. The other prominent Prague fort, the Přemyslid fort Vyšehrad, was founded in the 10th century, Prague Castle is dominated by the cathedral, which was founded in 1344, but completed in the 20th century. The legendary origins of Prague attribute its foundation to the 8th century Czech duchess and prophetess Libuše and her husband, Přemysl, legend says that Libuše came out on a rocky cliff high above the Vltava and prophesied, I see a great city whose glory will touch the stars. She ordered a castle and a town called Praha to be built on the site, a 17th century Jewish chronicler David Solomon Ganz, citing Cyriacus Spangenberg, claimed that the city was founded as Boihaem in c.1306 BC by an ancient king, Boyya. The region became the seat of the dukes, and later kings of Bohemia, under Roman Emperor Otto II the area became a bishopric in 973
Prague
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Montage of Prague, clockwise from top: Panorama of
Prague Castle and
Charles Bridge,
Dancing House,
Star Villa,
Old Town Square,
Wenceslas Square,
Wallenstein Palace, Royal Garden at Prague Castle,
St. Vitus Cathedral and
Municipal House.
Prague
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The mythological princess
Libuše prophesies the glory of Prague.
Prague
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The
Prague astronomical clock was first installed in 1410, making it the third-oldest astronomical clock in the world and the oldest one still working.
Prague
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A view of one of the bridge towers of the Charles Bridge
7.
Czech Republic
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The Czech Republic, also known as Czechia, is a nation state in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west, Austria to the south, Slovakia to the east and Poland to the northeast. The Czech Republic covers an area of 78,866 square kilometres with mostly temperate continental climate and it is a unitary parliamentary republic, has 10.5 million inhabitants and the capital and largest city is Prague, with over 1.2 million residents. The Czech Republic includes the territories of Bohemia, Moravia. The Czech state was formed in the late 9th century as the Duchy of Bohemia under the Great Moravian Empire, after the fall of the Empire in 907, the centre of power transferred from Moravia to Bohemia under the Přemyslid dynasty. In 1002, the duchy was formally recognized as part of the Holy Roman Empire, becoming the Kingdom of Bohemia in 1198 and reaching its greatest territorial extent in the 14th century. Following the Battle of Mohács in 1526, the whole Crown of Bohemia was gradually integrated into the Habsburg Monarchy alongside the Archduchy of Austria, the Protestant Bohemian Revolt against the Catholic Habsburgs led to the Thirty Years War. After the Battle of the White Mountain, the Habsburgs consolidated their rule, reimposed Roman Catholicism, the Czech part of Czechoslovakia was occupied by Germany in World War II, and was liberated in 1945 by the armies of the Soviet Union and the United States. The Czech country lost the majority of its German-speaking inhabitants after they were expelled following the war, the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia won the 1946 elections. Following the 1948 coup détat, Czechoslovakia became a one-party communist state under Soviet influence, in 1968, increasing dissatisfaction with the regime culminated in a reform movement known as the Prague Spring, which ended in a Soviet-led invasion. Czechoslovakia remained occupied until the 1989 Velvet Revolution, when the communist regime collapsed, on 6 March 1990, the Czech Socialistic Republic was renamed to the Czech Republic. On 1 January 1993, Czechoslovakia peacefully dissolved, with its constituent states becoming the independent states of the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic. The Czech Republic joined NATO in 1999 and the European Union in 2004, it is a member of the United Nations, the OECD, the OSCE, and it is a developed country with an advanced, high income economy and high living standards. The UNDP ranks the country 14th in inequality-adjusted human development, the Czech Republic also ranks as the 6th most peaceful country, while achieving strong performance in democratic governance. It has the lowest unemployment rate in the European Union, the traditional English name Bohemia derives from Latin Boiohaemum, which means home of the Boii. The current name comes from the endonym Čech, spelled Cžech until the reform in 1842. The name comes from the Slavic tribe and, according to legend, their leader Čech, the etymology of the word Čech can be traced back to the Proto-Slavic root *čel-, meaning member of the people, kinsman, thus making it cognate to the Czech word člověk. The country has traditionally divided into three lands, namely Bohemia in the west, Moravia in the southeast, and Czech Silesia in the northeast. Following the dissolution of Czechoslovakia at the end of 1992, the Czech part of the former nation found itself without a common single-word geographical name in English, the name Czechia /ˈtʃɛkiə/ was recommended by the Czech Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Czech Republic
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Přemysl Ottokar II,
King of Bohemia (1253–1278) and
Duke of Austria (1251–1278)
Czech Republic
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Flag
Czech Republic
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The
Crown of Saint Wenceslas is the 4th oldest in Europe
Czech Republic
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The
Defenestration of Prague sparked the
Thirty Years' War
8.
Public Against Violence
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Public Against Violence was a political movement established in Bratislava, Slovakia in November 1989. It was the Slovak counterpart of the Czech Civic Forum, Public Against Violence was founded during the Velvet Revolution, which overthrew the Communist Party rule in Czechoslovakia. After riot police cracked down on a student demonstration in Prague on the 17 November 1989 a growing series of demonstrations were held in Czechoslovakia, on the 19 November Civic Forum was founded in Prague as a coalition of opposition groups demanding the removal of the Communist leadership. The same evening a meeting was held in Bratislava, Slovakia attended by about 500 people where Public Against Violence was founded, the following day a first meeting of the coordinating committee of Public Against Violence took place. Public Against Violence was similar to Civic Forum in being a movement in opposition to Communism. The founders of Public Against Violence included actor Milan Kňažko, dissident Ján Budaj and sociologist Fedor Gál, however Public Against Violence also called for relations between the Czechs and Slovaks to be altered in a new democratic federation. Protests spread across Slovakia in November 1989 with branches of Public Against Violence being founded in many towns, after a two-hour general strike on 27 November demonstrated support for the opposition, agreement was reached on the 29 November for the leading role of the Communist Party to be ended. Čalfa went on to leave the Communist Party on the 18 January 1990, in Slovakia a new government was also formed on the 12 December 1989 led by the Communist Minister of Justice Milan Čič, with equal numbers of Communists and non-Communists. However Public Against Violence began to even before the first democratic elections were held. At the beginning of 1990 Ján Čarnogurský and advocates of Christian democracy left Public Against Violence, going into the first free elections in June 1990 Public Against Violence wanted greater powers for Slovakia, but backed continuing the union between the Czechs and Slovaks. However they called for the emphasis to be on the economy and environment, in the lead up to the 1990 elections opinion polls showed Public Against Violence with between 18 and 25% support in Slovakia, behind the Christian Democratic Movement on 25 to 30%. Public Against Violence was reported to be suffering from an increase in Slovak nationalism, however Public Against Violence gained during the campaign on their anti-communist credentials with Václav Havel being well received when he campaigned in Slovakia. A poll on 1 June 1990 showed Public Against Violence ahead of the Christian Democratic Movement in Slovakia for the first time, the election results saw Public Against Violence finish first in Slovakia, both in the federal and Slovak elections. In the federal election together the combination of Civic Forum and Public Against Violence won a majority, while in the Slovak election Public Against Violence came first but short of a majority. As time passed from the Velvet Revolution, the rating for both Civic Forum and Public Against Violence dropped from 60% in February 1990 to 38% in October 1990. In local elections held in November 1990 Public Against Violence came second to the Christian Democratic Movement in Slovakia, Public Against Violence was reported to have won 20. 4% of the vote in Slovakia, compared to 27. 4% for the Christian Democratic Movement. An opinion poll in November 1990 also showed support for Public Against Violence had fallen to 17%, Public Against Violence faced tensions over the amount of power that should be held centrally in Czechoslovakia and how much should be held in Slovakia. However the leadership of Public Against Violence accused Mečiar of wanting an independent Slovakia, on the 23 April 1991 Vladimír Mečiar was replaced as Prime Minister of Slovakia by the leader of the Christian Democratic Movement Ján Čarnogurský
Public Against Violence
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Memorial of the Velvet revolution in Bratislava (Námestie SNP)
Public Against Violence
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Slovakia
Public Against Violence
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Chairman of Public Against Violence Fedor Gál
Public Against Violence
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Vladimír Mečiar, who led the breakaway
Movement for a Democratic Slovakia
9.
