1.
Hereford
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Hereford is a cathedral city, civil parish and county town of Herefordshire, England. It lies on the River Wye, approximately 16 miles east of the border with Wales,24 miles southwest of Worcester, with a population of 58,896, it is the largest settlement in the county. The name Hereford is said to come from the Anglo-Saxon here, an army or formation of soldiers, and the ford, if this is the origin it suggests that Hereford was a place where a body of armed men forded or crossed the Wye. The Welsh name for Hereford is Henffordd, meaning old road, much of the county of Herefordshire was Welsh-speaking, as reflected in the Welsh names of many places in the county. An early town charter from 1189 granted by Richard I of England describes it as Hereford in Wales, Hereford has been recognised as a city since time immemorial, with the status being reconfirmed as recently as October 2000. It is now known chiefly as a centre for a wider agricultural and rural area. Products from Hereford include, cider, beer, leather goods, nickel alloys, poultry, chemicals, hostilities between the Anglo-Saxons and the Welsh came to a head with the Battle of Hereford in 760, in which the Britons freed themselves from the influence of the English. Hereford had the only mint west of the Severn in the reign of Athelstan, and it was to Hereford, then a border town, the present Hereford Cathedral dates from the early 12th century, as does the first bridge across the Wye. Former Bishops of Hereford include Saint Thomas de Cantilupe and Lord High Treasurer of England Thomas Charlton. The city gave its name to two suburbs of Paris, France, Maisons-Alfort and Alfortville, due to a manor built there by Peter of Aigueblanche, Bishop of Hereford, in the middle of the 13th century. Hereford, a base for successive holders of the title Earl of Hereford, was once the site of a castle, Hereford Castle, which rivalled that of Windsor in size and scale. This was a base for repelling Welsh attacks and a stronghold for English kings such as King Henry IV when on campaign in the Welsh Marches against Owain Glyndŵr. The castle was dismantled in the 18th century and landscaped into Castle Green, after the Battle of Mortimers Cross in 1461, during the Wars of the Roses, the defeated Lancastrian leader Owen Tudor was taken to Hereford by Sir Roger Vaughan and executed in High Town. A plaque now marks the spot of the execution, Vaughan was later himself executed, under a flag of truce, by Owens son Jasper. During the civil war the city changed several times. On 30 September 1642 Parliamentarians led by Sir Robert Harley and Henry Grey, in December they withdrew to Gloucester because of the presence in the area of a Royalist army under Lord Herbert. The city was occupied briefly from 23 April to 18 May 1643 by Parliamentarians commanded by Sir William Waller. On 31 July 1645 a Scottish army of 14,000 under Alexander Leslie, 1st Earl of Leven besieged the city but met resistance from its garrison
2.
Ley line
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Ley lines /leɪ laɪnz/ are apparent alignments of places of significance in the geography or culture of an area, often including man-made structures. They are in the sense, ancient, straight trackways in the British landscape, or in the newer sense. In his books Early British Trackways and The Old Straight Track and he believed that a mystical network of ley lines existed across Britain. Since the publication of Michells book, the version of the concept has been adopted by other authors. On 30 June 1921, Alfred Watkins visited Blackwardine in Herefordshire, attracted by the nearby archaeological investigation of a Roman camp, he stopped his car to compare the landscape on either side of the road with the marked features on his much used map. He believed this was the ancient name for the trackways, preserved in the modern names, the ancient surveyors who supposedly made the lines were given the name dodmen. This observation was made public at a meeting of the Woolhope Naturalists Field Club of Hereford in September 1921 and his work referred to G. H. He published his book Early British Trackways the following year, commenting, I knew nothing on June 30th last of what I now communicate, and had no theories. The theory was investigated by the British Society of Dowsers and used as material by Phil Rickman in his novel The Remains of an Altar. Perhaps relevant to the ley line argument is the existence of cursuses, ranging in length from 50 metres to several kilometers, their exact function remains unknown though they are commonly believed to have been used for ceremonial processions. Many of them do encompass Neolithic graves and monuments, however, while some cursuses are relatively straight, others have curves and sharp turns. This may argue that ancient Britons had little interest in moving in lines over landscapes. Watkins work met with scepticism from archaeologists, one of whom, O. G. S. Crawford. Since 1989, refutations of Watkins ideas have been based on mathematical methods such as statistics. A statistical analysis of lines concluded, the density of sites in the British landscape is so great that a line drawn through virtually anywhere will clip a number of sites. A study by David George Kendall used the techniques of analysis to examine the triangles formed by standing stones to deduce if these were often arranged in straight lines. The shape of a triangle can be represented as a point on the sphere, the sample distribution from the standing stones was compared with the theoretical distribution to show that the occurrence of straight lines was no more than average. Archaeologist Richard Atkinson once demonstrated this by taking the positions of telephone boxes, the book, published by Sago Press, proved popular and was reprinted in Great Britain by Garnstone Press in 1972 and Abacus in 1973, and in the United States by Ballantine Books in 1972
3.
