1.
King of Yugoslavia
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This is a List of heads of state of Yugoslavia from the creation of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes in 1918 until the breakup of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in 1992. The Kingdom of Yugoslavia was a monarchy ruled by the House of Karađorđević from 1918 up until World War II, however, until 1990 the position of General Secretary of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia was usually the most powerful position. The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was created by the unification of the Kingdom of Serbia, until 6 January 1929, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was a parliamentary monarchy. On that day, King Alexander I abolished the Vidovdan Constitution, prorogued the National Assembly and introduced a personal dictatorship. He renamed the country Kingdom of Yugoslavia on 3 October 1929, after his assassination, parliamentary monarchy was put back in place. The Kingdom of Yugoslavia was defeated and occupied on 17 April 1941 after the German invasion, the monarchy was formally abolished on 29 November 1945. All monarchs were members of the House of Karađorđević, Peter I, previously King of Serbia, was proclaimed King by representatives of South Slav states. The royal family continued through his son and his grandson, after the German invasion and fragmentation of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, partisans formed the Anti-Fascist Council for the National Liberation of Yugoslavia in 1942. On 29 November 1943 a AVNOJ conference proclaimed the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia, after the liberation of Belgrade on 20 October 1944, the Communist-led government on 29 November 1945 declared King Peter II deposed and proclaimed the Federal Peoples Republic of Yugoslavia. Serbs had military and government control over the rest of the republics after 1945, from 1945 to 1953, the President of the Presidium of the National Assembly was the office of the Yugoslav head of state. The post was held by Ivan Ribar, from 1953 to 1963, Josip Broz Tito simultaneously held the offices of the President of the Republic and the President of the Federal Executive Council. Over 50,000 Croats and Bosniaks were killed by Partisans after the war ended by the dictator Josip Broz Tito aka know Tito the Butcher, notwithstanding, this constitutional provision was suspended because Tito was declared President for Life, thus chaired the collective presidency on a permanent basis. After his death in 1980, one member was annually elected President of the Presidency and acted as head of state
2.
Peter II of Yugoslavia
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Peter II was the last King of Yugoslavia, and the last reigning member of the Karađorđević dynasty which came to prominence in the early 19th century. Peter II was the eldest son of Alexander I and Maria of Romania, Prince Peter was initially tutored at the Royal Palace, Belgrade, before attending Sandroyd School then in Cobham, Surrey where Reeds School now stands. When he was 11 years old, Prince Peter succeeded to the Yugoslav throne in 1934 upon the assassination of his father King Alexander I in Marseille during a visit to France. In view of the new monarchs young age, a regency was set up under his fathers cousin Prince Paul. Although King Peter II and his advisors were utterly opposed to Nazi Germany, two days later, King Peter, at age 17, was proclaimed of age, after a British-supported coup détat. Postponing Operation Barbarossa, Nazi Germany simultaneously attacked Yugoslavia and Greece on 6 April 1941, within a week, Germany, Bulgaria, Hungary and Italy invaded Yugoslavia, and the government was forced to surrender on 17 April. Parts of Yugoslavia were annexed by Italy, Bulgaria, Hungary, the remaining parts of the kingdom of Yugoslavia, Croatia and Serbia, two Nazi-puppet governments were installed. In June 1941, King Peter arrived in London where he joined numerous other governments in exile from Nazi-occupied Europe, the King completed his education at Cambridge University before being commissioned in the Royal Air Force. In 1942 he made a visit to America and Canada. The whirlwind tour was unsuccessful in securing Allied support for the exiled Yugoslav monarchist cause, FDR and Churchill had already engaged the support of the Communist Yugoslav Government in the Allied effort to defeat Nazi Germany, with a view to ending the hostilities. Peter married his cousin, Princess Alexandra of Greece and Denmark in London on 20 March 1944. They had one son, Crown Prince Alexander, who was born on 17 July 1945, Peter filed for divorce in 1953. He hired attorney René de Chambrun, the son-in-law of Vichy France Prime Minister Pierre Laval, however, the couple reconciled in 1955. Though the war ended, Peter was not allowed to return home and he was deposed by Yugoslavias Communist Constituent Assembly on 29 November 1945. After that, he settled in the United States, after many years of suffering from cirrhosis of the liver, he died in Denver, Colorado, on 3 November 1970, after a failed liver transplant. He was interred in Saint Sava Monastery Church at Libertyville, Illinois, on 4 March 2007, former Crown Prince Alexander announced plans to have his fathers remains repatriated to Serbia. Peter II had chosen St. Sava Serbian Orthodox Monastery as his resting place because of the extenuating circumstances that afflicted his homeland. After talks with the Serbian government, the move was confirmed in January 2013 with the place being the Royal Family Mausoleum in Oplenac
3.
King of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes
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This is a List of heads of state of Yugoslavia from the creation of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes in 1918 until the breakup of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in 1992. The Kingdom of Yugoslavia was a monarchy ruled by the House of Karađorđević from 1918 up until World War II, however, until 1990 the position of General Secretary of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia was usually the most powerful position. The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was created by the unification of the Kingdom of Serbia, until 6 January 1929, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was a parliamentary monarchy. On that day, King Alexander I abolished the Vidovdan Constitution, prorogued the National Assembly and introduced a personal dictatorship. He renamed the country Kingdom of Yugoslavia on 3 October 1929, after his assassination, parliamentary monarchy was put back in place. The Kingdom of Yugoslavia was defeated and occupied on 17 April 1941 after the German invasion, the monarchy was formally abolished on 29 November 1945. All monarchs were members of the House of Karađorđević, Peter I, previously King of Serbia, was proclaimed King by representatives of South Slav states. The royal family continued through his son and his grandson, after the German invasion and fragmentation of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, partisans formed the Anti-Fascist Council for the National Liberation of Yugoslavia in 1942. On 29 November 1943 a AVNOJ conference proclaimed the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia, after the liberation of Belgrade on 20 October 1944, the Communist-led government on 29 November 1945 declared King Peter II deposed and proclaimed the Federal Peoples Republic of Yugoslavia. Serbs had military and government control over the rest of the republics after 1945, from 1945 to 1953, the President of the Presidium of the National Assembly was the office of the Yugoslav head of state. The post was held by Ivan Ribar, from 1953 to 1963, Josip Broz Tito simultaneously held the offices of the President of the Republic and the President of the Federal Executive Council. Over 50,000 Croats and Bosniaks were killed by Partisans after the war ended by the dictator Josip Broz Tito aka know Tito the Butcher, notwithstanding, this constitutional provision was suspended because Tito was declared President for Life, thus chaired the collective presidency on a permanent basis. After his death in 1980, one member was annually elected President of the Presidency and acted as head of state
4.
Peter I of Serbia
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Peter I of Serbia reigned as the last King of Serbia and as the first King of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. Peter was Karađorđes grandson and third son of Persida Nenadović and Prince Alexander Karađorđević, Peter lived with his family in exile. He fought with the French Foreign Legion in the Franco-Prussian War and he joined as volunteer under the alias Peter Mrkonjić in Herzegovina Uprising against Ottoman Empire. He married Princess Zorka of Montenegro, daughter of King Nicholas I and she gave birth to his five children, including Prince Alexander. After death of his father in 1885, Peter became head of Karađorđević dynasty, after a military coup détat and murder of King Alexander I Obrenović in 1903, Peter became King of Serbia. As a king he advocated for constitutional setup of the country and was famous for his libertarian politics, King Peter was a supreme commander of the Serbian army in Balkan wars. Because of his age on 24 June 1914, he proclaimed his son, Alexander, heir to the throne, in First World War he and his army retreated across Albania. Since he was a king of Serbia during a period of great Serbian military success, Peter was born in Belgrade on 11 July 1844, the fifth of Prince Alexander Karađorđević and his consort Persida Nenadovićs ten children. He was the grandson of Karađorđe, the leader of the First Serbian Uprising, Peter was not born in the Royal Court, which was undergoing renovations at the time, but at the home of merchant Miša Anastasijević. His birth was not met with much celebration because he was his parents third son and his parents oldest son, Aleksa, had died three years prior to Peters birth, aged five, at which point Svetozar became heir. Peter did not become heir until Svetozars death in 1847 at the age of six, besides Belgrade, Peter spent much of his childhood in the town of Topola, from where the Karađorđević dynasty originated. He received his education in Belgrade. In 1858, just as the fourteen-year-old Peter was preparing to depart for Geneva to attend high school, the Karađorđević dynastys rivals, the Obrenović dynasty, were reinstated, and an Obrenović prince, Mihailo, claimed the throne. The two dynasties had been vying for power since 1817, when Karađorđe was assassinated on the orders of Miloš Obrenović, Peter left Geneva for Paris in 1861 and enrolled in the Collège Sainte-Barbe, located in the heart of the citys Latin Quarter. The following year, Peter enrolled in the Saint-Cyr, Frances most prestigious military academy and he graduated from the academy in 1864, and continued living in Paris for some time thereafter. During this period, he pursued such as photography and painting. In 1866, he entered the Higher Military School in Metz, two years later, his Serbian-language translation of John Stuart Mills On Liberty was published. At the outbreak of the 1870–71 Franco-Prussian War, Peter joined the French Foreign Legion under the pseudonym Petar Kara, during his service, Peter held the rank of either lieutenant or second lieutenant, depending on the source, and fought with the 1st Foreign Regiment
5.
