1.
Moscow
–
Moscow is the capital and most populous city of Russia, with 13.2 million residents within the city limits and 17.8 million within the urban area. Moscow has the status of a Russian federal city, Moscow is a major political, economic, cultural, and scientific center of Russia and Eastern Europe, as well as the largest city entirely on the European continent. Moscow is the northernmost and coldest megacity and metropolis on Earth and it is home to the Ostankino Tower, the tallest free standing structure in Europe, the Federation Tower, the tallest skyscraper in Europe, and the Moscow International Business Center. Moscow is situated on the Moskva River in the Central Federal District of European Russia, the city is well known for its architecture, particularly its historic buildings such as Saint Basils Cathedral with its brightly colored domes. Moscow is the seat of power of the Government of Russia, being the site of the Moscow Kremlin, the Moscow Kremlin and Red Square are also one of several World Heritage Sites in the city. Both chambers of the Russian parliament also sit in the city and it is recognized as one of the citys landmarks due to the rich architecture of its 200 stations. In old Russian the word also meant a church administrative district. The demonym for a Moscow resident is москвич for male or москвичка for female, the name of the city is thought to be derived from the name of the Moskva River. There have been proposed several theories of the origin of the name of the river and its cognates include Russian, музга, muzga pool, puddle, Lithuanian, mazgoti and Latvian, mazgāt to wash, Sanskrit, majjati to drown, Latin, mergō to dip, immerse. There exist as well similar place names in Poland like Mozgawa, the original Old Russian form of the name is reconstructed as *Москы, *Mosky, hence it was one of a few Slavic ū-stem nouns. From the latter forms came the modern Russian name Москва, Moskva, in a similar manner the Latin name Moscovia has been formed, later it became a colloquial name for Russia used in Western Europe in the 16th–17th centuries. From it as well came English Muscovy, various other theories, having little or no scientific ground, are now largely rejected by contemporary linguists. The surface similarity of the name Russia with Rosh, an obscure biblical tribe or country, the oldest evidence of humans on the territory of Moscow dates from the Neolithic. Within the modern bounds of the city other late evidence was discovered, on the territory of the Kremlin, Sparrow Hills, Setun River and Kuntsevskiy forest park, etc. The earliest East Slavic tribes recorded as having expanded to the upper Volga in the 9th to 10th centuries are the Vyatichi and Krivichi, the Moskva River was incorporated as part of Rostov-Suzdal into the Kievan Rus in the 11th century. By AD1100, a settlement had appeared on the mouth of the Neglinnaya River. The first known reference to Moscow dates from 1147 as a place of Yuri Dolgoruky. At the time it was a town on the western border of Vladimir-Suzdal Principality
Moscow
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Left to right, top to bottom:
Moscow State University,
Spasskaya Clocktower,
Cathedral of Christ the Saviour;
Bolshoi Theatre,
Moscow International Business Center;
Red Square
Moscow
–
Tatar raid upon Moscow
Moscow
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Map of Moscow, 1784
Moscow
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Red Square, painting by
Fedor Alekseev, 1801
2.
Russian Empire
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The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until it was overthrown by the short-lived February Revolution in 1917. One of the largest empires in history, stretching over three continents, the Russian Empire was surpassed in landmass only by the British and Mongol empires. The rise of the Russian Empire happened in association with the decline of neighboring powers, the Swedish Empire, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Persia. It played a role in 1812–14 in defeating Napoleons ambitions to control Europe. The House of Romanov ruled the Russian Empire from 1721 until 1762, and its German-descended cadet branch, with 125.6 million subjects registered by the 1897 census, it had the third-largest population in the world at the time, after Qing China and India. Like all empires, it included a large disparity in terms of economics, ethnicity, there were numerous dissident elements, who launched numerous rebellions and assassination attempts, they were closely watched by the secret police, with thousands exiled to Siberia. Economically, the empire had an agricultural base, with low productivity on large estates worked by serfs. The economy slowly industrialized with the help of foreign investments in railways, the land was ruled by a nobility from the 10th through the 17th centuries, and subsequently by an emperor. Tsar Ivan III laid the groundwork for the empire that later emerged and he tripled the territory of his state, ended the dominance of the Golden Horde, renovated the Moscow Kremlin, and laid the foundations of the Russian state. Tsar Peter the Great fought numerous wars and expanded an already huge empire into a major European power, Catherine the Great presided over a golden age. She expanded the state by conquest, colonization and diplomacy, continuing Peter the Greats policy of modernisation along West European lines, Tsar Alexander II promoted numerous reforms, most dramatically the emancipation of all 23 million serfs in 1861. His policy in Eastern Europe involved protecting the Orthodox Christians under the rule of the Ottoman Empire and that connection by 1914 led to Russias entry into the First World War on the side of France, Britain, and Serbia, against the German, Austrian and Ottoman empires. The Russian Empire functioned as a monarchy until the Revolution of 1905. The empire collapsed during the February Revolution of 1917, largely as a result of failures in its participation in the First World War. Perhaps the latter was done to make Europe recognize Russia as more of a European country, Poland was divided in the 1790-1815 era, with much of the land and population going to Russia. Most of the 19th century growth came from adding territory in Asia, Peter I the Great introduced autocracy in Russia and played a major role in introducing his country to the European state system. However, this vast land had a population of 14 million, grain yields trailed behind those of agriculture in the West, compelling nearly the entire population to farm. Only a small percentage lived in towns, the class of kholops, close to the one of slavery, remained a major institution in Russia until 1723, when Peter I converted household kholops into house serfs, thus including them in poll taxation
Russian Empire
–
Peter the Great officially renamed the Tsardom of Russia the Russian Empire in 1721, and himself its first emperor. He instituted the
sweeping reforms and oversaw the transformation of Russia into a major European power.
Russian Empire
–
Flag
Russian Empire
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Empress
Catherine the Great, who reigned from 1762 to 1796, continued the empire's expansion and modernization. Considering herself an
enlightened absolutist, she played a key role in the
Russian Enlightenment.
Russian Empire
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Catherine II Sestroretsk Rouble (1771) is made of solid copper measuring 77 millimetres (3 3 ⁄ 100 in) (diameter), 26 millimetres (1 1 ⁄ 50 in) (thickness), and weighs 1.022 kg (2.25 lb). It is the largest copper coin ever issued.
3.
Saint Petersburg
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Saint Petersburg is Russias second-largest city after Moscow, with five million inhabitants in 2012, and an important Russian port on the Baltic Sea. It is politically incorporated as a federal subject, situated on the Neva River, at the head of the Gulf of Finland on the Baltic Sea, it was founded by Tsar Peter the Great on May 271703. In 1914, the name was changed from Saint Petersburg to Petrograd, in 1924 to Leningrad, between 1713 and 1728 and 1732–1918, Saint Petersburg was the capital of imperial Russia. In 1918, the government bodies moved to Moscow. Saint Petersburg is one of the cities of Russia, as well as its cultural capital. The Historic Centre of Saint Petersburg and Related Groups of Monuments constitute a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Saint Petersburg is home to The Hermitage, one of the largest art museums in the world. A large number of consulates, international corporations, banks. Swedish colonists built Nyenskans, a fortress, at the mouth of the Neva River in 1611, in a then called Ingermanland. A small town called Nyen grew up around it, Peter the Great was interested in seafaring and maritime affairs, and he intended to have Russia gain a seaport in order to be able to trade with other maritime nations. He needed a better seaport than Arkhangelsk, which was on the White Sea to the north, on May 1703121703, during the Great Northern War, Peter the Great captured Nyenskans, and soon replaced the fortress. On May 271703, closer to the estuary 5 km inland from the gulf), on Zayachy Island, he laid down the Peter and Paul Fortress, which became the first brick and stone building of the new city. The city was built by conscripted peasants from all over Russia, tens of thousands of serfs died building the city. Later, the city became the centre of the Saint Petersburg Governorate, Peter moved the capital from Moscow to Saint Petersburg in 1712,9 years before the Treaty of Nystad of 1721 ended the war, he referred to Saint Petersburg as the capital as early as 1704. During its first few years, the city developed around Trinity Square on the bank of the Neva, near the Peter. However, Saint Petersburg soon started to be built out according to a plan, by 1716 the Swiss Italian Domenico Trezzini had elaborated a project whereby the city centre would be located on Vasilyevsky Island and shaped by a rectangular grid of canals. The project was not completed, but is evident in the layout of the streets, in 1716, Peter the Great appointed French Jean-Baptiste Alexandre Le Blond as the chief architect of Saint Petersburg. In 1724 the Academy of Sciences, University and Academic Gymnasium were established in Saint Petersburg by Peter the Great, in 1725, Peter died at the age of fifty-two. His endeavours to modernize Russia had met opposition from the Russian nobility—resulting in several attempts on his life
Saint Petersburg
–
Top left to bottom right:
Peter and Paul Fortress on
Zayachy Island,
Smolny Cathedral,
Moyka river with the
General Staff Building,
Trinity Cathedral,
Bronze Horseman on
Senate Square, and the
Winter Palace.
