1.
Ramiro II of Aragon
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Ramiro II, called the Monk, was King of Aragon from 1134 until withdrawing from public life in 1137. He was the youngest son of Sancho Ramírez, King of Aragon and Navarre and his father had placed him as a child into the Benedictine monastery of Saint Pons de Thomières in the Viscounty of Béziers. As a respected monk there he was elected abbot of the Castillian royal monastery of Santos Fecundo y Primitivo in Sahagún, wanting to limit Ramiros power within the Kingdom of Navarre-Aragon, his brother Alfonso the Battler had blocked his elections as bishop of Burgos and as bishop of Pamplona. In 1134 he had been elected bishop of Barbastro-Roda when the death of his childless brother made him one of the candidates for succession to the crown, the reign of Ramiro the Monk, as he is known, was tumultuous. At the beginning of his reign he had problems with his nobles, who thought he would be docile and easily steered to their wishes, in order to produce an heir, he married Agnes, daughter of Duke William IX, Duke of Aquitaine. Once wed, his wife bore a daughter, Petronilla, who was betrothed to Ramon Berenguer IV, Ramon accepted Ramiro as King, Lord and Father, renounced his family name in favor of the House of Aragon and united the County of Barcelona with the Kingdom. Ramon became the Prince of the Aragonese people and effective chief of the kingdoms armies and he later became known for the famous and passionate legend of the Bell of Huesca. He died there on 16 August 1157, the crown then formally passing to his daughter Petronilla, «Aproximación a la historia de la Corona de Aragón». El poder y la de la Edad Media a la Edad Moderna. Sociedad Estatal para la Acción Cultural Exterior, Generalitat Valenciana y Ministerio de Cultura de España, Lunwerg, the Medieval Crown of Aragon, A Short History. A History of Aragon and Catalonia, Ramiro II de Aragón, el rey monje
Ramiro II of Aragon
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Signature
Ramiro II of Aragon
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Ramiro II from the 15th-century Genealogies dels comtes de Barcelona
2.
Kingdom of Pamplona
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The Kingdom of Pamplona was a Basque kingdom or polity that took form across the western Pyrenees and around the city of Pamplona during the first centuries of the Iberian Reconquista. It was thus one of the Christian political entities that arose on northern Iberia following the conquest of the Visigothic Kingdom by the Umayyad Caliphate in the early 8th century. The kingdom has its origins in the conflict in the region between the Frankish king Charlemagne an the Islamic caliphate that controlled most of the Iberian Peninsula. The city of Pamplona, had been the city of the indigenous Vasconic population and was located amid the Basque region. In the year 824 Íñigo Arista, initially with support of the Caliphate of Córdoba, starting in the 10th century the Kingdom would break its formal alliance with Córdoba and would start expanding militarily, establishing strong links with the Christian Kingdom of Leon. Historiographically, the kingdom is usually referred to as the Kingdom of Pamplona, after the conquest of Nájera and the reign of García Sánchez III the kingdom is usually referred to as the Kingdom of Pamplona and Nájera and eventually as the Kingdom of Navarre. The Kingdom of Pamplona originated in the side of the western Pyrenees. According to Roman geographers such as Pliny the Elder and Livy, these regions were inhabited by the Vascones and other related Vasconic-Aquitanian tribes and these tribes already inhabited the area at the time of the Roman arrival. These tribes spoke a version of the Basque language, usually known by linguistics as Proto-Basque language, as well as some other related languages. Unlike their northern neighbors, the Aquitanians, and other tribes from the Iberian Peninsula, during the Sertorian War Pompey would command the foundation of a city in Vasconic territory, giving origin to Pompaelo, modern-day Pamplona, founded on a previously existent Vasconic town. The Basque language would remain widely spoken, especially in rural, the duchy is commonly regarded as direct precedent of the Basque kingdom. The first documented Duke of Vasconia was Genial, who would hold that position until 627, unable to regain its independence, the Duchy would be divided into several counties, ruled from Toulouse. Charlemagne led an expedition south with the intention of taking the city of Zaragoza, however, the expedition was a failure, and the Frankish army was forced to retreat. When retreating, the Frankish army destroyed the city walls of Pamplona, with the intention of weakening the citys position, as a response to the attempted Frankish seizure of Zaragoza, the Cordobese Emir retook the lands around the city as well as Pamplona itself. In 781 the Basque ruler of Pamplona, Jimeno the Strong submitted to the Emir, however, by 806, some of the Pamplonese aristocracy opposed the Caliphate and submitted to the Carolingian Empire of Louis the Pious. In 799, Mutarrif ibn Musa, thought to have been Muladi governor of the city, was killed by a pro-Frankish faction whose leader Velasco the Gascon gained control of the region. During this period, Basque territory extended on the west up to somewhere undefined around the headwaters of the Ebro river, equally Einharts Vita Karoli Magni pinpoints the source of the Ebro in the land of the Navarrese. However, this region fell under the influence of the Kingdom of Asturias
Kingdom of Pamplona
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The Kingdom of Pamplona (dark orange) at its greatest extent during the reign of
Sancho III (1030)
3.
Abbey of San Pedro el Viejo
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The Abbey of San Pedro el Viejo is a former Benedictine monastery in the old town of Huesca, Aragon, Spain. The present Romanesque structure was built by the Benedictines in the 12th century, the name San Pedro el Viejo, or Saint Peter the Old, refers to the fact that the Visigothic monastery building that was given to them predated the Moorish occupation. The site now consists mostly of the cloisters and the church and it has been a national monument since 1886, and is one of the most important buildings for the Romanesque architecture of Aragon. The building has two parts, the church and the cloister. The church consists of three ships and their apses, the altarpiece is polychrome wood by Juan de Ali in the early 17th century. The church chapels surrounding the show interesting artwork from different periods, Altarpiece of Saints Just and Pastor. Wooden choir stalls Order of St. Benedict
Abbey of San Pedro el Viejo
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This article may be expanded with text translated from the corresponding article in Spanish. (August 2010) Click [show] for important translation instructions.
Abbey of San Pedro el Viejo
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San Pedro el Viejo. Claustro (s. XII)
4.
Dynasty
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A dynasty is a sequence of rulers from the same family, usually in the context of a feudal or monarchical system but sometimes also appearing in elective republics. The dynastic family or lineage may be known as a house, historians periodize the histories of many sovereign states, such as Ancient Egypt, the Carolingian Empire and Imperial China, using a framework of successive dynasties. As such, the dynasty may be used to delimit the era during which the family reigned and to describe events, trends. The word dynasty itself is often dropped from such adjectival references, until the 19th century, it was taken for granted that a legitimate function of a monarch was to aggrandize his dynasty, that is, to increase the territory, wealth, and power of his family members. The longest-surviving dynasty in the world is the Imperial House of Japan, dynasties throughout the world have traditionally been reckoned patrilineally, such as under the Frankish Salic law. Succession through a daughter when permitted was considered to establish a new dynasty in her husbands ruling house, however, some states in Africa, determined descent matrilineally, while rulers have at other times adopted the name of their mothers dynasty when coming into her inheritance. It is also extended to unrelated people such as poets of the same school or various rosters of a single sports team. The word dynasty derives via Latin dynastia from Greek dynastéia, where it referred to power, dominion and it was the abstract noun of dynástēs, the agent noun of dynamis, power or ability, from dýnamai, to be able. A ruler in a dynasty is referred to as a dynast. For example, following his abdication, Edward VIII of the United Kingdom ceased to be a member of the House of Windsor. A dynastic marriage is one that complies with monarchical house law restrictions, the marriage of Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange, to Máxima Zorreguieta in 2002 was dynastic, for example, and their eldest child is expected to inherit the Dutch crown eventually. But the marriage of his younger brother Prince Friso to Mabel Wisse Smit in 2003 lacked government support, thus Friso forfeited his place in the order of succession, lost his title as a Prince of the Netherlands, and left his children without dynastic rights. In historical and monarchist references to formerly reigning families, a dynast is a member who would have had succession rights, were the monarchys rules still in force. Even since abolition of the Austrian monarchy, Max and his descendants have not been considered the rightful pretenders by Austrian monarchists, nor have they claimed that position. The term dynast is sometimes used only to refer to descendants of a realms monarchs. The term can therefore describe overlapping but distinct sets of people, yet he is not a male-line member of the royal family, and is therefore not a dynast of the House of Windsor. Thus, in 1999 he requested and obtained permission from Elizabeth II to marry the Roman Catholic Princess Caroline of Monaco. Yet a clause of the English Act of Settlement 1701 remained in effect at that time and that exclusion, too, ceased to apply on 26 March 2015, with retroactive effect for those who had been dynasts prior to triggering it by marriage to a Catholic
Dynasty
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Charles I of England and his son, the future
James II
5.
Felicie de Roucy
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Felicia of Roucy was a queen consort of Aragon and Navarre. She was a daughter of Hilduin IV of Montdidier and his wife Alice of Roucy and she was married in 1076 to Sancho Ramírez, then king of Aragon after he had divorced his first wife, Isabella of Urgell. His accession to the crown of Navarre later that made her the first Aragonese consort to also be Queen consort of Navarre. She is attested shortly before her husbands death and is now thought to have outlived Sancho, felicia gave birth to three sons, Ferdinand, Alfonso and Ramiro, the latter two following her step-son Peter I of Aragon and Navarre in Aragon. Through Ramiros only daughter Petronila of Aragon, she was ancestor of the rulers of Aragon
Felicie de Roucy
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Felicia de Roucy
6.
Spanish language
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Spanish —also called Castilian —is a Romance language that originated in the Castile region of Spain, with hundreds of millions of native speakers around the world. It is usually considered the worlds second-most spoken native language after Mandarin Chinese and it is one of the few languages to use inverted question and exclamation marks. Spanish is a part of the Ibero-Romance group of languages, which evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in Iberia after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. Beginning in the early 16th century, Spanish was taken to the colonies of the Spanish Empire, most notably to the Americas, as well as territories in Africa, Oceania, around 75% of modern Spanish is derived from Latin. Greek has also contributed substantially to Spanish vocabulary, especially through Latin, Spanish vocabulary has been in contact from an early date with Arabic, having developed during the Al-Andalus era in the Iberian Peninsula. With around 8% of its vocabulary being Arabic in origin, this language is the second most important influence after Latin and it has also been influenced by Basque as well as by neighboring Ibero-Romance languages. It also adopted words from languages such as Gothic language from the Visigoths in which many Spanish names and surnames have a Visigothic origin. Spanish is one of the six languages of the United Nations. It is the language in the world by the number of people who speak it as a mother tongue, after Mandarin Chinese. It is estimated more than 437 million people speak Spanish as a native language. Spanish is the official or national language in Spain, Equatorial Guinea, speakers in the Americas total some 418 million. In the European Union, Spanish is the tongue of 8% of the population. Spanish is the most popular second language learned in the United States, in 2011 it was estimated by the American Community Survey that of the 55 million Hispanic United States residents who are five years of age and over,38 million speak Spanish at home. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 uses the term castellano to define the language of the whole Spanish State in contrast to las demás lenguas españolas. Article III reads as follows, El castellano es la lengua española oficial del Estado, las demás lenguas españolas serán también oficiales en las respectivas Comunidades Autónomas. Castilian is the official Spanish language of the State, the other Spanish languages as well shall be official in their respective Autonomous Communities. The Spanish Royal Academy, on the hand, currently uses the term español in its publications. Two etymologies for español have been suggested, the Spanish Royal Academy Dictionary derives the term from the Provençal word espaignol, and that in turn from the Medieval Latin word Hispaniolus, from—or pertaining to—Hispania
Spanish language
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A page of
Cantar de Mio Cid, the oldest preserved Spanish
epic poem, in medieval Spanish.
Spanish language
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Spanish is sole official language at the national level
Spanish language
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Antonio de Nebrija, author of
Gramática de la lengua castellana, the first grammar of modern European languages.
Spanish language
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Miguel de Cervantes author of
Don Quixote, considered the first modern European novel.
7.
Kings of Aragon
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This is a list of the kings and queens of Aragon, now the autonomous community of Aragon in north-eastern Spain. In 1164 the dynastic union between the Kingdom of Aragon and the County of Barcelona created the Crown of Aragon, in the thirteenth century the kingdoms of Valencia, Majorca and Sicily were added to the Crown, and in the fourteenth the Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica. The Crown of Aragon continued to exist until 1714 when its separate constitutional systems were swept away in the Nueva Planta decrees at the end of the War of the Spanish Succession. With the death of Sancho III of Navarre, Aragon was inherited by his son Ramiro as an autonomous state, during the Catalan Civil War, there were three who claimed his throne, though this never included the Kingdom of Valencia. Aragon itself stayed loyal to Philip IV during the Reapers War while Catalonia switched allegiance to Louis XIII and Louis XIV of France the Sun-King, during the war Philip dAnjou, the first of the Bourbon empire in Spain, disbanded the Crown of Aragon. After this time, there are no more Aragonese monarchs
Kings of Aragon
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Ramiro I February 1035 – 8 May 1063
Kings of Aragon
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Aragon arms.
Kings of Aragon
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Sancho Ramírez (also
King of Navarre from 1076) 8 May 1063 – 4 June 1094
Kings of Aragon
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Peter I (also
King of Navarre) 4 June 1094 – 28 September 1104
8.