Cetinje
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Cetinje, is a city and Old Royal Capital of Montenegro. It is also the historic and the capital of Montenegro. It had a population of 13,991 as of 2011, Cetinje is the centre of Cetinje Municipality. The city rests on a small karst plain surrounded by mountains, including Mt. Lovćen. Its status as the capital of Montenegro is due to its heritage as a long-serving former capital of Montenegro. In Montenegrin and Serbian the town is known as Цетиње / Cetinje, in Italian as Cettigne, in Greek as Κετίγνη, in Turkish as Çetince and he had his court built at the new location that year and also founded a monastery as a personal endowment in 1484. His court and the monastery are the first recorded renessaince buildings in Montenegro, Crnojević was forced to move the seat of the Eparchy of Zeta from Vranjina to Cetinje due to the Ottoman invasions, in 1485. The town was named after the Cetina river, the bishopric of Zeta was elevated to a metropolitanate in Cetinje. It was later to play an important part in both the religious and national life, the Crnojević printing house, the first printing house in southeastern Europe, was active between 1493 and 1496 in Cetinje. Zeta was first put under Ottoman rule in 1499, then annexed by the Ottomans in 1514, in the next two centuries, the development of Cetinje stagnated. It was very often subject to attack by Venice and the Ottomans, the city therefore endured many privations in the course of the 16th and 17th centuries. In this period the court and the monastery of the Crnojevići dynasty were destroyed and it was only at the end of the 17th century, in 1697, that Cetinje began to flourish again under the rule of the Petrović dynasty, refounded by Danilo Petrović. Leading the wars of liberation and strengthening the unity in the country occupied Danilo and his successors and it was only during the rule of Petar II Petrović Njegoš that far greater progress was made. In 1838 his new residence called Biljarda was built. Cetinje was enlarged by building new houses that led to genuine urbanization. Many modern buildings designed for foreign consulates were built due to the newly established relations with various European countries, the buildings of the French, Russian, British, Italian and Austro-Hungarian consulates are regarded as the most beautiful of these. Cetinje made great progress under the rule of Prince Nikola I Petrović when numerous public edifices were built and those include the first hotel, called ‘Lokanda’, then the new Prince’s palace, the Girls’ Institute and the hospital. This period also saw the first tenancy houses, in the 1860 census Cetinje had 34 households
6.
Principality of Montenegro
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The Principality of Montenegro was a former realm in Southeastern Europe that existed from 13 March 1852 to 28 August 1910. It was then proclaimed a kingdom by Nikola I, who became king. The capital was Cetinje and the Montenegrin perper was used as state currency from 1906, the territory corresponded to the central area of modern Montenegro. It was a monarchy, but de facto absolutist. In Danilo Is Code, dated to 1855, he states that he is the knjaz and gospodar of the Free Black Mountain. In 1870, Nikola had the title of knjaz of Crna Gora and Brda, with the first Montenegrin constitution being proclaimed in 1855, known as Danilos Code. After centuries of rule, this turned Montenegro into a secular principality. Grand Duke Mirko Petrović, elder brother of Danilo I, led an army of 7,500. This victory forced the Great Powers to officially demarcate the borders between Montenegro and Ottoman Turkey, de facto recognizing Montenegros centuries-long independence. Montenegro gained Grahovo, Rudine, Nikšić, more than half of Drobnjaci, Tušina, Uskoci, Lipovo, Upper Vasojevići, the glory of the Montenegrins was soon immortalized in songs and literature of all South Slavs. After the assassination of Knjaz Danilo on 13 August 1860, Knjaz Nikola I, Nikola sent aid to the Serb rebels in the Herzegovina Uprising, and then led a war against the Ottomans, the Montenegrin–Ottoman War. Montenegro also gained the towns of Nikšić, Kolašin, Spuž, Podgorica, Žabljak, Bar, under the rule of Nikola I, diplomatic relations were established with the Ottoman Empire. Minor border skirmishes excepted, diplomacy ushered in approximately 30 years of peace between the two states until the deposition of Abdul Hamid II, the political skills of Abdul Hamid and Nikola I played a major role on the mutually amicable relations. Modernization of the state followed, culminating with the draft of a Constitution in 1905, however, political rifts emerged between the parliamentary Peoples Party that supported the process of democratization and union with Serbia and those of the True Peoples Party who were monarchist. Danilo I Nikola I The historical war flags were the krstaš-barjak, the same flag was used in Cetinje in 1878, upon recognition of independence by the Ottoman Empire at San Stefano. According to the 1905 constitution, the flag was a tricolour of red-blue-white. Danilo I used the Law of Petar I Petrović-Njegoš, as an inspiration for his own General Law of the Land from 1855, Danilos Code was based on Montenegrin traditions and customs and it is considered to be the first national constitution in Montenegrin history. It also stated rules, protected privacy and banned warring on the Austrian Coast, at the beginning of the 20th century political differences were starting to culminate
7.
Marseille
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Marseille, also known as Marseilles in English, is a city in France. Known to the ancient Greeks and Romans as Massalia, Marseille was the most important trading centre in the region, Marseille is now Frances largest city on the Mediterranean coast and the largest port for commerce, freight and cruise ships. The city was European Capital of Culture, together with Košice, Slovakia and it hosted the European Football Championship in 2016, and will be the European Capital of Sport in 2017. The city is home to campuses of Aix-Marseille University and part of one of the largest metropolitan conurbations in France. Marseille is the second largest city in France after Paris and the centre of the third largest metropolitan area in France after Paris, further east still are the Sainte-Baume, the city of Toulon and the French Riviera. To the north of Marseille, beyond the low Garlaban and Etoile mountain ranges, is the 1,011 m Mont Sainte Victoire. To the west of Marseille is the artists colony of lEstaque, further west are the Côte Bleue, the Gulf of Lion. The airport lies to the north west of the city at Marignane on the Étang de Berre, the citys main thoroughfare stretches eastward from the Old Port to the Réformés quarter. Two large forts flank the entrance to the Old Port—Fort Saint-Nicolas on the south side and Fort Saint-Jean on the north. Further out in the Bay of Marseille is the Frioul archipelago which comprises four islands, one of which, If, is the location of Château dIf, the main commercial centre of the city intersects with the Canebière at rue St Ferréol and the Centre Bourse. To the south east of central Marseille in the 6th arrondissement are the Prefecture and the fountain of Place Castellane. To the south west are the hills of the 7th arrondissement, the railway station—Gare de Marseille Saint-Charles—is north of the Centre Bourse in the 1st arrondissement, it is linked by the Boulevard dAthènes to the Canebière. Marseille has a Mediterranean climate with mild, humid winters and warm to hot, december, January, and February are the coldest months, averaging temperatures of around 12 °C during the day and 4 °C at night. Marseille is officially the sunniest major city in France with over 2,900 hours of sunshine while the average sunshine in France is around 1,950 hours, less frequent is the Sirocco, a hot, sand-bearing wind, coming from the Sahara Desert. Snowfalls are infrequent, over 50% of years do not experience a single snowfall, Massalia, whose name was probably adapted from an existing language related to Ligurian, was the first Greek settlement in France. It was established within modern Marseille around 600 BC by colonists coming from Phocaea on the Aegean coast of Asia Minor. The connection between Massalia and the Phoceans is mentioned in Thucydidess Peloponnesian War, he notes that the Phocaean project was opposed by the Carthaginians, the founding of Massalia has also been recorded as a legend. Protis was invited inland to a banquet held by the chief of the local Ligurian tribe for suitors seeking the hand of his daughter Gyptis in marriage, at the end of the banquet, Gyptis presented the ceremonial cup of wine to Protis, indicating her unequivocal choice
8.
French Third Republic
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It came to an end on 10 July 1940. Harsh reparations exacted by the Prussians after the war resulted in the loss of the French regions of Alsace and Lorraine, social upheaval, and the establishment of the Paris Commune. The early governments of the Third Republic considered re-establishing the monarchy, but confusion as to the nature of that monarchy, thus, the Third Republic, which was originally intended as a provisional government, instead became the permanent government of France. The French Constitutional Laws of 1875 defined the composition of the Third Republic and it consisted of a Chamber of Deputies and a Senate to form the legislative branch of government and a president to serve as head of state. The period from the start of World War I to the late 1930s featured sharply polarized politics, Adolphe Thiers called republicanism in the 1870s the form of government that divides France least, however, politics under the Third Republic were sharply polarized. On the left stood Reformist France, heir to the French Revolution, on the right stood conservative France, rooted in the peasantry, the Roman Catholic Church and the army. The Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871 resulted in the defeat of France, after Napoleons capture by the Prussians at the Battle of Sedan, Parisian deputies led by Léon Gambetta established the Government of National Defence as a provisional government on 4 September 1870. The deputies then selected General Louis-Jules Trochu to serve as its president and this first government of the Third Republic ruled during the Siege of Paris. After the French surrender in January 1871, the provisional Government of National Defence disbanded, French territories occupied by Prussia at this time did not participate. The resulting conservative National Assembly elected Adolphe Thiers as head of a provisional government, due to the revolutionary and left-wing political climate that prevailed in the Parisian population, the right-wing government chose the royal palace of Versailles as its headquarters. The new government negotiated a settlement with the newly proclaimed German Empire. To prompt the Prussians to leave France, the government passed a variety of laws, such as the controversial Law of Maturities. The following repression of the communards would have consequences for the labor movement. The Orléanists supported a descendant of King Louis Philippe I, the cousin of Charles X who replaced him as the French monarch in 1830, his grandson Louis-Philippe, Comte de Paris. The Bonapartists were marginalized due to the defeat of Napoléon III and were unable to advance the candidacy of any member of his family, the Bonaparte family. Legitimists and Orléanists came to a compromise, eventually, whereby the childless Comte de Chambord would be recognised as king, consequently, in 1871 the throne was offered to the Comte de Chambord. Chambord believed the monarchy had to eliminate all traces of the Revolution in order to restore the unity between the monarchy and the nation, which the revolution had sundered apart. Compromise on this was if the nation were to be made whole again
9.