Saint Petersburg
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The
Bronze Horseman, monument to Peter the Great
Saint Petersburg
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Palace Square backed by the General Staff arch and building, as the main square of the Russian Empire it was the setting of many events of historic significance
Saint Petersburg
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Map of Saint Petersburg, 1903
4.
Alexander Nevsky Lavra
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On April 5,1713, in St. Petersburg, in the presence of Peter I, the wooden Church of the Annunciation was consecrated. This day is considered the founding date of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra. The relics of St. Alexander Nevsky were solemnly transferred from Vladimir to the new capital of Russia September 12,1724 by decree of Peter the Great, today Alexander Nevsky Lavra sits on Alexander Nevsky Square, where shoppers can buy bread baked by the monks. Visitors may also visit the cathedral and cemeteries for an admission fee. While many of the sites are situated behind large concrete walls, especially those of famous Russians
Alexander Nevsky Lavra
–
View of the monastery in the early 19th century
Alexander Nevsky Lavra
–
Modern view of the Lavra
Alexander Nevsky Lavra
–
The silver sarcophagus of Saint Alexander Nevsky now located in the
State Hermitage Museum in
St. Petersburg
5.
Holy Roman Empire
–
The Holy Roman Empire was a multi-ethnic complex of territories in central Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its dissolution in 1806. On 25 December 800, Pope Leo III crowned the Frankish king Charlemagne as Emperor, reviving the title in Western Europe, more than three centuries after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The title was revived in 962 when Otto I was crowned emperor, fashioning himself as the successor of Charlemagne, some historians refer to the coronation of Charlemagne as the origin of the empire, while others prefer the coronation of Otto I as its beginning. Scholars generally concur, however, in relating an evolution of the institutions and principles constituting the empire, the office of Holy Roman Emperor was traditionally elective, although frequently controlled by dynasties. Emperor Francis II dissolved the empire on 6 August 1806, after the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine by Napoleon, before 1157, the realm was merely referred to as the Roman Empire. In a decree following the 1512 Diet of Cologne, the name was changed to Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, by the end of the 18th century, the term Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation had fallen out of official use. As Roman power in Gaul declined during the 5th century, local Germanic tribes assumed control, by the middle of the 8th century, however, the Merovingians had been reduced to figureheads, and the Carolingians, led by Charles Martel, had become the de facto rulers. In 751, Martel’s son Pepin became King of the Franks, the Carolingians would maintain a close alliance with the Papacy. In 768 Pepin’s son Charlemagne became King of the Franks and began an expansion of the realm. He eventually incorporated the territories of present-day France, Germany, northern Italy, on Christmas Day of 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne emperor, restoring the title in the west for the first time in over three centuries. After the death of Charles the Fat in 888, however, the Carolingian Empire broke apart, according to Regino of Prüm, the parts of the realm spewed forth kinglets, and each part elected a kinglet from its own bowels. After the death of Charles the Fat, those crowned emperor by the pope controlled only territories in Italy, the last such emperor was Berengar I of Italy, who died in 924. Around 900, autonomous stem duchies reemerged in East Francia, on his deathbed, Conrad yielded the crown to his main rival, Henry the Fowler of Saxony, who was elected king at the Diet of Fritzlar in 919. Henry reached a truce with the raiding Magyars, and in 933 he won a first victory against them in the Battle of Riade, Henry died in 936, but his descendants, the Liudolfing dynasty, would continue to rule the Eastern kingdom for roughly a century. Upon Henry the Fowlers death, Otto, his son and designated successor, was elected King in Aachen in 936 and he overcame a series of revolts from an elder brother and from several dukes. After that, the managed to control the appointment of dukes. In 951, Otto came to the aid of Adelaide, the queen of Italy, defeating her enemies, marrying her. In 955, Otto won a victory over the Magyars in the Battle of Lechfeld
Holy Roman Empire
–
The Holy Roman Empire at its maximal extent, in the 13th century
Holy Roman Empire
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Imperial Banner
Holy Roman Empire
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An illustration from
Schedelsche Weltchronik depicting the structure of the Reich: The Holy Roman Emperor is sitting; on his left are three ecclesiastics; on his right are four secular electors.
Holy Roman Empire
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Double-headed eagle with coats of arms of individual states, symbol of the Holy Roman Empire (painting from 1510)
6.
Imperial Russian Army
–
The Imperial Russian Army was the land armed force of the Russian Empire, active from around 1721 to the Russian Revolution of 1917. In the early 1850s, the Russian army consisted of more than 900,000 regular soldiers, the last living veteran of the Russian Imperial Army was the Ukrainian supercentenarian Mikhail Krichevsky, who died in 2008. Russian tsars before Peter maintained professional hereditary musketeer corps, known as streltsy and these were originally raised by Tsar Ivan IV, originally an effective force, they had become highly unreliable and undisciplined. In times of war the forces were augmented by peasants. There were different kinds of regiments, such as regulars, dragoons, in 1631, the Russians created two regular regiments in Moscow. During the Russo-Polish War of 1632–1634, six regular regiments, one reiter regiment. Initially, they recruited children of the boyars and streltsy, volunteers, Cossacks. After the war with Poland, all of the regiments were disbanded, during another Russo-Polish War, they were created again and became a principal force of the Russian army. Often, regular and dragoon regiments were manned with datochniye lyudi for lifelong military service, reiters were manned with small or landless gentry and boyars children and were paid with money for their service. More than a half of the officers were representatives from the gentry. In times of peace, some of the regiments were usually disbanded, in 1681, there were 33 regular regiments and 25 dragoon and reiter regiments. In the late 17th century, regiments of the new type represented more than a half of the Russian Army, Conscription in Russia was introduced by Peter I of Russia in December 1699, though reports say Peters father also used it. Conscription of peasants and townspeople was based on system, per settlement. Initially it was based on the number of households, later it was based on the population numbers, the term of service in the 18th century was for life. In 1793 it was reduced to 25 years, in 1834, it was reduced to 20 years plus five years in the reserve, and in 1855 to 12 years plus three years in the reserve. The history of the Russian army in this era was linked to the name of Russian General Alexander Suvorov, considered one of a few great generals in history who never lost a battle. From 1777 to 1783 Suvorov served in the Crimea and in the Caucasus, becoming a lieutenant-general in 1780, from 1787 to 1791 he again fought the Turks during the Russo-Turkish War of 1787–1792 and won many victories. Suvorovs leadership also played a key role in a Russian victory over the Poles during the Kościuszko Uprising, furthermore, many lower-level officers were poorly trained and had difficulty getting their men to perform the sometimes complex manoeuvres required in a battle
Imperial Russian Army
–
Gear of the polki novogo stroya, 1647
Imperial Russian Army
–
Imperial Russian Army Русская императорская армия
Imperial Russian Army
–
Levin August Bennigsen
Imperial Russian Army
–
The Battle of Friedland, 1807
7.
Generalissimo
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Generalissimo is a military rank of the highest degree, superior to field marshal and other five-star ranks in the countries where they are used. The word generalissimo is Italian and is the superlative of generale. Notable examples of generalissimos include John J, the word generalissimo is an Italian term, from generale, plus the superlative suffix -issimo, itself from Latin -issimus, meaning utmost, to the highest grade. Historically this rank was given to an officer leading an entire army or the entire armed forces of a nation. Other usage of the rank has been for the commander of the armies of several allied powers. The rank Generalissimus of the Soviet Union would have been a generalissimo, commander-in-chief Field marshal Highest military ranks Generalissimus of the Soviet Union Caudillo General of the armies Admiralissimo
Generalissimo
–
Chiang Kai-shek
Generalissimo
–
Alexander Suvorov
8.
Battle of Kunersdorf
–
At the Battle of Kunersdorf, in the Seven Years War on 12 August 1759, near Kunersdorf, immediately east of Frankfurt an der Oder, more than 100,000 men clashed in a decisive battle. Although Fredericks troops initially gained the hand in the battle. By afternoon, when the combatants were exhausted, fresh Austrian troops thrown into the fray made the difference and this is the only time in the Seven Years War that the Prussian Army, under Frederick, completely lost its discipline and disintegrated. With this loss, Frankfurt and subsequently Berlin, were open to assault by the Russians and Austrians, although, surprisingly, Saltykov and Laudon did not follow up on the victory. Only 3,000 soldiers from Fredericks original 50,000 remained with him after the battle and this represented the penultimate success of the Russian Empire under Elizabeth of Russia and arguably was Fredericks worst defeat. Although the Seven Years War was a conflict, it took a specific intensity in the European theater based on the recently concluded War of the Austrian Succession. The 1748 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle concluded the war with Austria. Frederick II of Prussia, known as Frederick the Great, acquired the prosperous province of Silesia, Empress Maria Theresa of Austria had signed the treaty to gain time to rebuild her military forces and forge new alliances, she was intent upon regaining ascendancy in the Holy Roman Empire. In 1754, escalating tensions between Britain and France in North America offered the Empress the opportunity to regain her lost territories, similarly, France sought to break the British dominance of Atlantic trade. France and Austria put aside their old rivalry to form a coalition of their own and this series of political maneuvers became known as the Diplomatic Revolution. At the outset of the war, Frederick had one of the finest armies in Europe, his troops—any company—could fire at least four volleys a minute, and some of them could fire five. By the end of 1757, Prussia had achieve victories at Rossbach and Leuthen, in April 1758, Prussia and Britain concluded the Anglo-Prussian Convention. Britain also dispatched 7–9,000 troops to reinforce Fredericks brother-in-laws, Ferdinand evicted the French from Hanover and Westphalia and re-captured the port of Emden in March 1758, he crossed the Rhine with his own forces, causing general alarm in France. Despite Ferdinands victory over the French at the Battle of Krefeld, while Ferdinand kept the French occupied, Prussia had to contend with Sweden, Russia, and Austria. By 1758, Frederick was increasingly concerned by the Russian advance from the east, just east of the Oder river in Brandenburg-Neumark, at the Battle of Zorndorf, on 25 August 1758 a Prussian army of 35,000 men fought a Russian army of 43,000. Both sides suffered casualties but the Russians withdrew, and Frederick claimed victory. At the Battle of Tornow on 25 September, a Swedish army repulsed six assaults by a Prussian army, by late summer, fighting had reached a draw, particularly after the Battle of Zorndorf. None of Prussias enemies seemed willing to take the steps to pursue Frederick into Prussia
Battle of Kunersdorf
–
Painting by
Alexander Kotzebue, 1848
Battle of Kunersdorf
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Battle of Kunersdorf
Battle of Kunersdorf
–
Frederick's letter
9.