Kings of Navarre
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This is a list of the kings and queens of Pamplona, later Navarre. Pamplona was the name of the kingdom until its union with Aragon. However, the territorial designation Navarre came into use as an name in the late tenth century. The Íñiguez dynasty founded the Navarrese kingdom in or around 824 when they rebelled against nominal Frankish authority, in 905, a coalition of neighbors forced Fortún Garcés to retire to a monastery, and enthroned in his place a scion of a new dynasty. Under their reign, the name Navarre began to supplant that of Pamplona, the death of Alfonso led to a succession crisis in Aragon, and the nobles of Navarre took advantage to reestablish an independent monarchy, crowning a grandnephew of the assassinated Sancho IV. Henrys unexpected death left his infant daughter Joan as the heir to the throne. Joans mother Blanche of Artois served as regent for the ten years. In 1284 Joan was married to the future Philip IV of France, Philip assumed the throne of France a year later as King of France and Navarre. After the deaths of Louis and his infant son John, his brothers Philip and Charles held the crowns of France and Navarre until their own deaths. At that time, the crown of France passed to Philip of Valois, a distant cousin who was not descended from Joan I, Joan reigned together with her husband Philip III until his death, and then alone until her own death. Blanche reigned together with her husband John II, after Blanches death in 1441, John retained the crown of Navarre for himself until he died 38 years later, keeping it from his son and elder daughter, Charles and Blanche. Conflict with his son led to the Navarrese Civil War, though some of the resources regard Charles and Blanche and the legitimate monarchs, the de facto king of Navarre is still John II. Eleanor didnt claim to be the queen until her fathers death, eleanor, who had allied with her father against her brother and sister, outlived her father by only three weeks. By that time she was the widow of Gaston IV, Count of Foix and she was thus succeeded by her grandson Francis. Catherine reigned together with her husband John III, after his death, she reigned alone for 8 months until her own death. During their reign, Navarre was defeated by Ferdinand II of Aragon in 1512, resulting in the loss of all its territory south of the Pyrenees, jeanne III reigned together with her husband Antoine until his death, and then alone until her own death. Their son Henry became King of France in 1589, taking possession of the kingdom in 1593 as the French Wars of Religion came to a close, thereafter the crown of Navarre passed to the kings of France. Alicia was the daughter of Elias, Duke of Parma, whose father Robert I, Duke of Parma was the son and heir of Louise Marie Thérèse dArtois, granddaughter of Charles X of France
Kings of Navarre
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Íñigo Arista? 824–851/2
Kings of Navarre
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Coat of Arms of the Kings of Navarre since 1212
Kings of Navarre
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Sancho II Garcés Abarca 970–994
Kings of Navarre
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Sancho III the Great 1004–1035
9.
Urraca of Castile
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Urraca called the Reckless, was Queen of León, Castile, and Galicia from 1109 until her death in childbirth. She claimed the title as suo jure Empress of All the Spains. Urraca’s place in the line of succession made her the focus of politics, and she became a child bride at age eight to Raymond of Burgundy. Urracas marriage to Raymond was part of Alfonso VIs diplomatic strategy to attract cross-Pyrenees alliances, author Bernard F. Reilly doubts that the marriage was consummated until Urraca was 13, as she was placed under the protective guardianship of a trusted magnate. Her pregnancy and stillbirth at age 14 suggest that the marriage was indeed consummated when she was 13 or 14 years old, Urraca gave birth two children, a daughter, Sancha Raimúndez and a son, Alfonso Raimúndez, who would become Alfonso VII. Raymond died in 1107, leaving Urraca a widow with two small children, Urraca became again an heir presumptive after the death of her half-brother Sancho at the Battle of Uclés in 1108. Alfonso VI reunited the nobles of the Kingdom in Toledo and announced that his daughter was the chosen one to succeeded him. The nobles agreed with the designation but demanded that Urraca should marry again. Several candidates for the hand of the heiress to the thrones of León and Castile appeared immediately, including counts Gómez González, marriage negotiations were still underway when Alfonso VI died on 29 June/1 July 1109 and Urraca became queen. Many of Alfonso VI’s advisers and leading magnates in the kingdom formed a “quiet opposition” to the marriage of the queen to the King of Aragon. According to Bernard F. Reilly, these magnates feared the influence the King of Aragon might attempt to wield over Urraca, as events unfolded, these advisers underestimated Urracas political prowess, and later advised her to end the marriage. Also, they believed that the new marriage of Urraca could put in jeopardy the rights of the son of her first marriage, from Galicia, the count of Traba began the first aggressive movement against the monarchs reclaiming the hereditary rights of Alfonso Raimúndez. In response to the Galician rebellion, Alfonso I of Aragon marched with his army to Galicia and in 1110, as their relationship soured, Urraca accused Alfonso of physical abuse, and by May 1110 she separated from Alfonso. Additionally, as Urraca was married to many in the kingdom objected to. Estrangement between husband and wife escalated from discrete and simmering hostilities into open armed warfare between the Leonese-Castilians and the Aragonese, an alliance between Alfonso of Aragon and Henry of Portugal culminated in the 1111 Battle of Candespina in which Urracas lover and chief supporter Gómez González was killed. He was soon replaced in both roles by another count, Pedro González de Lara, who took up the fight, by the fall of 1112 a truce was brokered between Urraca and Alfonso with their marriage annulled. Recovering these regions and expanding into Muslim lands would occupy much of Urracas foreign policy, according to author Bernard F. Additionally, the circumstance of Urraca’s gender added a distinctive role-reversal dimension to diplomacy and politics, which Urraca used to her advantage. Urraca is characterized in the Historia Compostelana as prudent, modest and these observations were hardly neutral or dispassionate, according to Reilly, who wrote, here is no question that the queen is in control, perhaps all too much in control, of events
Urraca of Castile
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Queen Urraca presides over Court, Santiago Cathedral
Urraca of Castile
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Signature of Urraca from 1097 charter.
Urraca of Castile
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Statue of Queen Urraca in Madrid, sculpted by Juan Pascual de Mena.
10.
Kingdom of Castile
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The Kingdom of Castile was a large and powerful state on the Iberian Peninsula during the Middle Ages. Its name comes from the host of castles constructed in the region and it began as the County of Castile, an eastern frontier lordship of the Kingdom of León in the 9th century. During the 10th century its counts increased their autonomy, but it was not until 1065 that it was separated from León, between 1072 and 1157 it was again united with León, and after 1230 this union became permanent. Throughout this period the Castilian kings made conquests in southern Iberia at the expense of the Islamic principalities. Castile and León, with their southern acquisitions, came to be known collectively as the Crown of Castile, according to the chronicles of Alfonso III of Asturias, the first reference to the name Castile can be found in a document written during AD800. The name reflects its origin as a march on the frontier of the Kingdom of Asturias, protected by castles. The County of Castile, bordered in the south by the northern reaches of the Spanish Sistema Central mountain system and it was re-populated by inhabitants of Cantabria, Asturias, Vasconia and Visigothic and Mozarab origins. It had its own Romance dialect and customary laws, the areas that they settled didnt extend far from the Cantabrian southeastern ridges, and not beyond the southern reaches of the high Ebro river valleys and canyon gores. Subsequently, the region was subdivided, separate counts being named to Alava, Burgos, Cerezo & Lantarón, the minority of Count García Sánchez led Castile to accept Sancho III of Navarre, married to the sister of Count García, as feudal overlord. García was assassinated in 1028 while in León to marry the princess Sancha, Sancho III, acting as feudal overlord, appointed his younger son Ferdinand as Count of Castile, marrying him to his uncles intended bride, Sancha of León. At the Battle of Tamarón Bermudo was killed, leaving no surviving offspring, in right of his wife, Ferdinand then assumed the royal title as king of León and Castile, for the first time associating the royal title with the rule of Castile. When Ferdinand I died in 1065, the territories were divided among his children, Sancho II became King of Castile, Alfonso VI, King of León and García, King of Galicia, while his daughters were given towns, Urraca, Zamora, and Elvira, Toro. Sancho II allied himself with Alfonso VI of León and together they conquered, Sancho later attacked Alfonso VI and invaded León with the help of El Cid, and drove his brother into exile, thereby reuniting the three kingdoms. Urraca permitted the greater part of the Leonese army to take refuge in the town of Zamora, Sancho laid siege to the town, but the Castilian king was assassinated in 1072 by Bellido Dolfos, a Galician nobleman. As a result, Alfonso VI recovered all his territory of León. This was the union of León and Castile, although the two kingdoms remained distinct entities joined only in a personal union. The sworn oath taken by El Cid before Alfonso VI in Santa Gadea de Burgos regarding the innocence of Alfonso in the matter of the murder of his brother is well known, under Alfonso VI, there was an approach to the rest of Europeans kingdoms, including France. He gave his daughters, Elvira, Urraca and Theresa, in marriage to Raymond of Toulouse, Raymond of Burgundy, in the Council of Burgos in 1080 the traditional Mozarabic rite was replaced by the Roman one
Kingdom of Castile
–
Flag
11.
Kingdom of Galicia
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The Kingdom of Galicia was a political entity located in southwestern Europe, which at its territorial zenith occupied the entire northwest of the Iberian Peninsula. Founded by Suebic king Hermeric in 409, the Galician capital was established in Braga, being the first kingdom which adopted Catholicism officially and it was part of the Kingdom of the Spanish Visigothic monarchs from 585 to 711. Compostela became capital of Galicia in the 11th century, while the independence of Portugal determined its southern boundary, the representative assembly of the Kingdom was then the Junta or Cortes of the Kingdom of Galicia, which briefly declared itself sovereign when Galicia alone remained free of Napoleonic occupation. The kingdom and its Junta were dissolved by Maria Cristina of Bourbon-Two Sicilies, the origin of the kingdom lies in the 5th century, when the Suebi settled permanently in the former Roman province of Gallaecia. Their king, Hermeric, probably signed a foedus, or pact, with the Roman Emperor Honorius, the Suebi set their capital in the former Bracara Augusta, setting the foundations of a kingdom which was first acknowledged as Regnum Suevorum, but later as Regnum Galliciense. The independent Suebic kingdom of Galicia lasted from 410 to 585, in 410 Gallaecia was divided, ad habitandum, among two Germanic people, the Hasdingi Vandals, who settled the eastern lands, and the Suebi, who established themselves in the coastal areas. As with most Germanic invasions, the number of the original Suebi is estimated to be low, generally fewer than 100,000. They settled mainly in the regions around modern northern Portugal and Western Galicia, in the towns of Braga and Porto, in 419 a war broke out between the Vandal king Gunderic and the Suebis Hermeric. After a blockade alongside the Nervasian Mountains, the Suebi obtained Roman help, in the absence of competitors, the Suebi began a period of expansion, first inside Gallaecia, and later into other Roman provinces. In 438 Hermeric ratified a treaty with the Gallaeci, the native. In 448 Rechila died, leaving the state to his son Rechiar. Rechiar married a Visigothic princess, and was also the first Germanic king to mint coins in ancient Roman territories, Rechiar led further expansions to the east, marauding through the Provincia Tarraconensis, which was still held by Rome. The Roman emperor Avitus sent an army of foederates, under the direction of the Visigoth Theoderic II. Rechiar fled, but he was pursued and captured, then executed in 457, in the aftermath of Rechiars death, multiple candidates for the throne appeared, finally grouping into two allegiances. By 465 Remismund, who established a policy of friendship with the Goths, five of the attendant bishops used Germanic names, showing the integration of the different communities of the country. After clashing in frontier lands, Miro and Leovigild agreed upon a temporary peace, the Suebi maintained their independence until 585, when Leovigild, on the pretext of conflict over the succession, invaded the Suebic kingdom and finally defeated it. Audeca, the last king of the Suebi, who had deposed his brother-in-law Eboric and this same year a nobleman named Malaric rebelled against the Goths, but he was defeated. As with the Visigothic language, there are traces of the Suebi tongue remaining
Kingdom of Galicia
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The location of the Kingdom of Galicia in the 11th century CE, in red
Kingdom of Galicia
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Arms of the Kingdom of Galicia, illustrated in L´armorial Le Blancq,
Bibliothèque nationale de France, 1560
Kingdom of Galicia
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Theodemar (or
Ariamir), king of Galicia with the bishops Lucrecio, Andrew, and Martin.
Codex Vigilanus (or Albeldensis),
Escurial library
Kingdom of Galicia
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Silver coin of the Galician-Suebi king,
Rechiar (438–55); the
reverse reads IVSSV RICHIARI REGES, Latin for "by order of King Rechiar"
12.
Imperator totius Hispaniae
–
Imperator totius Hispaniae is a Latin title meaning Emperor of all Spain. In Spain in the Middle Ages, the emperor was used under a variety of circumstances from the ninth century onwards. It was primarily used by the Kings of León and Castile, the use of the imperial title received scant recognition outside of Spain and it had become largely forgotten by the thirteenth century. The analogous feminine title, empress, was frequently used for the consorts of the emperors. Only one reigning queen, Urraca, had occasion to use it, a surviving charter of 863 refers to Ordoño I as our lord, residing in the Asturias, qualifying him as a commanding prince. This residential form of title was preferred because the Asturian kingdom at this stage was not ethnically unified or well-defined. The first document, dated to 866 or 867, confirmed by Alfonso, who signs as I, Alfonso, of all Spain emperor, the other refers to him simply as Alfonso, Emperor of Spain. The forger may have borrowed these exalted titles from the chancery of Alfonso VI, the subscription lists of both these charters are compatible with the dates, and it has been suggested that the clauses referring to Alfonso as emperor are derived from authentic charters. A similarly grandiose title is given to Alfonso in the contemporary Chronica Prophetica, the authenticity of the letter is still debated. Besides the apocryphal charters, there are genuine, posthumous documents referring to Alfonso as emperor, in one that dates from 917, in the reign of his son Ordoño II of León, the king confirms as Ordoño, son of the Emperor Alfonso the Great. A document from 950 can also be cited that refers to Alfonso with the imperial title, the pertinent passage reads, They put in place a border with Gonzalo, son of our lord emperor Prince Alfonso. A royal diploma of 922, where Ordoño II refers to himself as emperor, is the first recorded instance of a Leonese king doing so, the charter reads, I, the most serene emperor Ordoño. Although he apparently avoided the imperial style himself, his subjects, private documents of his reign commonly refer to him as the great king, as in a document of 930. Contemporary documents of the reign of Ramiro III of León use the magnified titles basileus and magnus rex, the former is a Latinisation of the Greek for king and was the title employed by the Byzantine Emperors. To western European ears it had an imperial inflection, during the regency of Ramiros aunt, the nun Elvira Ramírez, the king confirmed a document of 1 May 974 as Flavius Ramiro, prince, anointed great basileus in the kingdom. I confirm with my own hand, Elvira, basilea, paternal aunt of the king. Its use in a document of the tenth century harkens back to Visigothic rule, a judicial document that emanated from the royal court in 976 refers to a certain royal servant as in the palace of the most lordly king–emperor. in obedient service to his most lordly emperor. In the first decades of the century, the Catalan Abbot Oliba referred to the kings of León, Alfonso V and Bermudo III
Imperator totius Hispaniae
–
A Privilegium Imperatoris (Imperial Privilege), as it reads at the top, issued by the Emperor
Alfonso VII of León and Castile granting land to a certain Abbot William (bottom, centre) for the foundation of a
Benedictine monastery. Behind Alfonso (right) is his majordomo, Count
Ponce Giraldo de Cabrera, bearing a sword and shield. At bottom left are Alfonso's sons
Sancho and
Fernando.