Archaeology
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Archaeology, or archeology, is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, Archaeology can be considered both a social science and a branch of the humanities. In North America, archaeology is considered a sub-field of anthropology, archaeologists study human prehistory and history, from the development of the first stone tools at Lomekwi in East Africa 3.3 million years ago up until recent decades. Archaeology as a field is distinct from the discipline of palaeontology, Archaeology is particularly important for learning about prehistoric societies, for whom there may be no written records to study. Prehistory includes over 99% of the human past, from the Paleolithic until the advent of literacy in societies across the world, Archaeology has various goals, which range from understanding culture history to reconstructing past lifeways to documenting and explaining changes in human societies through time. The discipline involves surveying, excavation and eventually analysis of data collected to learn more about the past, in broad scope, archaeology relies on cross-disciplinary research. Archaeology developed out of antiquarianism in Europe during the 19th century, Archaeology has been used by nation-states to create particular visions of the past. Nonetheless, today, archaeologists face many problems, such as dealing with pseudoarchaeology, the looting of artifacts, a lack of public interest, the science of archaeology grew out of the older multi-disciplinary study known as antiquarianism. Antiquarians studied history with attention to ancient artifacts and manuscripts. Tentative steps towards the systematization of archaeology as a science took place during the Enlightenment era in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, in Europe, philosophical interest in the remains of Greco-Roman civilization and the rediscovery of classical culture began in the late Middle Age. Antiquarians, including John Leland and William Camden, conducted surveys of the English countryside, one of the first sites to undergo archaeological excavation was Stonehenge and other megalithic monuments in England. John Aubrey was a pioneer archaeologist who recorded numerous megalithic and other monuments in southern England. He was also ahead of his time in the analysis of his findings and he attempted to chart the chronological stylistic evolution of handwriting, medieval architecture, costume, and shield-shapes. Excavations were also carried out in the ancient towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum and these excavations began in 1748 in Pompeii, while in Herculaneum they began in 1738. The discovery of entire towns, complete with utensils and even human shapes, however, prior to the development of modern techniques, excavations tended to be haphazard, the importance of concepts such as stratification and context were overlooked. The father of archaeological excavation was William Cunnington and he undertook excavations in Wiltshire from around 1798, funded by Sir Richard Colt Hoare. Cunnington made meticulous recordings of neolithic and Bronze Age barrows, one of the major achievements of 19th century archaeology was the development of stratigraphy. The idea of overlapping strata tracing back to successive periods was borrowed from the new geological and paleontological work of scholars like William Smith, James Hutton, the application of stratigraphy to archaeology first took place with the excavations of prehistorical and Bronze Age sites
4.
Antiquarian
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An antiquarian or antiquary is an aficionado or student of antiquities or things of the past. More specifically, the term is used for those who study history with attention to ancient artifacts, archaeological and historic sites, or historic archives. Today the term is used in a pejorative sense, to refer to an excessively narrow focus on factual historical trivia. The Kaogutu or Illustrated Catalogue of Examined Antiquity compiled by Lü Dalin is one of the oldest known catalogues to systematically describe and classify ancient artifacts which were unearthed. Interests in antiquarian studies of ancient inscriptions and artifacts waned after the Song Dynasty, Books on antiquarian topics covered such subjects as the origin of customs, religious rituals, and political institutions, genealogy, topography and landmarks, and etymology. By contrast, antiquarian works as a form are organized by topic. Major antiquarian Latin writers with surviving works include Varro, Pliny the Elder, Aulus Gellius, the Roman emperor Claudius published antiquarian works, none of which is extant. Some of Ciceros treatises, particularly his work on divination, show strong antiquarian interests, roman-era Greek writers also dealt with antiquarian material, such as Plutarch in his Roman Questions and the Deipnosophistae of Athenaeus. The aim of Latin antiquarian works is to collect a number of possible explanations. The antiquarians are often used as sources by the ancient historians, despite the importance of antiquarian writing in the literature of ancient Rome, some scholars view antiquarianism as emerging only in the Middle Ages. Antiquarianisms wider flowering is more associated with the Renaissance, and with the critical assessment. The development of genealogy as a scientific discipline went hand-in-hand with the development of antiquarianism, genealogical antiquaries recognised the evidential value for their researches of non-textual sources, including seals and church monuments. Many early modern antiquaries were also chorographers, that is to say, they recorded landscapes, in England, some of the most important of these took the form of county histories. They increasingly argued that empirical evidence could be used to refine. Antiquaries had always attracted a degree of ridicule, and since the century the term has tended to be used most commonly in negative or derogatory contexts. Nevertheless, many practising antiquaries continue to claim the title with pride, Antiquary was the usual term in English from the 16th to the mid-18th centuries to describe a person interested in antiquities. From the second half of the 18th century, however, antiquarian began to be used widely as a noun. From the 16th to the 19th centuries, a distinction was perceived to exist between the interests and activities of the antiquary and the historian
5.
Landscape
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A landscape is the visible features of an area of land, its landforms and how they integrate with natural or man-made features. The character of a landscape helps define the self-image of the people who inhabit it and it is the dynamic backdrop to people’s lives. Landscape can be as varied as farmland, a landscape park, the activity of modifying the visible features of an area of land is referred to as landscaping. There are several definitions of what constitutes a landscape, depending on context, the term landscape emerged around the turn of the sixteenth century to denote a painting whose primary subject matter was natural scenery. Land may be taken in its sense of something to people belong. The suffix ‑scape is equivalent to the more common English suffix ‑ship, the roots of ‑ship are etymologically akin to Old English sceppan or scyppan, meaning to shape. The suffix ‑schaft is related to the verb schaffen, so that ‑ship, the word landscape, first recorded in 1598, was borrowed from a Dutch painters term. An example of this usage can be found as early as 1662 in the Book of Common Prayer, Could we but climb where Moses stood. Setting, In works of narrative, it includes the moment in time and geographic location in which a story takes place. Picturesque, The word literally means in the manner of a picture, fit to be made into a picture, and used as early as 1703, gilpin’s Essay on Prints defined picturesque as a term expressive of that peculiar kind of beauty, which is agreeable in a picture. A view, A sight or prospect of some landscape or extended scene, wilderness, An uncultivated, uninhabited, and inhospitable region. Cityscape, The urban equivalent of a landscape, in the visual arts a cityscape is an artistic representation, such as a painting, drawing, print or photograph, of the physical aspects of a city or urban area. Seascape, A photograph, painting, or other work of art depicts the sea. Geomorphology is the study of the origin and evolution of topographic and bathymetric features created by physical or chemical processes operating at or near Earths surface. Geomorphology is practiced within physical geography, geology, geodesy, engineering geology, archaeology and this broad base of interests contributes to many research styles and interests within the field. The surface of Earth is modified by a combination of processes that sculpt landscapes, and geologic processes that cause tectonic uplift and subsidence. Many of these factors are strongly mediated by climate, the Earth surface and its topography therefore are an intersection of climatic, hydrologic, and biologic action with geologic processes. Desert, Plain, Taiga, Tundra, Wetland, Mountain, Mountain range, Cliff, Coast, Littoral zone, Glacier, Polar regions of Earth, Shrubland, Forest, Rainforest, Woodland, Jungle, Moors
6.