Oplenac
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St Georges Church also known as Oplenac, is the mausoleum of the Serbian and Yugoslav royal house of Karađorđević located on top of the Oplenac Hill in the town of Topola, Serbia. The church of Oplenac was founded by King Peter I of Yugoslavia, many members of the royal house are buried in the church, in the crypt beneath the church, or in the church yard. Apart from the two tombs inside the church, there are 26 other members of the dynasty whose eternal place of rest is in this mausoleum, six generations of the Karađorđević family have been buried in this church, The first generation, Marica Živković, Karađorđes mother. The second generation, Karađorđe and his wife Jelena Jovanović, the third generation, Karađorđes son Alexander and his wife Persida Nenadović. The fourth generation, Alexander and Persidas nine children, as follows, Kleopatra, Aleksije, Svetozar, Jelena, Andreja, Jelisaveta, Đorđe, Arsen, and Peter I and his wife Ljubica also known as Zorka. Out of the ten children of Prince Alexander and Princess Persida, only their oldest daughter, the fifth generation, Peter I and Zorkas children, Milena, George and his wife Radmila Radonjić, Alexander I and his wife Maria and Andrija. And also Prince Arsens son Paul and his wife Olga, the sixth generation, King Alexander I and Queen Marias children, Peter II and his wife Alexandra, Tomislav, and Andrew. And also Prince Pauls sons Nikola and Alexander, out of the 28 tombs of the Karađorđević dynasty, six of them belong to rulers, Supreme Leader Karađorđe, Prince Alexander, King Peter I, King Aleksandar I, Prince Paul, and King Peter II. It is an important place of Serbian history, on 6 October 2012, Prince Paul, his wife Olga and his son Nikola were all buried here after their remains were exhumed from the cemetery in Lausanne, and returned to Serbia. In the 19th century this area was covered in woods, the term Oplenac most probably derives from oplen, meaning wooden parts on ox cars. Karađorđe had settled here, built vineyards and orchards, and established the defence of the nearby Topola and his son Alexander built new buildings and renewed his father’s vineyards and orchards. It was not until the arrival of King Peter I that this place got its true importance, Peter I, upon his ascension to the throne in 1903, chose a spot 337 metres on the top of Mali Oplenac hill for the location of his St. George Church. The location was measured by geodesy experts, so the altar would face east according to Orthodox tradition, in 1907 the cornerstone was laid, and the Charter dedicated to St. George was placed in the foundation. The winning prize for the tender was given to architect Nikola Nestorović, the committee was made up with basically the same previous members. The committee awarded first prize to the young architect Kosta J. Jovanović, on May 1,1910 construction started following Jovanović’s plan. Stone breaking for the crypt and the foundation of the church lasted for four months, on 1 September 1910, the foundation was mostly completed. In 1911 the building continued at a fast pace. It was decided that year that the façade of the church would be made of white marble
10.
Maria of Yugoslavia
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Princess Maria of Romania, known in Serbian as Marija Karađorđević was the Queen of Yugoslavia as the wife of King Alexander from 1922 until his assassination in 1934. She was the mother of Peter II of Yugoslavia, the last king of Yugoslavia and her citizenship was revoked and her property confiscated by the Yugoslavian Communist regime in 1947, but she was rehabilitated in 2014. Maria was born in Gotha, a town in Thuringia, in the German Empire and she was known as Mignon in the family to distinguish her from her mother. Her parents were Marie of Edinburgh and Ferdinand of Romania, during World War I, she worked as a nurse with her mother. She was given the title Queen Mother of Yugoslavia in 1941 and she moved to a farm in England and lived a relatively normal life without royal extravagance. She spoke several languages fluently and enjoyed painting and sculpting and she also drove a car by herself, which was very unusual for royalty at the time. Queen Maria was popular and respected by the Serbian public, and is well thought of in the region. She was regarded as a wife and mother according to the contemporary Serbian ideal. She was engaged in social projects. In the eyes of the Serbian people, she one of the greateast patrons of charities in Serbia. Streets are named in her memory, such as “Ulica kraljice Marije” or “Queen Maria Street”, and numerous schools and other organizations still carry her name
11.
Prince Tomislav of Yugoslavia
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Prince Tomislav of Yugoslavia was a member of the House of Karađorđević, the second son of Alexander I and Maria of Yugoslavia. He was a brother of Peter II of Yugoslavia and a former nephew-in-law to Prince Philip. The Prince was named after Tomislav of Croatia, the King of medieval Croatia and he began his elementary education at the Belgrade Palace but in 1937 he started to attend Sandroyd School in Cobham, England. He stayed in the UK throughout World War II and after King Peter was deposed, moving on to Oundle School from 1941–1946 and Clare College, Cambridge in 1946-1947. In 1934 when he was six, Prince Tomislavs father, Alexander I, was assassinated. As he was still only 11, because of his young age, two days later, in a British-supported coup détat opposing the Tripartite Pact, King Peter, then 17, was proclaimed of age, and the regency overthrown. Postponing Operation Barbarossa, Germany simultaneously attacked Yugoslavia and Greece, from 6 April Luftwaffe pounded Belgrade for three days and three nights, Operation Punishment. Within a week, Germany, Bulgaria, Hungary and Italy invaded Yugoslavia, Yugoslavia was divided to satisfy Italian, Bulgarian, Hungarian and German demands and puppet Croat, Montenegrin and Serb states proclaimed. He went to England in June 1941, where he joined numerous other governments in exile from Nazi-occupied Europe, local Yugoslav forces continued to resist the occupying Axis powers. Initially the monarchy preferred Draža Mihailović and his Serb-dominated Četnik resistance, however, in 1944, the Tito–Šubašić agreement recognised the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia as a provisional government, with the status of the monarchy to be decided at a later date. Three regents, Srđan Budisavljević, a Serb, Ante Mandić, a Croat, and Dušan Sernec and they appointed the new government, to be headed by Tito as prime minister and minister of war, with Šubašić as foreign minister, on 7 March. On 29 November 1945, while still in exile, King Peter II was deposed by the constituent assembly, the Federal Peoples Republic of Yugoslavia was internationally recognized as Yugoslavia while Peter II became a pretender. After Cambridge, and not being able to return to Yugoslavia following the abolition of the Monarchy, Prince Tomislav remained in the UK, while he attended agricultural college, he worked summers as an ordinary field hand in an orchard in Kent. In 1950, he bought a farm at Kirdford, near Petworth, in West Sussex and he supported the Serbian community and the Serbian Orthodox Church in the United Kingdom, helping found St Lazars Church, Bournville where he married his second wife, Linda Bonney, in 1982. He was the first member of the family who permanently moved back to Serbia, in early 1992, making his residence at the King Peter I Foundation Complex in Oplenac. He frequently visited the Serb soldiers in Republika Srpska and the Republic of Serb Krajina, there were initiatives for him to be crowned Prince of the Serb-held part of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which were rejected by the local political leadership. He died after five years of illness on 12 July 2000, Peter and Paul Day in the Julian Calendar, the patron saints of the family crypt on Oplenac, where he was buried, in a funeral attended by several thousand mourners. He was married on 5 June 1957, in Salem, Baden-Württemberg, West Germany, Tomislav and Margarita were divorced in 1981
12.
Prince Andrew of Yugoslavia
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Prince Andrew of Yugoslavia was born in Bled, Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, subsequently Kingdom of Yugoslavia, now Slovenia. He was the youngest child of King Alexander I of Yugoslavia and Maria of Yugoslavia, daughter of King Ferdinand of Romania and Marie of Edinburgh. After the fall of the monarchy in Yugoslavia, he went into exile in London, on 2 August 1956, he married his third cousin-once-removed Princess Christina Margarethe of Hesse, in Kronberg im Taunus, Germany. She was the eldest child of Prince Christoph of Hesse and his wife Princess Sophie of Greece and Denmark, her mother being a sister of Prince Philip and they had two children, Princess Maria Tatiana, married 30 June 1990 Gregory Per Edward Anthony Michael Thune-Larsen. Prince Christopher, a teacher who died in a bicycle accident. The couple divorced in London on 31 May 1962, on 18 September 1963, he married his second cousin Princess Kira of Leiningen, daughter of Karl, Prince of Leiningen and Grand Duchess Maria Kirillovna of Russia. Married firstly 20 May 1989 Erastos Dimitrios Sidiropoulos and secondly on 4 October 1998 Austin Prichard-Levy, nadya Marie George, illegitimate, fathered by Roy Rexford Finnimore, her surname was changed to Sidiropoulos in 1990. Prince Karl Vladimir Cyril Andrej, married 18 April 2000 Brigitte Müller and they were divorced in Frankfurt am Main on 10 July 1972. Andrej married thirdly Eva Maria Andjelkovich on 30 March 1974 in Palm Springs, California and he was found dead in his car in Irvine, California, US on 7 May 1990. The death was determined to be suicide by carbon monoxide and his remains were initially buried in New Gračanica Monastery, Third Lake, Illinois. They remained there until 2013, when they were returned to Serbia and buried in Saint Georges Church, Oplenac on 26 May 2013
13.