Imperator totius Hispaniae
–
Alfonso III of León (866–910)
Imperator totius Hispaniae
–
Ordoño II of León (910–924)
Imperator totius Hispaniae
–
Ramiro II of León (931–951)
13.
Reconquista
–
The Reconquista ended just before the European discovery of the Americas—the New World—which ushered in the era of the Portuguese and Spanish colonial empires. The concept of a Christian reconquest of the peninsula first emerged, in tenuous form, a landmark was set by the Christian Chronica Prophetica, a document stressing the Christian and Muslim cultural and religious divide in Iberia and the necessity to drive the Muslims out. Nevertheless, the difference between Christian and Muslim kingdoms in early medieval Spain was not seen at the time as anything like the clear-cut opposition that later emerged, both Christian and Muslim rulers fought amongst themselves. Alliances between Muslims and Christians were not uncommon, blurring distinctions even further were the mercenaries from both sides who simply fought for whoever paid the most. The period is looked back upon today as one of religious tolerance. In fact previous documents from the 10th and 11th centuries are mute on any idea of reconquest and their rebellious pursuit was thus a Crusade for the restoration of Churchs unity, where Franco stood for both Pelagius of Asturias and El Cid. Many recent historians dispute the concept of Reconquista as a concept created a posteriori in the service of later political goals. A number of historians have called it a myth, One of the first Spanish intellectuals to question the idea of a reconquest that lasted for eight centuries was José Ortega y Gasset, writing in the first half of the 20th century. However, the term is widely in use. In 711, Muslim Moors, mainly North African Berber soldiers with some Arabs, crossed the Strait of Gibraltar, from their stronghold of Narbonne, they launched raids into the Duchy of Aquitaine. At no point did the invading Islamic armies exceed 60,000 men and these armies established an Islamic rule that would last 300 years in much of the Iberian Peninsula and 770 years in Granada. After the establishment of a local Emirate, Caliph Al-Walid I, ruler of the Umayyad caliphate, tariq ibn Ziyad, the first governor of the newly conquered province of Al-Andalus, was recalled to Damascus and replaced with Musa bin Nusair, who had been his former superior. Musas son, Abd al-Aziz ibn Musa, apparently married Egilona, Roderics widow and he was suspected of being under the influence of his wife, accused of wanting to convert to Christianity, and of planning a secessionist rebellion. Apparently a concerned Al-Walid I ordered Abd al-Azizs assassination, Caliph Al-Walid I died in 715 and was succeeded by his brother Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik. Sulayman seems to have punished the surviving Musa bin Nusair, who soon died during a pilgrimage in 716. In the end Abd al-Aziz ibn Musas cousin, Ayyub ibn Habib al-Lakhmi became the emir of Al-Andalus, the conquering generals were necessarily acting very independently, due to the methods of communication available. Old rivalries and perhaps even full-fledged conspiracies between rival generals may have had influence over this development, in the end, the old successful generals were replaced by a younger generation considered more loyal by the government in Damascus. A serious weakness amongst the Muslim conquerors was the tension between Berbers and Arabs
Reconquista
–
A battle of the Reconquista from the
Cantigas de Santa Maria
Reconquista
–
Northeastern al-Andalus, the Pyrenees and southern Gaul at the time of the Berber rebellion (739-742).
Reconquista
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Forces of
Muhammed IX,
Nasrid Sultan of
Granada, at the
Battle of La Higueruela, 1431
Reconquista
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Santiago the Moor-slayer
14.
Ebro
–
The Ebro or Ebre is one of the most important rivers on the Iberian Peninsula. It is the second longest river in the Iberian peninsula after the Tagus, the source of the river Ebro is in Fontibre, from the Latin words Fontes Iberis, source of the Ebro. Close by is the big artificial lake Embalse del Ebro created by the damming of the river, the upper Ebro rushes through rocky gorges in Burgos Province. Karst geological processes shaped the landscape of layers of carbonate rock of extensive limestone bedrock formed in an ancient seabed. Aragonite, a named for Aragon, attests to the fact that carbonates are abundant in the central Ebro Valley. The valley expands and the Ebros flow then becomes slower as its volume increases. There, larger tributaries flowing from the Central Pyrenees and the Iberian System discharge large amounts of water, as it flows through Zaragoza the Ebro, is already a sizeable river. There, the Basilica of Our Lady of the Pillar stands next to the Ebro, the soils in most of the valley are primarily poor soils, calcareous, pebbly, stony, and sometimes salted with saltwater endorheic lagoons. The semi-arid interior of the Ebro Valley has either drought summers and it is covered with chaparral vegetation. Summers are hot and winters are cold, the dry summer season has temperatures of more than 35 °C, occasionally reaching over 40 °C. In winter, the temperatures drop below 0 °C. In some areas the vegetation depends heavily on moisture produced by condensation fogs and it is a continental Mediterranean climate with extreme temperatures. There are many ground frosts on clear nights, and sporadic snowfalls, the biomes are diverse in these Mediterranean climate zones, Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub. Hinterlands are particularly distinctive on account of extensive sclerophyll shrublands known as maquis, the dominant species are Quercus coccifera and Quercus ilex. These trees form monospecific communities or communities integrated with Pinus, Mediterranean buckthorns, Myrtus, Chamaerops humilis, junipers, Pistacia, Rosmarinus, Thymus, etc. The mountain vegetation is mostly coniferous forests that are drought adapted and their presence is related to the marine origin of the Ebro valley and the extensive marine deposits in the same area. After reaching Catalonia, the Ebro Valley narrows, and the river becomes constrained by mountain ranges, massive dams have been built in this area, such as the dams at Mequinenza, Riba-roja, Flix. In the final section of its course the river bends southwards, the massive calcareous cliffs of the Serra de Cardó range constrain the river during this last stretch, separating the Ebro Valley from the Mediterranean coastal area
Ebro
–
The Ebro River in Zaragoza
Ebro
–
Watershed of the Ebro
Ebro
–
The source of the Ebro in
Fontibre.
Ebro
–
The Ebro River delta from space
15.
Zaragoza
–
Zaragoza, also called Saragossa in English, is the capital city of the Zaragoza province and of the autonomous community of Aragon, Spain. It lies by the Ebro river and its tributaries, the Huerva, on 1 September 2010 the population of the city of Zaragoza was 701,090, within its administrative limits on a land area of 1,062.64 square kilometres, ranking fifth in Spain. It is the 32nd most populous municipality in the European Union, the population of the metropolitan area was estimated in 2006 at 783,763 inhabitants. The municipality is home to more than 50 percent of the Aragonese population, the city lies at an elevation of 199 metres above sea level. Zaragoza hosted Expo 2008 in the summer of 2008, a fair on water. It was also a candidate for the European Capital of Culture in 2012, the city is famous for its folklore, local gastronomy, and landmarks such as the Basílica del Pilar, La Seo Cathedral and the Aljafería Palace. Together with La Seo and the Aljafería, several other buildings part of the Mudéjar Architecture of Aragon which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Fiestas del Pilar are among the most celebrated festivals in Spain, the city was called by the ancient Romans Caesaraugusta, from which the present name derives. The Iberian town that predated the Roman city was called Salduie, see also, Caesar Augusta The Sedetani, a tribe of ancient Iberians, populated a village called Salduie. Later on, Augustus founded a city called Caesaraugusta at the location to settle army veterans from the Cantabrian wars. The foundation date of Caesaraugusta has not been set with exact precision, the city did not suffer any decline during the last centuries of the Roman empire and was captured peacefully by the Goths in the fifth century AD. From 1018 to 1118, Zaragoza was one of the taifa kingdoms, during the first three decades of this period, 1018–1038, the city was ruled by the Banu Tujibi. After the death of El Cid his kingdom was overrun by the Almoravids, who, by 1100, had managed to cross the Ebro into Barbastro, the Banu Hud stubbornly resisted the Almoravids and ruled until they were eventually defeated by them in May 1110. On 18 December 1118, the Aragonese led by Alfonso I conquered the city from the Almoravids, after Alfonsos death without heirs in 1134, Zaragoza was swiftly occupied by Alfonso VII of León and Castile. The wedding never happened, as Petronila ended up marrying Ramon Berenguer IV, the marriage union was the origin of the Crown of Aragón. While the reality of the existence of Saint Dominguito del Val is questioned, despite a decline in the outlying rural economy, Zaragoza has continued to grow. The General Military Academy, a training center of the Spanish Army, was re-established on September 27,1940 by Minister of the Army José Enrique Varela Iglesias. During the second half of the 20th century, Zaragozas population boomed as a number of factories opened in the region, in 1979, the Hotel Corona de Aragón fire killed at least 80
Zaragoza
–
Basilica of Our Lady of the Pillar and the
Ebro River
Zaragoza
–
Roman theatre
Zaragoza
–
Aljafería Palace (at night), built in the 11th century.
Zaragoza
–
La Seo Cathedral
16.
Ejea de los Caballeros
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Ejea de los Caballeros, Aragonese, Exeya dos Caballers, is a town and municipality in the province of Zaragoza, part of the autonomous community of Aragon, Spain. It is one of the five towns in the Comarca de las Cinco Villas. The five villages are Ejea de los Caballeros itself, Sos del Rey Católico, Uncastillo, Sádaba and they became part of the medieval Kingdom of Aragon in 1105 during the Spanish Reconquista, as Muslim rule in the region was falling back. The town retains many buildings, including, the Romanesque church of Santa María de la Corona. The main local fiesta honours the Virgin of the Olive, the local saint, in June, it is also celebrated the patron saint, Saint John the Baptist, in a medieval way. Another local festival commemorates The Vote Day, an event during the Black Plague, the plague is purported to have ended that day in Ejea de los Caballeros. Alberto Zapater, footballer Marmande, France Portogruaro, Italy
Ejea de los Caballeros
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Church of the Saint Savior
Ejea de los Caballeros
–
Coat of arms
17.
Tudela, Navarre
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Tudela is a municipality in Spain, the second largest city of the autonomous community of Navarre and twice a former Latin bishopric. The city is sited in the Ebro valley, fast trains running on two-track electrified railways serve the city and two freeways join close to it. Tudela is the capital of the Ribera Navarra, the region of lower Navarre. The poet Al-Tutili, the 12th-century traveler Benjamin of Tudela, the 13th century writer William of Tudela, the city hosts an annual festival in honor of Santa Ana which begin on 24 July at noon and continue for approximately a week. Street music, bullfights and the running of the bulls are typical events of the festival, archeological excavations have shown that the area of Tudela has been populated since the lower paleolithic era. The town of Tudela was founded by the Romans on Celt-Iberian settlements, since then the town has been inhabited continuously. The Roman poet Marcus Valerius Martialis recalls in grateful verse the town of Tutela compared to his native Bilbilis, the city was later taken by the Arabs during the Umayyad conquest of Hispania and became the Muslim emirate of Al-Hakam I in 802 under Amrus ibn Yusuf al-Muwalad. At the beginning of the 9th century, the importance of Tudela as a site on the river Ebro was enhanced by historical and political circumstances. The town was used by Muslims as a bridge-head to fight against the expanding Kingdom of Navarre, the co-existence of different cultures is reflected in Tudelas reputation for producing important medieval writers such as Al-Tutili. In 1157 the English scholar Robert of Ketton, first translator of the Koran to a Western tongue, the Jews were banished in 1498. Muslims and Moriscos were expelled in 1516 and 1610 respectively, later Tudela became an important defensive point for the Kingdom of Navarre in battles with Castile and Aragon. At the end of the 17th century, a new square was built, called Plaza Nueva or Plaza de los Fueros. In 1783 the Diocese of Tudela was created, split off from Pamplona, on 23 November 1808, Napoleon Bonapartes Marshal Lannes won the Battle of Tudela in the Peninsular War. The train station was built in 1861, which, together with the agricultural revolution, the bishopric was merged back into Pamplona-Tudela in 1851, restored in 1889 and ultimately suppressed in 1984. The Cathedral of Our Lady of Solitude and it includes examples of Romanesque architecture, such as the Puerta del Juicio, or Door of the Judgement, some Gothic influences and Baroque additions to the building. Another traditional dessert is manjar blanco, new York, Funk & Wagnalls Company. Ayuntamiento de Tudela Medieval History of Navarre Spanish) City of Tudela GCatholic - Tudela diocese GCatholic - Tudela cathedral Town Festivals Tudela, euskomedia. org, accessed 23 November 2016
Tudela, Navarre
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Tudela Cathedral
Tudela, Navarre
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Fiestas in the Plaza Nueva or Plaza de los Fueros
Tudela, Navarre
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Puerta del Juicio
Tudela, Navarre
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Monreal Tower
18.