Syllable
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A syllable is a unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds. For example, the water is composed of two syllables, wa and ter. A syllable is typically made up of a nucleus with optional initial and final margins. Syllables are often considered the building blocks of words. They can influence the rhythm of a language, its prosody, its poetic meter, syllabic writing began several hundred years before the first letters. The earliest recorded syllables are on tablets written around 2800 BC in the Sumerian city of Ur and this shift from pictograms to syllables has been called the most important advance in the history of writing. A word that consists of a syllable is called a monosyllable. Syllable is an Anglo-Norman variation of Old French sillabe, from Latin syllaba, συλλαβή means what is taken together, referring to letters that are taken together to make a single sound. συλλαβή is a noun from the verb συλλαμβάνω syllambánō, a compound of the preposition σύν sýn with. The noun uses the root λαβ-, which appears in the aorist tense, the present tense stem λαμβάν- is formed by adding a nasal infix ⟨μ⟩ ⟨m⟩ before the β b and a suffix -αν -an at the end. In the International Phonetic Alphabet, the period ⟨. ⟩ marks syllable breaks, in practice, however, IPA transcription is typically divided into words by spaces, and often these spaces are also understood to be syllable breaks. When a word comes in the middle of a syllable. The liaison tie is used to join lexical words into phonological words. In the typical theory of structure, the general structure of a syllable consists of three segments. e. Nucleus and coda are grouped together as a rime and onset are only distinguished at the second level, the nucleus is usually the vowel in the middle of a syllable. The onset is the sound or sounds occurring before the nucleus, and they are sometimes collectively known as the shell. The term rime covers the nucleus plus coda, in the one-syllable English word cat, the nucleus is a, the onset c, the coda t, and the rime at. This syllable can be abstracted as a consonant-vowel-consonant syllable, abbreviated CVC, languages vary greatly in the restrictions on the sounds making up the onset, nucleus and coda of a syllable, according to what is termed a languages phonotactics
7.
Herefordshire
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Herefordshire is a historic English county in the West Midlands. It is a county and a unitary non-metropolitan county and district, also named in legislation as the County of Herefordshire. The Welsh unitary county covering the part of Gwent next to Herefordshire is Monmouthshire, Hereford is a cathedral city and is the county town, with a population of approximately 55,800 inhabitants it is also the largest settlement. The county is one of the most rural and sparsely populated in England, the land use is predominantly agricultural and the county is well known for its fruit and cider production, and the Hereford cattle breed. From 1974 to 1998, Herefordshire was part of the former county of Hereford. Herefordshire was reconstituted both as a new district and as a new county by Statutory Instrument as defined in The Hereford and this Order established Herefordshire as a unitary authority on 1 April 1998, combining county and district functions into a single council. Herefordshire is also called a unitary district, but this is not official nomenclature. Herefordshire is officially known as an authority for local government purposes. The Lieutenancies Act 1997 made Herefordshire a ceremonial county, covering the area of the unitary district. For Eurostat purposes it is a NUTS3 region and is one of three counties that comprise the Herefordshire, Worcestershire and Warwickshire NUTS2 region. The River Wye, which at 135 miles is the fifth-longest in the United Kingdom and it flows through both Hereford and Ross-on-Wye before returning to Wales. Leominster is situated on the River Lugg, a tributary of the Wye, there are two Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty in the county. The Wye Valley is located in the valleys south of Hereford, while the Malvern Hills are in the east of the county. Herefordshire is one of the 39 historic counties of England, in 1974 it was merged with neighbouring Worcestershire to form the Hereford and Worcester administrative county. Within this, Herefordshire was covered by the government districts of South Herefordshire, Hereford. However, the county was dissolved in 1998, resulting in the return of Herefordshire and Worcestershire as counties, the current ceremonial county and unitary district have broadly the same borders as the pre-1974 historic county. However this has been from a base, with only Northumberland. The population is White 98. 2%, Asian 0. 8%, Mixed 0. 7%, Black 0. 2%, gypsies and Travellers have historically been Herefordshires largest minority ethnic group
8.
Light meter
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A light meter is a device used to measure the amount of light. In photography, a meter is often used to determine the proper exposure for a photograph. Light meters are used in the fields of cinematography and scenic design. They are used in the field of lighting, where they can help to reduce the amount of waste light used in the home, light pollution outdoors. The earliest type of light meters were called extinction meters and contained a numbered or lettered row of neutral density filters of increasing density. The photographer would position the meter in front of his subject, the letter or number corresponding to the filter was used as an index into a chart of appropriate aperture and shutter speed combinations for a given film speed. Extinction meters suffered from the problem that they depended on the sensitivity of the human eye. Later meters removed the element and relied on technologies incorporating selenium, CdS. Selenium and silicon light meters use sensors that are photovoltaic, they generate a proportional to light exposure. Selenium sensors generate enough voltage for direct connection to a meter, they need no battery to operate, selenium sensors however cannot measure low light accurately and are altogether unable to measure very low light, such as candlelight, moonlight, starlight etc. Silicon sensors need an amplification circuit and require a source such as batteries to operate. CdS light meters use a sensor based on photoresistance, i. e. their electrical resistance changes proportionately to light exposure and these also require a battery to operate. Most modern light meters use silicon or CdS sensors and they indicate the exposure either with a needle galvanometer or on an LCD screen. Many modern consumer still and video include a built-in meter that measures a scene-wide light level and are able to make an approximate measure of appropriate exposure based on that. There are two types of light meters, reflected-light and incident-light. Reflected-light meters measure the light reflected by the scene to be photographed, all in-camera meters are reflected-light meters. Reflected-light meters are calibrated to show the appropriate exposure for “average” scenes and this pitfall is avoided by incident-light meters which measure the amount of light falling on the subject using an integrating sphere placed on top of the light sensor. Because the incident-light reading is independent of the reflectance, it is less likely to lead to incorrect exposures for subjects with unusual average reflectance
9.