Social Democratic Party of Slovakia
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The Social Democratic Party of Slovakia was a centre-left political party in Slovakia. Its last chairman, since 1993, was Jaroslav Volf, its chairman in 1992 was Alexander Dubček, most of the time it failed to win seats in elections. Prior to his death in November 1992, he was one of their MPs in the federal parliament. From 1994 to 1997, the SDSS was a member of a coalition called Common Choice that gained 10. 18% in the Slovak parliament and they did not form a part of the government. Following the 1998 elections, they joined the ruling Slovak Democratic Coalition until 2002, when Slovakia became a member of the European Union, they were a part of the pan-European Party of European Socialists, along with the Party of the Democratic Left. The SDSS was also a member of the Socialist International, in 2003, an agreement was signed with the Direction party to work closely together in all spheres. On 1 January 2005 the SDSS finally merged with Direction to form Direction – Social Democracy
Social Democratic Party of Slovakia
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Slovakia
10.
Slovaks
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The Slovaks or Slovak people are a nation and West Slavic ethnic group native to Slovakia who share a common ancestry, culture, history and are native speakers of the Slovak language. Most Slovaks today live within the borders of the independent Slovakia, there are Slovak minorities in Czech Republic, Croatia, Poland, Hungary, Serbia and sizeable populations of immigrants and their descendants in the United States, Canada and the United Kingdom. The name Slovak is derived from *Slověninъ, plural *Slověně, the old name of the Slavs, in the Slovak language, only the masculine noun Slověninъ, Slověn changed to Slovän, Slovan and finally to Slovák around 1400. The older form Sloven is preserved in all words in the Slovak language – the adjective Slovak is still slovenský, the feminine noun Slovak is still Slovenka. In 1029 St. Emeric, ruler of the Nitrian principality is called Henricus dux Sclavonie, in 1113 Nestor calls the territory of Slovakia - Slověnskaja zemlja. The first written mention about usage of the new form Slovak in the territory of present-day Slovakia is from Bardejov – Nicoulaus Cossibor hauptman, Nicolaus Czech et Slowak, the mentions in Czech sources are older –1375 and 1385. The change is not related to ethnogenesis of Slovaks, but exclusively to linguistic changes in the West Slavic languages, the word Slovak was also used later as a common name for all Slavs in Czech, Polish and also Slovak language in parallel with other forms. The Slovaks and Slovenes are the only current Slavic nations that have preserved the original name, for Slovenes, the adjective is still slovenski and the feminine noun Slovene is still also Slovenka, but the masculine noun has since changed to Slovenec. The Slovak name for their language is slovenčina and the Slovene name for theirs is slovenščina, the Slovak term for the Slovene language is slovinčina, and the Slovenes call Slovak slovaščina. The name is derived from proto-Slavic form slovo word, talk, thus Slovaks as well as Slovenians would mean people who speak, i. e. people who understand each other. In Hungarian Slovak is Tót, an exonym and it was originally used to refer to all Slavs including Slovenes and Croats, but eventually came to refer primarily to Slovaks. Many place names in Hungary such as Tótszentgyörgy, Tótszentmárton, tóth is a common Hungarian surname. The Slovaks have also historically been referred to as Slovyenyn, Slowyenyny, Sclavus, Sclavi, Slavus, Slavi, Winde, Wende. The final three terms are variations of the Germanic term Wends, which was used to refer to any Slavs living close to Germanic settlements. The early Slavs came to the territory of Slovakia in several waves from the 5th and 6th centuries and were organized on a tribal level, original tribal names are not known due to the lack of written sources before their integration into higher political units. In the 7th century, Slavs founded larger tribal union, Samos empire, regardless of Samos empire, the integration process continued in other territories with various intensities. The final fall of the Avar Khaganate allowed new political entities to arise, the first such political unit documented by written sources is the Principality of Nitra, one of the foundations of later common ethnic consciousness. At this stage in history it is not yet possible to assume a common identity of all Slovak ancestors in the territory of eastern Slovakia, the Principality of Nitra become a part of Great Moravia, a common state of Moravians and Slovaks
Slovaks
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Anton Bernolák,
Ľudovít Štúr,
Andrej Hlinka,
Štefan Banič,
Jozef Miloslav Hurban,
Aurel Stodola,
Adam František Kollár,
Milan Hodža,
Pavol Országh Hviezdoslav,
Milan Rastislav Štefánik,
Gustáv Husák,
Alexander Dubček
Slovaks
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Ján Hollý (portrait from 1885)
Slovaks
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The statue of
Svätopluk I
Slovaks
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Pribina, ruler of Principality of Nitra, established and ruled the
Balaton Principality from 839/840 to 861.
11.