Raid on Berlin
–
The Raid on Berlin took place in October 1760 during the Seven Years War when Austrian and Russian forces occupied the Prussian capital of Berlin for several days. After raising money from the city, and with the approach of further Prussian reinforcements, however, the Prussian capital, Berlin had been left vulnerable by Frederick the Greats decision to concentrate his forces in Silesia. This led to France suggest that Russia could make a raid on Berlin. A smaller Austrian raid had briefly occupied the city in October 1757, the plan drawn up by the allies envisaged a feint towards Guben by the main army, which would allow a force under Heinrich Tottleben to detach itself and hurry northwards to strike at Berlin. This would be followed a separate Austrian force under Count von Lacy, large numbers of cossacks and light cavalry were to take part in the raid to give it added speed. Tottleben led a vanguard of 5,600 Russians which crossed the River Oder and this attempt to surprise the city failed in the face of unexpected opposition. The arrival of Lacys Austrians, however, swung the balance in favour of the Allies, the Austrians occupied Potsdam and Charlottenburg and in the face of these superior forces the Prussian defenders were forced to abandon the city and retreat to nearby Spandau. On 9 October the City Council decided to surrender the city formally to the Russians rather than the Austrians, the Russians immediately made a demand for 4 million Thalers in exchange for the protection of private property. A prominent merchant Johann Ernst Gotzkowsky took over the negotiations on behalf of Berlin, meanwhile, the Austrians had forced their way into the city and occupied large parts of it. The Austrians were more keen to exact revenge on the city because of Prussian behaviour in occupied Saxony, several areas of the city were ransacked by the occupiers, and several royal palaces were burnt. Around 18,000 muskets and 143 cannons were seized, Austrian and Russian Battle flags, captured during fighting, were retaken and around 1,200 prisoners of war were released. A rumour that Frederick the Great was marching to the rescue of Berlin with his superior forces prompted the commanders to withdraw from the city as they had completed their major objectives, the occupiers withdrew from the city on 12 October, with the national contingents heading in separate directions. The Austrians under Lacy headed towards Saxony while the Russians rejoined their main army in the vicinity of Frankfurt, once he had realised that Berlin had now been abandoned by the enemy, Frederick halted his rescue attempt and turned back to concentrate on Silesia and Saxony. Frederick was furious at the failure of his forces and the inhabitants to actively resist the invaders. However, despite the loss of prestige, the raid was not especially significant for the military, in the wake of the occupation, the Prussians under Frederick fought, and narrowly won, the Battle of Torgau. Tottleben was later accused of being a Prussian spy, and was sentenced to death - only to receive a pardon from Catherine the Great. In early 1762 Berlin came under the threat of permanent and decisive occupation. Crucible of War, The Seven Years War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, Faber and Faber,2001 Dull, Jonathan R
Raid on Berlin
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Russians and Austrians devaste the Zeughaus Arsenal in Berlin, October 1760
Raid on Berlin
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Charlottenburg Palace was taken over by the occupiers.
10.
Bar Confederation
–
The founders of the Bar Confederation included the magnates Adam Krasiński, Bishop of Kamenets, Karol Stanisław Radziwiłł, Casimir Pulaski, Moritz Benyowszki and Michał Krasiński. Its creation led to a war and contributed to the First Partition of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Some historians consider the Bar Confederation the first Polish uprising, at that point Habsburg Austria started to consider waging a war against Russia. He was also interested in protecting the weakening Ottoman Empire, which could be utilized in the event of a Prussian war either with Russia or Austria. Fredericks brother, Prince Henry, spent the winter of 1770–71 as a representative of the Prussian court at Saint Petersburg. After Henry informed him of the proposal, Frederick suggested a partition of the Polish borderlands by Austria, Prussia, thus Frederick attempted to encourage Russia to direct its expansion towards weak and non-functional Poland instead of the Ottomans. The recent Koliyivschyna peasant and Cossack uprising in Ukraine also weakened Polish position, under pressure from Prussia, which for a long time wanted to annex the northern Polish province of Royal Prussia, the three powers agreed on the First Partition of Poland. The Russians also withdrew from Moldavia away from the Austrian border, in 1767-1768, Russian forces forced the Polish parliament to pass resolutions they demanded. The articles of the confederation were signed on 29 February 1768 at the fortress of Bar in Podolia, priest Marek Jandołowicz was a notable religious leader, and Michał Wielhorski the Confederations political ideologue. The confederation, encouraged and aided by France, declared a war on Russia and its irregular forces, formed from volunteers, magnate militias and deserters from the royal army, soon clashed with the Russian troops and units loyal to the Polish crown. This marked the Ukrainian campaign, which lasted from April till June 1768, however, the simultaneous outbreak of the Koliyivschyna in Ukraine kept the Confederation alive. The Confederates appealed for help abroad and contributed to bringing about war between Russia and the Ottoman Empire. The retreat of some Russian forces needed on the Ottoman front bolstered the confederates, the council proclaimed the king dethroned on 22 October 1770. The court of Versailles sent Charles François Dumouriez to act as an aid to the Confederates, the Confederates also began to operate in Lithuania, although after early successes that direction too met with failures, with defeats at Białystok on 16 July and Orzechowo on 13 September 1769. Early 1770 saw the defeats of confederates in Greater Poland, after the battle of Dobra and Błonie, on 19 February 1772, the agreement of partition was signed in Vienna. A previous agreement between Prussia and Russia had been made in Saint Petersburg on 6 February 1772, early in August Russian, Prussian and Austrian troops simultaneously entered the Commonwealth and occupied the provinces agreed upon among themselves. On 5 August, the three signed the treaty on their respective territorial gains on the Commonwealths expense. An attempt of Bar Confederates to kidnap king Stanisław II Augustus on 3 November 1771 led the Habsburgs to withdraw their support from the confederates, expelling them from their territories
Bar Confederation
–
Casimir Pulaski at
Częstochowa. Painting by
Józef Chełmoński, 1875. Oil on canvas. National Museum,
Warsaw,
Poland.
Bar Confederation
–
The Bar Confederates pray before the
Battle of Lanckorona. Painting by
Artur Grottger.
Bar Confederation
–
The Standard of the Bar Confederates
11.
Battle of Lanckorona
–
Two of the main battles of the Bar Confederation took place on the plains before Lanckorona. On 22 February 1771, the Bar Confederates defended Lanckorona and its Castle from the Russian army led by Alexander Suvorov, the Russians were forced to retreat after a surprising victory for the Polish army given that it was significantly outnumbered by the Russian side. The Battle of Lanckorona was the battle before the mount of Lanckorona and one of the greatest clashes of Polish. It took place on 23 May 1771 near Lanckorona when a Polish formation of 1,300 men with 18 cannons was suddenly attacked by 4,000 Russians commanded again by general Alexander Suvorov. Many historians argue that it was sabotage on the part of Dumouriez as he was outspoken against the Polish nation. Dumouriez was noted as calling Poles an Asiatic nation, antoine-Charles du Houx and Baron de Vioménil replaced Dumouriez in Bar Confederation army. In 1793, Tadeusz Kościuszko met with Dumouriez in Belgium as he sought the help of revolutionary France for the uprising in Poland. A few weeks later, after losing the battle in Neerwinden, Dumouriez betrayed his own country, once there, he betrayed Poland again and passed on the plans for the Kościuszko Uprising to the Prussians who passed it on to the Russians. Józef Pułaski and his son Casimir Pulaski were the founders of the Bar Confederation, Casimir Pulaski went on to become the father of American cavalry as he emigrated to North America to help in the cause of the American Revolution and freedom there
Battle of Lanckorona
–
"Prayer of the Bar Confederates before battle of Lanckorona." Painting by
Artur Grottger.