Robert Falcon Scott
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On the first expedition, he set a new southern record by marching to latitude 82°S and discovered the Polar Plateau, on which the South Pole is located. During the second venture, Scott led a party of five which reached the South Pole on 17 January 1912, on their return journey, Scotts party discovered plant fossils, proving Antarctica was once forested and joined to other continents. Before his appointment to lead the Discovery Expedition, Scott had followed the career of an officer in the Royal Navy. Having taken this step, his name became associated with the Antarctic. Following the news of his death, Scott became a celebrated hero, in the closing decades of the 20th century, Scott became a figure of controversy, with questions raised about his competence and character. Scott was born on 6 June 1868, the child out of six and elder son of John Edward and Hannah Scott of Stoke Damerel. Scotts father was a brewer and magistrate, there were also naval and military traditions in the family, Scotts grandfather and four uncles all having served in the army or navy. John Scotts prosperity came from the ownership of a small Plymouth brewery which he inherited from his father, Robert Falcon Scotts early childhood years were spent in comfort, but some years later, when he was establishing his naval career, the family would suffer serious financial misfortune. In accordance with the tradition, Robert and his younger brother Archie were predestined for careers in the armed services. Having passed these exams Scott began his career in 1881. In July 1883, Scott passed out of Britannia as a midshipman, by October, he was en route to South Africa to join HMS Boadicea, the flagship of the Cape squadron, the first of several ships on which he served during his midshipman years. On this occasion,1 March 1887, Markham observed Midshipman Scotts cutter winning that race across the bay. Markhams habit was to collect likely young naval officers with a view to their undertaking polar exploration work in the future and he was impressed by Scotts intelligence, enthusiasm and charm, and the 18-year-old midshipman was duly noted. In March 1888 Scott passed his examinations for sub-lieutenant, with four first class out of five. His career progressed smoothly, with service on ships and promotion to lieutenant in 1889. In 1891, after a spell in foreign waters, he applied for the two-year torpedo training course on HMS Vernon. He graduated with first class certificates in both the theory and practical examinations, a small blot occurred in the summer of 1893 when, while commanding a torpedo boat, Scott ran it aground, a mishap which earned him a mild rebuke. According to Huntford, Scott disappears from records for eight months
10.
Photographic Convention of the United Kingdom
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The Photographic Convention of United Kingdom was founded in 1886 and held its first convention in the city of Derby, England, in August of that year. The founding members were a mixture of professional photographers and wealthy amateurs. The leading pictorialist photographer Henry Peach Robinson was a member and was elected President in 1896. The pattern of the convention was to choose a town where they would be hosted by a photographic society. A large hotel was chosen as the headquarters and three to four days were devoted to a programme of lectures, outings, exhibitions and dinners. After the First World War interest waned and the PCUK was kept running by an ageing and declining membership. It finally ceased operating in 1935, alfred Seaman and the Photographic Convention of the United Kingdom. History of the PCUK illustrated with stereoviews by one of its founder members, edinburgh Photo History -including interesting material on the PCUK Leeds and Bradford Victorian Photographic Studios and material on the Photographic Convention in Leeds
11.
Royal Photographic Society
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The Royal Photographic Society of Great Britain, commonly known as the Royal Photographic Society, is one of the worlds oldest photographic societies. A change to the name to reflect the Royal patronage was, however. In 1874 it was renamed the Photographic Society of Great Britain, a registered charity since 1962, in July 2004, The Royal Photographic Society of Great Britain was granted a Royal charter recognising its eminence in the field of photography as a learned society. For most of its history the Society was based at premises in London. It moved to Bath in 1979, and since 2004 its headquarters has been at Fenton House in Bath, membership is international and open to anyone with an interest in photography. It runs a programme of more than 300 events throughout the United Kingdom and abroad, through local groups. Photographers were slow in coming together and forming clubs and societies, in other countries the Société française de photographie was founded in Paris in 1854. The catalyst behind the formation of The Photographic Society was Roger Fenton, the inaugural meeting of The Photographic Society was held on 20 January 1853. Fenton became the Societys first secretary, a position he held for three years, as Jane Fletcher has argued the changing nature of photography and photographic education in the early 1970s forced The Society to modernise and to become more relevant to British photography. An internal review led to changes, the introduction of a new distinction called the Licentiate in 1972. The rising cost of maintaining The Societys premises in South Audley Street, London, the Council approved at a meeting on 1 April 1977 a move to Bath and the establishment of a National Centre of Photography to house the Societys headquarters and collection. An appeal for £300,000 was launched in the summer of 1978 for the funds needed to convert The Octagon and adjacent buildings in Milsom Street, the inaugural exhibition opened in May 1980 with the building officially opened by Princess Margaret in April 1981. Although the Societys inaugural meeting took places at the Society of Arts in London and it held functions as a number of addresses, some concurrently for different types of meetings. The Societys premises were, 1899–1909 –66 Russell Square, London, 1909–1940 –35 Russell Square, London. 1940–1968 – Princes Gate, South Kensington, London, 1968–1970 –1 Maddox Street, Mayfair, London. 1970–1979 –14 South Audley Street, Mayfair, London 1980–2003 – The Octagon, Milsom Street, 2004–present – Fenton House,122 Wells Road, Bath, officially opened 16 February 2005. Supporters, The lions on either side of the shield with their ciphers pay tribute to our historical connections and Royal Patronage dating back to Queen Victoria, the lions are based on those on Prince Alberts garter stallplate at St. Georges Chapel, Windsor. Motto, The motto translates to All life perceived to indicate that the ability and potential for photography to observe and record so much of that which constitutes our life
12.