Calatayud
–
Calatayud is a municipality in the Province of Zaragoza, within Aragón, Spain, lying on the river Jalón, in the midst of the Sistema Ibérico mountain range. It is the second-largest town in the province after the capital, Zaragoza, and it is the seat of the comarca of Calatayud. The city has the title Muy noble, leal, siempre augusta y fidelísima ciudad de Calatayud, the first democratic elections after General Francos regime were called for 15 June 1977. In Calatayud they were one day earlier than all the rest of Spain, in order to prepare for a visit there by King Juan Carlos I. The town is located by the Carretera Nacional N-II highway, the Autovía A-2, the AVE Madrid–Barcelona high-speed rail line, as well as the RENFE line from Madrid to Barcelona stop in Calatayud. The city was founded on the site of a Celt-Iberian settlement by the Romans with the name Augusta Bilbilis and was the birthplace of the poet Martial in 40 CE. The site of the ruins of Augusta Bilbilis are approximately four kilometers to the north of the city of Calatayud. The modern town was founded by the Moors around the Ayyub castle, the name Calatayud came from the Arabic Qalat Ayyūb = Ayyubs castle. The ancient inhabitants of Bilbilis moved to the new site, occupying a strategic placement between the central meseta of Spain and the Ebro valley the city retained its importance in succeeding centuries. By the eleventh century a substantial Jewish community was present, surviving the reconquista until the expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492, the city was conquered from the Muslims by Alfonso I of Aragón in 1119. Many surviving examples of church architecture show that the Moorish influence lived on. During the Peninsular Wars a notable siege of French occupied Calatayud led to its capture by guerillas in 1811, the city was the capital of its own province in 1822–23, during the Trieno Liberal. One of the most notable Mudéjar towers of Aragón is the 15th-century bell tower of the church of Santa María. The Muslim fortress is the biggest and oldest one on the Iberian peninsula, the church of San Pedro was founded by Ferdinand II of Aragón and it was there that the first cortes of Aragon was held in 1411. Given that reputation, traditionally boys went to the town in order to ask for Dolores to be favoured by local girls, nowadays this tradition has dismissed although in festivities, boys from the surroundings, even from Zaragoza, visit the town with that aim. - Glen Ellyn, Illinois, USA List of municipalities in Zaragoza Calatayud Mudéjar Comunidad de Calatayud Glen Ellyn City website Local wines Calatayud travel guide from Wikivoyage
Calatayud
–
Calatayud
Calatayud
–
The tower of the Santa María church of
mudéjar style.
Calatayud
–
The Castle of Calatayud
Calatayud
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Church of San Pedro de los Francos, Calatayud.
19.
Borja, Zaragoza
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Borja is a town and municipality in the province of Zaragoza, community of Aragon, north-eastern Spain. As of 2014, its population was of 4,931, the municipality borders with Ablitas Agón, Ainzón, Alberite de San Juan, Albeta, Ambel, Bulbuente, El Buste, Fréscano, Magallón, Maleján, Mallén, Tabuenca, Tarazona, and Vera de Moncayo. It is the seat of the comarca of Campo de Borja. The towns origins date back to the 5th century BC, when a Celtiberian settlement, known as Bursau or Bursao, existed near the current ruins of the castle. After the Roman conquest also the slopes of the hill were populated and it received the title of city by King Alfonso V of Aragon in 1438. During the reign of the Catholic Monarchs, the Jews, forming an important part of the Borjan community, were expelled, Borja lived through a period of recession and plagues in the 17th and 18th centuries. It recovered economically starting from the 19th century, when a railway connecting the city to Cortes de Navarra was inaugurated, the industrial sector is intended to be boosted by businesses being attracted to the ongoing development Polígono Industrial Barbalanca, the Barbalanca Industrial Estate. Church of San Miguel, in Gothic– style, with a Romanesque apse
Borja, Zaragoza
–
Borja in 2004
Borja, Zaragoza
–
Flag
Borja, Zaragoza
–
Church of Santa Clara convent
Borja, Zaragoza
–
The
Mudéjar towers of the Collegiate of Santa María
20.
Tarazona
–
Tarazona is a town and municipality in the Tarazona y el Moncayo comarca, province of Zaragoza, in Aragon, Spain. It is the capital of the Tarazona y el Moncayo Aragonese comarca and it is also the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Tarazona. During the Roman era, Tarazona was a city whose inhabitants were full Roman citizens. The city declined after the fall of the Roman Empire, and it was conquered in 1119 by Alfonso I of Aragon and became the seat of the diocese of Tarazona. Construction on Tarazona Cathedral first began in the 12th century in the French Gothic style, after the crucifixion of Alfonso I, Tarazona became a town situated on the frontiers between Castile, Navarre, and Aragon, and was thus of strategic importance. During centuries of Arabic rule, the population was diverse, and Christians, Jews. The Muslim presence was evident in the architecture, the cathedral itself was later rebuilt in Mudéjar style. The city suffered a crisis when the Moriscos were expelled. During the War of the Two Peters, the city was occupied by Castilian troops for nine years, in the 20th century, Tarazona became an important producer of matches and textiles, but these industries were replaced by others from the 1980s onwards. The city is now an important tourist destination with various restaurants, agramont Conchiellos Tortoles Comarca de Tarazona y el Moncayo. Article on The Diocese of Tarazona in The Catholic Encyclopedia, Tarazona entry at a travel site. Off the Beaten Path in Tarazona, Spain, Rescuing A Corner Of The Past by Walter Ruby, on Jewish Heritage
Tarazona
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Tarazona Town Hall
Tarazona
–
Tarazona Cathedral and Old bullfight arena
Tarazona
–
The
Cipotegato 2007
Tarazona
–
Old bullfight arena
21.
Daroca
–
Daroca is a city and municipality in the province of Zaragoza, Aragon, Spain, situated to the south of the city of Zaragoza. It is the center of a judicial district and it is located in the basin of Calatayud, in the valley of the rio Jiloca. According to certain writers, the primitive Celtiberian village in this location was named Darek, the Romans named it Agiria, building a strong castle to defend the Laminium road, which passed through the village and connected Zaragoza with Valencia. The Arabs gave it the name Calat-Darawca, and possessed it for 400 years, until Alfonso the Battler conquered it in 1120, and in 1141 issued a legal code. In the 12th century, Ramon Berenguer IV gave it the laws and privileges made it the capital of the Community of Daroca. It had a vote in courts and was the site of several assemblies,1196, 1222-1243,1311. In a war against Peter of Castile, Daroca resisted a siege, city life was ruled by the council, whose principal members were the justice, judge, jurors, almutazaf, scribes, major-domos, and other minor officials. The terms for municipal offices lasted one year, and they were elected by the council, the justice was appointed by the king from a set of three candidates chosen by the council, and the judge and jurors were chosen by the king directly. All of this occurred on January 1, economically, agriculture and livestock were the principal occupations of the inhabitants. There were three groups, Christians, Jews, and Muslims, which enjoyed the same laws and privileges. Philip V also was in Daroca and so was his rival to the throne, Daroca was liberated in August 1813. France had taken Ferdinand VII of Spain prisoner, and when he returned in 1814, he stayed in Daroca, and communicated a new constitution. During the Carlist Wars of the 19th century, it was occupied by the Carlist forces in 1834,1837, and 1872, the occupations were due to the geographical proximity of the Carlist redoubt of Maestrazgo. From the middle of the century, the economic situation improved due to successful agriculture. At the beginning of the century, the Teruel-Calatayud railway was built. In these years, embankments were built in the Jiloca gorge, afterwards the city began to decline, although it kept its position thanks to the industrialization and the mechanization of the field. However, it was not able to adapt to the new times, more than 4 km of medieval walls Gates, Puerta Baja, Puerta Alta, Portal de Valencia and Arrabal Church of San Miguel. Basilica of Santa María de los Sagrados Corporales, associated with a Eucharistic miracle dated to 1340 Fountain of the twenty pipes Festival of Antique Music, pouillon, France Daroca datos básicos Comarcas de Daroca y Calamocha Daroca Daroca Ficha de la población Página semioficial
Daroca
–
Daroca
Daroca
Daroca
–
Saint Michael 's church.
Daroca
–
Puerta Baja.
22.
Muslims
–
A Muslim is someone who follows or practices Islam, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion. Muslims consider the Quran, their book, to be the verbatim word of God as revealed to the Islamic prophet. They also follow the teachings and practices of Muhammad as recorded in traditional accounts, Muslim is an Arabic word meaning one who submits. Most Muslims will accept anyone who has publicly pronounced Shahadah as a Muslim, the shahadah states, There is no god but the God and Muhammad is the last messenger of the God. The testimony authorized by God in the Quran that can found in Surah 3,18 states, There is no god except God, which in Arabic, is the exact testimony which God Himself utters, as well as the angels and those who possess knowledge utter. The word muslim is the active participle of the verb of which islām is a verbal noun, based on the triliteral S-L-M to be whole. A female adherent is a muslima, the plural form in Arabic is muslimūn or muslimīn, and its feminine equivalent is muslimāt. The Arabic form muslimun is the stem IV participle of the triliteral S-L-M, the ordinary word in English is Muslim. It is sometimes transliterated as Moslem, which is an older spelling, the word Mosalman is a common equivalent for Muslim used in Central Asia. Until at least the mid-1960s, many English-language writers used the term Mohammedans or Mahometans, although such terms were not necessarily intended to be pejorative, Muslims argue that the terms are offensive because they allegedly imply that Muslims worship Muhammad rather than God. Other obsolete terms include Muslimite and Muslimist, musulmán/Mosalmán is a synonym for Muslim and is modified from Arabic. In English it was sometimes spelled Mussulman and has become archaic in usage, the Muslim philosopher Ibn Arabi said, A Muslim is a person who has dedicated his worship exclusively to God. Islam means making ones religion and faith Gods alone. The Quran states that men were Muslims because they submitted to God, preached His message and upheld His values. Thus, in Surah 3,52 of the Quran, Jesus disciples tell him, We believe in God, and you be our witness that we are Muslims. In Muslim belief, before the Quran, God had given the Tawrat to Moses, the Zabur to David and the Injil to Jesus, who are all considered important Muslim prophets. The most populous Muslim-majority country is Indonesia, home to 12. 7% of the worlds Muslims, followed by Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Egypt. About 20% of the worlds Muslims lives in the Middle East and North Africa, Sizable minorities are found in India, China, Russia, Ethiopia. The country with the highest proportion of self-described Muslims as a proportion of its population is Morocco
Muslims
–
Afghan Muslims praying inside
Gardens of Babur in
Kabul,
Afghanistan.
23.
Battle of Fraga
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The Battle of Fraga was a battle of the Spanish Reconquista that took place on 17 July 1134 at Fraga, Aragon, Spain. The battle resulted in an Almoravid victory, the Aragonese monarch Alfonso I died shortly after the battle. Specifically, they targeted the low lands around the Segre and Cinca Rivers all the way to the mouth of the Ebro, the most important towns in this region were Lleida, Mequinenza, Fraga, and Tortosa. In July 1134, King Alfonso I of Aragon the Battler, known by the Muslims as Ibn Rudmir or al-Farandji, the Almoravid response was swift and decisive. The Emir of Cordoba, son of the caliph, equipped a force of 2,000 knights, the Enur if Murcia and Valencia put together 500 knights, once these forces were joined together, they marched to the relief of Fraga. On 17 July 1134 brought the arrival of a Almohad relief force, led by the governor of Lérida, seeing reinforcements, the besieged Fragans sallied out, however Alfonso I, still confident in his numerical and tactical advantage, rallied his troops. His entourage clashed with the cavalry of the emir of Murcia, the Almoravid cavalry decimated the Aragonese soldiers. Upon seeing this, the townspeople, most of whom were of Arab origin, exited the city and they made off with all of the Aragonese armys provisions and took them back into the city of Fraga. At this moment, the emir of Cordoba launched a final attack stroke with his cavalry, having lost a majority of his soldiers, Alfonso I the Battler was obliged to flee and made for Zaragoza. He would die 7 September 1134, the Aragonese toll at Fraga was significant. Amongst the dead or captured were many members of Aragonese society. Guy of Lescar fought with the Christian forces and he was captured by the Almoravid forces and imprisoned at Balensiyya. Ermengard of Narbonne and the World of the Troubadours, the Contest of Christian and Muslim Spain, 1031-1157. La frontière et les hommes, le peuplement musulman au nord de lEbre et les débuts de la reconquête aragonaise
Battle of Fraga
–
Alfonso I of Aragon the Battler.
24.
Abbey of San Pedro de Siresa
–
The Abbey of San Pedro de Siresa is a monastery in the Valle de Hecho. It was constructed between the 9th and 13th centuries, and is the northernmost monastery in Aragon, buildings have existed at this site for centuries, possibly back to Visigothic times according to the excavations conducted in 1991. A Roman road passed nearby, connecting Zaragoza and Berdún to Béarn, in 833, Galindo Garcés and his wife Guldegrut made donations to build a monastery here. Zechariah became the first abbot, and organized the monastery in accordance with the set in 816 in a synod held in Aachen. In 852, the monk and scholar Eulogius of Córdoba wrote Guilesino of Pamplona about the splendor of the monastery. In the year of his death Galindo Aznárez I gave the monastery the town of Hecho, head of the valley, as well as dozens of vineyards, cultivated fields and the town of Surba. The monastery also benefited from the restoration of the ancient episcopal see of Huesca, tenth century grants and confirmations of property document the monasterys importance and use of income to acquire new lands. None of the original Carolingian or Reconquista monasterys buildings remain, only the church, probably rebuilt in 1083, during the height of the monasterys power and wealth, survives. The old Carolingian abbey was reformed in that year, and construction resumed in the years of the following century. The large building has cruciform design, a crypt lies under the single semicircular apse, the outside is polygonal. Pre-Roman remains exist at the base of the nave, the front door and facade form a massive structure, the exterior of which features a pair of arches, and a small bell. The tympanum of the door displays a Chi Rho, the transept has a hemispherical dome, which collapsed after a fire, the central part of the transept dome was replaced by a groin vault and the laterals by a barrel vault. The apse has three openings, topped by arches in the interior and exterior walls, decorated by cordons. Restoration work was performed during the century, but the resulting architectural additions are of a visibly lower quality. John the Evangelist, the Trinity, Saint Stephen and Saint John and it is noteworthy that, contrary to uses of the area and period, there is no sculpture in the building, thus presenting an aspect of total sobriety. Almost the only decorative element present in its facade is the Chi Rho, the church was declared a National Monument in 1931, and since then several restoration campaigns have been undertaken. Today, the church serves as the core Siresa parish church, according to legend, the Holy Grail was once found in a crevice in the wall of this church. However, similar legends exist about several churches in this remote
Abbey of San Pedro de Siresa
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Contents
25.