12.
Battle of Kinburn (1787)
–
The Battle of Kinburn was fought on 1 October 1787 as part of the Russo-Turkish War, 1787-1792. A weak fortress, Kinburn was located opposite Ochakov on a sand bank forming a part of the Dnieper river delta and it covered approaches to the fleet base at Kherson. The reason for the Ottoman attack on Kinburn was to deprive the enemy of a base for the siege of Ochakov, the Ottomans had three 60 gun ships of the line, four 34 gun frigates, four bomb vessels, and 14 gunboats with 4 guns each. The Ottoman troops were carried by 23 transport vessels, during September, the Ottoman fleet twice carried out ranging fire of the fleet against the coast, trying to locate position of the Russian gun emplacements. During one bombardment, a Russian galley Desna which was part of a force of two frigates and four galleys, intervened on the initiative of its Maltese captain, and drove off the Ottoman gunboats. On the 29 and 30 September bombardment of Kinburn was conducted from the Ottoman ships again, on 1 October 1787 at 9 in the morning an amphibious landing of 6,000 troops was conducted on two separate sites, with the fleet supporting the landing with fire. The pasha of Ochakov ordered the ships to leave after the landing so that the landing force would not contemplate withdrawal. The landing force begun to dig a total of 15 trenches, Suvorov called for reinforcement and waited, while being occupied with public prayer in the church, receiving dispatches and messages in the church. At midday the Turks approached to within 200 paces of the fortress, Suvorov began the first counterattack with 1,500 soldiers of the Orlov infantry and Schlisselburg grenadier regiments. Those attacking troops took 10 of the 15 trenches, but under fire of the Ottoman fleet they were forced to retreat to the fortress. Suvorov himself was wounded in the side and left hand, and was saved only through the courage of Stepan Novikov, a grenadier of the Schlisselburg grenadier regiment. At 16.00 hours Russian reinforcements approached and Suvorov repeated his attack, after releasing Cossacks to attack around the flank of the enemy over the shoals. This attack was successful, and Turks were forced out from the trenches and forced against the coast, Suvorov had two horses shot under him. The regimental guns were able to fire canister at point blank range causing fearful carnage among the Turks, at night 600 Turk survivors of the landing returned on board the ships by rowed boats. Several hundred hid in the reeds, and were attacked by Cossacks on the following morning, in Suvorovs report the Schlisselburg regiment is particularly noted for bravery. For the Kinburn victory Catherine the Great awarded Suvorov with the Order of St. Andrew and the highest praise, where she wrote, “You deserved it by faith and by faithfulness
Battle of Kinburn (1787)
–
Grenadier Novikov saves Suvorov from a Turkish warrior
13.
Siege of Ochakov (1788)
–
The Second Siege of Ochakov was one of the major events of the Russo-Turkish War. It was known as Özi Kuşatması in Turkish, in 1788, Russian forces led by Prince Grigori Potemkin and General Alexander Suvorov besieged the city, held by Ottoman troops commanded by Hasan Pasha. Despite Suvorovs urging to storm the city immediately, Potemkin had the Russian forces encircled Ochakov, bombarding the city and cutting off the supply of food. By keeping his soldiers out of battle, Potemkin minimized Russian casualties. The argument about storming continued in the Russian headquarters during the entirety of the siege, also, the Russians captured strategically important Pirezin Island on July 18,1788. The Turks made several attempts to break the siege, on July 27, about 5,000 Janissaries attacked positions held by Cossacks and forced them to retreat. Suvorov personally led reinforcements and drove the Janissaries to the gates of Ochakov, Hasan Pasha expected reinforcements from the Turkish fleet, which gathered in Limans. But after the attack of Admiral Senyavins fleet, Turkish reinforcements were cut off, the condition of both armies continued to decline, there was a threat of disease, and the weather was growing very cold. Potemkin ultimately gave in to Suvorovs arguments, on the night of December 6, the Russians attacked, and captured Hasan Pashas palace, forcing its guards to surrender. The Russians lost 956 killed and 1,829 wounded in this operation, the Russian victory was celebrated in a famous ode by Gavriil Derzhavin, and in a Te Deum by Giuseppe Sarti. Кампания1788 года - Очаковское сидение
Siege of Ochakov (1788)
–
Siege of
Ochakiv 1788, by
January Suchodolski
14.
Battle of Rymnik
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The Battle of Râmnic on September 22,1789 took place in Wallachia, near Râmnicu Sărat, during the Russo-Turkish War of 1787-1792. The Russian general Alexander Suvorov, acting together with the Habsburg general Prince Josias of Coburg, the result was a crushing Russo-Austrian victory. Sending his troops into a night march, Pasha then attacked the 18. Taking into account Josiass numbers and their performance in the war, specifically after the Battle of Karánsebes. However, once he heard of this, Suvorov and his 7, 000-strong force marched to their aid, as the commander-in-chief of all Russo-Austrian forces in the front, he quickly took command of the combined Austro-Russian army. Suvorov divided his army into two columns to advance towards the Ottoman formations at 2300 hours, and next morning, after crossing the river Râmnicul Sărat. As they advanced they crippled the enemy artillery and adopted infantry square formations to repel enemy cavalry counterattacks which tried to split his army in two. This done, the army stormed the camp and routed them completely. At the cost of 700 casualties, Suvorov inflicted about 20,000 casualties against the Turks, the Turks lost all their artillery and baggage train. For this victory, Suvorov was awarded the title of Count of Rymnik by the Russian Empress Catherine the Great, on the other hand, the Ottoman vizier Cenaze Hasan Pasha was dismissed on December 2,1789, after his defeat. Meanwhile, the Habsburgs occupied all of Wallachia until the war ended
Battle of Rymnik
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Clash between Russo-Austrian and Turkish troops in the Battle of Rymnik
Battle of Rymnik
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The battlefield
Battle of Rymnik
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Suvorov's monument (detail)
15.
Siege of Izmail
–
The Siege of Izmail was fought in 1790 on the Black Sea during the Russo-Turkish war of 1787–1792. The Russians were led by Alexander Suvorov, who had defeated the Ottomans at Kinburn, Ochakov, the Black Sea flotilla was commanded by the Spanish admiral José de Ribas. In March 1790, the Russians began besieging Izmail, in the region of Budjak, Suvorov had 31,000 troops and on the morning of 22 December 1790, the Russians began attacking the city. They bombarded Izmail until 3,00 A. M, and then stormed it at 5,30 A. M. The Russians advanced on the north, east, and west, the walls were weaker there than in other places, where it took Russian troops longer to attack. By 8,00 A. M. the Russians had entered the city, in total the Ottoman forces had more than 26,000 killed with the whole garrison being killed, wounded or captured. The Russian forces suffered only 4,330 casualties, out of which 1,815 were killed, to the victory was dedicated the anthem Grom pobedy, razdavaysya. Which was an unofficial Russian national anthem in the late 18th, today it is commemorated as a Day of Military Honour in Russia. Russian armies captured a Turkish fortress Izmail
Siege of Izmail
–
Alexey Kivshenko. The Siege of Izmail
16.
Battle of Brest (1794)
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The Battle of Brest was a battle between Russian imperial forces and Polish rebels south-west of Brest, present-day Belarus, on 19 September 1794. It was part of the Kościuszko Uprising, before 19 September, Polish rebels fortified themselves in the marshes near the town of Brest. At night, Alexander Suvorov moved his troops near the Polish positions, the fighting lasted for six hours, often involving hand-to-hand combat, but the Russians finally managed to gain the upper hand, destroying the Polish force. 500 of Sierakowskis men were taken prisoner, and the all around Brest were covered with corpses. The Polish lost all of their 28 artillery pieces and two banners, according to Russian sources, Sierakowsky himself fled to Siedlce with a detachment of his cavalry corps. A Russian military report stated that losses on their side stood at 95 killed and 228 injured, the Russian victory at Brest took a major hit on Polish morale. Tadeusz Kościuszko himself was distraught by the loss, in August, he announced at a meeting that by September, the Ottoman Empire would declare war on Russia and that Suvorov, occupied by, could not be in Poland. Subsequently, there were rumors that a relatively low-raking Cossack general named Suvorov, after the Battle of Brest, however, it became clear which Suvorov was on the front lines. Kościuszko rushed to Siedlce to rally his troops and prevent the spread of panic and he explained the defeat at Brest as not the fault of the Polish commanders, but rather that the Russians simply had a numerical superiority. He also presented several of his commanders with new awards, with golden rings inscribed with the slogan, despite Kościuszkos efforts, Polish morale still suffered. Catherine the Great granted him an expensive diamond hat bow and three cannon captured from the Poles, Pyotr Rumyantsev thanked Suvorov and presented a most flattering evaluation of his efforts, stanisław Herbst Z dziejów wojskowych powstania kościuszkowskiego 1794 roku Warszawa 1983. Pages 365-77 “Powstanie kościuszkowskie 1794, dzieje militarne” pod red
Battle of Brest (1794)
–
Karol Sierakowski, the Polish commander
17.