Neolithic
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It ended when metal tools became widespread. The Neolithic is a progression of behavioral and cultural characteristics and changes, including the use of wild and domestic crops, the beginning of the Neolithic culture is considered to be in the Levant about 10, 200–8800 BC. It developed directly from the Epipaleolithic Natufian culture in the region, whose people pioneered the use of wild cereals, which then evolved into true farming. The Natufian period was between 12,000 and 10,200 BC, and the so-called proto-Neolithic is now included in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic between 10,200 and 8800 BC. By 10, 200–8800 BC, farming communities arose in the Levant and spread to Asia Minor, North Africa, Mesopotamia is the site of the earliest developments of the Neolithic Revolution from around 10,000 BC. Early Neolithic farming was limited to a range of plants, both wild and domesticated, which included einkorn wheat, millet and spelt, and the keeping of dogs, sheep. By about 6900–6400 BC, it included domesticated cattle and pigs, the establishment of permanently or seasonally inhabited settlements, not all of these cultural elements characteristic of the Neolithic appeared everywhere in the same order, the earliest farming societies in the Near East did not use pottery. Early Japanese societies and other East Asian cultures used pottery before developing agriculture, unlike the Paleolithic, when more than one human species existed, only one human species reached the Neolithic. The term Neolithic derives from the Greek νέος néos, new and λίθος líthos, stone, the term was invented by Sir John Lubbock in 1865 as a refinement of the three-age system. In the Middle East, cultures identified as Neolithic began appearing in the 10th millennium BC, early development occurred in the Levant and from there spread eastwards and westwards. Neolithic cultures are attested in southeastern Anatolia and northern Mesopotamia by around 8000 BC. The total excavated area is more than 1,200 square yards, the Neolithic 1 period began roughly 10,000 years ago in the Levant. A temple area in southeastern Turkey at Göbekli Tepe dated around 9500 BC may be regarded as the beginning of the period. This site was developed by nomadic tribes, evidenced by the lack of permanent housing in the vicinity. At least seven stone circles, covering 25 acres, contain limestone pillars carved with animals, insects, Stone tools were used by perhaps as many as hundreds of people to create the pillars, which might have supported roofs. Other early PPNA sites dating to around 9500–9000 BC have been found in Jericho, Israel, Gilgal in the Jordan Valley, the start of Neolithic 1 overlaps the Tahunian and Heavy Neolithic periods to some degree. The major advance of Neolithic 1 was true farming, in the proto-Neolithic Natufian cultures, wild cereals were harvested, and perhaps early seed selection and re-seeding occurred. The grain was ground into flour, emmer wheat was domesticated, and animals were herded and domesticated
13.
Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings
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Instead, he proposed that ancient buildings should be repaired, not restored, so that their entire history would be protected as cultural heritage. Today, these principles are widely accepted, today, the SPAB still operates according to Morriss original manifesto. It campaigns, advises, runs training programmes and courses, conducts research and it currently has c.8,500 members. The Society also has a branch in Scotland, the society, which is a registered charity, is based at 37 Spital Square, LONDON E1 6DY, England. For its dedicated service to heritage, the society was awarded the European Union Prize for Cultural Heritage / Europa Nostra Award in 2012, Building Preservation Trust Building preservation and conservation trusts in the UK Marianne Suhr Scottish Civic Trust Architectural Heritage Society of Scotland Miele, Chris, Ed. Building Conservation and the Arts and Crafts Cult of Authenticity 1877-1939, new Haven and London, Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-10730-7 Donovan, Andrea William Morris and the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings, ISBN 978-0415955959 Vallance, Aymer The Life and Work of William Morris. ISBN 1-85891-287-3 Beatty, Claudius J. P. Thomas Hardy, dorset Natural History and Archaeological Society. ISBN 0-900341-44-0 Lethaby, W. R. Philip Webb and His Work, ISBN9780906997000 MacCarthy, Fiona William Morris. ISBN 0-571-17495-7 Snell, Reginald William Weir and Dartington Hall, ISBN 0-902386-10-7 SPAB. org. uk — official website
14.