Dynasty
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A dynasty is a sequence of rulers from the same family, usually in the context of a feudal or monarchical system but sometimes also appearing in elective republics. The dynastic family or lineage may be known as a house, historians periodize the histories of many sovereign states, such as Ancient Egypt, the Carolingian Empire and Imperial China, using a framework of successive dynasties. As such, the dynasty may be used to delimit the era during which the family reigned and to describe events, trends. The word dynasty itself is often dropped from such adjectival references, until the 19th century, it was taken for granted that a legitimate function of a monarch was to aggrandize his dynasty, that is, to increase the territory, wealth, and power of his family members. The longest-surviving dynasty in the world is the Imperial House of Japan, dynasties throughout the world have traditionally been reckoned patrilineally, such as under the Frankish Salic law. Succession through a daughter when permitted was considered to establish a new dynasty in her husbands ruling house, however, some states in Africa, determined descent matrilineally, while rulers have at other times adopted the name of their mothers dynasty when coming into her inheritance. It is also extended to unrelated people such as poets of the same school or various rosters of a single sports team. The word dynasty derives via Latin dynastia from Greek dynastéia, where it referred to power, dominion and it was the abstract noun of dynástēs, the agent noun of dynamis, power or ability, from dýnamai, to be able. A ruler in a dynasty is referred to as a dynast. For example, following his abdication, Edward VIII of the United Kingdom ceased to be a member of the House of Windsor. A dynastic marriage is one that complies with monarchical house law restrictions, the marriage of Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange, to Máxima Zorreguieta in 2002 was dynastic, for example, and their eldest child is expected to inherit the Dutch crown eventually. But the marriage of his younger brother Prince Friso to Mabel Wisse Smit in 2003 lacked government support, thus Friso forfeited his place in the order of succession, lost his title as a Prince of the Netherlands, and left his children without dynastic rights. In historical and monarchist references to formerly reigning families, a dynast is a member who would have had succession rights, were the monarchys rules still in force. Even since abolition of the Austrian monarchy, Max and his descendants have not been considered the rightful pretenders by Austrian monarchists, nor have they claimed that position. The term dynast is sometimes used only to refer to descendants of a realms monarchs. The term can therefore describe overlapping but distinct sets of people, yet he is not a male-line member of the royal family, and is therefore not a dynast of the House of Windsor. Thus, in 1999 he requested and obtained permission from Elizabeth II to marry the Roman Catholic Princess Caroline of Monaco. Yet a clause of the English Act of Settlement 1701 remained in effect at that time and that exclusion, too, ceased to apply on 26 March 2015, with retroactive effect for those who had been dynasts prior to triggering it by marriage to a Catholic
14.
Princess Zorka of Montenegro
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Princess Ljubica Petrović-Njegoš of Montenegro, later Princess Zorka Karađorđević in Serbia. She was better known as Princess Zorka and she was the eldest child of the Montenegrin monarch Nicholas I and Milena Vukotić, and the wife of Peter Karađorđević. Born in Cetinje, Montenegro at the time when her father was already the reigning Prince of Montenegro, Zorka was educated in Russia before returning to Montenegro to be engaged to Karađorđević. Zorkas sister Elena married the future King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy, described as exuberant by one commentator, Zorka married Peter in Cetinje on 1 August 1883 in a Serbian Orthodox ceremony. They had five children, Princess Helen of Serbia, Zorka died aged just 25 on 16 March 1890 in Cetinje during childbirth and was buried in the St. Georges Church in Topola, Serbia. Royal Mausoleum Oplenac The Njegoskij Fund Public Project, Private family archives-based digital documentary fund focused on history and culture of Royal Montenegro
15.
Serbian Orthodox Church
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The Serbian Orthodox Church is one of the autocephalous Eastern Orthodox Christian churches. It is the second oldest Slavic Orthodox Church in the world, the Serbian Orthodox Church comprises the majority of population in Serbia, Montenegro, and the Republika Srpska entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is organized into metropolises and eparchies located primarily in Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and Croatia, the Serbian Orthodox Church is an autocephalous, or ecclesiastically independent, member of the Orthodox communion. Serbian Patriarch serves as first among equals in his church, the current patriarch is Irinej, the Church achieved autocephalous status in 1219 under the leadership of St. Sava, becoming independent Archbishopric of Žiča. Its status was elevated to that of a patriarchate in 1346 and this patriarchate was abolished by the Ottoman Turks in 1766. The modern Serbian Orthodox Church was re-established in 1920 after the unification of the Patriarchate of Karlovci, the Metropolitanate of Belgrade, Christianity spread to the Balkans beginning in the 1st century. Florus and Laurus are venerated as Christian martyrs of the 2nd century, Constantine the Great, born in Niš, was the first Christian Roman Emperor. Several bishops seated in what is today Serbia participated in the First Council of Nicaea, in 380, Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius decreed that his subjects would be Christians according to the Council of Nicea formula. Greek was used in the Byzantine church, while the Roman church used Latin, with the definite split in 395, the line in Europe ran south along the Drina river. Tim Judah says that the Roman split resulted in that Serbs are Orthodox, among old Christian heritage is the Archbishopric of Justiniana Prima, established in 535, which had jurisdiction over the whole of present-day Serbia. However, the Archbishopric did not last, as the Slavs and Avars destroyed the region sometime after 602, in 731 Leo III attached Illyricum and Southern Italy to Patriarch Anastasius of Constantinople, transferring the papal authority to the Eastern Church. Slavs invaded and settled the Balkans in the 6th and 7th centuries, the history of the early medieval Serbian Principality is recorded in the work De Administrando Imperio, compiled by the Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus. The DAI drew information on the Serbs from, among others, the Serbs were said to have received the protection of Emperor Heraclius, and Porphyrogenitus stressed that the Serbs had always been under Imperial rule. The Christianization was due partly to Byzantine and subsequent Bulgarian influence, at least during the rule of Kocel in Pannonia, communications between Serbia and Great Moravia, where Methodius was active, must have been possible. This fact, the pope was presumably aware of, when planning Methodius diocese as well as that of the Dalmatian coast, there is a possibility that some Cyrillomethodian pupils reached Serbia in the 870s, perhaps even sent by Methodius himself. Serbia was accounted Christian as of about 870, the first Serbian bishopric was founded at Ras, near modern Novi Pazar on the Ibar river. According to Vlasto, the affiliation is uncertain, it may have been under the subordination of either Split or Durazzo. The early Ras church can be dated to the 9th–10th century, the names of Serbian rulers through Mutimir are Slavic dithematic names, per the Old Slavic tradition
16.
Kingdom of Serbia
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Since 1817 the Principality was ruled by the Obrenović dynasty. The Principality, suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire, de facto achieved independence when the last Ottoman troops left Belgrade in 1867. In 1882 King Milan I proclaimed the Kingdom of Serbia and maintained a foreign policy friendly to Austria-Hungary, between 1912 and 1913 Serbia greatly enlarged its territory through engagement in the First and Second Balkan Wars - Sandžak-Raška, Kosovo Vilayet and Vardar Macedonia were annexed. As outcome of the World War I in 1918 it united with Vojvodina, the Principality of Serbia was a state in the Balkans that came into existence as a result of the Serbian revolution which lasted between 1804 and 1817. At first, the principality included only the territory of the former Pashaluk of Belgrade, but in 1831-1833 it expanded to the east, south, in 1867 the Ottoman army left the Principality, securing its de facto independence. Serbia expanded further to the south-east in 1878, when it won international recognition at the Congress of Berlin. In 1882 it was raised to the level of the Kingdom of Serbia, the Serbo-Bulgarian War erupted on November 14,1885 and lasted until November 28 of the same year. The war ended in defeat for Serbia, as it had failed to capture the Slivnitsa region which it had set out to achieve. Bulgarians successfully repelled the Serbs after the victory at the Battle of Slivnitsa and advanced into Serbian territory taking Pirot. When Austria-Hungary declared that it would join the war on the side of Serbia, Bulgaria withdrew from Serbia leaving the Serbo-Bulgarian border precisely where it had prior to the war. The peace treaty was signed on February 19,1886 in Bucharest, as a result of the war, European powers acknowledged the act of Unification of Bulgaria which happened on September 6,1885. In 1888 Peoples Radical Party led by Sava Grujić and Nikola Pašić came to power, the lost war and the Radical Partys total electoral victory were some of the reasons why King Milan I abdicated in 1889. His son Alexander I assumed the throne in 1893 and in 1894 dismissed the constitution, King Alexander I of Serbia and his unpopular wife Queen Draga, were assassinated inside the Royal Palace in Belgrade on the night of 28–29 May 1903. Other representatives of the Obrenović family were shot as well and this act resulted in the extinction of the House of Obrenović which had been ruling Serbia since 1817. After the May Coup Serbian Skupština invited Peter Karadjorjević to assume the Serbian crown as Peter I of Serbia, a constitutional monarchy was created with the military Black Hand society operating behind the scenes. The traditionally good relations with the Austria-Hungary ended, as the new dynasty relied on the support of the Russian Empire, in April 1904 the Friendship treaty and in June 1905 the customs union with Bulgaria were signed. In response Austria-Hungary imposed a Tariff War of 1906-1909, after the 1906 elections Peoples Radical Party came to power. In 1908 Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia, where Serbia had hoped to expand its territory, Russia, the Ottoman Empire, Britain, Kingdom of Italy, Serbia, Principality of Montenegro, German Empire and France took an interest in these events
17.