El Cid
–
Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar, better known as El Cid, or simply Rodrigo, was a Castilian nobleman and military leader in medieval Spain. The Moors called him El Cid, which meant the Lord, and the Christians, El Campeador and he was born in Vivar, a town near the city of Burgos. After his death, he became Castiles celebrated national hero and the protagonist of the most significant medieval Spanish epic poem, El Cantar de Mio Cid. Born a member of the nobility, El Cid was brought up at the court of King Ferdinand the Great and served Ferdinands son, Sancho II of León. He rose to become the commander and royal standard-bearer of Castile upon Sanchos ascension in 1065, Rodrigo went on to lead the Castilian military campaigns against Sanchos brothers, Alfonso VI of León and García II of Galicia, as well as in the Muslim kingdoms in Al-Andalus. He became renowned for his prowess in these campaigns, which helped expand Castilian territory at the expense of the Muslims. When conspirators murdered Sancho in 1072, Rodrigo found himself in a tight spot, since Sancho was childless, the throne passed to his brother Alfonso, the same whom El Cid had helped remove from power. Although Rodrigo continued to serve the Castilian sovereign, he lost his ranking in the new court which treated him at arms length, finally, in 1081, he was ordered into exile. El Cid found work fighting for the Muslim rulers of Zaragoza, while in exile, he regained his reputation as a strategist and formidable military leader. He repeatedly turned out victorious in battle against the Muslim rulers of Lérida and their Christian allies, in 1086, an expeditionary army of North African Almoravids inflicted a severe defeat to Castile, compelling Alfonso to overcome the resentments he harbored against El Cid. The terms for the return to the Christian service must have been attractive enough since Rodrigo soon found himself fighting for his former Lord and he gradually increased his control over Valencia, the Islamic ruler, al-Qadir, became his tributary in 1092. When the Almoravids instigated an uprising that resulted in the death of al-Qadir, Valencia finally fell in 1094, and El Cid established an independent principality on the Mediterranean coast of Spain. He ruled over a society with the popular support of Christians. El Cids final years were spent fighting the Almoravid Berbers and he inflicted upon them their first major defeat in 1094, on the plains of Caurte, outside Valencia, and continued resisting them until his death. Although Rodrigo remained undefeated in Valencia, his son, and heir. After El Cids death in 1099, his wife, Jimena Díaz, succeeded him as ruler of Valencia, to this day, El Cid remains a Spanish popular folk-hero and national icon. Numerous plays, films, folktales, songs, and even video games continue to memorialize the traditions of allegiance that his allegories typify, the Mozarabs or the Arabs that served in his ranks may have addressed him in this way, which the Christians may have transliterated and adopted. Historians, however, have not yet found contemporary records referring to Rodrigo as Cid, arab sources use instead Rudriq, Ludriq al-Kanbiyatur or al-Qanbiyatur
El Cid
–
Silhouette of the
San Francisco 's
Anna Hyatt Huntington copy of her El Cid statue.
El Cid
–
Signature
El Cid
–
First paragraph of the
Carmen Campidoctoris, the earliest literary treatment of El Cid's life, written by a Catalan partisan to celebrate El Cid's defeat of Berenguer Ramón.
El Cid
–
1864 Marcos Giráldez de Acosta's painting depicting the "
Santa Gadea Oath". In the middle of the scene,
Alfonso VI (with red cape) is swearing with his right hand on the
Bible that he did not take part in the murder of his brother
Sancho II, while El Cid stands as a witness in front of him.
26.
Valencia (taifa)
–
The Kingdom of Valencia, located in the eastern shore of the Iberian Peninsula, was one of the component realms of the Crown of Aragon. When the Crown of Aragon merged by dynastic union with the Crown of Castile to form the Kingdom of Spain, the Kingdom of Valencia was formally created in 1238 when the Moorish taifa of Valencia was taken in the course of the Reconquista. It was dissolved by Philip V of Spain in 1707, by means of the Nueva Planta decrees, the boundaries and identity of the present Spanish Autonomous Community of Valencia are essentially those of the former Kingdom of Valencia. Shortly after, in 1233, Borriana and Peniscola were also taken from the بلنسية Balansiyya taifa, a second and more relevant wave of expansion took place in 1238, when James I defeated the Moors from the Balansiya taifa. He entered the city of Valencia on 9 October 1238, which is regarded as the dawn of the Kingdom of Valencia. The Treaty of Almizra established the line of Aragonese expansion in the line formed by the villes of Biar and Busot. Everything south of line, including what would be the Kingdom of Murcia, was reserved by means of this treaty for Castile. He led important rebellions in 1244,1248 and 1276, during the first of these, he briefly regained Muslim independence for the lands South of the Júcar, but he had to surrender soon after. During the second revolt, king James I was almost killed in battle, during the third rebellion, Al-Azraq himself was killed but his son would continue to promote Muslim unrest and local rebellions remained always at sight. James II called Jaume II el Just or the Just, a grandson of James I, the campaign under James II was successful to the point of extending the limits of the Kingdom of Valencia well south of the previously agreed border with Castile. His troops took Orihuela and Murcia, at the end of the process, four taifas had been wiped out, Balansiya, Alpuente, Denia and Murcia. The new territories would then be only to the king. This development was part of a growing trend evident in the Middle Ages and it is by this historiographical approach that the repopulation of the Kingdom is assessed today. The Kingdom was initially populated by Muslims and often subject to popular revolts. This fact marked the Christian colonization of the acquired territories. Finally the Aragonese nobles were granted several domains, but they managed to only the interior lands, mostly mountainous. These actions had consequences, The interior was mostly repopulated by speakers of the Aragonese language. The coastal lands were repopulated by speakers of the Valencian language from the Principality of Catalonia
Valencia (taifa)
–
The King James I entered the city of Valencia on 9 October 1238
Valencia (taifa)
–
Flag
Valencia (taifa)
–
The Contract Hall in La Llotja de la Seda
27.
Luna, Zaragoza
–
Luna is a municipality located in the province of Zaragoza, in Aragon, Spain. It is in the district of Ejea de los Caballeros in the northeast of the province. It is 65 km from Zaragoza, according to the 2009 census, the municipality has a population of 861 inhabitants. The location of the city was conquered by Christians in 1092-1093, Castillo de Villaverde Castillo de Obano Castillo de Yéquera Parochial church of San Gil de Mediavilla Santuario de Nuestra Señora de Monlora
Luna, Zaragoza
–
City of Luna
28.
Raymond of Burgundy
–
Raymond of Burgundy was the ruler of Galicia from about 1090 until his death. He was the son of Count William I of Burgundy. He married Urraca, future queen of León, and was the father of the future emperor Alfonso VII, in April 1087, the army abandoned its siege of Tudela and most of the host returned home, but Odo and his retinue went west. By 21 July 1087 they were probably at Burgos, at the court of Alfonso VI, there Odo arranged Raymonds marriage to Alfonsos heiress, Urraca. All surviving charters which seem to place Raymond in Spain before 1087 are either misdated or interpolated and he was father of Alfonso VII of León and Castile, already crowned king of Galicia in 1111, while his brother later became Pope Callixtus II
Raymond of Burgundy
–
Raymond in a miniature of the Tumbo A
cartulary in the
cathedral of Santiago de Compostela, the chief bishopric of his dominion.
Raymond of Burgundy
–
Signature
29.
Almoravides
–
The Almoravid dynasty was a Berber imperial dynasty of Morocco. It established an empire in the 11th century that stretched over the western Maghreb, founded by Abdallah ibn Yasin, the Almoravid capital was Marrakesh, a city they founded in 1062. The dynasty originated among the Lamtuna and the Gudala, nomadic Berber tribes of the Sahara and this enabled them to control an empire that stretched 3,000 kilometers north to south. However, the rule of the dynasty was relatively short-lived, the Almoravids fell—at the height of their power—when they failed to quell the Masmuda-led rebellion initiated by Ibn Tumart. As a result, their last king Ishaq ibn Ali was killed in Marrakesh in April 1147 by the Almohad Caliphate, who replaced them as a ruling dynasty both in Morocco and Al-Andalus. The term Almoravid comes from the Arabic al-Murabitun, which is the form of al-Murabit—literally meaning one who is tying. The term is related to the notion of Ribat, a frontier monastery-fortress, another theory states that the name Almoravid comes from a school of Malikite law called Dar al-Murabitin founded in Sus al-Aksa, modern day Morocco, by a certain scholar named Waggag Ibn Zallu. Ibn Zallu sent his student Abdallah ibn Yasin to preach Malikite Islam to the Sanhaja Berbers of the Adrar, hence, the name of the Almoravids comes from the followers of the Dar al-Murabitin, the house of those who were bound together in the cause of God. It is uncertain exactly when or why the Almoravids acquired that appellation, al-Bakri, writing in 1068, before their apex, already calls them the al-Murabitun, but does not clarify the reasons for it. Ibn Idhari wrote that the name was suggested by Ibn Yasin in the persevering in the fight sense,1054, in which they had taken many losses. Whichever explanation is true, it seems certain the appellation was chosen by the Almoravids for themselves, the name might be related to the ribat of Waggag ibn Zallu in the village of Aglu, where the future Almoravid spiritual leader Abdallah ibn Yasin got his initial training. Contemporaries frequently referred to them as the al-mulathimun, the Almoravids veiled themselves below the eyes with a tagelmust, a custom they adapted from southern Sanhaja Berbers. Although practical for the desert dust, the Almoravids insisted on wearing the veil everywhere, as a badge of foreignness in urban settings and it served as the uniform of the Almoravids. Under their rule, sumptuary laws forbade anybody else from wearing the veil, in turn, the succeeding Almohads made a point of mocking the Almoravid veil as symbolic of effeminacy and decadence. The western Sanhaja had been converted to Islam some time in the 9th century and they were subsequently united in the 10th century and, with the zeal of neophyte converts, launched several campaigns against the Sudanese. Under their king Tinbarutan ibn Usfayshar, the Sanhaja Lamtuna erected the citadel of Awdaghust, after the collapse of the Sanhaja union, Awdagust passed over to the Ghana empire, and the trans-Saharan routes were taken over by the Zenata Maghrawa of Sijilmassa. The Maghrawa also exploited this disunion to dislodge the Sanhaja Gazzula and Lamta out of their pasturelands in the Sous, around 1035, the Lamtuna chieftain Abu Abdallah Muhammad ibn Tifat, tried to reunite the Sanhaja desert tribes, but his reign lasted less than three years. Around 1040, Yahya ibn Ibrahim, a chieftain of the Gudala, on his return, he stopped by Kairouan in Ifriqiya, where he met Abu Imran al-Fasi, a native of Fes and a jurist and scholar of the Sunni Maliki school
Almoravides
–
Almoravid
gold dinar coin from
Seville,
Spain, 1116. (
British Museum). The Almoravid gold dinar would set the standard of the Iberian
maravedi.
Almoravides
–
The Almoravid empire at its greatest extent, c. 1120.
30.
Queen regnant
–
An empress regnant is a female monarch who reigns in her own right over an empire. A queen regnant possesses and exercises sovereign powers, a queen consort shares her husbands rank and titles, but does not share the sovereignty of her husband. The husband of a queen regnant traditionally does not share his wifes rank, however, the concept of a king consort is not unheard of in contemporary or classical periods. A queen dowager is the widow of a king, a queen mother is a queen dowager who is also the mother of a reigning sovereign. The Byzantine Empress Irene sometimes called herself basileus, emperor, rather than basilissa, empress and Jadwiga of Poland was crowned as Rex Poloniae, King of Poland. Among the Davidic Monarchs of the Kingdom of Judah, there is mentioned a queen regnant, Athaliah. The much later Hasmonean Queen Salome Alexandra was highly popular, accession of a regnant occurs as a nations order of succession permits. The scope of succession may be matrilineal, patrilineal, or both, or, rarely, open to general election when necessary, the right of succession may be open to men and women, or limited to men only or women only. Historically, many realms forbade succession by women or through a line in obedience to the Salic law. No queen regnant ever ruled France, for example, only one woman, Maria Theresa, ruled Austria. As noted in the list below of widely known ruling queens, in the waning days of the 20th century and early days of the 21st, Sweden, Norway, Belgium, the Netherlands, Denmark, Luxembourg and the UK amended their acts of succession to absolute primogeniture. In some cases the change does not take effect during the lifetimes of people already in the line of succession at the time the law was passed, in 2011, the 16 Realms of the Commonwealth agreed to remove the rule of male-preference primogeniture. Once the necessary legislation was passed, this means that had Prince William had a daughter first, in China, Wu Zetian became the Chinese empress regnant and established the Zhou Dynasty after dismissing her sons. It should be noted, however, that Empress Wu used the title huangdi and in many European sources, although the Chrysanthemum Throne of Japan is currently barred to women, this has not always been the case, throughout Japanese history there have been eight empresses regnant. Again, the Japanese language uses the term josei tennō for the position which would be empress regnant in English, monarch Order of succession Queen consort Rani Regent Salic law Sultana Monter, William. The Rise of Female Kings in Europe, 1300-1800, studies 30 women who exercised full sovereign authority in Europe
Queen regnant
–
Elizabeth II, here with her husband on the occasion of her coronation in 1953
Queen regnant
–
Royal, noble and
chivalric ranks
Queen regnant
–
Margaret I ruled Denmark, Sweden and Norway in the late 14th and early 15th centuries.
Queen regnant
–
Elizabeth II
31.
Andalusia
–
Andalusia is an autonomous community in southern Spain. It is the most populated and the second largest in area of the communities in the country. The Andalusian autonomous community is recognised as historical nationality. The territory is divided into eight provinces, Almería, Cádiz, Córdoba, Granada, Huelva, Jaén, Málaga and its capital is the city of Seville. Andalusia is the only European region with both Mediterranean and Atlantic coastlines, the small British overseas territory of Gibraltar shares a three-quarter-mile land border with the Andalusian province of Cádiz at the eastern end of the Strait of Gibraltar. The main mountain ranges of Andalusia are the Sierra Morena and the Baetic System, consisting of the Subbaetic and Penibaetic Mountains, in the north, the Sierra Morena separates Andalusia from the plains of Extremadura and Castile–La Mancha on Spains Meseta Central. To the south the geographic subregion of Upper Andalusia lies mostly within the Baetic System, the name Andalusia is derived from the Arabic word Al-Andalus. Including an intense relationship with Naples, Italy, Andalusia has been a traditionally agricultural region, compared to the rest of Spain and the rest of Europe. However, the growth of the community especially in the sectors of industry and services was above average in Spain, the region has, however, a rich culture and a strong cultural identity. Many cultural phenomena that are seen internationally as distinctively Spanish are largely or entirely Andalusian in origin and these include flamenco and, to a lesser extent, bullfighting and Hispano-Moorish architectural styles. Andalusias hinterland is the hottest area of Europe, with cities like Córdoba, Late evening temperatures can sometimes stay around 35 °C until close to midnight, with daytime highs of over 40 °C common. Seville also has the highest average temperature in mainland Spain and mainland Europe. Its present form is derived from the Arabic name for Muslim Iberia. However, the etymology of the name Al-Andalus is disputed, the Spanish place name Andalucía was introduced into the Spanish languages in the 13th century under the form el Andalucía. This was a Castilianization of Al-Andalusiya, the form of the Arabic language al-Andalus. The etymology of al-Andalus is itself somewhat debated, but in fact it entered the Arabic language before this came under Muslim rule. Like the Arabic term al-Andalus, in historical contexts the Spanish term Andalucía or the English term Andalusia do not necessarily refer to the territory designated by these terms today. To designate the territories the Christians had regained by that time in the Guadalquivir valley and in the Kingdoms of Granada, in a document from 1253, Alfonso X styled himself Rey de Castilla, León y de toda Andalucía
Andalusia
–
Map of the
Iberian peninsula dated 1770. The Kingdoms of
Jaén,
Córdoba and
Seville are collectively referred to under the name Andalucía, while the
Kingdom of Granada appears under its individual name.