Battle of Maciejowice
–
The Battle of Maciejowice was fought on 10 October 1794, between Poland and the Russian Empire. The Poles were led by Tadeusz Kościuszko, Kościuszko with 6,200 men, who planned to prevent the linking of two larger Russian armies, those of Iwan Fersen and Alexander Suvorov. He requested the support of Adam Poniński, but Poniński failed to arrive on the battlefield in time, Kosciuszko had spent the night in the abandoned manor home of the Zamoyskis with his army in the field in front flanked by woods, with a river behind the house. Fersen attacked the next morning, when the Poles burned the village on their flank to prevent it being used as cover. Initially, the Russian advance was slowed by the mud but after three hours, the Poles ran out of ammunition for their cannons, the Russian infantry then made a bayonet charge and slaughtered the Poles for the next three hours. After three horses were shot under him, Kosciuszko finally tried leaving the battlefield, but his horse tripped, a Cossack stabbed him with a pike from behind, followed by a second Cossack who stabbed him in the left hip. Attempting to take his own life, Kosciuszko found his pistol empty and he was stripped by the Cossacks and later taken prisoner. Kosciuszko was taken to St. Petersburg by General Alexei Khrushchev, the news of the fall of Warsaw reached him on 17 November. The Battle of Maciejowice is commemorated on the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, Warsaw, Battle of Maciejowice, Fersens Corps OOB Соловьев С. М. Румянцеву,3 октября1794 г. №433
Battle of Maciejowice
–
Battle of Maciejowice
Battle of Maciejowice
–
A memorial of the battle near Podzamcze
18.
Battle of Praga
–
The Battle of Praga or the Second Battle of Warsaw of 1794 was a Russian assault of Praga, the easternmost suburb of Warsaw, during the Kościuszko Uprising in 1794. It was followed by a massacre of the population of Praga. After the Battle of Maciejowice General Tadeusz Kościuszko was captured by the Russians, at the same time the Russians were making their way towards the city. The Russian forces consisted of two battle-hardened corps under Generals Aleksandr Suvorov and Ivan Fersen, Suvorov took part in the recent Russo-Turkish war, then in the heavy fighting in Polesie and finally in the Battle of Maciejowice. Fersen fought for several months in Poland, but was joined by fresh reinforcements sent from Russia. Each of them had approximately 11,000 men, the Polish forces consisted of a variety of troops. The forces were organised in three lines, each covering a different part of Praga. The central area was commanded directly by General Józef Zajączek, the area was commanded by Jakub Jasiński. Altogether, the Polish commander had less than 20,000 men, the Russian forces reached the outskirts of Warsaw on November 3,1794. Immediately upon arrival, the Russian forces started artillery barrage of the Polish defences and this made the Polish commander think that the opposing forces were preparing for a long siege. However, Suvorovs plan assumed the fast and concentrated assault on the Polish defences rather than a bloody and lengthy siege. At 3 oclock in the morning of November 4 the Russian troops silently reached the positions just outside the rim of Polish field fortifications. General Zajączek was slightly wounded and retreated from his post, leaving the remainder of his forces without command and this made the Poles retreat towards the centre of Praga and then towards Vistula. The heavy fighting lasted for four hours and resulted in a defeat of the Polish forces. Joselewicz survived, being wounded, but almost all of his command was annihilated. Only a small part managed to evade encirclement and retreated to the side of the river across a bridge, hundreds of soldiers and civilians fell from a bridge and drowned in the process. ”Denis Davydov wrote on this, “During the assault on Praga the rage of our troops. Almost all of the area was pillaged and inhabitants of the Praga district were tortured, raped and murdered, the exact death toll of that day remains unknown, but it is estimated that up to 20,000 people were killed. Suvorov himself wrote, The whole of Praga was strewn with dead bodies and it was thought that unruly Cossack troops were partly to blame for the uncontrolled destruction
Battle of Praga
–
Obrona Pragi (Defence of Praga) by
Aleksander Orłowski
Battle of Praga
–
Rzeź Pragi (Slaughter of Praga) by
Aleksander Orłowski, 1810
19.
War of the Second Coalition
–
The War of the Second Coalition was the second war on revolutionary France by the European monarchies, led by Britain, Austria and Russia, and including the Ottoman Empire, Portugal and Naples. Their goal was to contain the spread of chaos from France and they failed to overthrow the revolutionary regime and French territorial gains since 1793 were confirmed. The Allies formed a new alliance and attempted to roll back Frances previous military conquests, the Coalition did very well in 1799, but Russia pulled out. Napoleon took charge in France in late 1799, and he, in the Treaty of Lunéville in 1801, France held all of its previous gains and obtained new lands in Tuscany, Italy, while Austria was granted Venetia and the Dalmatian coast. Britain and France signed the Treaty of Amiens in March 1802, by May 1803 Britain and France were again at war and in 1805 Britain assembled the Third Coalition to resume the war against France. On 20 April 1792, the French Legislative Assembly declared war on Austria, in this War of the First Coalition, France ranged itself against most of the European states sharing land or water borders with her, plus Portugal and the Ottoman Empire. In the summer of 1798, Napoleon Bonaparte led an expedition to Egypt, where his army was trapped, meanwhile, during his absence from Europe, the outbreak of violence in Switzerland drew French support against the old Swiss Confederation. When revolutionaries overthrew the government in Bern, the French Army of the Alps invaded. In northern Italy, Russian general Aleksandr Suvorov won a string of victories, driving the French under Moreau out of the Po Valley, forcing them back on the French Alps and the coast around Genoa. However, the Russian armies in the Helvetic Republic were defeated by French commander André Masséna, ultimately the Russians left the Coalition when Great Britain insisted on the right to search all vessels it stopped at sea. In Germany, Archduke Charles of Austria drove the French under Jean-Baptiste Jourdan back across the Rhine, Jourdan was replaced by Massena, who then combined the Armies of the Danube and Helvetia. From October 1797 until March 1799, the signatories of the Treaty of Campo Formio avoided armed conflict, despite their agreement at Campo Formio, two primary combatants, France and Austria, remained suspicious of each other and several diplomatic incidents undermined the agreement. The French demanded additional territory not mentioned in the Treaty, the Habsburgs were reluctant to hand over designated territories, much less additional ones. The Congress at Rastatt proved inept at orchestrating the transfer of territories to compensate the German princes for their losses, Ferdinand of Naples refused to pay tribute to France, followed by the Neapolitan rebellion and the subsequent establishment of the Parthenopaean Republic. Republicans in the Swiss cantons, supported by the French army, overthrew the government in Bern. Other factors contributed to the rising tensions, on his way to Egypt, Napoleon had stopped at the heavily fortified port city of Valletta. Grand Master Ferdinand von Hompesch zu Bolheim, who ruled the island, the French Knights of the order deserted, and the remaining Knights failed to mount a successful resistance. Bonaparte forcibly removed the other Knights from their possessions, angering Paul, Tsar of Russia, the French Directory, furthermore, was convinced that the Austrians were conniving to start another war
War of the Second Coalition
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Louis-François Lejeune: the
Battle of Marengo
War of the Second Coalition
–
Strategic overview of operations in Europe and the Mediterranean in 1798–1799
War of the Second Coalition
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General Moreau at the
Battle of Hohenlinden
20.
Battle of Trebbia (1799)
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The War of the Second Coalition engagement occurred west of Piacenza, a city located 70 kilometres southeast of Milan. In the spring of 1799 the Austrian and Russian armies ousted the French from much of northern Italy after the battles of Magnano and Cassano, assembling the French occupation forces of southern and central Italy into an army, MacDonald moved north to challenge his enemies. Rather than playing safe by moving along the west coast road, MacDonald boldly chose to move east of the Apennine Mountains, after brushing aside a much smaller Austrian force at Modena, MacDonalds army swept west along the south bank of the Po River. Suvorov swiftly concentrated his Russians and the allied Austrians of Michael von Melas to block the French move, on 17 July, the leading French divisions bumped into a holding force led by Peter Karl Ott von Bátorkéz along the Tidone River. Ott was rapidly reinforced by the bulk of the Austro-Russian army, Suvorov attacked on the 18th but the outnumbered French managed to hold off the Allied drive. On 19 June MacDonalds entire army was concentrated and he ordered an attack which was coordinated and repulsed at all points. Realizing that assistance from Moreau was not forthcoming, that night MacDonald ordered the beaten French army to slip away to the south, on the 20th the Allies overran a French demi brigade acting as rear guard. Instead of bringing a powerful reinforcement to the hard-pressed French in northwest Italy, only the remains of MacDonalds army arrived. Due to participation of some 3,000 soldiers of the Polish Legions, the defeat was a crushing blow to French morale and prompted Schérer to plead with the French Directory to be relieved of command. Two days later, Alexander Suvorov arrived at Vicenza with a Imperial Russian army, on 27 April, the Coalition allies led by Suvorov were victorious over Jean Victor Marie Moreaus French army at the Battle of Cassano along the Adda River. The next day at Verderio, Jean-Mathieu-Philibert Séruriers division was surrounded, the defeats caused Moreau to fall back, leaving 2,400 men to hold the Milan citadel. On 6 May the garrison of Peschiera capitulated to Kray while on 11 May Pizzighettone and 1,500 French soldiers surrendered to Konrad Valentin von Kaim, on 12 May, Suvorovs subordinate Andrei Grigorevich Rosenberg suffered a minor setback in the Battle of Bassignana. Ferrara, Ravenna and Milan all capitulated to Austrian besieging forces on 24 May, meanwhile,30,000 Allies under Suvorov moved up the north bank of the Po River toward Turin. On the morning of 26 May, Josef Philipp Vukassovichs advance guard seized Turin with its arsenal, pascal Antoine Fiorella and his 3, 400-man French garrison withdrew to the citadel where they were besieged. Early June found the Allied main body of 47,087 troops under Suvorov, Rosenberg, Karl Joseph Hadik von Futak with 9,900 Austrians watched the Swiss mountain passes. Krays 19, 760-man corps was engaged in the Siege of Mantua, finally, Suvorov summoned the 19, 458-strong corps of Count Heinrich von Bellegarde from Switzerland to Milan where they arrived on 5 June. But the Allies were aware that Jacques MacDonald had a strong French occupation force in southern, on 14 April 1799, the French Directory ordered MacDonald to help the French forces in northern Italy. Accordingly, he assembled the Army of Naples and moved north, MacDonald reached Rome on 16 May and Florence ten days later
Battle of Trebbia (1799)
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Suvarov's battle at Trebbia by Aleksandr E. Kotsebu
Battle of Trebbia (1799)
–
Jean Victor Moreau
Battle of Trebbia (1799)
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Jacques MacDonald
Battle of Trebbia (1799)
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Peter Karl Ott
21.