Beekeeping
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Beekeeping is the maintenance of honey bee colonies, commonly in man-made hives, by humans. A beekeeper keeps bees in order to collect their honey and other products that the hive produces, to pollinate crops, a location where bees are kept is called an apiary or bee yard. Depictions of humans collecting honey from wild bees date to 15,000 years ago, beekeeping in pottery vessels began about 9,000 years ago in North Africa. Domestication is shown in Egyptian art from around 4,500 years ago, simple hives and smoke were used and honey was stored in jars, some of which were found in the tombs of pharaohs such as Tutankhamun. At some point humans began to attempt to domesticate wild bees in artificial hives made from logs, wooden boxes, pottery vessels. Traces of beeswax are found in pot sherds throughout the Middle East beginning about 7000 BCE, honeybees were kept in Egypt from antiquity. On the walls of the sun temple of Nyuserre Ini from the Fifth Dynasty, before 2422 BCE, inscriptions detailing the production of honey are found on the tomb of Pabasa from the Twenty-sixth Dynasty, depicting pouring honey in jars and cylindrical hives. Sealed pots of honey were found in the goods of pharaohs such as Tutankhamun. I am Shamash-resh-ușur, the governor of Suhu and the land of Mari and they collect honey and wax, and I know how to melt the honey and wax – and the gardeners know too. Whoever comes in the future, may he ask the old men of the town, thus, They are the buildings of Shamash-resh-ușur, the governor of Suhu, who introduced honey bees into the land of Suhu. In prehistoric Greece, there existed a system of high-status apiculture, as can be concluded from the finds of hives, smoking pots, honey extractors and other beekeeping paraphernalia in Knossos. Archaeological finds relating to beekeeping have been discovered at Rehov, a Bronze and Iron Age archaeological site in the Jordan Valley, Israel. Thirty intact hives, made of straw and unbaked clay, were discovered by archaeologist Amihai Mazar in the ruins of the city, in ancient Greece, aspects of the lives of bees and beekeeping are discussed at length by Aristotle. Beekeeping was also documented by the Roman writers Virgil, Gaius Julius Hyginus, Varro, beekeeping has also been practiced in ancient China since antiquity. The ancient Maya domesticated a separate species of stingless bee, the use of stingless bees is referred to as meliponiculture, named after bees of the tribe Meliponini—such as Melipona quadrifasciata in Brazil. This variation of bee keeping still occurs around the world today, for instance, in Australia, the stingless bee Tetragonula carbonaria is kept for production of their honey. There are more than 20,000 species of wild bees, many others rear their young in burrows and small colonies. Some honey bees are wild e. g. the little honeybee, giant honeybee, beekeeping, or apiculture, is concerned with the practical management of the social species of honey bees, which live in large colonies of up to 100,000 individuals
15.
Pembridge
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Pembridge is a village and civil parish in Arrow valley in Herefordshire, England. The village is on the A44 road about 6 miles east of Kington and 6 1⁄2 miles west of Leominster, the civil parish includes the hamlets of Bearwood, Lower Bearwood, Lower Broxwood, Marston, Moorcot and Weston. The 2011 Census recorded the population as 1,056. Pembridge is the part of the electoral ward of Pembridge. The 2011 Census recorded the population as 3,124. The toponym Pembridge may be derived from the Welsh Pen-y-Bont, anglicised to its current spelling, the sandstone bridge over the river Arrow was granted Grade II listed status in June 1987, giving it protection from unauthorised alteration or demolition. The oldest parts of St Marys Church of England parish church are 12th-century, most of the church has been dated c1320-60. Most spectacular are the arcades with circular cinquefoiled clerestory window and it is a cruciform church with 14th-century transepts and a vaulted north porch. There was a stair turret in the chancel with a pinnacle cover. The pulpit preachers desk, lectern and communion rail are Jacobean, a north vestry was added in the 19th century, and the building was restored in 1871 and 1903–09. The church is a Grade I listed building, a knight and a lady were depicted tomb and effigy and a civilian and wife with a theirs were present from 14th century. There were memorial tablets to 17th c Sherborne family, and one to Thomas Trafford, Pembridge is one of several Herefordshire parishes whose belltower stands separate from the church. All but the base of the tower is timber-framed, one of a number of partly or largely timber-framed belltowers in Herefordshire. The tower was built early in the 13th century, rebuilt with the addition of an ambulatory in the 15th or 16th century and it is a Grade I listed building. The tower has a ring of five bells, john I Martin of Worcester cast the fourth bell in 1658. Abraham II Rudhall of Gloucester cast the bell in 1735. James Barwell of Birmingham cast or recast the first, second, St Marys has also a Sanctus bell, which was cast about 1800. The churchyard contains seven Commonwealth war graves of service personnel, two from World War I and five from World War II
16.
Blue plaque
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The brainchild of British politician William Ewart in 1863, it is the oldest such scheme in the world. The worlds first blue plaques were erected in London in the 19th century to mark the homes and workplaces of famous people. This scheme continues to the present day, having been administered successively by the Society of Arts, the London County Council, the Greater London Council, many other plaque schemes have since been initiated in the United Kingdom. Some are restricted to a geographical area, others to a particular theme of historical commemoration. The plaques erected by these schemes are manufactured in a variety of designs, shapes, materials, the term blue plaque may be used narrowly to refer to the official English Heritage scheme, but is often used informally to encompass all similar schemes. There are also commemorative plaque schemes throughout the world such as those in Paris, Rome, Oslo, Dublin, and in cities in Australia, Canada, Russia. The forms these take vary, and they tend to be known as historical markers, the original blue plaque scheme was established by the Society of Arts in 1867, and since 1986 has been run by English Heritage. It is the oldest such scheme in the world, since 1984 English Heritage have commissioned Frank Ashworth to make the plaques which have then been inscribed by his wife, Sue, at their home in Cornwall. English Heritage plans to erect an average of twelve new blue plaques each year in London. After being conceived by politician William Ewart in 1863, the scheme was initiated in 1866 by Ewart, Henry Cole and the Society of Arts, the first plaque was unveiled in 1867 to commemorate Lord Byron at his birthplace,24 Holles Street, Cavendish Square. This house was demolished in 1889, the earliest blue plaque to survive, also put up in 1867, commemorates Napoleon III in King Street, St Jamess. Byron’s plaque was blue, but the colour was changed by the manufacturer Minton, in total the Society of Arts put up 35 plaques, fewer than half of which survive today. The Society only erected one plaque within the square-mile of the City of London, in 1879, it was agreed that the City of London Corporation would be responsible for erecting plaques within the City to recognise its jurisdictional independence. This demarcation has remained ever since, in 1901, the Society of Arts scheme was taken over by the London County Council, which gave much thought to the future design of the plaques. It was eventually decided to keep the shape and design of the Societys plaques, but to make them uniformly blue, with a laurel wreath. Though this design was used consistently from 1903 to 1938, some experimentation occurred in the 1920s, in 1921, the most common plaque design was revised, as it was discovered that glazed ceramic Doulton ware was cheaper than the encaustic formerly used. In 1938, a new design was prepared by an unnamed student at the LCCs Central School of Arts and Crafts and was approved by the committee. It omitted the decorative elements of earlier designs, and allowed for lettering to be better spaced and enlarged