Czechoslovak Socialist Republic
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It has been regarded as a satellite state of the Soviet Union. Several other state symbols were changed in 1960, the official name of the country was the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic. Conventional wisdom suggested that it would be known as simply the Czechoslovak Republic—its official name from 1920 to 1938, the traditional etymology derives it from an eponymous leader Čech who led the tribe into Bohemia. Modern theories consider it a derivative, e. g. from četa. Meanwhile, the name Slovak was taken from the Slavic Slavs as the origin of the word Slav itself remains uncertain, during the states existence, it was simply referred to Czechoslovakia or sometimes the CSSR and CSR in short. In April 1945, the Third Republic was formed, led by a National Front of six parties, the Communists were the big winners in the 1946 elections, taking a total of 114 seats. Not only was this the time a Communist party finished first in a free election anywhere in Europe during the Cold War era. Klement Gottwald, leader of the KSČ, became Prime Minister of Czechoslovakia, hope in Moscow was waning for a communist victory in the 1948 elections following a May 1947 Kremlin report concluded that reactionary elements praising western democracy had strengthened. Thereafter, Soviet Ambassador Valerian Zorin arranged the Czechoslovak coup détat, followed by the occupation of non-Communist ministers ministries, on 25 February 1948, Beneš, fearful of civil war and Soviet intervention, capitulated and appointed a Communist-dominated government who was sworn in two days later. Although members of the other National Front parties still figured, this was, for all intents and purposes. Foreign Minister Jan Masaryk, the prominent minister still left who wasnt either a Communist or fellow traveler, was found dead two weeks later. On 30 May, a single list of candidates from the National Front—now an organization dominated by the Communists—was elected to the National Assembly, after passage of the Ninth-of-May Constitution on 9 June 1948, the country became a Peoples Republic until 1960. Although it was not a completely Communist document, it was enough to the Soviet model that Beneš refused to sign it. Hed resigned a week before it was ratified, and died in September. The Ninth-of-May Constitution confirmed that the KSČ possessed absolute power, as other Communist parties had in the Eastern Bloc, on 11 July 1960, the 1960 Constitution of Czechoslovakia was promulgated, changing the name of the country from the Czechoslovak Republic to the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic. With the exception of the Prague Spring in the late 1960s, Czechoslovakia was characterized by the absence of democracy, in the religious sphere, atheism was officially promoted and taught. In 1969, the became a federation of the Czech Socialist Republic. Under the federation, social and economic inequities between the Czech and Slovak halves of the state were largely eliminated, a number of ministries, such as Education, were formally transferred to the two republics
Czechoslovak Socialist Republic
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Flag
12.
Prague Spring
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The Prague Spring was a period of political liberalization in Czechoslovakia during the era of its domination by the Soviet Union after World War II. The Prague Spring reforms were an attempt by Dubček to grant additional rights to the citizens of Czechoslovakia in an act of partial decentralization of the economy. The freedoms granted included a loosening of restrictions on the media, speech, a large wave of emigration swept the nation. A spirited non-violent resistance was mounted throughout the country, involving attempted fraternization, painting over and turning street signs, defiance of various curfews, etc. While the Soviet military had predicted that it would take four days to subdue the country the resistance held out for eight months, there were sporadic acts of violence and several suicides by self-immolation, but there was no military resistance. Gustáv Husák, who replaced Dubček and also president, reversed almost all of Dubčeks reforms. The Prague Spring inspired music and literature such as the work of Václav Havel, Karel Husa, Karel Kryl, and Milan Kunderas novel The Unbearable Lightness of Being. The process of de-Stalinization in Czechoslovakia had begun under Antonín Novotný in the late 1950s and early 1960s, following the lead of Nikita Khrushchev, Novotný proclaimed the completion of socialism, and the new constitution, accordingly, adopted the name Czechoslovak Socialist Republic. In the early 1960s, Czechoslovakia underwent an economic downturn, the Soviet model of industrialization applied poorly to Czechoslovakia. Czechoslovakia was already quite industrialized before World War II and the Soviet model mainly took into account less developed economies, novotnýs attempt at restructuring the economy, the 1965 New Economic Model, spurred increased demand for political reform as well. A few months later, at a party meeting, it was decided that actions against the writers who openly expressed support of reformation would be taken. Since only a part of the union held these beliefs. Dubček replaced Novotný as First Secretary on 5 January 1968, on 22 March 1968, Novotný resigned his presidency and was replaced by Ludvík Svoboda, who later gave consent to the reforms. Early signs of change were few, goldstucker tested the boundaries of Dubček’s devotion to freedom of the press when he appeared on a television interview as the new head of the union. Despite the official government statement that allowed for freedom of the press, goldstucker suffered no repercussions, and Dubček instead began to build a sense of trust among the media, the government, and the citizens. It was under Goldstücker that the name was changed to Literární listy, and on 29 February 1968. By August 1968, Literární listy had a circulation of 300,000, on the 20th anniversary of Czechoslovakia’s Victorious February, Dubček delivered a speech explaining the need for change following the triumph of socialism. Dubček declared the mission was to build an advanced socialist society on sound economic foundations
Prague Spring
–
Alexander Dubček
Prague Spring
–
Eastern Bloc
Prague Spring
–
Leonid Brezhnev.
Prague Spring
–
Prague Spring of 1968
13.
Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia
–
Approximately 250,000 Warsaw pact troops attacked Czechoslovakia that night, with Romania and Albania refusing to participate. Although East German forces were prepared to participate in the invasion as well,108 Czechoslovakian civilians were killed and around 500 wounded in the invasion. The invasion successfully stopped Alexander Dubčeks Prague Spring liberalisation reforms and strengthened the authority of the authoritarian wing within the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, the foreign policy of the Soviet Union during this era was known as the Brezhnev Doctrine. The process of de-Stalinization in Czechoslovakia had begun under Antonín Novotný in the late 1950s and early 1960s, following the lead of Nikita Khrushchev, Novotný proclaimed the completion of socialism, and the new constitution, accordingly, adopted the name Czechoslovak Socialist Republic. In the early 1960s, Czechoslovakia underwent an economic downturn, the Soviet model of industrialization applied poorly to Czechoslovakia. Czechoslovakia was already quite industrialized before World War II and the Soviet model mainly took into account less developed economies, novotnýs attempt at restructuring the economy, the 1965 New Economic Model, spurred increased demand for political reform as well. A few months later, at a party meeting, it was decided that actions against the writers who openly expressed support of reformation would be taken. Since only a part of the union held these beliefs. The Prague Spring was a period of liberalization in Czechoslovakia during the era of its domination by the Soviet Union after World War II. The Prague Spring reforms were an attempt by Dubček to grant additional rights to the citizens of Czechoslovakia in an act of partial decentralization of the economy. The freedoms granted included a loosening of restrictions on the media, speech, a large wave of emigration swept the nation. A spirited non-violent resistance was mounted throughout the country, involving attempted fraternization, painting over and turning street signs, defiance of various curfews, etc. While the Soviet military had predicted that it would take four days to subdue the country the resistance held out for eight months, there were sporadic acts of violence and several suicides by self-immolation, but there was no military resistance. Czechoslovakia remained controlled until 1989, when the revolution ended pro-Soviet rule peacefully, undoubtedly drawing upon the successes of the non-violent resistance twenty years earlier. Gustáv Husák, who replaced Dubček and also president, reversed almost all of Dubčeks reforms. The Prague Spring inspired music and literature such as the work of Václav Havel, Karel Husa, Karel Kryl, the first such fear was that Czechoslovakia would defect from the bloc, injuring the Soviet Unions position in a possible war with the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation. Not only would the loss result in a lack of depth for the USSR. Czechoslovak leaders had no intention of leaving the Warsaw Pact, other fears included the spread of liberalization and unrest elsewhere in Eastern Europe
Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia
–
©Ladislav Bielik,Šafárikovo námestie, Bratislava: Emil Gallo baring his chest in a gesture of defiance
Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia
–
Barricades and Soviet tanks on fire.
Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia
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A Prague resident tries to talk with a Soviet soldier.
Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia
–
Soviet soldier with a tank shell - possibly having brought it out of a burning tank.
14.
Velvet revolution
–
The Velvet Revolution or Gentle Revolution was a non-violent transition of power in what was then Czechoslovakia, occurring from November 17 to December 29,1989. Popular demonstrations against the one-party government of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia combined students, the result was the end of 41 years of one-party rule in Czechoslovakia, and the subsequent dismantling of the planned economy and conversion to a parliamentary republic. On November 17,1989, riot police suppressed a student demonstration in Prague and that event sparked a series of demonstrations from November 19 to late December. By November 20, the number of protesters assembled in Prague grew from 200,000 the previous day to an estimated 500,000, a two-hour general strike involving all citizens of Czechoslovakia was held on November 27. On November 24, the top leadership of the Communist Party, including General Secretary Miloš Jakeš. Two days later, the legislature deleted the sections of the Constitution giving the Communists a monopoly of power. Barbed wire and other obstructions were removed from the border with West Germany, on December 10, President Gustáv Husák appointed the first largely non-communist government in Czechoslovakia since 1948, and resigned. Alexander Dubček was elected speaker of the parliament on December 28. In June 1990, Czechoslovakia held its first democratic elections since 1946, the term Velvet Revolution was coined by Rita Klímová, the dissidents English translator who later became the ambassador to the United States. The term was used internationally to describe the revolution, although the Czechs also used the term internally, after the dissolution of Czechoslovakia in 1993, Slovakia used the term Gentle Revolution, the term that Slovaks used for the revolution from the beginning. The Czech Republic continues to refer to the event as the Velvet Revolution, the Communist Party seized power on February 25,1948. No official opposition parties operated thereafter, dissidents published home-made periodicals, but they faced persecution by the secret police. Thus, the public did not openly support the dissidents for fear of dismissal from work or school. A writer or filmmaker could have his/her books or films banned for an attitude towards the socialist regime. These rules were easy to enforce, as all schools, media and they were under direct supervision and often were used as accusatory weapons against rivals. The nature of blacklisting changed gradually after the introduction of Mikhail Gorbachevs policies of Glasnost, the Czechoslovak Communist leadership verbally supported Perestroika, but made few changes. Speaking about the Prague Spring of 1968 was taboo, the first anti-government demonstrations occurred in 1988 and 1989, but these were dispersed and participants were repressed by the police. By the late 1980s, discontent with living standards and economic inadequacy gave way to support for economic reform
Velvet revolution
–
Václav Havel honoring the deaths of those who took part in the Prague protest.
Velvet revolution
–
Non-violent protesters face armed policemen, holding grenades and automatic weapons
Velvet revolution
–
Memorial of the student demonstrations of November 17, in Prague
Velvet revolution
–
Memorial of the Velvet revolution in Bratislava (Námestie SNP)
15.
European Parliament
–
The European Parliament is the directly elected parliamentary institution of the European Union. Together with the Council of the European Union and the European Commission, the Parliament is composed of 751 members, who represent the second-largest democratic electorate in the world and the largest trans-national democratic electorate in the world. It has been elected every five years by universal suffrage since 1979. However, voter turnout at European Parliament elections has fallen consecutively at each election since that date, voter turnout in 2014 stood at 42. 54% of all European voters. The Parliament is the first institution of the EU, and shares equal legislative and it likewise has equal control over the EU budget. Finally, the European Commission, the body of the EU, is accountable to Parliament. In particular, Parliament elects the President of the Commission, and it can subsequently force the Commission as a body to resign by adopting a motion of censure. The President of the European Parliament is Antonio Tajani, elected in January 2017 and he presides over a multi-party chamber, the two largest groups being the Group of the European Peoples Party and the Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats. The last union-wide elections were the 2014 elections, the European Parliament has three places of work – Brussels, the city of Luxembourg and Strasbourg. Luxembourg is home to the administrative offices, meetings of the whole Parliament take place in Strasbourg and in Brussels. Committee meetings are held in Brussels, the Parliament, like the other institutions, was not designed in its current form when it first met on 10 September 1952. One of the oldest common institutions, it began as the Common Assembly of the European Coal and it was a consultative assembly of 78 appointed parliamentarians drawn from the national parliaments of member states, having no legislative powers. Its development since its foundation shows how the European Unions structures have evolved without a master plan. Some, such as Tom Reid of the Washington Post, said of the union, nobody would have designed a government as complex. Even the Parliaments two seats, which have switched several times, are a result of various agreements or lack of agreements, the body was not mentioned in the original Schuman Declaration. It was assumed or hoped that difficulties with the British would be resolved to allow the Council of Europes Assembly to perform the task, a separate Assembly was introduced during negotiations on the Treaty as an institution which would counterbalance and monitor the executive while providing democratic legitimacy. The wording of the ECSC Treaty demonstrated the desire for more than a normal consultative assembly by using the term representatives of the people. Its early importance was highlighted when the Assembly was given the task of drawing up the treaty to establish a European Political Community
European Parliament
European Parliament
–
European Parliament
European Parliament
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Session of the Council of Europe's Assembly in the former
House of Europe in Strasbourg in January 1967
European Parliament
–
Palace of Europe, Parliament's Strasbourg hemicycle until 1999
16.
Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought
–
Named after Russian scientist and dissident Andrei Sakharov, the prize was established in December 1988 by the European Parliament. A shortlist of nominees is drawn up annually by the Committee on Foreign Affairs, the prize is accompanied by a monetary award of €50,000. The first prize was awarded jointly to South African Nelson Mandela, the 1990 award was given to Aung San Suu Kyi, but she could not receive it until 2013 as a result of her political imprisonment in Burma. The prize has also awarded to organisations, the first being the Argentine Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo in 1992. Some Sakharov laureates still face harsh political oppression, laureates living under repressive regimes include the Belarusian Association of Journalists, Damas de Blanco and Guillermo Fariñas, Alaksandar Milinkievič and Hu Jia. Razan Zaitouneh was kidnapped in 2013 and is still missing, nasrin Sotoudeh was released from prison in September 2013, and, along with fellow 2012 laureate Jafar Panahi, is still barred from leaving Iran. Three Sakharov laureates were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, Nelson Mandela, Aung San Suu Kyi. Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought,20 years of the Sakharov Prize, rewarding courage, self-sacrifice
Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought
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The awarding ceremony of the 1990 prize awarded to
Aung San Suu Kyi inside the Parliament's Strasbourg hemicycle, in 2013.
Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought
–
Nelson Mandela was the inaugural winner of the prize, together with
Anatoly Marchenko.
Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought
–
Members of
Ladies in White, a 2005 laureate, demonstrate in
Havana,
Cuba.
Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought
–
Doctor
Denis Mukwege, recipient of the prize in 2014
17.
Kyrgyz SSR
–
Landlocked and mountainous, it bordered the Tajikistan and China to the south, Uzbekistan to the west and Kazakhstan to the north. The Kirghiz branch of the Soviet Communist Party governed the republic from 1936 until 1990, on 15 December 1990, the Kirghiz SSR was renamed to Socialist Republic of Kirghizia after declaring its state sovereignty. On 31 August 1991, it transformed into independent Kyrgyzstan, the name Kyrgyz is believed to have been derived from the Turkic word for forty, in reference to the forty clans of Manas, a legendary hero who united forty regional clans against the Uyghurs. The name Kyrgyz or Kirghiz means Land of the forty tribes, politically, the name of the republic was the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic as stated in the 1937 and 1978 Constitutions of the Kirghiz SSR. From 30 October 1990 to 15 December 1990, it was renamed the Socialist Republic of Kirghizia, afterwards, the Socialist suffix was dropped and it became the Republic of Kirghizia, which retained this name after independence. Established on 14 October 1924 as the Kara-Kirghiz Autonomous Oblast of the RSFSR, it was transformed into the Kirghiz ASSR on 1 February 1926, the borders were not divided however by ethnic or linguistic lines. At the time of formation of Kirghizia, its territory was divided into districts, on November 21,1939 five oblasts were created, Jalal-Abad, Issyk Kul, Osh, Tyan Shan, and Frunze Oblasts. Tyan Shan Oblast was abolished in 1962, when the rest of the country with the exception of Osh was divided into districts of republican subordination, in 1970, Issyk-Kul and Naryn were defined, and in 1980 so was Talas. In 1988, the Naryn and Talas oblasts were again abolished, at the same time, Jalal-Abad and Chui were reestablished. These districts were known for their heavy application of fertilizers after independence. The Osh Massacre in 1990 undermined the position of the first secretary and that same year, on 15 December, the Kirghiz SSR was reconstituted as the Republic of Kyrgyzstan after declaring its sovereignty. On 17 March 1991, Kirghizia supported the Union preservation referendum with an 95. 98% turnout, however, this did not come to pass when the hardliners took control of Moscow for three days in August 1991. Askar Akayev, the first president unequivocally condemned the putsch and gained fame as a democratic leader, the country declared its independence on 31 August 1991 and the Soviet Union was formally dissolved on 26 December 1991. However, the 1978 constitution remained in effect after its independence until 1993, similar to that of the Soviet republics, Kirghizias government took place in the framework of a one-party socialist republic with the Communist Party of Kirghizia as the sole legal political party. In 1926, the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic had a population of 1,002,000 people, in 19391,458,000 people were recorded. The population grew significantly in the decades after World War II, the republic had 2,065,837 people in 1959,2,932,805 people in 1970, and 3,529,030 people in 1979. In the final Soviet census of 1989, the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic had grown to 4,257,755 people, the majority of the population were ethnic Kyrgyz people. However, because numbers were sent here in deportations, at times there were significant other ethnic groups
Kyrgyz SSR
–
Flag
18.
Soviet Union
–
The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
Soviet Union
–
Vladimir Lenin addressing a crowd with Trotsky, 1920
Soviet Union
–
Flag
Soviet Union
–
Stalin and
Nikolai Yezhov, head of the
NKVD. After Yezhov was executed, he was
edited out of the image.
Soviet Union
19.
Kyrgyzstan
–
Kyrgyzstan, officially the Kyrgyz Republic, is a country in Central Asia. Landlocked and mountainous, Kyrgyzstan is bordered by Kazakhstan to the north, Uzbekistan to the west and southwest, Tajikistan to the southwest and its capital and largest city is Bishkek. Kyrgyzstans recorded history spans over 2,000 years, encompassing a variety of cultures and empires, ethnic Kyrgyz make up the majority of the countrys 5.7 million people, followed by significant minorities of Uzbeks and Russians. Kyrgyz is closely related to other Turkic languages, although Russian remains widely spoken and is the official language, the majority of the population are non-denominational Muslims. In addition to its Turkic origins, Kyrgyz culture bears elements of Persian, Mongolian and Russian influence. Kyrgyz is believed to have derived from the Turkic word for forty, in reference to the forty clans of Manas. Literally, Kyrgyz means We are forty, at the time, in the early 9th century AD, the Uyghurs dominated much of Central Asia, Mongolia, and parts of Russia and China. King, Scythians were early settlers in present-day Kyrgyzstan, the Kyrgyz state reached its greatest expansion after defeating the Uyghur Khaganate in 840 A. D. From the 10th century the Kyrgyz migrated as far as the Tian Shan range, in the twelfth century the Kyrgyz dominion had shrunk to the Altay Range and Sayan Mountains as a result of the Mongol expansion. With the rise of the Mongol Empire in the thirteenth century, the Kyrgyz peacefully became a part of the Mongol Empire in 1207. The descent of the Kyrgyz from the autochthonous Siberian population is confirmed on the hand by the recent genetic studies. Issyk Kul Lake was a stopover on the Silk Road, a route for traders, merchants. Kyrgyz tribes were overrun in the 17th century by the Mongols, in the century by the Manchurian Qing Dynasty. In the late century, the majority part of what is today Kyrgyzstan was ceded to Russia through two treaties between China and Russia. The territory, then known in Russian as Kirghizia, was incorporated into the Russian Empire in 1876. The Russian takeover was met with numerous revolts against Tsarist authority, in addition, the suppression of the 1916 rebellion against Russian rule in Central Asia caused many Kyrgyz later to migrate to China. Soviet power was established in the region in 1919. On 5 December 1936, the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic was established as a republic of the Soviet Union
Kyrgyzstan
–
Silk road caravansary utilized during the
Islamic Golden Age
Kyrgyzstan
Kyrgyzstan
–
Kyrgyz nomads, 1869–1870, by Vasily Vereshchagin
Kyrgyzstan
–
Kyrgyz yurt, 1869–1870, by
Vasily Vereshchagin
20.