Kingdom of Yugoslavia
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The Kingdom of Yugoslavia was a state in Southeast Europe and Central Europe, that existed during the interwar period and first half of World War II. It was formed in 1918 by the merger of the provisional State of Slovenes, Croats, the Kingdom of Montenegro had united with Serbia five days previously, while the regions of Kosovo, Vojvodina and Vardar Macedonia were parts of Serbia prior to the unification. For its first eleven years of existence, the Kingdom was officially called the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, the official name of the state was changed to Kingdom of Yugoslavia by King Alexander I on 3 October 1929. The state was ruled by the Serbian dynasty of Karađorđević, which ruled the Kingdom of Serbia under Peter I from 1903 onwards. Peter I became the first king of Yugoslavia until his death in 1921 and he was succeeded by his son Alexander I, who had been regent for his father. He was known as Alexander the Unifier and he renamed the kingdom Yugoslavia in 1929 and he was assassinated in Marseille by Vlado Chernozemski, a member of the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization, during his visit to France in 1934. The crown passed to his then-still under-aged son Peter and his cousin Paul ruled as Prince regent until 1941, when Peter II would come of age. The royal family flew to London the same year, prior to the country being invaded by the Axis powers, in April 1941, the country was occupied and partitioned by the Axis powers. A royal government-in-exile, recognized by the United Kingdom and, later, in 1944, after pressure from the British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, the King recognized the government of Democratic Federal Yugoslavia as the legitimate government. This was established on 2 November following the signing of the Treaty of Vis by Ivan Šubašić, Trumbić faced initial hostility from Serbian Prime Minister Nikola Pašić, who preferred an enlarged Serbia over a unified Yugoslav state. In 1916, the Serbian Parliament in exile decided on the creation of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia at a meeting inside the Municipal Theatre of Corfu. The Kingdom was formed on 1 December 1918 under the name Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, on 1 December 1918, the new kingdom was proclaimed by Alexander Karađorđević, Prince-Regent for his father, Peter I of Serbia. The creation of the state was supported by pan-Slavists and Serbian nationalists, for the pan-Slavic movement, all of the South Slav people had united into a single state. For Serbian nationalists, the goal of uniting the majority of the Serb population across south-eastern Europe into one state was also achieved. Furthermore, as Serbia already had a government, military, and police force, the newly established Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes participated in the Paris Peace Conference with Trumbić as the countrys representative. Almost immediately, it ran into disputes with most of its neighbours, Slovenia was difficult to determine, since it had been an integral part of Austria for 400 years. The Vojvodina region was disputed with Hungary, Macedonia with Bulgaria, a plebiscite was also held in the Province of Carinthia, which opted to remain in Austria. Austrians had formed a majority in this region although numbers reflected that some Slovenes did vote for Carinthia to become part of Austria, the Dalmatian port city of Zadar and a few of the Dalmatian islands were given to Italy
18.
Army
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An army or ground force is a fighting force that fights primarily on land. In the broadest sense, it is the military branch. It may also include other branches of the such as the air force via means of aviation corps. Within a national force, the word army may also mean a field army. They differ from army reserves who are activated only during such times as war or natural disasters, in several countries, the army is officially called the Land Army to differentiate it from an air force called the Air Army, notably France. In such countries, the army on its own retains its connotation of a land force in common usage. By convention, irregular military is understood in contrast to regular armies which grew slowly from personal bodyguards or elite militia, regular in this case refers to standardized doctrines, uniforms, organizations, etc. Regular military can also refer to full-time status, versus reserve or part-time personnel, other distinctions may separate statutory forces, from de facto non-statutory forces such as some guerrilla and revolutionary armies. Armies may also be expeditionary or fencible, india has had some of the earliest armies in the world. During the Indus Valley Civilization however, there was just a small force as they didnt fear invasion at the time. After the Aryan invasion, kingdoms and city-states started forming armies to protect their cities, one of the first known recorded battles, the Battle of the Ten Kings, happened when a Hindu king defeated an alliance of ten kings. During the Iron Age, the Maurya and Nanda Empires had large armies, in the Gupta age, large armies of longbowmen were recruited to fight off invading horse archer armies. Elephants, pikemen and cavalry were other featured troops, in Rajput times, the main piece of equipment was iron or chain-mail armour, a round shield, either a curved blade or a straight-sword, a chakra disc and a katar dagger. China has existed as a culture for thousands of years, the states of China raised armies for at least 1000 years before the Spring and Autumn Annals. By the Warring States period, the crossbow had been perfected enough to become a military secret, thus any political power of a state rested on the armies and their organization. China underwent political consolidation of the states of Han, Wei, Chu, Yan, Zhao and Qi, until by 221 BCE, Qin Shi Huang, sun Tzus The Art of War remains one of Chinas Seven Military Classics, even though it is two thousand years old. Since no political figure could exist without an army, measures were taken to only the most capable leaders could control the armies. Civil bureaucracies arose to control the power of the states
19.
Principality of Serbia
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The Principality of Serbia was a semi-independent state in the Balkans that came into existence as a result of the Serbian Revolution which lasted between 1804 and 1817. Its creation was negotiated first through an agreement between Miloš Obrenović, leader of the Second Serbian Uprising and Ottoman official Marashli Pasha. It was followed by the series of documents published by the Porte in 1828,1829. Its de facto independence ensued in 1867, following the expulsion of all Ottoman troops from the country, by 1882 the country was elevated to Kingdom of Serbia. The Serbian revolutionary leaders — first Karađorđe and then Miloš Obrenović — succeeded in their goal of liberating Serbia from centuries-long Turkish rule, Turkish authorities acknowledged the state in 1830 by the charter known as the Hatt-i Sharif, and Miloš Obrenović became a hereditary prince of the Serbian Principality. At first, the principality included only the territory of the former Pashaluk of Belgrade, but in 1831–33 it expanded to the east, south, in 1866 Serbia began campaign of forging The First Balkan Alliance by signing the series of agreements with other Balkan entities in period 1866-68. On 18 April 1867 the Ottoman government ordered the Ottoman garrison, the only stipulation was that the Ottoman flag continue to fly over the fortress alongside the Serbian one. Serbias de facto independence dates from this event, a new constitution in 1869 defined Serbia as an independent state. Serbia was further expanded to the southeast in 1878, when its independence from the Ottoman Empire won full international recognition at the Treaty of Berlin, the Principality would last until 1882 when it was raised to the level of the Kingdom of Serbia. Rejected by Mahmud II in 1828,1829 Hatišerif 1830 Hatišerif 1833 Hatišerif The Principality was ruled by the Obrenović dynasty, except for a period under Prince Aleksandar of the Karađorđević dynasty. Princes Miloš and Mihailo Obrenović each reigned twice, history of Serbia Kingdom of Serbia Катић, Бојана Миљковић. Пољопривреда Кнежевине Србије, Agriculture of the Principality of Sebia, mrđenović, Dušan, ed. Устави и владе Кнежевине Србије. Устави и владе Кнежевине Србије, Краљевине Србије, Краљевине СХС и Краљевине Југославије, nikolić, Dragan, Ristić, V. Arsić, L. & Kostov, V. Krivični zakonik Kneževine Srbije. Насељавање Кнежевине Србије, 1861-1880, Settlement of the Princedom of Serbia, politička propaganda Srbije u jugoslovenskim pokrajinama, 1844-1858 godine. Jugoslovenski nacionalni i državni program Kneževine Srbije iz 1844 god, građa za istoriju Kneževine Srbije, vreme prve vlade kneza Miloša Obrenovića. Nikolić, Dragan K. Izvori i priroda krivičnog prava Kneževine Srbije u vreme pripreme krivičnog zakona, Arsić, M. Crkvene matične knjige u propisima Kneževine Srbije. Србија и Русија за време друге владавине кнеза Михаила, Универзитет у Београду, Филозофски факултет,2014. Srbija i Grčka, borba za Balkan, Greek-Serbian Cooperation, 1830-1908, Collection of Reports from the Second Greek-Serbian Symposium,1980
20.
Russian Empire
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The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until it was overthrown by the short-lived February Revolution in 1917. One of the largest empires in history, stretching over three continents, the Russian Empire was surpassed in landmass only by the British and Mongol empires. The rise of the Russian Empire happened in association with the decline of neighboring powers, the Swedish Empire, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Persia. It played a role in 1812–14 in defeating Napoleons ambitions to control Europe. The House of Romanov ruled the Russian Empire from 1721 until 1762, and its German-descended cadet branch, with 125.6 million subjects registered by the 1897 census, it had the third-largest population in the world at the time, after Qing China and India. Like all empires, it included a large disparity in terms of economics, ethnicity, there were numerous dissident elements, who launched numerous rebellions and assassination attempts, they were closely watched by the secret police, with thousands exiled to Siberia. Economically, the empire had an agricultural base, with low productivity on large estates worked by serfs. The economy slowly industrialized with the help of foreign investments in railways, the land was ruled by a nobility from the 10th through the 17th centuries, and subsequently by an emperor. Tsar Ivan III laid the groundwork for the empire that later emerged and he tripled the territory of his state, ended the dominance of the Golden Horde, renovated the Moscow Kremlin, and laid the foundations of the Russian state. Tsar Peter the Great fought numerous wars and expanded an already huge empire into a major European power, Catherine the Great presided over a golden age. She expanded the state by conquest, colonization and diplomacy, continuing Peter the Greats policy of modernisation along West European lines, Tsar Alexander II promoted numerous reforms, most dramatically the emancipation of all 23 million serfs in 1861. His policy in Eastern Europe involved protecting the Orthodox Christians under the rule of the Ottoman Empire and that connection by 1914 led to Russias entry into the First World War on the side of France, Britain, and Serbia, against the German, Austrian and Ottoman empires. The Russian Empire functioned as a monarchy until the Revolution of 1905. The empire collapsed during the February Revolution of 1917, largely as a result of failures in its participation in the First World War. Perhaps the latter was done to make Europe recognize Russia as more of a European country, Poland was divided in the 1790-1815 era, with much of the land and population going to Russia. Most of the 19th century growth came from adding territory in Asia, Peter I the Great introduced autocracy in Russia and played a major role in introducing his country to the European state system. However, this vast land had a population of 14 million, grain yields trailed behind those of agriculture in the West, compelling nearly the entire population to farm. Only a small percentage lived in towns, the class of kholops, close to the one of slavery, remained a major institution in Russia until 1723, when Peter I converted household kholops into house serfs, thus including them in poll taxation
21.
Austria-Hungary
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The union was a result of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and came into existence on 30 March 1867. Austria-Hungary consisted of two monarchies, and one region, the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia under the Hungarian crown. It was ruled by the House of Habsburg, and constituted the last phase in the evolution of the Habsburg Monarchy. Following the 1867 reforms, the Austrian and the Hungarian states were co-equal, Foreign affairs and the military came under joint oversight, but all other governmental faculties were divided between respective states. Austria-Hungary was a state and one of the worlds great powers at the time. Austria-Hungary was geographically the second-largest country in Europe after the Russian Empire, at 621,538 km2, the Empire built up the fourth-largest machine building industry of the world, after the United States, Germany, and the United Kingdom. After 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina was under Austro-Hungarian military and civilian rule until it was annexed in 1908. The annexation of Bosnia also led to Islam being recognized as a state religion due to Bosnias Muslim population. Austria-Hungary was one of the Central Powers in World War I and it was already effectively dissolved by the time the military authorities signed the armistice of Villa Giusti on 3 November 1918. The realms full, official name was The Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council, each enjoyed considerable sovereignty with only a few joint affairs. Certain regions, such as Polish Galicia within Cisleithania and Croatia within Transleithania, enjoyed autonomous status, the division between Austria and Hungary was so marked that there was no common citizenship, one was either an Austrian citizen or a Hungarian citizen, never both. This also meant that there were always separate Austrian and Hungarian passports, however, neither Austrian nor Hungarian passports were used in the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia-Dalmatia. Instead, the Kingdom issued its own passports which were written in Croatian and French and it is not known what kind of passports were used in Bosnia-Herzegovina, which was under the control of both Austria and Hungary. The Kingdom of Hungary had always maintained a separate parliament, the Diet of Hungary, the administration and government of the Kingdom of Hungary remained largely untouched by the government structure of the overarching Austrian Empire. Hungarys central government structures remained well separated from the Austrian imperial government, the country was governed by the Council of Lieutenancy of Hungary – located in Pressburg and later in Pest – and by the Hungarian Royal Court Chancellery in Vienna. The Hungarian government and Hungarian parliament were suspended after the Hungarian revolution of 1848, despite Austria and Hungary sharing a common currency, they were fiscally sovereign and independent entities. Since the beginnings of the union, the government of the Kingdom of Hungary could preserve its separated. After the revolution of 1848–1849, the Hungarian budget was amalgamated with the Austrian, from 1527 to 1851, the Kingdom of Hungary maintained its own customs controls, which separated her from the other parts of the Habsburg-ruled territories
22.
Geneva
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Geneva is the second most populous city in Switzerland and is the most populous city of Romandy, the French-speaking part of Switzerland. Situated where the Rhône exits Lake Geneva, it is the capital of the Republic, the municipality has a population of 198,072, and the canton has 484,736 residents. In 2014, the compact agglomération du Grand Genève had 946,000 inhabitants in 212 communities in both Switzerland and France, within Swiss territory, the commuter area named Métropole lémanique contains a population of 1.25 million. This area is essentially spread east from Geneva towards the Riviera area and north-east towards Yverdon-les-Bains, Geneva is the city that hosts the highest number of international organizations in the world. It is also the place where the Geneva Conventions were signed, Geneva was ranked as the worlds ninth most important financial centre for competitiveness by the Global Financial Centres Index, ahead of Frankfurt, and third in Europe behind London and Zürich. A2009 survey by Mercer found that Geneva has the third-highest quality of life of any city in the world, the city has been referred to as the worlds most compact metropolis and the Peace Capital. In 2009 and 2011, Geneva was ranked as, respectively, the city was mentioned in Latin texts, by Caesar, with the spelling Genava, probably from a Celtic toponym *genawa- from the stem *genu-, in the sense of a bending river or estuary. The medieval county of Geneva in Middle Latin was known as pagus major Genevensis or Comitatus Genevensis, the name takes various forms in modern languages, Geneva /dʒᵻˈniːvə/ in English, French, Genève, German, Genf, Italian, Ginevra, and Romansh, Genevra. The city in origin shares its name, *genawa estuary, with the Italian port city of Genoa, Geneva was an Allobrogian border town, fortified against the Helvetii tribe, when the Romans took it in 121 BC. It became Christian under the Late Roman Empire, and acquired its first bishop in the 5th century, having been connected to the bishopric of Vienne in the 4th. In the Middle Ages, Geneva was ruled by a count under the Holy Roman Empire until the late 14th century, around this time the House of Savoy came to dominate the city. In the 15th century, a republican government emerged with the creation of the Grand Council. In 1541, with Protestantism in the ascendancy, John Calvin, by the 18th century, however, Geneva had come under the influence of Catholic France, which cultivated the city as its own. France also tended to be at odds with the ordinary townsfolk, in 1798, revolutionary France under the Directory annexed Geneva. At the end of the Napoleonic Wars, on 1 June 1814, in 1907, the separation of Church and State was adopted. Geneva flourished in the 19th and 20th centuries, becoming the seat of international organizations. Geneva is located at 46°12 North, 6°09 East, at the end of Lake Geneva. It is surrounded by two chains, the Alps and the Jura
23.
George, Crown Prince of Serbia
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George, Crown Prince of Serbia was the eldest son of King Peter I of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes and Queen Ljubica of Montenegro. He was the brother of King Alexander I of Yugoslavia. In 1909, George inadvertently caused the death of his servant and he later served with distinction in the army, was severely wounded during the First World War, and thereby became popular in the country, which aroused the alarm of his younger brother. In 1925, his brother the King had him arrested, declared insane and he remained confined there for nearly two decades, until released by the German occupying force during World War II. After that war ended, he was the member of the royal family not to be sent into exile. He married in 1947, aged 60, and although he had no children, his last years were relatively happy, George was born a member of the House of Karađorđević. After being deposed in 1858, Georges grandfather and his family had had to leave their homeland, Georges father, Petar Karađorđević, had made an advantageous marriage rather late in life with Ljubica, the eldest daughter of King Nicholas I of Montenegro. After marrying the princess, he made his home in the Principality of Montenegro, thus, George was born in Cetinje and spent the first few years of his life in the court of his maternal grandfather. He was one of five siblings, two of whom died in infancy, he grew up with one older sister, Helen. In March 1890, when George was hardly two years old, his mother died in childbirth, shortly afterwards, Petar moved his three motherless children first to Geneva and then to Russia. In Russia, George studied at the Page Corps school of Tsar Alexander II, as a result, George became Crown Prince. Prince George participated in the Balkan wars as well as World War I, after his fathers death and brother Alexandars subsequent coronation, hostilities between the two brothers arose, which led to Prince Georges arrest in 1925. He was proclaimed to be insane and locked in an asylum near the city of Niš. Following Alexanders assassination in 1934, George hoped he would be freed by the new regent Prince Paul, after the war the royal Karađorđević family was declared enemy-of-the-state by Josip Broz Titos communist regime. However, George was allowed to retire in Belgrade as the member of the Royal family in the country. In 1947 at the age of 60, he married Radmila Radonjić, the couple did not have any children. He wrote his memoirs Istina o mom životu and he died on 17 October 1972 in Belgrade and was buried in St. Georges Church in Topola, SFR Yugoslavia. His death came the day after the anniversary of the death of his sister
24.
Page Corps
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Page Corps was a military academy in Imperial Russia, which prepared sons of the nobility and of senior officers for military service. While not established until 1943, the equivalent of the Page Corps. The Page Corps was founded in 1759 in St. Petersburg as a school for teaching and training pages, in 1802, the curriculum of the Corps des Pages was also changed, thereafter based on the ideals of the Order of St John. In 1810, the school was moved to the palace of the Sovereign Order of St John of Jerusalem and it continued at this location in St. Petersburg for over one hundred years. By the 1880s, separate infantry, cavalry and artillery departments were in existence, the Corps des Pages, as it was generally referred to in pre-Revolutionary Russia, was the only military academy to prepare future officers for all arms. The others were devoted to specialized training for cavalry, infantry, artillery, engineers, cossacks, while most graduates entered the Russian Imperial Army as officers, a minority opted for diplomatic or civil service careers. In common with the other Russian military schools, the Page Corps imposed a harsh regime on its cadets, corporal punishment involved beatings with a birch for even minor offences and bullying of younger students by their seniors was common. Peter Kropotkins memoirs detail the hazing and other abuse of pages for which the Corps had become notorious, however the education provided was of relatively high standard with courses in mathematics, languages, sciences, and military subjects. The students served on a basis as pages at Court and provided services at ceremonies. Graduates from the Corps des Pages had the privilege of joining the regiment of their own choice regardless of the existing vacancies. As serving officers they wore, on the side of their tunic. Upon graduation the cadets received the rank of podporuchik and those who preferred employment as diplomats or officials rather than military service, would receive civil service ranks of the 10th, 12th, and 14th class. The Corps had a range of uniforms for different purposes, the most spectacular of these was the gala uniform worn for Court functions. This comprised a helmet with white plume, a dark green tunic with gold braid covering the front, white breeches. From its inception until 1917, the Corps graduated 4,505 officers, an additional 200 were unable to complete their courses because of the revolution of 1917. An Online Exhibition Catalog // Rare Book & Manuscript Library of Columbia University
25.
Saint Petersburg
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Saint Petersburg is Russias second-largest city after Moscow, with five million inhabitants in 2012, and an important Russian port on the Baltic Sea. It is politically incorporated as a federal subject, situated on the Neva River, at the head of the Gulf of Finland on the Baltic Sea, it was founded by Tsar Peter the Great on May 271703. In 1914, the name was changed from Saint Petersburg to Petrograd, in 1924 to Leningrad, between 1713 and 1728 and 1732–1918, Saint Petersburg was the capital of imperial Russia. In 1918, the government bodies moved to Moscow. Saint Petersburg is one of the cities of Russia, as well as its cultural capital. The Historic Centre of Saint Petersburg and Related Groups of Monuments constitute a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Saint Petersburg is home to The Hermitage, one of the largest art museums in the world. A large number of consulates, international corporations, banks. Swedish colonists built Nyenskans, a fortress, at the mouth of the Neva River in 1611, in a then called Ingermanland. A small town called Nyen grew up around it, Peter the Great was interested in seafaring and maritime affairs, and he intended to have Russia gain a seaport in order to be able to trade with other maritime nations. He needed a better seaport than Arkhangelsk, which was on the White Sea to the north, on May 1703121703, during the Great Northern War, Peter the Great captured Nyenskans, and soon replaced the fortress. On May 271703, closer to the estuary 5 km inland from the gulf), on Zayachy Island, he laid down the Peter and Paul Fortress, which became the first brick and stone building of the new city. The city was built by conscripted peasants from all over Russia, tens of thousands of serfs died building the city. Later, the city became the centre of the Saint Petersburg Governorate, Peter moved the capital from Moscow to Saint Petersburg in 1712,9 years before the Treaty of Nystad of 1721 ended the war, he referred to Saint Petersburg as the capital as early as 1704. During its first few years, the city developed around Trinity Square on the bank of the Neva, near the Peter. However, Saint Petersburg soon started to be built out according to a plan, by 1716 the Swiss Italian Domenico Trezzini had elaborated a project whereby the city centre would be located on Vasilyevsky Island and shaped by a rectangular grid of canals. The project was not completed, but is evident in the layout of the streets, in 1716, Peter the Great appointed French Jean-Baptiste Alexandre Le Blond as the chief architect of Saint Petersburg. In 1724 the Academy of Sciences, University and Academic Gymnasium were established in Saint Petersburg by Peter the Great, in 1725, Peter died at the age of fifty-two. His endeavours to modernize Russia had met opposition from the Russian nobility—resulting in several attempts on his life
26.
May Coup (Serbia)
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This act resulted in the extinction of the House of Obrenović which had been ruling Serbia since the middle of the 19th century. The assassination of the couple was organized by a group of army officers led by then-Captain Dragutin Dimitrijević Apis. After the May Overthrow, the Serbian throne passed to the rival House of Karađorđević, both dynasties were receiving financial support from their powerful foreign sponsors. Along with the couple, the conspirators killed the Prime Minister Dimitrije Cincar-Marković. These, in turn, were sponsored by the rival Austro-Hungarian and Russian empires, the Obrenović family was mostly pro-Austrian while their hereditary enemies, the Karađordević family, were mostly pro-Russian. Each dynasty was financially aided by their powerful foreign sponsors, after the assassination of Prince Mihailo Obrenović on 29 May 1868, his cousin, Milan Obrenović, became the newly elected Serbian prince. Milan was married to Natalie Keshko, a Moldavian boyars daughter and he was an autocratic ruler and very unpopular among the people. During his rule, Serbia reemerged as an independent country and gained territory at the 1878 Congress of Berlin, since Russia gave its support to Bulgaria at the Treaty of San Stefano, King Milan relied on Austria-Hungary as his ally. He proclaimed himself King in 1882 and his military defeat in the war against Bulgaria and the Timok Rebellion, led by elements of the Peoples Radical Party, were serious blows to his popularity. The situation was not any better in his private life, after ten years of marriage, quarrels between the King and the Queen were fiercer and more frequent. King Milan was not a husband and Queen Natalija was greatly influenced by Russia. In 1886, the couple, mismatched both personally and politically, separated, Queen Natalija withdrew from the kingdom, taking with her the ten-year-old Prince Alexander. While she was residing in Wiesbaden in 1888, King Milan was successful in recovering the Crown Prince, as a reply to the Queens remonstrances, Milan exerted considerable pressure upon the metropolitan and obtained a divorce which was later declared illegal. On 3 January 1889, Milan adopted the new constitution which was more liberal than the existing 1869 Constitution. Two months later, on March 6, Milan suddenly abdicated the throne in favor of his son, no satisfactory reason was given for this step. Upon abdication, former King Milan put up a Regency to rule in the name of young King Alexander, members of the Regency were Jovan Ristić, General Kosta Protić and General Jovan Belimarković. The Radicals were forgiven and allowed to return to political life, the Radical Sava Grujić formed a new government, which was succeeded by the Government of Nikola Pašić, the leader of the Radical Party. After King Milans pro-Austrian policy, the Radical-led Government became closer to the Russian Empire, in the summer of 1891, Prince Alexander and Pašić visited Russian Tzar Alexander III Romanov
27.
Alexander I of Serbia
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Alexander I or Aleksandar Obrenović was king of Serbia from 1889 to 1903 when he and his wife, Queen Draga, were assassinated by a group of Army officers, led by Captain Dragutin Dimitrijević. Alexander was born on 14 August 1876 to King Milan and Queen Natalie of Serbia and he belonged to the Obrenović dynasty. In 1889, King Milan unexpectedly abdicated and withdrew to private life, in 1893, King Alexander, aged sixteen, arbitrarily proclaimed himself of full age, dismissed the regents and their government, and took the royal authority into his own hands. His action won popular support, as did his appointment of a radical ministry, in May 1894 King Alexander arbitrarily abolished King Milans liberal constitution of 1888 and restored the conservative one of 1869. His attitude during the Greco-Turkish War was one of strict neutrality, in 1894 the young King brought his father, Milan, back to Serbia and, in 1898, appointed him commander-in-chief of the Serbian army. During that time, Milan was regarded as the de facto ruler of the country, in the summer of 1900, King Alexander suddenly announced his engagement to the widowed Madame Draga Mašin, formerly a lady-in-waiting to his mother and 12 years older than him. The proposed union aroused great opposition, not only was Draga of unequal birth and obscure family, but at 36 years of age, Alexander was an only child, and it was imperative to secure the succession. Vladan Đorđević, who was visiting the Paris Universal Exhibition at the time of the announcement, both immediately resigned from their respective offices and Alexander had difficulty in forming a new cabinet. Alexanders mother also opposed the marriage and was banished from the kingdom. She was known to have seen in the nearby countries, such as Austria-Hungary. The marriage duly took place in August 1900, even so, the unpopularity of the union weakened the Kings position in the eyes of the army and of the country at large. Meanwhile, the independence of the senate and of the council of state caused increasing irritation to King Alexander, in March 1903 the King suspended the constitution for half an hour, time enough to publish the decrees dismissing and replacing the old senators and councillors of state. This arbitrary act increased dissatisfaction in the country, several politicians were also part of the conspiracy, and allegedly included former Prime Minister, Nikola Pašić. The royal couples palace was invaded and they hid in a cupboard in the Queens bedroom, the conspirators searched the palace and eventually discovered the royal couple and murdered them in the early morning of May 29,1903. The King was only 26 years old at the time of his death, King Alexander and Queen Draga were buried in the crypt of St
28.
Balkan Wars
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The Balkan Wars consisted of two conflicts that took place in the Balkan Peninsula in south-eastern Europe in 1912 and 1913. Four Balkan states defeated the Ottoman Empire in the first war, one of the four, Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire lost the bulk of its territory in Europe. Austria-Hungary, although not a combatant, became relatively weaker as a much enlarged Serbia pushed for union of the South Slavic peoples, the war set the stage for the Balkan crisis of 1914 and thus served as a prelude to the First World War. By the early 20th century, Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro and Serbia had achieved independence from the Ottoman Empire, in 1912 these countries formed the Balkan League. The First Balkan War had three main causes, The Ottoman Empire was unable to reform itself, govern satisfactorily, or deal with the rising nationalism of its diverse peoples. The Great Powers quarreled amongst themselves and failed to ensure that the Ottomans would carry out the needed reforms and this led the Balkan states to impose their own solution. Most importantly, the Balkan League had been formed, and its members were confident that it could defeat the Turks. The Ottoman Empire lost all its European territories to the west of the River Maritsa as a result of the two Balkan Wars, which thus delineated present-day Turkeys western border, a large influx of Turks started to flee into the Ottoman heartland from the lost lands. By 1914, the core region of the Ottoman Empire had experienced a population increase of around 2.5 million because of the flood of immigration from the Balkans. Citizens of Turkey regard the Balkan Wars as a disaster in the nations history. Nazım Pasha, Chief of Staff of the Ottoman Army, was responsible for the failure and was assassinated on 23 January 1913 during the 1913 Ottoman coup détat carried out by the Young Turks. The First Balkan War began when the League member states attacked the Ottoman Empire on 8 October 1912, the Second Balkan War was begun on 16 June 1913. Seeing the treaty as trampled, Bulgaria was dissatisfied over the division of the spoils in Macedonia, the more numerous combined Serbian and Greek armies repelled the Bulgarian offensive and counter-attacked into Bulgaria. Romania, who having taken no part in the conflict, had intact armies to strike with, the Ottoman Empire also attacked Bulgaria and advanced in Thrace regaining Adrianople. The background to the lies in the incomplete emergence of nation-states on the European territory of the Ottoman Empire during the second half of the 19th century. Serbia had gained territory during the Russo-Turkish War, 1877–1878, while Greece acquired Thessaly in 1881. All three countries, as well as Montenegro, sought additional territories within the large Ottoman-ruled region known as Rumelia, comprising Eastern Rumelia, Albania, Macedonia, throughout the 19th century, the Great Powers shared different aims over the Eastern Question and the integrity of the Ottoman Empire. Russia wanted access to the waters of the Mediterranean from the Black Sea, it pursued a pan-Slavic foreign policy
29.
Serbian Campaign of World War I
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The Serbian Campaign of World War I was fought from late July 1914, when Austria-Hungary invaded the Kingdom of Serbia at the outset of World War I, until the wars conclusion in November 1918. The front ranged from the Danube River to southern Macedonia and back north again, the Serbian Army declined severely towards the end of the war, falling from about 420,000 at its peak to about 100,000 at the moment of liberation. The Kingdom of Serbia lost more than 1,200,000 inhabitants during the war, according to estimates prepared by the Yugoslav government in 1924, Serbia lost 265,164 soldiers, or 25% of all mobilized people. By comparison, France lost 16. 8%, Germany 15. 4%, Russia 11. 5%, Austria-Hungary precipitated the Bosnian crisis of 1908–09 by annexing the former Ottoman territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which it had occupied since 1878. This angered the Kingdom of Serbia and its patron, the Pan-Slavic, Russian political manoeuvring in the region destabilised peace accords that were already unravelling in what was known as the powder keg of Europe. In 1912 and 1913, the First Balkan War was fought between the Balkan League of Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia, and Montenegro and the fracturing Ottoman Empire. The resulting Treaty of London further shrank the Ottoman Empire by creating an independent Principality of Albania and enlarging the territorial holdings of Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro and this began a period of diplomatic manoeuvring among Austria-Hungary, Germany, Russia, France, and Britain called the July Crisis. When Serbia agreed to eight of the ten demands, Austria-Hungary declared war on 28 July 1914. The dispute between Austria-Hungary and Serbia escalated into what is now known as World War I, and drew in Russia, Germany, France, and the United Kingdom. Within a week, Austria-Hungary had to face a war with Russia, Serbias patron, the result was that Serbia became a subsidiary front in the massive fight that started to unfold along Austria-Hungarys border with Russia. Serbias strategy was to hold on as long as it could and hope the Russians could defeat the main Austro-Hungarian Army, with or without the help of other allies. Serbia constantly had to worry about its hostile neighbor to the east, Bulgaria, with which it had fought several wars, the standing peacetime Austro-Hungarian army had some 36,000 officers and non-commissioned officers and 414,000 soldiers. During the mobilization, this number was increased to a total of 3,350,000 men of all ranks and this vast manpower allowed the Austro-Hungarian army to replace its losses regularly and keep units at their formation strength. According to some sources, during 1914 there were on average 150,000 men per month sent to replace the loses in the field army, during 1915 these numbers rose to 200,000 per month. However, with the beginning of the Russian general mobilization, Armeeoberkommando decided to move the 2nd Army to Galicia to counter Russian forces, furthermore, the Austro-Hungarian defeats suffered during the first invasion of Serbia forced AOK to transfer two divisions from the 2nd Army permanently to Potioreks force. By 12 August, Austria-Hungary had amassed over 500,000 soldiers on Serbian frontiers, with the departure of the major part of the 2nd Army to the Russian front, this number fell to some 285,000 of operational troops, including garrisons. Apart from land forces, Austria-Hungary also deployed its Danube River flotilla of six monitors, many Austro-Hungarian soldiers were not of good quality. About one-quarter of them were illiterate, and most of the conscripts from the subject nationalities did not speak or understand German or Hungarian
30.
First Balkan War
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The First Balkan War, lasted from October 1912 to May 1913 and comprised actions of the Balkan League against the Ottoman Empire. The combined armies of the Balkan states overcame the numerically inferior and strategically disadvantaged Ottoman armies, as a result of the war, the League captured and partitioned almost all remaining European territories of the Ottoman Empire. Ensuing events also led to the creation of an independent Albania, despite its success, Bulgaria was dissatisfied over the division of the spoils in Macedonia, which provoked the start of the Second Balkan War. By 1867, Serbia and Montenegro had both secured independence, which was confirmed by the Treaty of Berlin, the question of the viability of Ottoman rule was revived after the Young Turk Revolution of July 1908, which compelled the Sultan to restore the suspended Ottoman constitution. Serbias aspirations to take over Bosnia and Herzegovina were thwarted by the Bosnian crisis, the Serbs directed their expansionism to the south. Following the annexation, the Young Turks tried to induce the Muslim population of Bosnia to emigrate to the Ottoman Empire and those who took up the offer were re-settled by the Ottoman authorities in districts of northern Macedonia where there were few Muslims. The experiment proved to be a catastrophe for the Empire since the immigrants readily united with the population of Albanian Muslims. They participated in the series of Albanian uprisings before and during the spring Albanian Revolt of 1912, some Albanian government troops switched sides. Serbia, which had helped arm the Albanian Catholic and Hamidian rebels and sent secret agents to some of the prominent leaders, things got so far out of hand that no one was satisfied with the situation in Turkey in Europe. It became unbearable for the Serbs, the Greeks and for the Albanians, by the grace of God, I have therefore ordered my brave army to join in the Holy War to free our brethren and to ensure a better future. To all of them we bring freedom, brotherhood and equality, in a search for allies, Serbia was ready to negotiate a treaty with Bulgaria. The agreement provided that, in the event of victory against the Ottomans, serbias expansion was accepted by Bulgaria as being to the north of the Shar Mountains. The intervening area was agreed to be disputed, it would be arbitrated by the Tsar of Russia in the event of a war against the Ottoman Empire. After the successful coup détat for unification with Eastern Rumelia, Bulgaria began to dream that its national unification would be realized, for that purpose, it developed a large army, and identified as the Prussia of the Balkans. But Bulgaria could not win a war alone against the Ottomans and they also wanted to reverse their defeat in the Greco-Turkish War of 1897 by the Ottomans. An emergency military reorganization led by a French military mission had been started for that purpose, in the discussions that led Greece to join the Balkan League, Bulgaria refused to commit to any agreement on the distribution of territorial gains, unlike its deal with Serbia over Macedonia. Bulgarias diplomatic policy was to push Serbia into an agreement limiting its access to Macedonia, Bulgaria believed that its army would be able to occupy the larger part of Aegean Macedonia and the important port city of Salonica before the Greeks. In 1911, Italy had launched an invasion of Tripolitania in present-day Libya, the Italians decisive military victories over the Ottoman Empire encouraged the Balkan states to imagine they might win a war against the Ottomans
31.
Battle of Kumanovo
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The Battle of Kumanovo on 23–24 October 1912 was a major battle of the First Balkan War. It was an important Serbian victory over the Ottoman army in the Kosovo Vilayet, after this defeat, the Ottoman army abandoned the major part of the region, suffering heavy losses in manpower and in war materiel. The objective of the Royal Serbian Army plan was to destroy the Ottoman army in a battle before the Ottomans could complete the mobilisation and concentration of forces. The Serbian planners assumed that the main Ottoman force would be deployed defensively in the valley of Vardar, the Serbian Commander-in-Chief was General Radomir Putnik. Smaller units were sent to take Sandžak, according to the initial Ottoman plan, created by Colmar Freiherr von der Goltz, the Ottoman forces in Macedonia would stay in defense and, if necessary, retreat to Albania. The decisive battle would take place in Thrace, versus the Bulgarian army, however, Nazim Pasha, the newly appointed commander-in-chief of the Ottoman army, decided to surprise the Serbs by taking an offense in Macedonia. The plan also included the offense in Thrace and his goal was to win the initial battles against the surprised allies, hoping that the Great powers would then intervene and stop the war. The Ottoman mobilisation in Macedonia was slow, and the Ottoman Vardar Army, the army was composed of, V Corps, under Said Pasha, composed of 4 divisions, deployed in the area around Štip. VI Corps, under Cavit Pasha, composed of two divisions, deployed in the area around Veles, VII Corps, under Fethi Pasha, composed of three divisions, deployed in the area around Kumanovo. Even before the war was declared, border skirmishes occurred, on the 15 October, the front of the Toplica group of the Third Army, Serbian chetniks, acting on their own, attacked the Ottoman forces, although the Serbian deployment had not been completed yet. The Ottomans counterattacked, but they were stopped by the Morava Division II, the fighting on the border lasted until 19 October when the Ottomans were forced to retreat. On 21 October the entire Third Army began its advance and on 22 October, without serious resistance, the First Army crossed the border on 20 October and in the evening of 22 October reached the outskirts of Kumanovo. At the other side, as soon as his forces were deployed, in the evening of 22 October, Vardar Army gathered in the valley of Pčinja River. Not expecting the attack, Serbs did not fortify their positions, still, only two out of five infantry divisions were deployed in the front echelon – Danube Division I on the left wing, with Cavalry Division behind it, and Morava Division I on the right wing. The left flank was vulnerable, because Srtevica, the important topographic object, was defended by local irregulars. During the night of 22/23 October, VI Corps crossed Pčinja and took the position in the Ottoman centre, the morning of 23 October was foggy, and reconnaissance could not be performed properly. On the Serbian left flank, the observers noticed the troops of 17th Infantry Division in movement, troops of the 18th regiment of Danube Division I, which moved forward to capture it, were pushed back, as well as the reconnaissance forces of Cavalry Division. Observing the retreat of these Serbian units, Zeki Pasha concluded that the Serbian left wing was weak, since there were no actions of the Second Army from Stracin, he decided to attack
32.
Battle of Monastir
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The Battle of Monastir took place near the town of Bitola, Macedonia during the First Balkan War, from 16 to 19 November 1912. As an ongoing part of the Balkan Wars, the Ottoman Vardar Army retreated from the defeat at Kumanovo, the Serbian 1st Army, marching for Bitola, encountered heavy Ottoman artillery fire and had to wait for its own artillery to arrive. On 18 November, following the destruction of the Ottoman artillery by Serbian artillery, the Serbs then entered Bitola on 19 November. With the conquest of Bitola the Serbs controlled southwestern Macedonia, including the important town of Ohrid. After the battle of Monastir, the five-century-long Ottoman rule of Macedonia was over, the Serbian 1st Army continued fighting in the First Balkan War. At this point some Serbs wanted the 1st Army to continue its advance down the valley of the Vardar to Thessaloniki, the threat of war with Austria-Hungary loomed over the issue of a Serbian presence on the Adriatic. In addition, with the Bulgarians and Greeks already in Thessaloniki, the appearance of Serbian forces there would only muddle an already complicated situation
Kingdom of Serbia
Kingdom of Yugoslavia
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