Andalusia
–
Flag
Andalusia
–
Portrait of
Blas Infante, executed in
azulejos, located on the avenue in
Jerez de la Frontera named in his honor.
Andalusia
–
Andalusian firs,
Sierra de las Nieves
32.
Denarius
–
In the Roman currency system, the dēnārius, plural, dēnāriī was a small silver coin first minted about 211 BC during the Second Punic War. It is the origin of modern words such as the currency name dinar, it is also the origin for the common noun for money in Italian denaro, in Portuguese dinheiro. Its symbol is X̶, a x with stroke. A predecessor of the denarius was first struck in 267 BC, five years before the first Punic War with a weight of 6.81 grams. Contact with the Greeks prompted a need for coinage in addition to the bronze currency that the Romans were using during that time. The predecessor of the denarius was a Greek-styled silver coin, very similar to the didrachm and drachma struck in Metapontion and these coins were inscribed for Rome but closely resemble their Greek counterparts. They were most likely used for purposes and were seldom used in Rome. The first distinctively Roman silver coin appeared around 226 BC, Rome overhauled its coinage around 211 BC and introduced the denarius alongside a short-lived denomination called the victoriatus. This denarius contained an average 4.5 grams, or 1⁄72 of a Roman pound of silver and it formed the backbone of Roman currency throughout the Roman republic. The denarius began to undergo slow debasement toward the end of the republican period, under the rule of Augustus, its silver content fell to 3.9 grams. It remained at nearly this weight until the time of Nero, debasement of the coins silver content continued after Nero. Later Roman emperors reduced its content to 3 grams around the third century. The value at its introduction was 10 asses, giving the denarius its name, in about 141 BC, it was re-tariffed at 16 asses, to reflect the decrease in weight of the as. The denarius continued to be the coin of the Roman Empire until it was replaced by the antoninianus in the middle of the third century. The last issuance of this occurred in bronze form by Aurelian. For more details, see Denarius, in A Dictionary of Ancient Roman Coins, the denarius has a link from the Roman times to the British penny and US1 cent piece. It is difficult to give even rough comparative values for money from before the 20th century, as the range of products and services available for purchase was different. Classical historians often say that in the late Roman Republic and early Roman Empire the daily wage for an unskilled laborer and common soldier was 1 denarius or about US$2. 8$ in bread
Denarius
–
Top row left to right: 157 BC
Roman Republic, A.D 73
Vespasian, A.D 161
Marcus Aurelius, A.D 194
Septimius Severus; Second row left to right: A.D 199
Caracalla, A.D 200
Julia Domna, A.D 219
Elagabalus, A.D 236
Maximinus Thrax
Denarius
–
Flavia Domitilla, wife of
Vespasian and mother of
Titus and
Domitian.
Denarius
–
Quintus Antonius Balbus (c. 82-83 BC)
33.
Cistercian
–
A Cistercian is a member of the Cistercian Order (/sɪˈstɜːrʃən/, abbreviated as OCist or SOCist, a religious order of monks and nuns. They are variously called the Bernardines, after the highly influential St, the original emphasis of Cistercian life was on manual labour and self-sufficiency, and many abbeys have traditionally supported themselves through activities such as agriculture and brewing ales. Over the centuries, however, education and academic pursuits came to dominate the life of their monasteries, after that the followers of the older pattern of life became known as the Cistercians of the Original Observance. The term Cistercian, derives from Cistercium, the Latin name for the village of Cîteaux and it was in this village that a group of Benedictine monks from the monastery of Molesme founded Cîteaux Abbey in 1098, with the goal of following more closely the Rule of Saint Benedict. The best known of them were Robert of Molesme, Alberic of Cîteaux and the English monk Stephen Harding, Bernard of Clairvaux entered the monastery in the early 1110s with 30 companions and helped the rapid proliferation of the order. By the end of the 12th century, the order had spread throughout France and into England, Wales, Scotland, Ireland, Spain, Portugal, Italy, the keynote of Cistercian life was a return to literal observance of the Rule of St Benedict. The most striking feature in the reform was the return to manual labour, especially field-work, Cistercian architecture is considered one of the most beautiful styles of medieval architecture. Additionally, in relation to such as agriculture, hydraulic engineering and metallurgy. The monastery church of Cluny Abbey, the largest in Europe, had become wealthy from rents, tithes, feudal rights and pilgrims who passed through Cluniac houses on the Way of St. James. On March 21,1098, Roberts small group acquired a plot of marshland just south of Dijon called Cîteaux, during the first year, the monks set about constructing lodging areas and farming the lands of Cîteaux, making use of a nearby chapel for Mass. In Roberts absence from Molesme, however, the abbey had gone into decline, and Pope Urban II, the remaining monks of Cîteaux elected Alberic as their abbot, under whose leadership the abbey would find its grounding. Robert had been the idealist of the order, and Alberic was their builder, upon assuming the role of abbot, Alberic moved the site of the fledgling community near a brook a short distance away from the original site. Alberic discontinued the use of Benedictine black garments in the abbey and he returned the community to the original Benedictine ideal of manual work and prayer, dedicated to the ideal of charity and self sustenance. Alberic also forged an alliance with the Dukes of Burgundy, working out a deal with Duke Odo of Burgundy concerning the donation of a vineyard as well as stones with which they built their church. The church was consecrated and dedicated to the Virgin Mary on November 16,1106, on January 26,1108, Alberic died and was soon succeeded by Stephen Harding, the man responsible for carrying the order into its crucial phase. The order was fortunate that Stephen was an abbot of extraordinary gifts, and he framed the original version of the Cistercian Constitution or regulations, the Carta caritatis. Although this was revised on several occasions to meet needs, from the outset it emphasised a simple life of work, love, prayer. Cistercian abbeys also refused to admit children, allowing adults to choose their religious vocation for themselves – a practice later emulated by many of the older Benedictine houses
Cistercian
–
St
Bernard of Clairvaux, one of the most influential early Cistercians
Cistercian
–
The Cistercian
coat of arms
Cistercian
–
Vietnamese Cistercian monks standing in a
cloister and wearing their
religious habits
Cistercian
–
An illumination of
Stephen Harding (right) presenting a model of his church to the
Blessed Virgin Mary (Municipal Library, Dijon). Cîteaux, c. 1125. At this period Cistercian illumination was the most advanced in France, but within 25 years it was abandoned altogether under the influence of Bernard of Clairvaux.
34.
Bernard de Sedirac
–
Bernard of Sédirac, also known as Bernard of Agen or Bernard of Le Sauvetat, was the metropolitan archbishop of Toledo from 1086 and first primate of Spain from 1088 to his death. His significance in the history of Spain lies in the fact that during his episcopate the church of Castile and he was born in Gascony around 1050, at La Sauvetat de Blanquefort, near the town of Agen. It is thought he belonged to the ancient family of the viscounts of Sédirac, whose castle, southwest of La Sauvetat, an illness forced Bernard to turn away from a military career and instead enter the monastic life. He became a monk in the Abbey of Cluny, whence he was sent to Spain with others to assist the cause of the reforms of Gregory VII. Here he was abbot of St. Facundus at Sahagún in the diocese of León, and finally named for the archbishopric of Toledo by Alfonso VI of Castile. Gregorys plans for Spain included the substitution of the Roman liturgy for the Mozarabic, the former point had been practically gained before his death, in spite of strenuous opposition. Urban II, by raising Bernards see to primatial dignity, gave him the necessary to prosecute the work of Romanizing. His career was throughout that of an adherent of the papacy. Four of his sermons, on the Salve Regina, are included among those of the great Bernard of Clairvaux and he was satirized in the 11th-century work, The Treatise of Garcia of Toledo, said to have been written by one of his canons. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Jackson, Samuel Macauley. New Schaff–Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, london and New York, Funk and Wagnalls. Peter Segl, Königtum und Klosterreform in Spanien
Bernard de Sedirac
–
Sepulchre of
bishop of Sigüenza and
Archbishop of Toledo since the conquest of 1086, Bernard de Sedirac, a.k.a.
Bernard of Agen, (
France 1050 -
Spain 1125), at the Cathedral of
Sigüenza
Bernard de Sedirac
–
This around two-millenniums existent military stronghold, at the Spanish City of
Sigüenza was reformed and improved by French born bishop of Sigüenza Bernard de Sedirac, a.k.a.
Bernard of Agen, (1050 - 1125),
Archbishop of Toledo since the conquest of 1086, around the first years of the 1120s. It was for several centuries afterwards the residence of the bishops
35.
Alfonso VII of Castile
–
Alfonso VII, born Alfonso Raimúndez, called the Emperor, became the King of Galicia in 1111 and King of León and Castile in 1126. Alfonso first used the title Emperor of All Spain, alongside his mother Urraca, Alfonso later held another investiture in 1135 in a grand ceremony reasserting his claims to the Imperial title. He was the son of Urraca of León and Raymond of Burgundy, Alfonso was a dignified and somewhat enigmatic figure. His rule was characterised by the supremacy of the western kingdoms of Christian Iberia over the eastern after the reign of Alfonso the Battler. He also sought to make the imperial title meaningful in practice and his hegemonic intentions never saw fruition, however. During his tenure, Portugal became de facto independent, in 1128 and he was a patron of poets, including, probably, the troubadour Marcabru. In 1111, Diego Gelmírez, Bishop of Compostela and the count of Traba and he was a child, but his mother had succeeded to the united throne of León-Castile-Galicia and desired to assure her sons prospects and groom him for his eventual succession. By 1125 he had inherited the formerly Muslim Kingdom of Toledo, on 10 March 1126, after the death of his mother, he was crowned in León and immediately began the recovery of the Kingdom of Castile, which was then under the domination of Alfonso the Battler. By the Peace of Támara of 1127, the Battler recognised Alfonso VII of Castile, the territory in the far east of his dominion, however, had gained much independence during the rule of his mother and experienced many rebellions. After his recognition in Castile, Alfonso fought to curb the autonomy of the local barons, when Alfonso the Battler, King of Navarre and Aragón, died without descendants in 1134, he willed his kingdom to the military orders. The aristocracy of both kingdoms rejected this, García Ramírez, Count of Monzón was elected in Navarre while Alfonso pretended to the throne of Aragón. The nobles chose another candidate in the kings brother, Ramiro II. Alfonso responded by occupying La Rioja, conquering Zaragoza, and governing the realms in unison, from this point, the arms of Zaragoza began to appear in those of León. In several skirmishes, he defeated the joint Navarro-Aragonese army and put the kingdoms to vassalage and he had the strong support of the lords north of the Pyrenees, who held lands as far as the River Rhône. In the end, however, the forces of the Navarre. At this time, he helped Ramon Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona, a vague tradition had always assigned the title of emperor to the sovereign who held León. Sancho the Great considered the city the imperiale culmen and minted coins with the inscription Imperator totius Hispaniae after being crowned in it, such a sovereign was considered the most direct representative of the Visigothic kings, who had been themselves the representatives of the Roman Empire. But though appearing in charters, and claimed by Alfonso VI of León and Alfonso the Battler, in 1135, Alfonso was crowned Emperor of Spain in the Cathedral of León
Alfonso VII of Castile
–
Alfonso VII
Alfonso VII of Castile
–
Alfonso as Emperor, from a Privilegium Imperatoris issued by him.
36.
Pope Calixtus II
–
Pope Callixtus II or Callistus II, born Guy of Burgundy, reigned from 1 February 1119 to his death in 1124. His pontificate was shaped by the Investiture Controversy, which he was able to settle through the Concordat of Worms in 1122. Born the fourth son of William I, Count of Burgundy, one of the wealthiest rulers in Europe and his family was part of a network of noble alliances. He was a cousin of Arduin of Ivrea, the King of Italy. One sister, Gisela, was married to Humbert II, Count of Savoy and his brother Raymond was married to Urraca, the heiress of León, and fathered the future King Alfonso VII of León. His brother Hugh was an Archbishop of Besançon, Guy first appears in contemporary records when he became the Archbishop of Vienne in 1088. He held strong views about the Investiture Controversy. These concessions were received with violent opposition and nowhere more so than in France, where the opposition was led by Guy and these decrees were sent to Paschal II with a request for a confirmation, which they received on 20 October 1112. Guy was later, apparently, created cardinal by Pope Paschal, Archbishop Guy de Bourgogne of Vienne, France, who was not a cardinal, was elected at Cluny on 2 February 1119. Nine cardinals took part in the election, most of the other cardinals were in Rome. He was crowned at Vienne on 9 February 1119, as Calixtus II. At the outset, it appeared that the new Pope was willing to negotiate with Henry V, who received the embassy at Strasbourg. Henry V arrived for his conference at Mousson — not alone, as had been anticipated. Calixtus II, fearing that force was likely to be used to extract prejudicial concessions, since there was no compromise coming from Henry V, it was determined on 30 October 1119 that the Emperor and his antipope should be solemnly excommunicated. The Imperial candidate was obliged to flee to the fortress of Sutri and he was transferred from prison to prison first near Salerno, and afterwards at the fortress of Fumo. The imperial allies in Rome soon disbanded, in 1120 Calixtus II issued the papal bull Sicut Judaeis setting out the official position of the papacy regarding the treatment of Jews. It was prompted by the First Crusade, during which five thousand Jews were slaughtered in Europe. The bull was intended to protect Jews and echoed the position of Pope Gregory I that Jews were entitled to enjoy their lawful liberty, having established his power in Italy, the Pope resolved to re-open negotiations with Henry V on the question of investiture
Pope Calixtus II
–
Pope Callixtus II
37.