Esperanto culture
–
Esperanto speakers have their own culture, on top of being a gateway to the culture of the entire world. In general, Esperanto culture places a focus on reading, education. Native Esperanto speakers are people who have acquired Esperanto as one of their native languages, as of 1996, there were 350 or so attested cases of families with native Esperanto speakers. Estimates from associations indicate that there are currently around 1,000 Esperanto-speaking families, in all known cases, speakers are natively bilingual, or multilingual, raised in both Esperanto and either the local national language or the native language of their parents. In all but a handful of cases, it was the father who used Esperanto with the child, in the majority of such families, the parents had the same native language, though in many the parents had different native languages, and only Esperanto in common. Esperanto speakers create a makeshift café, using Esperanto coins or voucher-like items as well as money to pay for food. Live music, poetry reading, or literature reading are usual activities and this custom arose in 1995 in order to contrast with the more usual custom of after-convention partying at a bar. Esperanto has had an influence on religious traditions. While some Esperantists subscribe to these beliefs, they are not necessarily common, books that are translated to Esperanto are not usually internationally famous books, because everyone can already read those in another language that they know. For example, Natsume Sōsekis Kokoro does not exist but several Japanese crime novels, and several Icelandic novels, that have never been translated to English have been translated to Esperanto. The first Harry Potter book, for example, was translated and the translator enquired about how to purchase translating rights so the book could be published, rowling refused to allow it to be published in Esperanto. In lieu of physical books, the translation now exists as a download on the internet. There are over 25,000 Esperanto books as well as over a hundred regularly distributed Esperanto magazines and this is despite that Esperanto has only existed for around 100 years. In comparison, the literature of Iceland totals to less than 50,000 books. Most people have created or translated some sort of written work whether fiction or nonfiction, many people did indeed do this in order to recruit more Esperanto speakers. At the time, in the early 1900s, there was no major world language that could be used anywhere, on top of that, things like stamp collecting were popular hobbies for children. In the modern day, most Esperanto speakers talk to each other through the internet — which is just the modern version of a penpal, monato is a general news magazine like a genuinely international Time or Newsweek, written by local correspondents. “Esperanto” is the used by the World Esperanto Association to inform its members about everything happening in the Esperanto community
Esperanto culture
–
The Serbian actor Sasha Pilipovic presents his cabaret at the
World Esperanto Congress, Rotterdam 2008
Esperanto culture
–
Castle of Grésilion, an Esperantist cultural center in France.
21.
Ido (language)
–
Ido /ˈiːdoʊ/ is a constructed language, derived from Esperanto, created to be a universal second language for speakers of diverse backgrounds. Ido was specifically designed to be grammatically, orthographically, and lexicographically regular, in this sense, Ido is classified as a constructed international auxiliary language. It is the most successful of many Esperanto derivatives, called Esperantidos, Ido was created in 1907 out of a desire to reform perceived flaws in Esperanto, a language that had been created for the same purpose 20 years earlier. The name of the language traces its origin to the Esperanto word ido, meaning offspring, since the language is a descendant of Esperanto. After its inception, Ido gained support from some in the Esperanto community and these obstacles weakened the movement and it was not until the rise of the Internet that it began to regain momentum. Ido uses the same 26 letters as the English alphabet, with no diacritics and it draws its vocabulary from French, Italian, Spanish, English, German, and Russian, and is largely intelligible to those who have studied Esperanto. Several works of literature have been translated into Ido, including The Little Prince, as of the year 2000, there were approximately 100–200 Ido speakers in the world. The idea of a second language is not new. The first known constructed language was Lingua Ignota, created in the 12th century, but the idea did not catch on in large numbers until the language Volapük was created in 1879. Volapük was popular for some time and apparently had a few users, but was later eclipsed by the popularity of Esperanto. Several other languages such as Latino sine Flexione and Idiom Neutral had also put forward. It was during this time that French mathematician Louis Couturat formed the Delegation for the Adoption of an International Auxiliary Language and this delegation made a formal request to the International Association of Academies in Vienna to select and endorse an international language, the request was rejected in May 1907. The Delegation then met as a Committee in Paris in October 1907 to discuss the adoption of an international language. Among the languages considered was a new language anonymously submitted at the last moment under the pen name Ido, in the end the Committee, always without plenary sessions and consisting of only 12 members, concluded the last day with 4 votes for and 1 abstention. Esperantos inventor, L. L. However, the Esperanto community voted and rejected Reformed Esperanto, zamenhof deferred to their judgment, although doubtful. The Committees language was French and not everyone could speak in French, when the president of the Committee asked who was the author of Idos project, Couturat, Beaufront and Leau answered that they were not. Beaufront was the person who presented Idos project and gave a description as a better, richer version of Esperanto, Couturat, Leau, Beaufront and Jespersen were finally the only members who voted, all of them for Idos project. A month later, Couturat accidentally put Jespersen in a copy of a letter in which he acknowledged that Beaufront was the author of the Ido project, Jespersen was angered by this and asked for a public confession, which was never forthcoming
Ido (language)
–
The International Ido Congress in
Dessau, Germany, in 1922
Ido (language)
–
Ido
22.