Battle of Novi (1799)
–
The Battle of Novi saw a combined army of Habsburg Austrians and Imperial Russians under Field Marshal Alexander Suvorov attack a Republican French army under General Barthélemy Catherine Joubert. After a prolonged and bloody struggle, the Austro-Russians broke through the French defenses, Joubert was killed while French division commanders Catherine-Dominique de Pérignon and Emmanuel Grouchy were captured. Novi Ligure is located in the province of Piedmont in Italy a distance of 58 kilometres north of Genoa, the battle occurred during the War of the Second Coalition which was part of the French Revolutionary Wars. In 1799, Russian and Austrian forces swept across the Po River valley, the French troops in Italy were badly defeated at the major battles of Magnano, Cassano and the Trebbia. Subsequently, French and Cisalpine Italian troops retreated into Genoa and the Ligurian Republic, a new French government placed Joubert in command of the reformed Army of Italy and ordered him to take the offensive. Accordingly, the French army moved north across the mountain crests, to Jouberts dismay, it was clear that large Coalition forces were nearby. The next morning Paul Krays Austrian corps assaulted the French left flank, after a delay, Suvorov committed a Russian corps to attack the center and Michael von Melas Austrian corps to attack the French right flank. Krays troops suffered losses but by evening the French army was badly beaten. However, the Coalition planners proceeded to throw away their advantage by sending Suvorovs Russians to Switzerland, the 1799 campaign in Italy began with the Battle of Verona, a series of costly but indecisive clashes around Verona on 26 March. At the Battle of Magnano on 5 April, the Habsburg Austrian army of Paul Kray triumphed over the Republican French army of Barthélemy Louis Joseph Schérer, two days later, a distraught Schérer begged to be relieved of command. Michael von Melas arrived to command of the Austrian army from Kray on 9 April. Hearing that 12,000 Austrians were approaching from the Tyrol to the north, leaving 12,000 troops in the fortress of Mantua and 1,600 more in Peschiera del Garda, the demoralized French commander ordered his crippled army to withdraw. As the soldiers back, the skies opened up and turned the retreat into a sodden nightmare. On 15 April 1799, the veteran Russian field marshal Alexander Suvorov formally took command of the combined Austro-Russian army in Italy, on 27 April Suvorov defeated the French, now under Jean Victor Marie Moreau, at the Battle of Cassano. The Allies suffered 2,000 casualties while the French sustained losses of 2,500 killed and wounded plus 5,000 soldiers,27 guns, the next day a 3, 000-man French division was trapped and surrendered at Verderio Superiore. The next major action was the Battle of Trebbia from 17 to 20 June where Suvorovs 37, 000-strong Austro-Russian army mauled Jacques MacDonalds 33, the Allies suffered 5,500 casualties while inflicting 16,500 on the French including the taking of 7,000 prisoners. Meanwhile, Coalition forces successfully besieged a number of key fortresses, Peschiera fell on 6 May, Milan was captured on 24 May and Turin fell on 20 June after a nine-day siege. Suvorov and his Austrian allies had evicted the French from almost all of Italy, while Archduke Charles, a day after defeating MacDonald at the Trebbia, the Allies captured the 17th Light Demi Brigade,1,099 men, six guns and three colors
Battle of Novi (1799)
–
Battle of Novi by
Alexander Kotzebue
Battle of Novi (1799)
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Alexander Suvorov
Battle of Novi (1799)
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Barthélemy Joubert
Battle of Novi (1799)
–
Mikhail Miloradovich
22.
Battle of Cassano (1799)
–
The Battle of Cassano dAdda was fought on 27 April 1799 near Cassano dAdda, about 28 km ENE of Milan. It resulted in a victory for the Austrians and Russians under Alexander Suvorov over Jean Moreaus French army, the action took place during the War of the Second Coalition during the larger conflict known as the French Revolutionary Wars. While General Napoleon Bonaparte campaigned in Egypt, the Second Coalition launched an invasion of French-occupied Italy, General of Division Barthélemy Schérer fought inconclusive actions the Austrians at Pastrengo, Verona, and Legnago on 26 March 1799. Feldmarschal-Leutnant Pál Kray and his Austrians then defeated Schérer at the Battle of Magnano on April 4th and this defeat forced the French army into a long retreat. Attempts by Schérer to hold the lines of the Mincio and Oglio rivers failed when an Austrian force led by FML Josef Vukassovich turned his northern flank, Schérer, completely out of his depth, handed over army command to the more capable MG Moreau. Austrias Russian allies, led by Suvorov, soon began appearing at the front, when Field Marshal Suvorov joined the allied army, he took over the top command from Kray, though the latter had just been promoted to Feldzeugmeister. The arrival of General of Cavalry Michael von Melas displaced Kray the top Austrian field command, therefore, Kray was assigned to capture the fortress of Mantua, while Melas and Suvorov pursued the French. The Siege of Mantua lasted from April until the garrison surrendered on 28 July, Moreau deployed the divisions of MGs Paul Grenier, Claude Victor, Jean Sérurier, and Pierre de Laboissière to defend the line of the Adda River. The Austrians still made up the bulk of the allied army, the Austrian division commanders were FML Peter Ott, FML Johann Zoph, General-Major Franz de Lusignan, and FML Konrad Valentin von Kaim. Even before the battle, a Russian force under Petr Bagration outflanked the French position by seizing a bridge over the Adda at Lecco on 26 April and this put Séruriers division in an awkward position. On 27 April, General of Cavalry Michael von Melas with the divisions of Fröhlich and Kaim stormed the French positions at Cassano, while Ott, suvarovs assault forced Moreau to retreat. The French suffered 2,500 killed and wounded, plus 5,000 soldiers,27 cannon, the Austro-Russians lost 2,000 killed and wounded. Moreau retreated, leaving a 2, 400-man garrison in Milans citadel, on 28 April, Vukassovich trapped Seruriers division at Verderio and the French lost another 300 killed and wounded, plus 2,700 captured. Greniers division withdrew to Novara while Victor and Laboissière pulled back to Valenza, another authority gives allied losses as 6,000 and French prisoners as 7,000, without listing French killed and wounded. Kaim pressed on to capture Turin on 20 June, Milans citadel capitulated on 24 May. The next major action was the Battle of Trebbia on 17–20 June, ISBN 1-85367-276-9 The Austrians Advance by Enrico Acerbi
Battle of Cassano (1799)
–
Battle of Cassano d'Adda
23.