Confraternity of Belchite
–
The Confraternity of Belchite was an experimental community of knights founded in 1122 by Alfonso the Battler, king of Aragon and Navarre, and lasting until shortly after 1136. Members could enlist permanently or for a set time, vowing never to live at peace with the pagans, when the Emperor Alfonso VII confirmed the charter of the confraternity, he specified that it existed for the defence of Christians and the oppression of Saracens. In 1117 Alfonso the Battler conquered the town of Belchite, about twenty-two miles southeast of his target, the city of Zaragoza. The following years were spent consolidating these gains, and it was not until 1122 that Alfonso established a confraternity of knights in Belchite and he may have envisioned international crusading movement based on military orders, as Peter Schickl suggested and Alfonsos will may attest. The foundation charter of the confraternity does not survive, but that of the similar Order of Monreal, founded by Alfonso in 1128, does. We know that the charter of Belchite was witnessed by the most powerful bishops from throughout Spain, Bernard de Sedirac, Oleguer Bonestruga, Diego Gelmírez. José Lacarra speculated that the confraternity was merged into the Templar organisation, more probably it had collapsed by the time of Alfonso the Battlers will, leaving its confirmation charter of 1136 as a political ploy in the haggling over the succession in Aragon. The confraternity was to have its headquarters either at Belchite or any other fortress in the frontier beyond Zaragoza. It was granted all booty it could seize from the Muslims and exempted from the quinta and it was permitted to colonise any depopulated lands, but all its property was held per deum and inde deo serviant. It elected its own leader, titled princeps or rector, furthermore, the members were permitted to judge cases brought by outsiders against any member. On 4 October 1136 a synod convened by Alfonso VII sat in Burgos and, at his request, present were three archbishops—Raymond de Sauvetât, Diego Gelmírez, Paio Mendes—twenty bishops, nine abbots and the Papal legate Guido Pisano. The support that qualified could be permanent or temporary membership, or a donation, the equating of reconquista with crusade was based on the idea of opening a route to Jerusalem through Spain and North Africa. This strongly suggests that Diego was influential in writing up the indulgence of 1136, in his work on Spanish historiography, Américo Castro also proposes that the medieval Christian military orders of fighting religious men were modeled on the Islamic ribāṭ. But it may act as a stimulus to a reinvention within the confines of the recipient culture of a similar institution consonant with the values of the recipient, the ribāṭ was attractive to the Christians and fulfilled a social and military need but was unacceptable owing to Spanish religious values. For the Christians it would have been repugnant to take on the trappings of that very religion whose extermination was lifes highest goal. Nevertheless we may posit that the Islamic concept acted as a stimulus towards the reinvention of the ribāṭ in completely Christian guise, in such a case, moreover, the anthropologist would expect precisely not to find that document institutional continuity upon which the medievalists so depend. Belchite is a house between municipal fraternities, the monastic orders and the ribāṭ. She goes on to quote the objection of OCallaghan why f the ribāṭ with its complement of warrior-ascetics existed in Spain for centuries, the first Spanish military order was not founded before 1158
Confraternity of Belchite
–
Today Belchite lies in ruins,
a casualty of the civil war
38.
Holy Land
–
The Holy Land is an area roughly located between the Jordan River and the Mediterranean Sea that also includes the Eastern Bank of the Jordan River. Traditionally, it is synonymous with both the biblical Land of Israel and historical Palestine, the term usually refers to a territory roughly corresponding to the modern State of Israel, the Palestinian territories, western Jordan, and parts of southern Lebanon and southwestern Syria. It is considered holy by Jews, Christians, and Muslims, many sites in the Holy Land have long been pilgrimage destinations for adherents of the Abrahamic religions, including Jews, Christians, Muslims, and Baháís. Pilgrims visit the Holy Land to touch and see physical manifestations of their faith, confirm their beliefs in the context with collective excitation. Jews do not commonly refer to the Land of Israel as Holy Land, the Tanakh explicitly refers to it as holy land in only one passage, in Zechariah 2,16. The holiness of the Land of Israel is generally implied in the Tanakh by the Land being given to the Israelites by God, that is, it is the promised land, an integral part of Gods covenant. In the Torah many mitzvot commanded to the Israelites can only be performed in the Land of Israel, for example, in the Land of Israel, no land shall be sold permanently. Shmita is only observed with respect to the land of Israel, according to Eliezer Schweid, The uniqueness of the Land of Israel is. geo-theological and not merely climatic. This is the land which faces the entrance of the spiritual world, Jerusalem, as the site of the Temple, is considered especially significant. Sacred burials are still undertaken for diaspora Jews who wish to lie buried in the soil of Israel. According to Jewish tradition, Jerusalem is Mount Moriah, the location of the binding of Isaac, the Hebrew Bible mentions the name Jerusalem 669 times, often because many mitzvot can only be performed within its environs. The name Zion, which refers to Jerusalem, but sometimes the Land of Israel. The Talmud mentions the religious duty of colonising Israel, so significant in Judaism is the act of purchasing land in Israel, the Talmud allows for the lifting of certain religious restrictions of Sabbath observance to further its acquisition and settlement. Rabbi Johanan said that one who walks a distance of 4 cubits in Israel may be confident of a share in the future world, a story says that when R. Eleazar b. Due to the Jewish population being concentrated in Israel, emigration was generally prevented, many Jews wanted Israel to be the place where they died. R. Anan said, To be buried in Israel is like being buried under the altar, the saying His land will absolve His people implies that burial in Israel will cause one to be absolved of all ones sins. Christian books, including editions of the Bible, often had maps of the Holy Land, for instance, the Itinerarium Sacrae Scripturae of Heinrich Bünting, a German Protestant pastor, featured such a map. As a geographic term, the description Holy Land loosely encompasses modern-day Israel, in the Quran, the term الأرض المقدسة is mentioned at least seven times, once when Moses proclaims to the Children of Israel, O my people
Holy Land
–
A 1759 map entitled The Holy Land, or Palestine, showing not only the Ancient Kingdoms of Judah and Israel in which the 12 Tribes have been distinguished, but also their placement in different periods as indicated in the Holy Scriptures by Tobias Conrad
Lotter,
Geographer.
Augsburg,
Germany
Holy Land
–
The
Church of the Holy Sepulchre is one of the most important pilgrimage sites in Christianity, as it is the purported site of Christ's resurrection.
Holy Land
–
Al-Aqsa Mosque in the Old City of Jerusalem
39.
Crusade
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The First Crusade arose after a call to arms in a 1095 sermon by Pope Urban II. Urban urged military support for the Byzantine Empire and its Emperor, Alexios I, the response to Urbans preaching by people of many different classes across Western Europe established the precedent for later Crusades. Volunteers became Crusaders by taking a vow and receiving plenary indulgences from the church. Some were hoping for apotheosis at Jerusalem, or forgiveness from God for all their sins, others participated to satisfy feudal obligations, gain glory and honour, or find opportunities for economic and political gain. Many modern Historians have polarised opinions of the Crusaders behaviour under Papal sanction, to some it was incongruous with the stated aims and implied moral authority of the papacy and the Crusades, to the extent that on occasions that the Pope excommunicated Crusaders. Crusaders often pillaged as they travelled, while their leaders retained control of captured territory rather than returning it to the Byzantines. During the Peoples Crusade thousands of Jews were murdered in what is now called the Rhineland massacres, Constantinople was sacked during the Fourth Crusade rendering the reunification of Christendom impossible. These tales consequently galvanised medieval romance, philosophy and literature, but the Crusades also reinforced the connection between Western Christendom, feudalism, and militarism. Crusade is not a term, instead the terms iter for journey or peregrinatio for pilgrimage were used. Not until the word crucesignatus for one who was signed with the cross was adopted at the close of the century was specific terminology developed. The Middle English equivalents were derived from old French, croiserie in the 13th–15th centuries, croisade appeared in English c1575, and continued to be the leading form till c1760. By convention historians adopt the term for the Christian holy wars from 1095, the Crusades in the Holy Land are traditionally counted as nine distinct campaigns, numbered from the First Crusade of 1095–99 to the Ninth Crusade of 1271/2. Usage of the term Crusade may differ depending on the author, pluralists use the term Crusade of any campaign explicitly sanctioned by the reigning Pope. This reflects the view of the Roman Catholic Church that every military campaign given Papal sanction is equally valid as a Crusade, regardless of its cause, justification, generalists see Crusades as any and all holy wars connected with the Latin Church and fought in defence of their faith. Popularists limit the Crusades to only those that were characterised by popular groundswells of religious fervour – that is, only the First Crusade, Medieval Muslim historiographers such as Ali ibn al-Athir refer to the Crusades as the Frankish Wars. The term used in modern Arabic, ḥamalāt ṣalībiyya حملات صليبية, campaigns of the cross, is a loan translation of the term Crusade as used in Western historiography. The Islamic prophet Muhammad founded Islam in the Arabian Peninsula, the resulting unified polity in the seventh and eighth centuries led to a rapid expansion of Arab power. This influence stretched from the northwest Indian subcontinent, across Central Asia, the Middle East, North Africa, southern Italy, tolerance, trade, and political relationships between the Arabs and the Christian states of Europe waxed and waned
Crusade
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Madrid Skylitzes illuminated manuscript depicting Byzantine Greeks punishing ninth-century
Cretan Saracens
Crusade
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Map of the
Eastern Mediterranean in 1135, showing crusader-held and neighbouring territories
Crusade
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Fifteenth-century illustrated French translation of
Boccaccio 's
De Casibus Virorum Illustrium, showing
Seljuk emperor
Alp Arslan ritually humiliating
Romanos IV in 1071 after Manzikert; Alp Arslan allowed Romanos to return to
Constantinople, where he was killed by the Byzantines.
Crusade
–
Illumination from the Livre des Passages d'Outre-mer (c. 1490) of Urban II at the Council of Clermont (from the
Bibliothèque Nationale)
40.
Ayerbe
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Ayerbe is also the name of a village in the Broto municipality. Ayerbe is a town in the Hoya de Huesca comarca, in the community of Aragon in Spain. Ayerbe is located 28 km from Huesca on highway A132 in the direction of Pamplona and it is located at 42°16′36″N 00°41′21″W, with a height above sea level of Alicante of 582 m. and an area of 63.29 square kilometres. It is located in an excavated erosive depression in the surface of the Tertiary period, the soil is dry, loose and stony, generally level with a sprinkling of small isolated hills. The land is covered by pines, olive and almond trees. There are also areas of production to the east and south. It is also populated by oaks, rosemary, gorse. There are occasional occurrences of rabbits, hares and partridges, the area is particularly attractive to bird watchers, who come to see the lammergeier, griffon vulture and Egyptian vultures, as well as a wide variety of birds of prey. Hunters find plenty of wild boars and deer, as well as partridge, ayerbes main claim to fame is that Santiago Ramón y Cajal, winner of the 1906 Nobel prize in Physiology or Medicine, lived here for ten years. The town promotes his memory with a museum and visitor centre, Ayerbe library holds a collection of Cajal-related books with more than 250 works and documents for public use. Ayerbe has a library, casino, bars, municipal swimming pool and, around the town. There are several restaurants, a hotel and bed and breakfast accommodation, other attractions include Fontaneta park and the La Fuente de los Tres Caños fountain. The hill directly behind the town is the location of a now renovated chapel at one end and these can be reached on foot or by all terrain vehicle and provide excellent views of the surrounding countryside. The town is known by many in the region for its Tortas de Ayerbe, visitors can also purchase locally produced wine, olive oil and honey. The Fiesta of Santa Leticia takes place around September 9 and lasts for four to six days. In 2005 the 6th meeting of the Giants of Aragon took place in the town, the week of the mushrooms has been celebrated in the town for years in the month of October and constitutes a social event on an international level. Palace of Ayerbe fontaneta. blogspot. com Reino de los Mallos www. ayerbe. es Carnicraba Himno a la Virgen de Casbas Fichero Audio
Ayerbe
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The 16th-century Palacio of the
Marquesses de Ayerbe is now a private building, used as a music school
Ayerbe
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Location of Ayerbe
Ayerbe
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Some of Ayerbe's Giants which parade every year as part of the Feast of
Santa Leticia.
Ayerbe
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"Refollau" dessert from Ayerbe
41.
Liber feudorum Ceritaniae
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It is preserved in the Arxiu de la Corona dAragó and consists of 272 charters in 379 folios with 32 colourful miniatures on a golden background. It was probably copied from a part of the Liber feudorum maior. It contains all the documents pertaining to Cerdagne and Roussillon found in the LFM and in exactly the same order, most of the charters in it cover the years 1172–6. The text of the Liber probably dates to between 1200 and 1209, though Lawrence McCrank has dated it later, to 1237–41, the oldest charter in the collection dates from the reign of Lothair I. It may represent the first and only completed part of a project of regional libri feudorum made to accompany the LFM. The 32 miniatures are, with the exception of the one on the first folio, there is one for each document in the chartulary and they are consistent in size, with a maximum height of 11.5 cm and maximum width of 9.5 cm. They are all alike in content, depicting the count either receiving his vassals hands in his own or negotiating with them from his throne, the scene is always set in an interior marked by large arches and columns. Despite this, the miniatures have not been the object of any artistic or iconographic study. The first folio, by a different artist from the rest, depicts Isarn and Dalmau, lords of Castellfollit and it is of a higher calibre than the other miniatures and is painted in the Byzantinist style that was becoming dominant in Catalonia around 1200. This artist has been identified with the painter of the fronts at Sant Sadurní de Rotgers. He also illustrated a manuscript of Augustine of Hippos De civitate Dei and it is more artistic than the Liber, but the Byzantine influence is still acutely felt. The lesser artist of the remaining 31 miniatures was probably a native Catalan accustomed to painting altars and he appears influenced by contemporary enamel production, especially of the south French school centred on Limoges and active in the late twelfth and early thirteenth centuries. Twelve of the miniatures are unfinished and reveal that the colour, though his miniatures are not artistically noteworthy, they are a rich documentary record of the major Catalan figures of the era, Folio 6v. Depicts a convention between Folch, Bishop of Urgell, and count William I of Cerdagne concerning the castle of Cardona, depicts Saint Ermengol, Bishop of Urgell, swearing an oath of fealty to Wifred II. Folio 71 depicts the betrothal of the Gausfred III of Roussillon to the Ermengarda, daughter of the Trencavel viscount Bernard Ato IV, such depictions were rare in medieval manuscripts. Folio 73 depicts Alfonso the Battler, King of Aragon, receiving the homage of the men of the count of Roussillon. Història de la Literatura Catalana, vol, access to a digitised version is available here
Liber feudorum Ceritaniae
–
Illustrations [edit]
42.