Jozef Tiso
–
Jozef Tiso was a Slovak Roman Catholic priest, and a leading politician of the Slovak Peoples Party. Between 1939 and 1945, Tiso was the head of the 1939–45 First Slovak Republic, after the end of World War II, Tiso was convicted and hanged for treason that subsumed also war crimes and crimes against humanity by the National Court in Bratislava. Tiso was born in Bytča to Slovak parents in the Trencsén County of the Kingdom of Hungary and he was raised in a religious family and studied at the local elementary school. Then, as a student with a flair for languages. The school had clearly Hungarian spirit, since all Slovak grammar schools were closed at the time of his study, here, he began to use Hungarian form of his name Tiszó József. In 1902, he began to study at higher Priarist grammar school in Nitra, the Bishop of Nitra, Imre Bende, offered Tiso a chance to study for the priesthood at the prestigious Pázmáneum in Vienna. Tiso, taught by several professors, became familiar with various philosophies. He also extended his language skills, along with already known Hungarian, German and Latin, he studied Hebrew, Aramaic dialects and Arabic. The school reports describe him mostly as an excellent, exemplary, enrolling in the University of Vienna in 1906, he graduated as a Doctor of Theology in 1911. His early ministry was spent as an assistant priest in three parishes in todays Slovakia, Tiso was interested in public affairs and performed extensive educational and social work. During his fight against poverty and alcoholism, he also adopted some stereotype. However, such views were not unusual in the contemporary society and he blamed the Jewish tavern owners for the raising alcoholism and he was also a member of self-help association selling food and clothing cheaper than the local Jewish store. Tiso became a member of Nép párt and contributed to its Slovak journal Kresťan, during the World War I, he served as a field curate of the 71th infantry regiment recruited mostly from Slovak soldiers. The regiment suffered heavy losses in Galicia, Tiso got first-hand experience with horrors of war, but also with Germanisation and Russification of the local population. After few months, his regiment was transferred to Slovenia where he met Slovenian politician Anton Korosec who was also a Roman Catholic priest, Tiso was inspired by a better organization of the Slovenian national movement. Tisos military career was ended by a kidney illness and he was released from the military service. He did not return to his parish in Bánovce but he was appointed as the Spiritual Director of the Nitra seminary by Bendes successor, Tiso was also active at this time as a school teacher and journalist. He published his experiences from the war, in other articles written in a patriotic style, he emphasized the need for good military morale and discipline
Jozef Tiso
–
Jozef Fr. Tiso
Jozef Tiso
–
Jozef Tiso with
Adolf Hitler: "Slovakia became the first of Hitler's puppet states to shut down the deportations"
23.
Slovak National Uprising
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The Slovak National Uprising or 1944 Uprising was an armed insurrection organized by the Slovak resistance movement during World War II. It was launched on 29 August 1944 from Banská Bystrica in an attempt to resist German troops that had occupied Slovak territory, although the resistance was largely defeated by German forces, guerrilla operations continued until the Soviet Army, Czechoslovak Army and Romanian Army liberated Slovakia in 1945. In the post-war period, many entities, mainly the Communists. The Stalinist regime in Czechoslovakia presented the Uprising as an event initiated and governed by Communist forces, in fact, many factions fought in the uprising, the largest of which were units of the Slovak Army, Democratic resistance and Communist partisans, and international forces. Given this factionalization, the Uprising did not have popular support. Yet the participants and supporters of the Uprising represented every religion, class, age, edvard Beneš, leader of the Czechoslovak government in exile in London, initiated preparations for a possible revolt in 1943 when he contacted dissident elements of the Slovak Army. The council was responsible for creating the preparatory phase of the uprising, in March 1944, Slovak army Lieutenant Colonel Ján Golian took charge of the preparations. Conspirators stockpiled money, ammunition and other supplies in military bases in central, the rebelling forces called themselves Czechoslovak Forces of the Interior and the First Czechoslovak Army. Approximately 3,200 Slovak soldiers deserted and joined partisan groups or the Soviet Army, in April 1944, Slovak Jews Rudolf Vrba and Alfred Wetzler escaped from Auschwitz and eventually spoke about the horrors of German death camps. In summer 1944, the partisans intensified their war against German occupation forces, in July, Soviet troops in Poland began to advance towards Slovakia. By August 1944, Soviet troops were at Krosno, Poland, the two options were, Capture Dukla Pass when the Soviet arrived. As ordered by Golian, capture Dukla pass immediately and hold the pass against any German forces until the Soviet Army could arrive, Colonel Viliam Talský was the chief of staff of the two divisions. On 23 August 1944, neighboring Romania changed sides in favor of the Allies, on 27 August 1944 in Martin, a group of Communist partisans under Soviet direction killed 30 members of a German military mission leaving Romania. The next day, German troops began to occupy Slovakia to put down the rebellion, German arrangements for the occupation were completed a few weeks earlier. At 19,00 hours on 29 August 1944, Slovak Defence Minister General Ferdinand Čatloš announced on radio that Germany had occupied Slovakia. At 20,00, Golian sent the message to all units to begin the uprising. The two divisions, left in chaos and without leadership, were disarmed on the afternoon of 30 August without a single shot. Consequently, the uprising commenced prematurely and lost a crucial component of their plan, accounts of the exact numbers of combatants vary
Slovak National Uprising
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Convoy of Slovak insurgent army vehicles near Kelemeš (today part of Prešov)
Slovak National Uprising
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Slovak mutineer forces in 1944
Slovak National Uprising
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Kremnička massacre victims. Germans and local collaborators murdered 747 people.
Slovak National Uprising
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Memorial of the Slovak National Uprising in
Banská Bystrica
24.