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Celtic Britons
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They spoke the Common Brittonic language, the ancestor to the modern Brittonic languages. The earliest evidence for the Britons and their language in historical sources dates to the Iron Age, after the Roman conquest of Britain in the 1st century, a Romano-British culture emerged, and Latin and British Vulgar Latin coexisted with Brittonic. During and after the Roman era, the Britons lived throughout Britain south of the Firth of Forth, with the beginning of Anglo-Saxon settlement in the 5th century, the culture and language of the Britons fragmented and much of their territory was taken over by the Anglo-Saxons. The extent to which cultural and linguistic change was accompanied by wholesale changes in the population is still a matter of discussion. During this period some Britons migrated to mainland Europe and established significant settlements in Brittany as well as Britonia in modern Galicia, Common Brittonic developed into the distinct Brittonic languages, Welsh, Cumbric, Cornish and Breton. Although none of his own writings remain, writers during the time of the Roman Empire made much reference to them, the group included Ireland, which was referred to as Ierne inhabited by the race of Hiberni, and Britain as insula Albionum, island of the Albions. The term Pritani may have reached Pytheas from the Gauls, who used it as their term for the inhabitants of the islands. The first inhabitants were the Britons, who came from Armenia, the Latin name in the early Roman Empire period was Britanni or Brittanni, following the Roman conquest in AD43. Brittonic languages is a recent coinage intended to refer to the ancient Britons specifically. In English, the term Briton originally denoted the ancient Britons and their descendants, most particularly the Welsh, who were seen as heirs to the ancient British people. After the Acts of Union 1707, the terms British and Briton came to be applied not just to the remaining Brittonic peoples themselves, the Britons spoke an Insular Celtic language known as Common Brittonic. Brittonic was spoken throughout the island of Britain, as well as islands such as the Isle of Man, Scilly Isles, Orkneys, Hebrides. Thus the area today is called Brittany, Common Brittonic developed from the Insular branch of the Proto-Celtic language that developed in the British Isles after arriving from the continent in the 7th century BC. The language eventually began to diverge, some linguists have grouped subsequent developments as Western and Southwestern Brittonic languages, Pictish is now generally accepted to descend from Common Brittonic, rather than being a separate Celtic language. Welsh and Breton survive today, Cumbric became extinct in the 12th century, Cornish had become extinct by the 19th century but has been the subject of language revitalization since the 20th century. Ideas about the development of British Iron Age culture changed greatly in the 20th century, by this time Celtic styles seem to have been in decline in continental Europe, even before Roman invasions. Throughout their existence, the inhabited by the Britons was composed of numerous ever-changing areas controlled by Brittonic tribes. Part of the Pictish territory was absorbed into the Gaelic kingdoms of Dál Riata and Alba
18.
John Michell (writer)
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John Frederick Carden Michell was an English author and esotericist who was a prominent figure in the development of the Earth mysteries movement. Over the course of his life he published over forty books on an array of different subjects, born in London to a wealthy family, Michell was educated at Cheam School and Eton College before serving as a Russian translator in the Royal Navy for two years. After failing a degree in Russian and German at Trinity College, Cambridge, he returned to London and worked for his fathers property business and he followed this with his most influential work, The View Over Atlantis, in 1969. His ideas were at odds with those of academic archaeologists, for whom he expressed contempt, Michell believed in the existence of an ancient spiritual tradition that connected humanity to divinity, but which had been lost as a result of modernity. He believed however that this tradition would be revived and that humanity would enter a Golden Age, keenly interested in the crop circle phenomenon, he co-founded a magazine devoted to the subject, The Cereologist, in 1990, and served as its initial editor. From 1992 until his death he wrote a column for The Oldie magazine and he accompanied this with a column on esoteric topics for the Daily Mirror tabloid. A lifelong marijuana smoker, Michell died of cancer in 2009. Michells impact in the Earth mysteries movement was considerable, and through it he influenced the British Pagan movement. During the 2000s, his ideas also proved an influence on the Radical Traditionalist sector of the New Right, John Frederic Carden Michell was born in London on 9 February 1933. His father, Alfred, was of Cornish descent and worked as a property dealer in the capital, the eldest of three children, Michells siblings were named Charles and Clare. He was raised into the Anglican denomination of Christianity, although in later life rejected the religion, Michell was initially educated as a boarder at the preparatory Cheam School, where he was Head Boy and excelled at the high jump. From there he went to study at Eton College, where he was a contemporary of Lord Moyne and Ian Cameron and he spent his two years of national service in the Royal Navy, during which time he qualified as a Russian translator at the School of Slavonic Studies. He then went on to study Russian and German at Trinity College, Cambridge and he then qualified as a chartered surveyor at a firm in Gloucestershire, before moving back to London to work for his fathers property business. Commenting on this job, he stated that it was quite amusing. In 1966 one of his properties, the basement of his own residence, the Black Power activist Michael X, having previously run a gambling club in the basement, had now become active in the organisation of the LFS and brought Michell into counter-culture activities. Michell began to offer courses in UFOs and ley lines, in 1964, with Jocasta Innes, Michell fathered a son, Jason Goodwin, who also became a writer. The relationship with Innes did not last, Jason Goodwin did not meet his natural father until 1992, at the age of 28, at which they became quite close. Michell developed an interest in Ufology and Earth mysteries after attending a talk given by Jimmy Goddard at Kensington Central Library on the subject of Leys and Orthonies in November 1965
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Internet Sacred Text Archive
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The Internet Sacred Text Archive is a Santa Cruz, California based website dedicated to the preservation of electronic public domain texts, specifically those with significant cultural value. In addition, ISTA compiles texts of Native American religion, mythology and folklore and these texts were written from oral tradition by respected ethnographers who were known for their careful and respectful approach to the people they studied. The website was first opened to the public on March 9,1999 by John Bruno Hare, in Santa Cruz, California, Hare started building the website from his home in the late 1990s, as an intellectual challenge. Christian Classics Ethereal Library The Internet Sacred Text Archive Remembering John Bruno Hare, Founder of Internet Sacred Texts Archive on YouTube
20.