Lleida
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Lleida is a city in the west of Catalonia, Spain. It is the city of the province of Lleida. Geographically, it is located in the Catalan Central Depression, the metro area has about 250,000 inhabitants. It is also the city of the Segrià comarca, as well as the largest city in the province. It had 137,387 inhabitants as of 2010, including the municipalities of Raimat. Lleida is one of the oldest towns in Catalonia, with recorded settlements dating back to the Bronze Age period, until the Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, the area served as a settlement for an Iberian people, the Ilergetes. The town became a municipality, named Ilerda, under the reign of Augustus and it was reconquered in 1149, after being ruled by the Moors for many centuries, who had conquered the town in the 8th century. In 1297, the University of Lleida was founded, becoming the third oldest in the whole of Spain, during the following centuries, the town was damaged by several wars such as the Reapers War in the 17th century and the Spanish Civil War in the 20th century. Since then, the city has been in a constant urban, commercial, in ancient times the city, named Iltrida and Ilerda, was the chief city of the Ilergetes, an Iberian tribe. Indíbil, king of the Ilergetes, and Mandoni, king of the Ausetanes, under the Romans, the city was incorporated into the Roman province of Hispania Tarraconensis, and was a place of considerable importance, historically as well as geographically. Its situation induced the legates of Pompey in Spain to make it the key of their defense against Caesar and it ended by the capitulation of Afranius and Petreius, who were conquered as much by Caesars generosity as by his strategy. In consequence of the battle, the Latin phrase Ilerdam videas is said to have used by people who wanted to cast bad luck on someone else. Under the Roman empire, Ilerda was a flourishing city. It had a stone bridge over the Sicoris. In the time of Ausonius the city had fallen into decay and it was part of Visigothic and Muslim Hispania until it was conquered from the Moors by Count Ramon Berenguer IV of Barcelona in 1149. It used to be the seat of a university, the oldest in the Crown of Aragon, until 1717. The University of Lleida is nowadays active again since 1991, during the Reapers War, Lleida was occupied by the French and rebel forces. In 1644 the city was conquered by the Spanish under D. Felipe da Silva, Lleida served as a key defense point for Barcelona during the Spanish Civil War, and fell to the Insurgents, whose air forces bombed it extensively, in 1937 and 1938
Lleida
–
La Seu Vella cathedral in Lleida
Lleida
–
Indíbil, king of the Ilergetes (left) and Mandonio, king of the Ausetanes (right)
Lleida
–
Lleida-Pirineus train station
Lleida
–
Lleida-Alguaire airport
43.
Count of Barcelona
–
The Count of Barcelona was the ruler of Catalonia for much of Catalan history, from the 9th until the 15th century. The County of Barcelona was created by Charlemagne after he had conquered lands north of the river Ebro, as the county became hereditary in one family, the bond of the counts to their Frankish overlords loosened, especially after the Capetian dynasty supplanted the Carolingians. In the 12th century the Counts formed a union with the Kingdom of Aragon. In 1258, the king of France relinquished his authority over the County in the Treaty of Corbeil. Catalonia maintained its own laws, institutions, taxes and privileges until they were removed after the War of the Spanish Succession in the 18th century, Count of Barcelona remained one of the many hereditary titles of the Spanish monarchy. In the 20th century, the title regained some prominence when Juan de Borbón, in 1977, after Juan Carlos had become King upon Francos death in 1975, he officially awarded the title of Count of Barcelona to his father, who had renounced his rights to the throne. Juan held that title until his death in 1993, when it reverted to the King who has held it ever since, Juan de Borbóns widow used the title Countess of Barcelona until her death in 2000. The succession of Ramon Berenguer IV and Petronilla led to the creation of the Crown of Aragon, martin was the last direct descendant of Wilfred the Hairy to rule, died without legitimate heirs. By the Compromise of Caspe of 1412 the County of Barcelona, in Barcelona this was promulgated in 1716, and the title of Count of Barcelona became one of the many unused hereditary titles of the modern Spanish monarchy. List of Aragonese monarchs List of Spanish monarchs List of Viscounts of Barcelona
Count of Barcelona
–
Counties in the Spanish March.
Count of Barcelona
–
Wilfred I (Guifré I) el Pelós (the Hairy)
Count of Barcelona
–
Wilfred II Borrell I (Guifré II Borrell)
Count of Barcelona
–
Sunyer
44.
Granada
–
Granada is the capital city of the province of Granada, in the autonomous community of Andalusia, Spain. Granada is located at the foot of the Sierra Nevada mountains, at the confluence of four rivers, the Beiro, the Darro, the Genil and the Monachil. It sits at an elevation of 738 m above sea level, yet is only one hour by car from the Mediterranean coast. Nearby is the Sierra Nevada Ski Station, where the FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 1996 were held, about 3. 3% of the population did not hold Spanish citizenship, the largest number of these people coming from South America. Its nearest airport is Federico García Lorca Granada-Jaén Airport, the Alhambra, a Moorish citadel and palace, is in Granada. It is the most renowned building of the Andalusian Islamic historical legacy with its cultural attractions that make Granada a popular destination among the touristic cities of Spain. The Almohad influence on architecture is preserved in the Granada neighborhood called the Albaicín with its fine examples of Moorish. Granada is also well-known within Spain for the University of Granada which has about 80,000 students spread over five different campuses in the city, the pomegranate is the heraldic device of Granada. The region surrounding what today is Granada has been populated since at least 5500 BC and experienced Roman, the most ancient ruins found in the city belongs to an Iberian oppidum called Ilturir, in the region known as Bastetania. This oppidum eventually changed its name to Iliberri, and after the Roman conquest of Iberia, the Umayyad conquest of Hispania, starting in AD711, brought large parts of the Iberian Peninsula under Moorish control and established Al-Andalus. In the early 11th century, after a war that ended the Caliphate, the Berber, Zawi ben Ziri, established an independent kingdom for himself. Jewish people were established in another close to Illiberis, called Gárnata or Gárnata al-Yahūd. Granadas historical name in the Arabic language was غرناطة, the word Gárnata possibly means hill of strangers. Because the city was situated on a low plain and, as a result, difficult to protect from attacks, in a short time this town was transformed into one of the most important cities of Al-Andalus. By the end of the 11th century, the city had spread across the Darro to reach the hill of the future Alhambra, the Almoravids ruled Granada from 1090 and the Almohad dynasty from 1166. With the Reconquista in full swing after the conquest of Córdoba in 1236, according to some historians, Granada was a tributary state to the Kingdom of Castile since that year. It provided connections with Muslim and Arab trade centers, particularly for gold from sub-Saharan Africa and the Maghreb, the Nasrids also supplied troops from the Emirate and mercenaries from North Africa for service to Castile. Ibn Battuta, a traveler and an authentic historian, visited the Kingdom of Granada in 1350
Granada
–
From top left: The
Alhambra,
Generalife, Patio de los Leones in Alhambra, Royal Hall in Alhambra,
Albaicín and
Sacromonte, Huerto del Carlos, in Albaicín, Plaza Nueva, house in Albaicín, façade of the
cathedral, bell tower of the cathedral,
Royal Chapel
Granada
–
Arco/puerta de Elvira in Granada
Granada
–
Historic map of Granada by
Piri Reis
45.
Valencia (city in Spain)
–
Its urban area extends beyond the administrative city limits with a population of around 1. 5–1.6 million people. Valencia is Spains third largest metropolitan area, with a population ranging from 1.7 to 2.5 million, the Port of Valencia is the 5th busiest container port in Europe and the busiest container port on the Mediterranean Sea. The city is ranked at Gamma in the Globalization and World Cities Research Network, Valencia was founded as a Roman colony by the consul Decimus Junius Brutus Callaicus in 138 BC, and called Valentia Edetanorum. In 1238 the Christian king James I of Aragon reconquered the city and divided the land among the nobles who helped him conquer it and he also created a new law for the city, the Furs of Valencia, which were extended to the rest of the Kingdom of Valencia. In the 18th century Philip V of Spain abolished the privileges as punishment to the kingdom of Valencia for aligning with the Habsburg side in the War of the Spanish Succession, Valencia was the capital of Spain when Joseph Bonaparte moved the Court there in the summer of 1812. It also served as capital between 1936 and 1937, during the Second Spanish Republic, the city is situated on the banks of the Turia, on the east coast of the Iberian Peninsula, fronting the Gulf of Valencia on the Mediterranean Sea. Valencia is integrated into an area on the Costa del Azahar. Valencias main festival is the Falles, the traditional Spanish dish, paella, originated in Valencia. The original Latin name of the city was Valentia, meaning strength, or valour, the Roman historian Livy explains that the founding of Valentia in the 2nd century BC was due to the settling of the Roman soldiers who fought against an Iberian rebel, Viriatus. It is not clear if the term Balansiyya was reserved for the entire Taifa of Valencia or also designated the city, by gradual sound changes, Valentia /waˈlentia/ has become Valencia or in Castilian and València in Valencian. In Valencian, the grave accent <è> /ɛ/ contrasts with the acute accent <é> /e/—but the word València is an exception to this rule and it is spelled according to Catalan etymology, though its pronunciation is closer to Vulgar Latin. Valencia stands on the banks of the Turia River, located on the eastern coast of the Iberian Peninsula, at its founding by the Romans, it stood on a river island in the Turia,6.4 km from the sea. The Albufera, a lagoon and estuary about 11 km south of the city, is one of the largest lakes in Spain. The City Council bought the lake from the Crown of Spain for 1,072,980 pesetas in 1911, in 1986, because of its cultural, historical, and ecological value, the Generalitat Valenciana declared it a natural park. Valencia has a Mediterranean climate with short, very mild winters and long, hot and its average annual temperature is 18.4 °C.23.0 °C during the day and 13.8 °C at night. In the coldest month – January, the temperature typically during the day ranges from 14 to 21 °C. In the warmest month – August, the temperature during the day typically ranges from 28–34 °C. Generally, similar temperatures to those experienced in the part of Europe in summer last about 8 months
Valencia (city in Spain)
–
Clockwise from top:
City of Arts and Sciences, modernist buildings in Town Hall Square, La Lonja, Queen Square with a view of the Cathedral and its tower the Miguelete, Business Offices in France Avenue, the America's Cup port and the Malvarrosa beach.
Valencia (city in Spain)
–
Commercial zone
Valencia (city in Spain)
–
Port of Valencia
Valencia (city in Spain)
–
The North station (
Estació del Nord)
46.
Bayonne
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Bayonne is a city and commune and one of the two sub-prefectures of the department of Pyrénées-Atlantiques, in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region of south-western France. Archaeological studies have confirmed the presence of a Roman castrum, a stronghold in Novempopulania at the end of the 4th century before the city was populated by the Vascones. In 1023 Bayonne was the capital of Labourd and, in the 12th century, extended to, at that time the first bridge was built over the Adour. The city came under the domination of the English in 1152 through the marriage of Eleanor of Aquitaine, it became militarily and, above all and it was separated from the Viscount of Labourd in 1177 by Richard the Lion Heart. In 1451 the city was taken by the Crown of France after the Hundred Years War, the loss of trade with the English and the silting up of the river as well as the movement of the city towards the north weakened it. The district of Saint-Esprit developed anyway thanks to the arrival of a Jewish population fleeing the Spanish Inquisition, from this community Bayonne gained its reputation for chocolate. The course of the Adour was changed in 1578 under the direction of Louis de Foix, in the 17th century the city was fortified by Vauban. In 1951 the Lacq gas field was discovered whose extracted sulphur, Bayonne was, in 2014, a commune with over 45,000 inhabitants, the heart of the urban area of Bayonne and of the Agglomeration Côte Basque-Adour which includes Anglet and Biarritz. It is an important part of the Basque Bayonne-San Sebastián Eurocity, modern industry—metallurgy and chemicals—are established to take advantage of procurement opportunities and sea shipments through the harbour. It is now mostly business services which today represent the largest source of employment, Bayonne is also a cultural capital, a city with strong Basque and Gascon influences and a rich historical past. Its heritage lies in its architecture, the diversity of collections in museums, its gastronomic specialties, the inhabitants of the commune are known as Bayonnais or Bayonnaises. Bayonne is located in the south-west of France on the border between Basque Country and Gascony. It developed at the confluence of the Adour and its tributary on the left bank, the commune was part of the Basque province of Labourd. Bayonne occupies a territory characterized by a relief to the west and to the north towards the Landes forest, tending to slightly raise towards the south. The city has developed at the confluence of the Adour and Nive 6 kilometres from the ocean, the meeting point of the two rivers coincides with a narrowing of the Adour valley. Downstream from this point the river has shaped a large bed in the dunes creating a significant bottleneck at the confluence. The occupation of the hill that dominates this narrowing of the valley developed through a gradual spread across the lowlands by building embankments, the drainage network of the western Pre-Pyrenees evolved mostly from the Quaternary from south-east to northwest oriented east-west. The Adour was then captured by the gaves and this system, together with the Nive, led to the emergence of a new alignment of the lower Adour and this capture has been dated to the early Quaternary
Bayonne
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The city hall
Bayonne
Bayonne
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Petit Bayonne, a view across the
Nive River
Bayonne
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The Château Vieux
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One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Alphonso s.v. Alphonso I., king of Aragon". Encyclopædia Britannica. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 734–735.
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