Order of St. Andrew
–
The Order of St. Andrew the Apostle the First-Called is the highest order of the Russian Federation. Established as the first and highest order of chivalry of the Russian Empire in 1698, the Order was established in 1698 by Tsar Peter the Great, in honour of Saint Andrew, the first apostle of Jesus and patron saint of Russia. It was bestowed in a class and was only awarded for the most outstanding civilian or military merit. Peter learned of the practice of bestowing awards from his travels in the West during the Great Embassy, in the past, service to the Russian state was rewarded with money or large estates. He witnessed first hand the awards ceremonies for Englands Order of the Garter and Austrias Order of the Golden Fleece and noticed the loyalty and it also saved the state land and money. Count Fyodor Golovin was the first recipient of the order, until its abolition following the Russian Revolution of 1917, just over one thousand awards had been made. Moreover, recipients of lower ranks were automatically promoted to the rank of lieutenant general or vice admiral, the Order of Saint Andrew continued to be awarded by the Russian Imperial House in exile. The first post revolutionary presentation was to HH Prince Georgy Konstantinovich of Russia on attaining his majority in April 1923. It was worn on a blue sash over the right shoulder. Star, eight-pointed silver star bearing a miniature of the badge on a background at the center, surrounded by the motto For Faith. It was worn on the left chest, the insignia of order could be awarded with diamonds as a special distinction. Saint Andrews Cathedral in Saint Petersburg was the church of this order of chivalry. Recipient of Order of St. Andrew the Apostle the First-Called uses the post-nominal letters KA, for example, if one is awarded Order of the Garter, in that case, post-nominals of KG used before KA because the Order of the Garterr has been created in 1348. An order with the name but with different insignia and statutes was first unofficially re-established by the Orthodox Church of Russia on December 27,1988. The order was officially re-instated as the highest Russian civilian and military award by Presidential Decree №757 on June 1,1998, the Orders award criteria were modified by Presidential Decree 1099 of September 7,2010. The Order may also be awarded to heads of states for outstanding service to the Russian Federation. Unlike the original Imperial institution, the modern Order does not have special robes nor strict rules regulating its wearing, the collar of the original Order was worn across the shoulders, modern recipients tend to wear it as a chain around the neck. The design of the modern Order of St. Andrew has changed little from the imperial design
Order of St. Andrew
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Order of St. Andrew the Apostle the First Called Орден Святого апостола Андрея Первозванного
Order of St. Andrew
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The "Jewel" (Badge) of the Imperial Order of St. Andrew, obverse (left) and reverse (right)
Order of St. Andrew
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Tsar
Peter the Great
Order of St. Andrew
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General
Alexander Suvorov
24.
Order of St. George
–
The Order of Saint George is today the highest purely military decoration of the Russian Federation. Originally established November 26,1769 as the highest military decoration of the Russian Empire by Empress Catherine the Great and it was revived in the Russian Federation on August 8,2000 by Decree №1463 of the President of Russia. The current award criteria were amended on September 7,2010 by Presidential Decree 1099, the Order of Saint George is divided into four classes, from the First Class to the Fourth class, the highest degree being the Order First class. The four classes are awarded sequentially from the fourth to the first and these four classes are individually identified by the size and manner of wearing the two principal insignia of the Order, the cross and the star. Cross, A white enamelled cross pattée with a medallion bearing the image of Saint George on horseback slaying the dragon. The cross measures 60mm across in the case of the Order first class and is worn on a sash in the colours of Saint George. The same 60mm cross is worn around the neck on a 45mm wide ribbon also in the colours of Saint George for the Order second class. The cross is 50mm across for the Order third class and is worn around the neck. The Order fourth class is a 40mm cross worn on the left breast hanging from a pentagonal mount covered with a 24mm wide ribbon of Saint George, the star is worn on the left breast for both the Order first and second classes. Ribbon, The ribbon of the Order of Saint George is orange with three stripes, commonly called Georges Ribbon. It symbolises fire and gunpowder, the Russian colors of military glory and it was subsequently associated to the colors of the Russian Guard units. Unlike the other classes, the Order of Saint George fourth class can be awarded to junior officers while the rest is for senior and flag officers. When an individual is entitled to use multiple post-nominal letters, those of the Order of Saint George appear before all others, except Bt or Bart, the ribbon bar for the Order first class is adorned with a miniature golden star. The ribbon bar for the Order second class is adorned with a silver star. The ribbon bar for the Order third class is adorned with a white cross. The ribbon bar for the Order fourth class has no device, moskva 2004, ISBN 5-89577-059-2 The Commission on State Awards to the President of the Russian Federation Herbermann, Charles, ed
Order of St. George
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The Order of Saint George IV class
Order of St. George
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Georgi Pulevski wearing a cross of the Order of Saint George, conferred for his part in the
Russo-Turkish War (1877–78)
Order of St. George
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Order of Saint George, first class Breast Star and Sash
Order of St. George
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Order of Saint George, second class, neck badge and breast star
25.
Order of St. Vladimir
–
The Order of Saint Vladimir was an Imperial Russian Order established in 1782 by Empress Catherine II in memory of the deeds of Saint Vladimir, the Grand Prince and the Baptizer of the Kievan Rus. The order had four degrees and was awarded for continuous civil, people who had been awarded with the St. Vladimir Order for military merits bore it with a special fold on the ribbon - with a bow. There was a hierarchy of Russian Orders. According to this, the St. Vladimir Order, 1st Class was the one by its significance. According to the Russian Law about the Nobility, people who were awarded with the St. Vladimir Order had had the rights of hereditary nobility until the Emperors Decree of 1900 was issued, after this only three first classes of the Order gave such a right. This is disputed by historians and by some members of the Romanov Family Association. First class of the order - A red cross with black, when an individual is entitled to use multiple post-nominal letters, those of the Order of Saint Vladimir appear before all others, except Bt or Bart, KA, GCSG, KSG, KCSG, OSG. Badge, A red enamelled cross pattée with black enamelled borders, worn on a sash by the first degree, on a necklet by the second and third degrees, and on a chest ribbon by the fourth degree. Worn on the left chest by the first and second degrees, ribbon, red with wide black edges. In 1957, in commemoration of the 40th anniversary of the Patriarchs restoration in Russia, the order is to be awarded to priests and nuns of Orthodox church for their service to Soviet Union and later Russia. There are three degrees of the order and it has no relation to the former imperial order. His name was removed from the final list of recipients by Czar Nicholas I, mitrofan Lodyzhensky Fyodor Matisen Igor Sikorsky Pyotr Stolypin Jovan Sundečić Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky Nikolai Yudenich Mikhail Tukhachevsky Ilya Ulyanov, Vladimir Lenins father
Order of St. Vladimir
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Star of the Order
Order of St. Vladimir
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Historical Order of third degree
Order of St. Vladimir
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Cross of the 4th Class with Swords
Order of St. Vladimir
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Russian Orthodox Church Order of St. Vladimir, first degree
26.
Order of St. Alexander Nevsky
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The Imperial Order of Saint Alexander Nevsky was an order of chivalry of the Russian Empire first awarded on 1 June 1725 by Empress Catherine I of Russia. The introduction of the Imperial Order of Saint Alexander Nevsky was envisioned by Emperor Peter I of Russia for rewarding military bravery in battle, however, he died before he could create the order. The order was awarded to distinguished Russian citizens who had served their country with honor. It was first awarded on the occasion of the wedding of Grand Duchess Anna Petrovna of Russia and Charles Frederick, a dozen guests received the reward, and the order quickly fell far behind the Order of Saint Andrew and the Order of Saint Catherine in prestige. The Empress Catherine complained about the situation and by September 1725, the Order of Saint Alexander was granted the highest esteem and was not usually bestowed upon people below the rank of Lieutenant-General or an equal political status. In 1942, the Soviet Union revived the order as a military decoration and renamed it the more secular Order of Alexander Nevsky. The heads of the Russian Imperial House in exile have continued to award the Order of St. Alexander Nevsky and these actions are disputed by some members of the Romanov family. In 2010, researchers in Saint Petersburg and Moscow published a book of all the names of the recipients of the original order, the combined number of honorees spanning the years 1725 to 1917 totaled 3,674
Order of St. Alexander Nevsky
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Badge of the Order of Saint Alexander Nevsky, c. 1820
Order of St. Alexander Nevsky
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Portrait of the first Russian Minister of Finance, Alexei Vasiliyev, wearing the sash and badge of the Order of Saint Alexander Nevsky
Order of St. Alexander Nevsky
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The star to the Order of Saint Alexander Nevsky (front)
Order of St. Alexander Nevsky
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decoration of the Order of Saint Alexander Nevsky (front)
27.
Order of St. Anna
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The motto of the Order is Amantibus Justitiam, Pietatem, Fidem. Its festival day is 3 February, originally, the Order of Saint Anna was a dynastic order of knighthood, but between 1797 and 1917 it had dual status as a dynastic order and as a state order. The Head of the Imperial House of Russia always is Master of the imperial Order of Saint Anna, the Order of St. Anna continued to be awarded after the revolution by Grand Duke Kirill Vladimirovich, Grand Duke Vladimir Kirillovich, and Grand Duchess Maria Vladimirovna. Today, the Russian Imperial Order of St, membership of the Order was awarded for a distinguished career in civil service or for valour and distinguished service in the military. The Order of Saint Anna entitled recipients of the first class to hereditary nobility, for military recipients, it was awarded with swords. It is now awarded for meritorious service to the Imperial House of Russia. At first, the Order had but one class and was named the Order of Anna. I. P. F, the same letters also abbreviate the Latin motto. In 1742, Karl Peter Ulrich, Duke Karl Friedrichs son, was declared the Russian heir apparent, after arriving in Russia, he presented the Order to several courtiers. Emperor Alexander I added a class in 1815. Recipients of the Order of St. Andrew simultaneously received the first class of the Order of Saint Anna, the Emperor himself was the hereditary chief of the Order. The title of Chekhovs well-known story Anna on the Neck refers both to the Order and to the heroine, the medal ribbon was red with narrow yellow edging. A recipient of higher classes of the Order would not wear insignia of lower classes, alan W. Hazelton, The Russian Imperial Orders, New York, The American Numismatic Society,1932. Order of St. Anna History of the order of St. Anna
Order of St. Anna
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Star with crown to Order St. Anna.