Wye Valley Brewery
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Wye Valley Brewery is a brewery in the village of Stoke Lacy, Herefordshire, England, in the Wye Valley. Founded in 1985 by Peter Amor, it has one of Britains leading independent breweries. In 2002 Peter Amors son, Vernon Amor, became managing director, in mid-1982, Abbey Brewery located to Retford, Nottinghamshire with a capacity of at most 20bbl per week. After being bought in 1983 by Peter Amor, a brewer for Guinness who also worked for H. P. Bulmer, the brewery was closed. Another brewery, the Canon Pyon Brewery, had established in a stable block behind the Nags Head Pub in Canon Pyon since early 1984. It is from here that Wye Valley Brewery counts the beginning of its corporate history, by 1986, Wye Valley had again relocated, this time to a pub called The Lamb in Hereford, which was renamed The Barrels. After 18 years in Hereford, in 2002 the brewery was relocated to the village of Stoke Lacy, in northern Herefordshire, and the original brewplant sold to Teme Valley Brewery. The new brewery site was the former Symonds Cider plant, in order to purchase the site, upon conversion into a brewery, capacity was expanded to 80bbl per day and the former brewplant sold to Teme Valley Brewery. In 2006, brewing was being conducted four days a week, shortly after the relocation, Peter Amors son Vernon Amor became managing director, with Peter Amor retaining the position of Chairman, Vernon having trained as a brewer at Youngs Brewery. By 2004 the company employed 15 individuals full-time, and as of 2007 the head brewer was Jimmy Swan. Water for brewing is drawn from a well located on the brewery premises, local water chemistry is sensitive to time of day. Hops are mostly purchased from local farms, Wye Valley Brewery owns The Barrels and The Britannia in Hereford, The Morgan in Malvern and The Rose and Lion in Bromyard, Peter Amor is the publican of The Barrels. A further 400 outlets in Wales and England are supplied regularly, in addition to the core beer line, a rotation of monthly ales is also produced. A number of beers have also been made for special events. Wye Valley Brewery produces cask and bottle conditioned beer, and is a member of the Society of Independent Brewers, Wye Valley Brewery also produces beers, originally all seasonals, under the brand name Dorothy Goodbody. Dorothy Goodbody is a persona, supposedly a hop growers daughter who developed an interest in brewing in the early 1950s in the village of Dormington. The original premise of the brand was that each beer had been developed using only locally-grown Fuggle, however, some Irish-grown hops are used as well, particularly Northdown in the Wholesome Stout. Dorothy Goodbody is depicted in promotional materials as a female with a face and physique similar to Marilyn Monroe
21.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
22.
Gary Lachman
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Gary Joseph Lachman, also known as Gary Valentine, is an American writer and musician. He came to prominence in the mid-1970s as the bass guitarist for the punk rock/new wave band Blondie, since the 1990s, Lachman has written full-time, often about mysticism and occultism. Gary Valentine was one of the members of Blondie, having joined the band as bassist in April 1975 when Fred Smith left to join Television. He wrote the music to the bands first single, X-Offender, in 1977 he left the group to form his own band and was replaced by Nigel Harrison, just as Blondie were starting to gain recognition. His song Presence, Dear was a UK top ten hit in 1978, after Blondie, Gary moved to L. A. and in 1978 released a single, The First One/Tomorrow Belongs to You on Beat Records. Shortly after this he formed The Know, with Joel Turrisi, after a year and a half Joel left the band and was replaced by drummer John McGarvey. In 1980 The Know released a single I Like Girls/Dreams on Planet Records and were the only bi-coastal US power pop band, developing large followings in New York, failing to secure an album deal, he disbanded The Know and in 1981 played guitar with Iggy Pop. In 1996, after moving to London, he was asked to participate in the Blondie re-union, in 1997 he performed with Blondie at several major festival concerts in the US. Back in London Gary worked with former X-Ray Spex saxophonist Lora Logic, in 1998 he formed Fire Escape with violinist Ruth Jones and performed songs he had written for the Blondie reunion album. They released an EP to little fanfare and went on a permanent hiatus after two years, a compilation of Garys work in music entitled Tomorrow Belongs to You, was released in 2003 on the UK label Overground Records. In 2006, he was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, because of his time with Blondie, Lachman moved to London in 1996 and became a full-time writer, contributing to The Guardian, Mojo, Times Literary Supplement and other journals. His first book, Turn Off Your Mind, The Mystic Sixties and the Dark Side of the Age of Aquarius, a revisionist history of the 1960s counter culture, appeared in 2001. It was followed in 2002 by New York Rocker, My Life in The Blank Generation, the Dedalus Book of the Occult, A Dark Muse charted the influence of the occult on western literature since the Enlightenment. D. Ouspensky, the Austrian spiritual scientist Rudolf Steiner, the Swedish religious thinker Emanuel Swedenborg, and he is a regular contributor to the Independent on Sunday, Fortean Times, and other journals in the US and UK, lectures frequently and occasionally broadcasts on the BBC. His work has been compared to Colin Wilson, and has translated into German, Finnish, Czech, Russian, French, Dutch, Spanish, Norwegian, Italian. In 2014 Lachman took part in the annual Engelsberg Seminar held in Avesta, Sweden, lecturing on gnosis, in 2015 Lachman lectured on Rejected Knowledge to the Marion Institute as part of their Living in the Real World seminar. Recent years have seen Lachman lecturing on a variety of esoteric and cultural topics in Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, France, the Netherlands, Great Britain, and the United States
23.
Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
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Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