Stalinism
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Stalinism is the means of governing and related policies implemented by Joseph Stalin. These included not only people but also working-class people accused of counter-revolutionary sympathies. Rapid industrialization was accompanied with mass collectivization of agriculture and rapid urbanization, rapid urbanization converted many small villages into industrial cities. After the American private enterprises completed their tasks, Soviet state enterprises took over, the term came into prominence during the mid-1930s, when Lazar Kaganovich, a Soviet politician and associate of Stalin, reportedly declared, Lets replace Long Live Leninism with Long Live Stalinism. Stalin initially met this usage with hesitancy, dismissing it as excessively praiseful, Stalinism usually denotes a style of a government, and an ideology. From 1917 to 1924, Lenin, Trotsky, and Stalin often appeared united, in his dispute with Leon Trotsky, Stalin de-emphasized the role of workers in advanced capitalist countries. Also, Stalin polemicized against Trotsky on the role of peasants, as in China, in Stalins view, counterrevolutionary elements will try to derail the transition to full Communism, and the state must be powerful enough to defeat them. For this reason, Communist regimes influenced by Stalin have been described as totalitarian. Soviet puppet Sheng Shicai extended Stalinist rule in Xinjiang province in the 1930s, Sheng conducted a purge similar to Stalins Great Purge in 1937. Stalin blamed the Kulaks as the inciters of reactionary violence against the people during the implementation of agricultural collectivisation, in response, the state under Stalins leadership initiated a violent campaign against the Kulaks, which has been labeled as classicide. Those targeted by the purge were often expelled from the party, in the 1930s, Stalin apparently became increasingly worried about the growing popularity of the Leningrad party boss Sergei Kirov. After the assassination of Kirov, which may have been orchestrated by Stalin, Stalin invented a detailed scheme to implicate opposition leaders in the murder, including Trotsky, thereafter, several trials known as the Moscow Trials were held, but the procedures were replicated throughout the country. Article 58 of the code, which listed prohibited anti-Soviet activities as counterrevolutionary crime, was applied in the broadest manner. The Russian word troika gained a new meaning, a quick, Stalins hand-picked executioner, Vasili Blokhin, was entrusted with carrying out some of the high-profile executions in this period. Many military leaders were convicted of treason and a purge of Red Army officers followed. The repression of so many formerly high-ranking revolutionaries and party members led Leon Trotsky to claim that a river of blood separated Stalins regime from that of Lenin. In August 1940, Trotsky was assassinated in Mexico, where he had lived in exile since January 1937, this eliminated the last of Stalins opponents among the former Party leadership. With the exception of Vladimir Milyutin and Joseph Stalin himself, all of the members of Lenins original cabinet who had not succumbed to death from natural causes before the purge were executed
Stalinism
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The
Chilean Communist Party (Proletarian Action) during
May Day demonstration in
Santiago, Chile, carrying a banner with the portraits of Marx, Engels, Lenin and Stalin.
Stalinism
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Manipulated photo intended to show
Vladimir Lenin with Stalin in the early 1920s.
Stalinism
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Members of the
Communist Party of China celebrating Stalin's birthday, in 1949.
25.
Jozef Miloslav Hurban
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He first supported Ján Kollár, but later turned to Ľudovít Štúr. His son Svetozár Hurban-Vajanský followed his fathers footsteps both as a writer and nationalist, the city of Hurbanovo in southern Slovakia and asteroid 3730 Hurban are named after him. Born in a family of an evangelic priest Paul Hurban and his wife Anna, née Vörösová and he had an older sister Teresa Susan, who, like he was born in Beckove. He attended the school in Trencin, then in the years 1830 -1840 Evangelical Lyceum in Bratislava. Here he met with Louis Stur, which awakened patriotic sentiments and he was ordained a priest in 1840. He wanted to continue his studies in Germany, but for financial reasons had to work at first. After ordination, he served as a chaplain in Brezova. In 1860 he completed further education and earned his Ing, thDr. h. c. from 1866 was superintendent of the Slovak Evangelical Church patentálnej. He married Anna Jurkovičová, with whom he had four daughters, jozef Miloslav Hurban, headed Slovak literature and public life for nearly half a century. He was a fighter for the national rights of the Slovaks, implacable enemy of Hungarian ruling class. Especially in his younger years was among Slovak radical opponents of feudalism, for his uncompromising action was pronounced a traitor and communist agitator. Also he laid the foundations of Slovak literary historiography, with the nationalist Tatrína he was co-founder of Slovak Theatre in Nitra. Hurban became known as a poet, publisher of almanacs, as publisher. His work has been multifaceted, národnoobranná, ľudovýchovný, literary-historical, critical, educational and journalistic
Jozef Miloslav Hurban
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Jozef Miloslav Hurban
Jozef Miloslav Hurban
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Hurban's memorial in
Žilina
26.
Leonid Brezhnev
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Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev was the General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, presiding over the country from 1964 until his death in 1982. His eighteen-year term as General Secretary was second only to that of Joseph Stalin in duration, during Brezhnevs rule, the global influence of the Soviet Union grew dramatically, in part because of the expansion of the Soviet military during this time. His tenure as leader was marked by the beginning of an era of economic, Brezhnev was born in Kamenskoye into a Russian workers family in 1906. After graduating from the Dniprodzerzhynsk Metallurgical Technicum, he became an engineer in the iron and steel industry. He joined Komsomol in 1923, and in 1929 became a member of the CPSU. He was drafted into military service during World War II. While at the helm of the USSR, Brezhnev pushed for détente between the Eastern and Western countries. However, in December 1981 he decided not to intervene in Poland, instead allowing the countrys government to impose martial law. After years of declining health, Brezhnev died on 10 November 1982 and was succeeded in his post as General Secretary by Yuri Andropov. Brezhnev had fostered a cult of personality, although not nearly to the degree as Stalin. Mikhail Gorbachev, who would lead the USSR from 1985 to 1991, denounced his legacy, in spite of this, opinion polls in Russia show Brezhnev to be the most popular Russian leader of the 20th century. Brezhnev was born on 19 December 1906 in Kamianske in Ukraine, to metalworker Ilya Yakovlevich Brezhnev and his wife and his parents used to live in Brezhnevo before moving to Kamenskoe. Brezhnevs ethnicity was specified as Ukrainian in some documents, including his passport, like many youths in the years after the Russian Revolution of 1917, he received a technical education, at first in land management where he started as a land surveyor and then in metallurgy. He graduated from the Dniprodzerzhynsk Metallurgical Technicum in 1935 and became an engineer in the iron. Brezhnev joined the Communist Party youth organisation, the Komsomol, in 1923, in 1935 and 1936, Brezhnev served his compulsory military service, and after taking courses at a tank school, he served as a political commissar in a tank factory. Later in 1936, he director of the Dniprodzerzhynsk Metallurgical Technicum. In 1936, he was transferred to the center of Dnipropetrovsk and, in 1939, he became Party Secretary in Dnipropetrovsk. As a survivor of Stalins Great Purge of 1937–39, he was able to quickly as the purges created numerous openings in the senior and middle ranks of the Party
Leonid Brezhnev
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Brezhnev in
East Berlin in 1967
Leonid Brezhnev
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Young Brezhnev with his wife
Victoria
Leonid Brezhnev
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Brezhnev with
Nikita Khrushchev during the war
Leonid Brezhnev
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Khrushchev in 1963, one year before his ousting