Order of St. Anna
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Order of St. Anna, 2nd class (The example shown is "with swords", for bravery in battle, and crown)
Order of St. Anna
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Order of St. Anna, 3rd class
Order of St. Anna
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Order of St. Anna, 4th class (The insignia with imperial eagle would have been awarded to a non-Christian, for whom a Christian cross was deemed inappropriate)
28.
Order of the Black Eagle
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The Order of the Black Eagle was the highest order of chivalry in the Kingdom of Prussia. The order was founded on 17 January 1701 by Elector Friedrich III of Brandenburg, in his Dutch exile after World War I, deposed Emperor Wilhelm II continued to award the order to his family. He made his wife, Princess Hermine Reuss of Greiz. The statutes of the order were published on 18 January 1701, membership in the Order of the Black Eagle was limited to a small number of knights, and was divided into two classes, members of reigning houses and capitular knights. Before 1847, membership was limited to nobles, but after that date, capitular knights were generally high-ranking government officials or military officers. The Order of the Black Eagle had only one class, by statute, members of the order also held the Grand Cross of the Order of the Red Eagle, and wore the badge of that order from a ribbon around the neck. From 1862, members of the Prussian royal house, upon award of the Order of the Black Eagle, the badge of the Order was a gold Maltese cross, enameled in blue, with gold-crowned black eagles between the arms of the cross. The gold center medallion bore the monogram of Friedrich I. This badge was worn either a broad ribbon or a collar. The ribbon of the Order was an orange moiré sash worn from the shoulder to the right hip. The sash color was chosen in honor of Louise Henriette of Nassau, daughter of the prince of Orange, the star of the Order was a silver eight-pointed star, with straight or faceted rays depending on the jewelers design. The center medallion displayed a black eagle on a background, surrounded by a white enamelled ring bearing a wreath of laurels. At meetings of the chapter of the Order of the Black Eagle and at certain ceremonies, embroidered on the left shoulder of each cape was a large star of the Order. From its founding in 1701 to 1918, the Order of the Black Eagle was awarded 407 times, subjects of the Prussian King receiving the order which was only given in one class were promoted to the peerage and received hereditary title. The Order was also conferred upon Prussian queens, though other members of the royal family usually received the Order of Louise instead. Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn – Kaiser Wilhelm IIs uncle, Prince Carl, Duke of Västergötland – Prince of Sweden Carol I of Romania – King of Romania, member of the Princely House of Hohenzollern. Louis XVIII – King of France, ludwig II of Bavaria – King of Bavaria. Emperor Meiji – Emperor of Japan, mozaffar al-Din Shah – Shah of Persia –29 May 1902 – during the visit to Berlin of the Shah Naser al-Din Shah Qajar – Shah of Persia
Order of the Black Eagle
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Order of the Black Eagle Schwarzer-Adler-Orden
Order of the Black Eagle
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Badge of the Order of the Black Eagle.
Order of the Black Eagle
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Friedrich Wilhelm IV, wearing the collar and cloak of the Order of the Black Eagle. Original portrait by Krüger
Order of the Black Eagle
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Empress Auguste Viktoria, wearing the sash and star of the Order of the Black Eagle. Portrait by Philip de Laszlo
29.
Order of the Red Eagle
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The Order of the Red Eagle was an order of chivalry of the Kingdom of Prussia. It was awarded to military personnel and civilians, to recognize valor in combat, excellence in military leadership, long and faithful service to the kingdom. As with most German orders, the Order of the Red Eagle could only be awarded to commissioned officers or civilians of equivalent status. However, there was a medal of the order, which could be awarded to non-commissioned officers and enlisted men, lower ranking civil servants and other civilians. The predecessor to Order of the Red Eagle was founded on November 17,1705 and this soon fell into disuse but was revived in 1712 in Brandenburg-Bayreuth and again in 1734 in Brandenburg-Ansbach, where it first received the name Order of the Brandenburg Red Eagle. The statutes were changed in 1777 and the Order named therein as the Order of the Red Eagle, the Order was conferred in one class, limited to fifty knights. The Kingdom of Prussia absorbed both Brandenburg-Bayreuth and Brandenburg-Ansbach in January,1792, and on June 12,1792, King Frederick William II again revived the order as a Prussian royal order. After the Order of the Black Eagle, the Red Eagle was the second highest order of the kingdom in order of precedence, in 1810, King Frederick William III revised the statutes of the Order, expanding it into three classes. In 1830, a breast star was authorized for the Second Class, the statutes were further revised in 1861, and a Grand Cross was established as the highest class of the Order. By 1918, an affiliated soldiers medal had been available to commoners. The monarchy collapsed on November 9,1918, a new German constitution was signed into law, August 11,1919, effectually putting a legal end to the monarchy. Among these were, All classes but the Medal of the Red Eagle Order could be awarded with swords for distinction in wartime, the swords passed through the arms of the cross behind the center medallion. All classes above the 4th Class could be awarded with Swords on Ring, indicating that the recipient of that class without swords had earlier received a class of the order with swords. A pair of crossed swords were worn above the cross on the ring or above the medallion on the upper arm of the breast star. All classes could be awarded with or without crown as an added distinction, the Grand Cross, 1st and 2nd Class could be awarded with oak leaves, indicating prior receipt of the next lower class of the order, and/or with diamonds, as a special distinction. Royal family members were awarded the Grand Cross with crown, the Maltese cross badge was suspended from a miniature of the Prussian crown, which covered the usual suspension ring. The Grand Cross was awarded at least once with crossed marshals batons, the crossed batons were worn above the Maltese cross badge of the Grand Cross, on its suspension ring. The 3rd Class could be awarded with bow, indicating prior receipt of the 4th Class, prussians who were Knights of the Order of St. John of Malta
Order of the Red Eagle
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Order of the Red Eagle, Grand Cross breast star
Order of the Red Eagle
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Georg Wilhelm, Markgraf of Brandenburg-Bayreuth, who founded the
Ordre de la Sincerité
Order of the Red Eagle
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Großadmiral Alfred von Tirpitz, wearing his Order of the Red Eagle, Grand Cross
Order of the Red Eagle
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Karl August Fürst (Prince) von Hardenberg, ca 1822, by Friedrich Georg Weitsch. Hardenberg wears the badge of the Order of the Red Eagle, 1st Class, above his other orders
30.
Order of the White Eagle (Poland)
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The Order of the White Eagle is Polands highest decoration awarded to both civilians and the military for their merits. It was officially instituted on 1 November 1705 by Augustus II the Strong and bestowed on eight of his closest, diplomatic and it is awarded to the most distinguished Poles and the highest-ranking representatives of foreign countries. The Order of the White Eagle is attached to a blue ribbon slung over the shoulder to the right side. The star of the Order, once embroidered, is worn on the side of the chest. This was replaced by a Maltese cross in 1709, by 1713 it was worn from the neck, with a blue sash, and a star. Although Augustus the Strong limited the number of knights to seventy-two and his son, Augustus, however, awarded the Order more than three hundred times. Since the Order had no patron saint, Augustus II made 2 August the feast of the Order and his son, Augustus III, however, changed the Orders feast day to 3 August. After the third partitioning of Poland, in 1795, the Order was abolished, though it was renewed by 1807 and became the highest award of the Duchy of Warsaw and it remained in this form until the Russian Revolution of 1917, in which the Russian Empire fell. The Order of the White Eagle officially became Polands highest decoration by act of Parliament of 4 February 1921, after 1948, when the Peoples Republic of Poland came into existence, the Order of the White Eagle was no longer awarded, but it was never officially abolished. It was also used by the Polish Government in Exile, the first person to be awarded the White Eagle after its reinstatement was Pope John Paul II. The President of Poland is always the Grand Master of the Order, a larger longer ray between each arm of the cross and a smaller ray between each of the two points of these arms. In the centre of the cross was a white enamelled eagle in high relief with spread wings and facing left, the arms of this cross pattée bore the motto Pro Fide, Lege et Rege in golden letters. A white enamel crowned eagle with wings, facing left was superimposed on the cross. On its reverse side the double-headed eagle bore in the center of its back a diminutive red-bordered white-enamelled cross pattée with a rosette at its center gold rays between its arms. The black double-headed eagle hung by its two crowned heads from an enamelled Russian imperial crown, which, in turn, hung from a blue silk moire ribbon. The badge of the consists of a gold Maltese cross enamelled in red with white enamel outline. A white enamel crowned eagle with wings, facing left is superimposed on the cross. It is worn on a light blue sash
Order of the White Eagle (Poland)
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Order of the White Eagle Order Orła Białego
Order of the White Eagle (Poland)
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For the Serbian medal of the same name, see
Order of the White Eagle (Serbia).
Russian Empire
Holy Roman Empire
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Suvárov, Alexander Vasilievich". Encyclopædia Britannica. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. Endnotes:
