1.
Astronomical clock
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The term is loosely used to refer to any clock that shows, in addition to the time of day, astronomical information. The term should not be confused with astronomical regulator, a high precision, Astronomical clocks usually represent the solar system using the geocentric model. The center of the dial is marked with a disc or sphere representing the earth. The sun is represented by a golden sphere, shown rotating around the earth once a day around a 24-hour analog dial. This view accords both with daily experience and with the world view of pre-Copernican Europe. Research in 2011 and 2012 led a group of researchers to posit that European astronomical clocks are descended from the technology of the Antikythera mechanism. In the 11th century, the Song Dynasty Chinese horologist, mechanical engineer, Su Song is noted for having incorporated an escapement mechanism and earliest known endless power-transmitting chain drive for his clock-tower and armillary sphere to function. They no longer exist, but detailed descriptions of their design and construction survive, wallingfords clock may have shown the sun, moon, stars and planets, and had, in addition, a wheel of fortune and an indicator of the state of the tide at London Bridge. De Dondis clock was a construction with 107 moving parts, showing the positions of the sun, moon. Both these clocks, and others like them, were less accurate than their designers would have wished. The gear ratios may have been calculated, but their manufacture was somewhat beyond the mechanical abilities of the time. Astronomical clocks were built as demonstration or exhibition pieces, to impress as much as to educate or inform, the challenge of building these masterpieces meant that clockmakers would continue to produce them, to demonstrate their technical skill and their patrons wealth. The philosophical message of an ordered, heavenly-ordained universe, which accorded with the Gothic era view of the world, the Science Museum has a scale model of the Cosmic Engine, which Su Sung, a Chinese polymath, designed and constructed in China in 1092. A full-sized working replica of Su Sungs clock exists in the Republic of China s National Museum of Natural Science and this full-scale, fully functional replica, approximately 12 meters in height, was constructed from Su Sungs original descriptions and mechanical drawings. The most sophisticated water-powered astronomical clock was Al-Jazaris castle clock, considered to be an example of a programmable analog computer. It was a device that was about 33 meters high. The Strasbourg Cathedral has housed three different astronomical clocks since the 14th century, the first clock was built between 1352 and 1354 and stopped working sometime at the beginning of the 16th century. A second clock was built by Herlin, Conrad Dasypodius, the Habrecht brothers
2.
St. Nicholas' Church (Stralsund)
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St. Nicholas Church is the oldest of the three major parish churches of the Hanseatic city of Stralsund in Germany. It was dedicated in 1279 to St. Nicholas of Myra, since 1524 it is an Evangelical Lutheran church. The construction of St. Nicholas Church began as a church with a tower in 1234. The planning and building in the oldest part of Stralsund continued alongside the planning of the Town Hall in the Old Market and this suggests that Nicholas Church was from the beginning intended to be the council church of the city. After 1270, the unfinished St. Nicholas Church was rebuilt as a basilica, the just-completed choir of the church hall had to be demolished to make way for the choir of the new basilica, which consisted of an inner choir and an ambulatory. Around the chancel, which consisted of five sides of an imaginary octagon, parts of the walls of the side aisles served as an abutment from then on. In the beginning, the material of the church building was brick. Over the course of time, at least 65 different types of stone were used, the construction of the western tower began in 1300. By 1314, the tower had reached a height of 13 meters, at that time, the council decided to build two towers. Around 1350, the construction of the nave between the two towers was completed, the buttresses of the aisles were connected externally to create space in the interior. The buttresses were thus drawn inward and vaulted chapels were built in the freed up between the towers. Of the two towers, the tower was first completed, probably in the early 15th century. This was followed by the completion of construction of the north tower, the two Gothic towers were equally high. The wealth of the city of Stralsund was reflected in the large number of altars in the church. There were no less than 56 altars in the chancel, nave, the bulk of the altars were removed from the church after the Bildersturm of 1525. Since the introduction of Reformation, the chapels were used as spaces for burying distinguished citizens. A fire in 1662 destroyed the spires of the towers. In 1667, the tower was provided with a Baroque dome
3.
Giza
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Giza, is the third-largest city in Egypt. It is located on the west bank of the Nile,5 km southwest of central Cairo, along with Cairo Governorate, Shubra El-Kheima, Helwan, 6th October City and Obour, the five form Greater Cairo metropolis. The city of Giza is the capital of the Giza Governorate and it is located right on the banks of the River Nile. The citys population was 2,681,863 in the 2006 national census and its large population made it the worlds second largest suburb in 2006, tied with Incheon, South Korea and Quezon City, Philippines, second only to Yokohama, Japan. Giza has always been a point in Egypts history due to its location close to Memphis. Its St. George cathedral is the see of the Coptic Catholic Eparchy of Giza. The Great Pyramid of Giza at one time was advocated as the location for the Prime Meridian, a reference point used for determining a base longitude. Mn Nefer, which means the wall in the ancient Egyptian language. Gizas most famous site, the Giza Plateau, holds some major monuments of Egyptian history. Once thriving with the Nile that flowed right into the Giza Plateau, the Giza Plateau is also home to Egyptian monuments such as the tomb of Pharaoh Djet of the First Dynasty, as well as that of Pharaoh Ninetjer of the Second Dynasty. The area in what is now Giza served as the necropolis of several pharaohs who ruled ancient Egypt, Three of these tombs, in the form of giant pyramids, are what is now the famed Three Pyramids of Giza. As ancient Egypt passed under several conquests under the Persians, Greeks, Romans and Byzantines, a Byzantine village named Teresa, located south of Giza, existed before the Muslim conquest of the region. A year later in 642 AD, they founded the city of Giza and its name, al-Jizzah in Arabic, means the valley or the plateau, pertaining to the areas topography. Giza has seen changes over time. Giza is a centre of Egyptian culture and is quite heavily populated, with many facilities. Giza saw much attention in particular to its vast amount of ancient Egyptian monuments found on the Giza Plateau, gizas infrastructure saw much attention from both the British government prior to the 1952 coup détat, as well as the current Egyptian government due to the citys importance in tourism. The city hosts the first zoo on the entire African continent and one of the oldest in the Mediterranean region, in addition, there are several parks, the most famous among them is Orman Park, which means Forest Park in the Turkish language. Giza has advanced level of medical care just like its elder twin Cairo, a list of famous hospitals in Giza, Agooza in Agouza district
4.
Egypt
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Egypt, officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia by a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. Egypt is a Mediterranean country bordered by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Gulf of Aqaba to the east, the Red Sea to the east and south, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west. Across the Gulf of Aqaba lies Jordan, and across from the Sinai Peninsula lies Saudi Arabia, although Jordan and it is the worlds only contiguous Afrasian nation. Egypt has among the longest histories of any country, emerging as one of the worlds first nation states in the tenth millennium BC. Considered a cradle of civilisation, Ancient Egypt experienced some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government. One of the earliest centres of Christianity, Egypt was Islamised in the century and remains a predominantly Muslim country. With over 92 million inhabitants, Egypt is the most populous country in North Africa and the Arab world, the third-most populous in Africa, and the fifteenth-most populous in the world. The great majority of its people live near the banks of the Nile River, an area of about 40,000 square kilometres, the large regions of the Sahara desert, which constitute most of Egypts territory, are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypts residents live in areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria. Modern Egypt is considered to be a regional and middle power, with significant cultural, political, and military influence in North Africa, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Egypts economy is one of the largest and most diversified in the Middle East, Egypt is a member of the United Nations, Non-Aligned Movement, Arab League, African Union, and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Miṣr is the Classical Quranic Arabic and modern name of Egypt. The name is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew מִצְרַיִם, the oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the Akkadian
5.
Baghdad
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Baghdad is the capital of the Republic of Iraq. The population of Baghdad, as of 2016, is approximately 8,765,000 making it the largest city in Iraq, the second largest city in the Arab world, and the second largest city in Western Asia. Located along the Tigris River, the city was founded in the 8th century, within a short time of its inception, Baghdad evolved into a significant cultural, commercial, and intellectual center for the Islamic world. This, in addition to housing several key institutions, garnered the city a worldwide reputation as the Centre of Learning. Throughout the High Middle Ages, Baghdad was considered to be the largest city in the world with a population of 1,200,000 people. The city was destroyed at the hands of the Mongol Empire in 1258, resulting in a decline that would linger through many centuries due to frequent plagues. With the recognition of Iraq as an independent state in 1938, in contemporary times, the city has often faced severe infrastructural damage, most recently due to the 2003 invasion of Iraq, and the subsequent Iraq War that lasted until December 2011. In recent years, the city has been subjected to insurgency attacks. As of 2012, Baghdad was listed as one of the least hospitable places in the world to live, the site where the city of Baghdad developed has been populated for millennia. By the 8th century AD, several villages had developed there, including a Persian hamlet called Baghdad, the name is of Indo-European origin and a Middle Persian compound of Bagh god and dād given by, translating to Bestowed by God or Gods gift. In Old Persian the first element can be traced to boghu and is related to Slavic bog god, a similar term in Middle Persian is the name Mithradāt, known in English by its Hellenistic form Mithridates, meaning gift of Mithra. There are a number of locations in the wider region whose names are compounds of the word bagh, including Baghlan. The name of the town Baghdati in Georgia shares the same etymological origins, when the Abbasid caliph, al-Mansur, founded a completely new city for his capital, he chose the name Madinat al-Salaam or City of Peace. This was the name on coins, weights, and other official usage. By the 11th century, Baghdad became almost the exclusive name for the world-renowned metropolis, after the fall of the Umayyads, the first Muslim dynasty, the victorious Abbasid rulers wanted their own capital whence they could rule. They chose a site north of the Sassanid capital of Ctesiphon, on 30 July 762, the caliph Al-Mansur commissioned the construction of the city, mansur believed that Baghdad was the perfect city to be the capital of the Islamic empire under the Abbasids. Mansur loved the site so much he is quoted saying, This is indeed the city that I am to found, where I am to live, and where my descendants will reign afterward. The citys growth was helped by its excellent location, based on at least two factors, it had control over strategic and trading routes along the Tigris, the abundance of water in a dry climate
6.
Abbasid Caliphate
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The Abbasid Caliphate was the third of the Islamic caliphates to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. The Abbasid dynasty descended from Muhammads youngest uncle, Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib and they ruled as caliphs, for most of their period from their capital in Baghdad in modern-day Iraq, after assuming authority over the Muslim empire from the Umayyads in 750 CE. The Abbasid caliphate first centered its government in Kufa, but in 762 the caliph Al-Mansur founded the city of Baghdad, the political power of the caliphs largely ended with the rise of the Buyids and the Seljuq Turks. Although Abbasid leadership over the vast Islamic empire was reduced to a ceremonial religious function. The capital city of Baghdad became a center of science, culture, philosophy and this period of cultural fruition ended in 1258 with the sack of Baghdad by the Mongols under Hulagu Khan. The Abbasid line of rulers, and Muslim culture in general, though lacking in political power, the dynasty continued to claim authority in religious matters until after the Ottoman conquest of Egypt. The Abbasid caliphs were Arabs descended from Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib, one of the youngest uncles of Muhammad, the Abbasids claimed to be the true successors of Prophet Muhammad in replacing the Umayyad descendants of Banu Umayya by virtue of their closer bloodline to Muhammad. The Abbasids also distinguished themselves from the Umayyads by attacking their moral character, according to Ira Lapidus, The Abbasid revolt was supported largely by Arabs, mainly the aggrieved settlers of Marw with the addition of the Yemeni faction and their Mawali. The Abbasids also appealed to non-Arab Muslims, known as mawali, Muhammad ibn Ali, a great-grandson of Abbas, began to campaign for the return of power to the family of Prophet Muhammad, the Hashimites, in Persia during the reign of Umar II. During the reign of Marwan II, this culminated in the rebellion of Ibrahim the Imam. On 9 June 747, Abu Muslim successfully initiated a revolt against Umayyad rule. Close to 10,000 soldiers were under Abu Muslims command when the hostilities began in Merv. General Qahtaba followed the fleeing governor Nasr ibn Sayyar west defeating the Umayyads at the Battle of Nishapur, the Battle of Gorgan, after this loss, Marwan fled to Egypt, where he was subsequently assassinated. The remainder of his family, barring one male, were also eliminated, immediately after their victory, As-Saffah sent his forces to Central Asia, where his forces fought against Tang expansion during the Battle of Talas. Barmakids, who were instrumental in building Baghdad, introduced the worlds first recorded paper mill in Baghdad, As-Saffah focused on putting down numerous rebellions in Syria and Mesopotamia. The Byzantines conducted raids during these early distractions, the first change the Abbasids, under Al-Mansur, made was to move the empires capital from Damascus, in Syria, to Baghdad in Iraq. Baghdad was established on the Tigris River in 762, a new position, that of the vizier, was also established to delegate central authority, and even greater authority was delegated to local emirs. During Al-Mansurs time control of Al-Andalus was lost, and the Shiites revolted and were defeated a year later at the Battle of Bakhamra, the Abbasids had depended heavily on the support of Persians in their overthrow of the Umayyads
7.
Iraq
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The capital, and largest city, is Baghdad. The main ethnic groups are Arabs and Kurds, others include Assyrians, Turkmen, Shabakis, Yazidis, Armenians, Mandeans, Circassians, around 95% of the countrys 36 million citizens are Muslims, with Christianity, Yarsan, Yezidism, and Mandeanism also present. The official languages of Iraq are Arabic and Kurdish, two major rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, run south through Iraq and into the Shatt al-Arab near the Persian Gulf. These rivers provide Iraq with significant amounts of fertile land, the region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, historically known as Mesopotamia, is often referred to as the cradle of civilisation. It was here that mankind first began to read, write, create laws, the area has been home to successive civilisations since the 6th millennium BC. Iraq was the centre of the Akkadian, Sumerian, Assyrian and it was also part of the Median, Achaemenid, Hellenistic, Parthian, Sassanid, Roman, Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid, Ayyubid, Mongol, Safavid, Afsharid, and Ottoman empires. Iraqs modern borders were mostly demarcated in 1920 by the League of Nations when the Ottoman Empire was divided by the Treaty of Sèvres, Iraq was placed under the authority of the United Kingdom as the British Mandate of Mesopotamia. A monarchy was established in 1921 and the Kingdom of Iraq gained independence from Britain in 1932, in 1958, the monarchy was overthrown and the Iraqi Republic created. Iraq was controlled by the Arab Socialist Baath Party from 1968 until 2003, after an invasion by the United States and its allies in 2003, Saddam Husseins Baath Party was removed from power and multi-party parliamentary elections were held in 2005. The American presence in Iraq ended in 2011, but the Iraqi insurgency continued and intensified as fighters from the Syrian Civil War spilled into the country, the Arabic name العراق al-ʿIrāq has been in use since before the 6th century. There are several suggested origins for the name, one dates to the Sumerian city of Uruk and is thus ultimately of Sumerian origin, as Uruk was the Akkadian name for the Sumerian city of Urug, containing the Sumerian word for city, UR. An Arabic folk etymology for the name is rooted, well-watered. During the medieval period, there was a region called ʿIrāq ʿArabī for Lower Mesopotamia and ʿIrāq ʿajamī, for the region now situated in Central and Western Iran. The term historically included the south of the Hamrin Mountains. The term Sawad was also used in early Islamic times for the region of the plain of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. In English, it is either /ɪˈrɑːk/ or /ɪˈræk/, the American Heritage Dictionary, the pronunciation /aɪˈræk/ is frequently heard in U. S. media. Since approximately 10,000 BC, Iraq was one of centres of a Caucasoid Neolithic culture where agriculture, the following Neolithic period is represented by rectangular houses. At the time of the pre-pottery Neolithic, people used vessels made of stone, gypsum, finds of obsidian tools from Anatolia are evidences of early trade relations
8.
Physician
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Both the role of the physician and the meaning of the word itself vary around the world. Degrees and other qualifications vary widely, but there are common elements, such as medical ethics requiring that physicians show consideration, compassion. Around the world the term refers to a specialist in internal medicine or one of its many sub-specialties. This meaning of physician conveys a sense of expertise in treatment by drugs or medications and this term is at least nine hundred years old in English, physicians and surgeons were once members of separate professions, and traditionally were rivals. Henry VIII granted a charter to the London Royal College of Physicians in 1518 and it was not until 1540 that he granted the Company of Barber/Surgeons its separate charter. In the same year, the English monarch established the Regius Professorship of Physic at the University of Cambridge, newer universities would probably describe such an academic as a professor of internal medicine. Hence, in the 16th century, physic meant roughly what internal medicine does now, currently, a specialist physician in the United States may be described as an internist. Another term, hospitalist, was introduced in 1996, to describe US specialists in internal medicine who work largely or exclusively in hospitals, such hospitalists now make up about 19% of all US general internists, who are often called general physicians in Commonwealth countries. In such places, the more general English terms doctor or medical practitioner are prevalent, in Commonwealth countries, specialist pediatricians and geriatricians are also described as specialist physicians who have sub-specialized by age of patient rather than by organ system. Around the world, the term physician and surgeon is used to describe either a general practitioner or any medical practitioner irrespective of specialty. This usage still shows the meaning of physician and preserves the old difference between a physician, as a practitioner of physic, and a surgeon. The term may be used by state medical boards in the United States of America, in modern English, the term physician is used in two main ways, with relatively broad and narrow meanings respectively. This is the result of history and is often confusing and these meanings and variations are explained below. In the United States and Canada, the term physician describes all medical practitioners holding a professional medical degree, the American Medical Association, established in 1847, as well as the American Osteopathic Association, founded in 1897, both currently use the term physician to describe members. However, the American College of Physicians, established in 1915, does not, its title uses physician in its original sense. A physician trained in the United States has either a Doctor of Medicine degree, all boards of certification now require that physicians demonstrate, by examination, continuing mastery of the core knowledge and skills for a chosen specialty. Recertification varies by particular specialty between every seven and every ten years, graduates of osteopathic medical schools in the United States should not be confused with osteopaths, who are trained in the European and Commonwealth nations. Their training is similar to physical therapy and they are not licensed to prescribe medications or perform surgeries, also in the United States, the American Podiatric Medical Association defines podiatrists as physicians and surgeons that fall under the department of surgery in hospitals
9.
Astrology
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Astrology is the study of the movements and relative positions of celestial objects as a means for divining information about human affairs and terrestrial events. Throughout most of its history astrology was considered a tradition and was common in academic circles, often in close relation with astronomy, alchemy, meteorology. It was present in political circles, and is mentioned in works of literature, from Dante Alighieri and Geoffrey Chaucer to William Shakespeare, Lope de Vega. Astrology thus lost its academic and theoretical standing, and common belief in it has largely declined, Astrology is now recognized to be pseudoscience. The word astrology comes from the early Latin word astrologia, which derives from the Greek ἀστρολογία—from ἄστρον astron, astrologia later passed into meaning star-divination with astronomia used for the scientific term. Many cultures have attached importance to astronomical events, and the Indians, Chinese, the majority of professional astrologers rely on such systems. Astrology has been dated to at least the 2nd millennium BCE, with roots in systems used to predict seasonal shifts. A form of astrology was practised in the first dynasty of Mesopotamia, Chinese astrology was elaborated in the Zhou dynasty. Hellenistic astrology after 332 BCE mixed Babylonian astrology with Egyptian Decanic astrology in Alexandria, Alexander the Greats conquest of Asia allowed astrology to spread to Ancient Greece and Rome. In Rome, astrology was associated with Chaldean wisdom, after the conquest of Alexandria in the 7th century, astrology was taken up by Islamic scholars, and Hellenistic texts were translated into Arabic and Persian. In the 12th century, Arabic texts were imported to Europe, major astronomers including Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler and Galileo practised as court astrologers. Astrological references appear in literature in the works of such as Dante Alighieri and Geoffrey Chaucer. Throughout most of its history, astrology was considered a scholarly tradition and it was accepted in political and academic contexts, and was connected with other studies, such as astronomy, alchemy, meteorology, and medicine. At the end of the 17th century, new concepts in astronomy. Astrology thus lost its academic and theoretical standing, and common belief in astrology has largely declined, Astrology, in its broadest sense, is the search for meaning in the sky. This was a first step towards recording the Moons influence upon tides and rivers, by the 3rd millennium BCE, civilisations had sophisticated awareness of celestial cycles, and may have oriented temples in alignment with heliacal risings of the stars. Scattered evidence suggests that the oldest known references are copies of texts made in the ancient world. The Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa thought to be compiled in Babylon around 1700 BCE, a scroll documenting an early use of electional astrology is doubtfully ascribed to the reign of the Sumerian ruler Gudea of Lagash
10.
Astronomer
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An astronomer is a scientist in the field of astronomy who concentrates their studies on a specific question or field outside of the scope of Earth. They look at stars, planets, moons, comets and galaxies, as well as other celestial objects — either in observational astronomy. Examples of topics or fields astronomers work on include, planetary science, solar astronomy, there are also related but distinct subjects like physical cosmology which studies the Universe as a whole. Astronomers usually fit into two types, Observational astronomers make direct observations of planets, stars and galaxies, and analyze the data, theoretical astronomers create and investigate models of things that cannot be observed. They use this data to create models or simulations to theorize how different celestial bodies work, there are further subcategories inside these two main branches of astronomy such as planetary astronomy, galactic astronomy or physical cosmology. Today, that distinction has disappeared and the terms astronomer. Professional astronomers are highly educated individuals who typically have a Ph. D. in physics or astronomy and are employed by research institutions or universities. They spend the majority of their time working on research, although quite often have other duties such as teaching, building instruments. The number of astronomers in the United States is actually quite small. The American Astronomical Society, which is the organization of professional astronomers in North America, has approximately 7,000 members. This number includes scientists from other such as physics, geology. The International Astronomical Union comprises almost 10,145 members from 70 different countries who are involved in research at the Ph. D. level. Before CCDs, photographic plates were a method of observation. Modern astronomers spend relatively little time at telescopes usually just a few weeks per year, analysis of observed phenomena, along with making predictions as to the causes of what they observe, takes the majority of observational astronomers time. Astronomers who serve as faculty spend much of their time teaching undergraduate and graduate classes, most universities also have outreach programs including public telescope time and sometimes planetariums as a public service to encourage interest in the field. Those who become astronomers usually have a background in maths, sciences. Taking courses that teach how to research, write and present papers are also invaluable, in college/university most astronomers get a Ph. D. in astronomy or physics. Keeping in mind how few there are it is understood that graduate schools in this field are very competitive
11.
Arabs
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Arabs are an ethnic group inhabiting the Arab world. They primarily live in the Arab states in Western Asia, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, the Arabs are first mentioned in the mid-ninth century BCE as a tribal people dwelling in the central Arabian Peninsula. The Arabs appear to have been under the vassalage of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, tradition holds that Arabs descend from Ishmael, the son of Abraham. The Arabian Desert is the birthplace of Arab, there are other Arab groups as well that spread in the land and existed for millennia. Before the expansion of the Caliphate, Arab referred to any of the largely nomadic Semitic people from the northern to the central Arabian Peninsula and Syrian Desert. Presently, Arab refers to a number of people whose native regions form the Arab world due to spread of Arabs throughout the region during the early Arab conquests of the 7th and 8th centuries. The Arabs forged the Rashidun, Umayyad and the Abbasid caliphates, whose borders reached southern France in the west, China in the east, Anatolia in the north, and this was one of the largest land empires in history. The Great Arab Revolt has had as big an impact on the modern Middle East as the World War I, the war signaled the end of the Ottoman Empire. They are modern states and became significant as distinct political entities after the fall and defeat, following adoption of the Alexandria Protocol in 1944, the Arab League was founded on 22 March 1945. The Charter of the Arab League endorsed the principle of an Arab homeland whilst respecting the sovereignty of its member states. Beyond the boundaries of the League of Arab States, Arabs can also be found in the global diaspora, the ties that bind Arabs are ethnic, linguistic, cultural, historical, identical, nationalist, geographical and political. The Arabs have their own customs, language, architecture, art, literature, music, dance, media, cuisine, dress, society, sports, the total number of Arabs are an estimated 450 million. This makes them the second largest ethnic group after the Han Chinese. Arabs are a group in terms of religious affiliations and practices. In the pre-Islamic era, most Arabs followed polytheistic religions, some tribes had adopted Christianity or Judaism, and a few individuals, the hanifs, apparently observed monotheism. Today, Arabs are mainly adherents of Islam, with sizable Christian minorities, Arab Muslims primarily belong to the Sunni, Shiite, Ibadi, Alawite, Druze and Ismaili denominations. Arab Christians generally follow one of the Eastern Christian Churches, such as the Maronite, Coptic Orthodox, Greek Orthodox, Greek Catholic, or Chaldean churches. Listed among the booty captured by the army of king Shalmaneser III of Assyria in the Battle of Qarqar are 1000 camels of Gi-in-di-buu the ar-ba-a-a or Gindibu belonging to the Arab
12.
Galen
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Aelius Galenus or Claudius Galenus, often Anglicized as Galen and better known as Galen of Pergamon, was a prominent Greek physician, surgeon and philosopher in the Roman Empire. The son of Aelius Nicon, an architect with scholarly interests, Galen received a comprehensive education that prepared him for a successful career as a physician. Galens understanding of anatomy and medicine was influenced by the then-current theory of humorism. His theories dominated and influenced Western medical science for more than 1,300 years, Medical students continued to study Galens writings until well into the 19th century. Galen saw himself as both a physician and a philosopher, as he wrote in his treatise entitled That the Best Physician is Also a Philosopher. Many of his works have been preserved and/or translated from the original Greek, although many were destroyed, although there is some debate over the date of his death, he was no younger than seventy when he died. In medieval Europe, Galens writings on anatomy became the mainstay of the medieval university curriculum. Some of Galens ideas were incorrect, he did not dissect a human body, Galens original Greek texts gained renewed prominence during the early modern period. In the 1530s, Belgian anatomist and physician Andreas Vesalius took on a project to many of Galens Greek texts into Latin. Vesaliuss most famous work, De humani corporis fabrica, was influenced by Galenic writing. Galens name Γαληνός, Galēnos comes from the adjective γαληνός, calm, Galen describes his early life in On the affections of the mind. Galen describes his father as an amiable, just, good. His studies also took in each of the philosophical systems of the time. His father had planned a career for Galen in philosophy or politics and took care to expose him to literary. However, Galen states that in around AD145 his father had a dream in which the god Asclepius appeared and commanded Nicon to send his son to study medicine, there he came under the influence of men like Aeschrion of Pergamon, Stratonicus and Satyrus. Asclepiea functioned as spas or sanitoria to which the sick would come to seek the ministrations of the priesthood, romans frequented the temple at Pergamon in search of medical relief from illness and disease. It was also the haunt of notable people such as Claudius Charax the historian, Aelius Aristides the orator, Polemo the sophist, in 148, when he was 19, his father died, leaving him independently wealthy. In 157, aged 28, he returned to Pergamon as physician to the gladiators of the High Priest of Asia, one of the most influential and wealthy men in Asia
13.
Greece
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Greece, officially the Hellenic Republic, historically also known as Hellas, is a country in southeastern Europe, with a population of approximately 11 million as of 2015. Athens is the capital and largest city, followed by Thessaloniki. Greece is strategically located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, situated on the southern tip of the Balkan peninsula, it shares land borders with Albania to the northwest, the Republic of Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to the northeast. Greece consists of nine regions, Macedonia, Central Greece, the Peloponnese, Thessaly, Epirus, the Aegean Islands, Thrace, Crete. The Aegean Sea lies to the east of the mainland, the Ionian Sea to the west, the Cretan Sea and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Greece has the longest coastline on the Mediterranean Basin and the 11th longest coastline in the world at 13,676 km in length, featuring a vast number of islands, eighty percent of Greece is mountainous, with Mount Olympus being the highest peak at 2,918 metres. From the eighth century BC, the Greeks were organised into various independent city-states, known as polis, which spanned the entire Mediterranean region and the Black Sea. Greece was annexed by Rome in the second century BC, becoming a part of the Roman Empire and its successor. The Greek Orthodox Church also shaped modern Greek identity and transmitted Greek traditions to the wider Orthodox World, falling under Ottoman dominion in the mid-15th century, the modern nation state of Greece emerged in 1830 following a war of independence. Greeces rich historical legacy is reflected by its 18 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, among the most in Europe, Greece is a democratic and developed country with an advanced high-income economy, a high quality of life, and a very high standard of living. A founding member of the United Nations, Greece was the member to join the European Communities and has been part of the Eurozone since 2001. Greeces unique cultural heritage, large industry, prominent shipping sector. It is the largest economy in the Balkans, where it is an important regional investor, the names for the nation of Greece and the Greek people differ from the names used in other languages, locations and cultures. The earliest evidence of the presence of human ancestors in the southern Balkans, dated to 270,000 BC, is to be found in the Petralona cave, all three stages of the stone age are represented in Greece, for example in the Franchthi Cave. Neolithic settlements in Greece, dating from the 7th millennium BC, are the oldest in Europe by several centuries and these civilizations possessed writing, the Minoans writing in an undeciphered script known as Linear A, and the Mycenaeans in Linear B, an early form of Greek. The Mycenaeans gradually absorbed the Minoans, but collapsed violently around 1200 BC and this ushered in a period known as the Greek Dark Ages, from which written records are absent. The end of the Dark Ages is traditionally dated to 776 BC, the Iliad and the Odyssey, the foundational texts of Western literature, are believed to have been composed by Homer in the 7th or 8th centuries BC. With the end of the Dark Ages, there emerged various kingdoms and city-states across the Greek peninsula, in 508 BC, Cleisthenes instituted the worlds first democratic system of government in Athens
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Supernova
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This causes the sudden appearance of a new bright star, before slowly fading from sight over several weeks or months. Supernovae are more energetic than novae, in Latin, nova means new, referring astronomically to what appears to be a temporary new bright star. Adding the prefix super- distinguishes supernovae from ordinary novae, which are far less luminous, the word supernova was coined by Walter Baade and Fritz Zwicky in 1931. It is pronounced /ˌsuːpərnoʊvə/ with the plural supernovae /ˌsuːpərnoʊviː/ or supernovas, only three Milky Way naked-eye supernova events have been observed during the last thousand years, though many have been seen in other galaxies using telescopes. The most recent directly observed supernova in the Milky Way was Keplers Supernova in 1604, Supernovae may expel much, if not all, of the material away from a star, at velocities up to 30,000 km/s or 10% of the speed of light. This drives an expanding and fast-moving shock wave into the interstellar medium, and in turn, sweeping up an expanding shell of gas and dust. Supernovae create, fuse and eject the bulk of the chemical elements produced by nucleosynthesis, Supernovae play a significant role in enriching the interstellar medium with the heavier atomic mass chemical elements. Furthermore, the shock waves from supernovae can trigger the formation of new stars. Supernova remnants are expected to accelerate a large fraction of primary cosmic rays. They are also potentially strong galactic sources of gravitational waves, in the second case, the core of a massive star may undergo sudden gravitational collapse, releasing gravitational potential energy as a supernova. While some observed supernovae are more complex than these two simplified theories, the astrophysical collapse mechanics have been established and accepted by most astronomers for some time, in Latin, Nova means new, referring astronomically to what appears to be a temporary new bright star. Adding the prefix super- distinguishes supernovae from ordinary novae, which are far less luminous, the word supernova was coined by Walter Baade and Fritz Zwicky in 1931. It is pronounced /ˌsuːpərnoʊvə/ with the plural supernovae /ˌsuːpərnoʊviː/ or supernovas, the earliest recorded supernova, SN185, was viewed by Chinese astronomers in 185 AD. The brightest recorded supernova was SN1006, which occurred in 1006 AD and was described in detail by Chinese, the widely observed supernova SN1054 produced the Crab Nebula. Johannes Kepler began observing SN1604 at its peak on October 17,1604 and it was the second supernova to be observed in a generation. There is some evidence that the youngest galactic supernova, G1. 9+0.3, occurred in the late 19th century, neither supernova was noted at the time. In the case of G1. 9+0.3, high extinction along the plane of the galaxy could have dimmed the event sufficiently to go unnoticed, the situation for Cassiopeia A is less clear. Infrared light echos have been detected showing that it was a type IIb supernova and was not in a region of especially high extinction, before the development of the telescope, there have only been five supernovae seen in the last millennium
15.
SN 1006
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Some reports state it was clearly visible in the daytime. Modern astronomers now consider its distance from us at about 7,200 light-years, egyptian astrologer and astronomer Ali ibn Ridwan, writing in a commentary on Ptolemys Tetrabiblos, stated that the spectacle was a large circular body, 2½ to 3 times as large as Venus. The sky was shining because of its light, the intensity of its light was a little more than a quarter that of Moon light. Like all other observers, Ali ibn Ridwan noted that the new star was low on the southern horizon, some astrologers interpreted the event as a portent of plague and famine. The most northerly sighting is recorded in the annals of the Abbey of Saint Gall in Switzerland and this description is often taken as probable evidence that the supernova was of Type Ia. Some sources state that the star was bright enough to cast shadows, according to Songshi, the official history of the Song Dynasty, the star seen on 1 May 1006 appeared to the south of constellation Di, east of Lupus and one degree to the west of Centaurus. It shone so brightly that objects on the ground could be seen at night, by December, it was again sighted in the constellation Di. The reported color yellow should be taken with some suspicion however, there appear to have been two distinct phases in the early evolution of this supernova. There was first a period at which it was at its brightest, after this period it diminished. A petroglyph by the Hohokam in White Tank Mountain Regional Park, on August 25,2015, a recently found document suggested that observers in Yemen may have seen SN1006 on April 17, two weeks before its previously assumed earliest observation. This is located near the star Beta Lupi, displaying a 30 arcmin circular shell, x-ray and optical emission from this remnant have also been detected, and during 2010 the H. E. S. S. Gamma-ray observatory announced the detection of very-high-energy gamma-ray emission from the remnant, no associated neutron star or black hole has been found, which is the situation expected for the remnant of a Type Ia supernova. Remnant SNR G327. 6+14.6 has a distance of 2.2 kpc. from Earth. The greatest risk is to the Earths protective ozone layer, producing effects on life, while SN1006 did not appear to have such significant effects, a signal of its outburst can be found in nitrate deposits in Antarctic ice
16.
Egyptians
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The Black Egyptian hypothesis is the hypothesis that Ancient Egypt was a predominately Black civilization, as the term is currently understood in modern American ethic perception. Mainstream scholars recognize that many indigenous Egyptians, including several Pharaohs, were of ancestry that, in the modern era, the Black Egyptian hypothesis goes a lot further, claiming that Egypt, from north to south, was a black civilization. At the UNESCO Symposium on the Peopling of Ancient Egypt and the Deciphering of the Meroitic script in Cairo in 1974, some modern scholars such as W. E. B. Du Bois, Chancellor Williams, Cheikh Anta Diop, John G. Jackson, Ivan van Sertima, Martin Bernal, the frequently criticized Journal of African Civilizations has continually advocated that Egypt should be viewed as a Black civilization. Diop and others believed the views were fueled by scientific racism. Diop used an approach to counteract prevailing views on the Ancient Egyptians origins. Since the second half of the 20th century, most scholars have held that modern notions of race to ancient Egypt is anachronistic. The focus of some experts who study population biology has been to consider whether or not the Ancient Egyptians were primarily biologically North African rather than to which race they belonged, in 1975, the mummy of Ramesses II was taken to France for preservation. The mummy was also tested by Professor Pierre-Fernand Ceccaldi, the chief forensic scientist at the Criminal Identification Laboratory of Paris. Professor Ceccaldi determined that, Hair, astonishingly preserved, showed some complementary data - especially about pigmentation, the description given here refers to a fair-skinned person with wavy ginger hair. Keita wrote that There is no reason to believe that the primary ancestors of the Egyptian population emerged and evolved outside of northeast Africa. Stuart Tyson Smith writes in the 2001 Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt that Any characterization of race of the ancient Egyptians depends on modern cultural definitions, not on scientific study. Thus, by modern American standards it is reasonable to characterize the Egyptians as black, several Ancient Greek historians noted that Egyptians had complexions that were melanchroes. There is considerable controversy over the translation of melanchroes, most scholars translate it as black. Alan B Lloyd wrote that there is no justification for relating this description to negroes. Melanchroes could denote any colour from bronzed to black and negroes are not the physical type to show curly hair. These characteristics would certainly be found in many Egs, ancient and modern, some of the most often quoted historians are Strabo, Diodorus Siculus, and Herodotus. Herodotus states in a few passages that the Egyptians were black/dark, lucian observes an Egyptian boy and notices that he is not merely black, but has thick lips
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Medicine in the medieval Islamic world
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Islamic medicine preserved, systematized and developed the medical knowledge of classical antiquity. During the post-classical era, Islamic medicine was the most advanced in the world, integrating concepts of the ancient Greek, many aspects of their writings are still worth reading even today, and their memory is held in high respect by the physicians of today. Medicine was a part of medieval Islamic culture. The works of ancient Greek and Roman physicians Hippocrates, Galen, ophthalmology has been described as the most successful branch of medicine researched at the time, with the works of Ibn Al-Haitham remaining an authority in the field until early modern times. Early on, the study and practice of medicine was understood as an act of piety, founded on the principles of Imaan and Tawakkul. Muhammads opinions on issues, and habits with regard to leading a healthy life, were collected early on. Anas writes about two physicians who had treated him by cauterization and mentions that the wanted to avoid this treatment and had asked for alternative treatments. Later on, there are reports of the caliph ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān fixing his teeth with a made of gold. He also mentions that the habit of cleaning ones teeth with a wooden toothpick dates back to pre-islamic times. The Prophetic medicine was mentioned by the classical authors of Islamic medicine. In his Kitab as-Ṣaidana from the 10. /11, century, Al-Biruni refers to collected poems and other works dealing with, and commenting on, the materia medica of the old Arabs. The most famous physician was Al-Ḥariṯ ben-Kalada aṯ-Ṯaqafī, who lived at the time as the prophet. He is supposed to have been in touch with the Academy of Gondishapur and he reportedly had a conversation once with Khosrow I Anushirvan about medical topics. The translation of the capital of the emerging Islamic world to Damascus may have facilitated this contact, the names of two Christian physicians are known, Ibn Aṯāl worked at the court of Muawiyah I, the founder of the Umayyad dynasty. The caliph abused his knowledge in order to get rid of some of his enemies by way of poisoning, likewise, Abu l-Ḥakam, who was responsible for the preparation of drugs, was employed by Muawiah. His son, grandson, and great-grandson were also serving the Umayyad and these sources testify to the fact that the physicians of the emerging islamic society were familiar with the classical medical traditions already at the times of the Umayyads. The medical knowledge likely arrived from Alexandria, and was transferred by Syrian scholars, or translators. Very few sources provide information about how the expanding Islamic society received any medical knowledge, a physician called Abdalmalik ben Abgar al-Kinānī from Kufa in Iraq is supposed to have worked at the medical school of Alexandria before he joined ʿUmar ibn ʿAbd al-ʿAzīzs court
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Astrology in medieval Islam
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The science dealing with such influences was termed astrology, a discipline contained within the field of astronomy. Throughout the medieval period the practical application of astrology was subject to deep philosophical debate by Muslim religious scholars, Medieval Islamic astrology and astronomy continued Hellenistic and Roman era traditions based on Ptolemys Almagest. During this time knowledge of astronomy was greatly increased, and the astrolabe was invented by Al Fazari, many modern star names are derived from their Arabic and Persian names. Its important to note even the word star is Persian word often used as first name for girls pronounced in Persian Setareh. Albumasur or Abu Mashar was one of the most influential Islamic astrologers and his treatise Introductorium in Astronomiam spoke of how only by observing the great diversity of planetary motions can we comprehend the unnumbered varieties of change in this world. Persians also combined the disciplines of medicine and astrology by linking the properties of herbs with specific zodiac signs. Mars, for instance, was considered hot and dry and so ruled plants with a hot or pungent taste, like hellebore and these beliefs were adopted by European herbalists like Culpeper right up until the development of modern medicine. The Persians also developed a system, by which the difference between the ascendant and each planet of the zodiac was calculated and this new position then became a part of some kind. For example, the part of fortune is found by taking the difference between the sun and the ascendant and adding it to the moon. If the part thus calculated was in the 10th House in Libra, for instance, the calendar introduced by Omar Khayyám Neyshabouri, based on the classical zodiac, remains in effect in Afghanistan and Iran as the official Persian calendar. Another notable Persian astrologer and astronomer was Qutb al-Din al Shirazi born in Iran, al-Shirazi was also the first person to give the correct scientific explanation for the formation of a rainbow. Ulugh Beyg was a fifteenth-century Timurid Sultan and also a mathematician and he built an observatory in 1428 and produced the first original star map since Ptolemy, which corrected the position of many stars and included many new ones. Some of the principles of astrology were refuted by several medieval Islamic astronomers such as Al-Farabi, Ibn al-Haytham, Avicenna, Abu Rayhan al-Biruni and their reasons for refuting astrology were often due to both scientific and religious reasons. However these refutations mainly concerned the judicial branches of astrology rather than the principles of it. For example, Avicennas refutation of astrology revealed support for its overarching principles and he stated that it was true that each planet had some influence on the earth, but his argument was the difficulty of astrologers being able to determine the exact effect of it. In essence, Avicenna did not refute astrology, but denied man’s limited capacity to be able to know the effects of the stars on the sublunar matter. With that, he did not refute the essential dogma of astrology, why is it that you have given an influence to al-Ras and al-Dhanab, which are two imaginary points. According to jurists, the study of astronomy is lawful, as it is useful in predicting the beginning of months and seasons, determining the direction of salat, and navigation
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Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world
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Islamic astronomy comprises the astronomical developments made in the Islamic world, particularly during the Islamic Golden Age, and mostly written in the Arabic language. These developments mostly took place in the Middle East, Central Asia, Al-Andalus, and North Africa and these included Greek, Sassanid, and Indian works in particular, which were translated and built upon. Islamic astronomy also had an influence on Chinese astronomy and Malian astronomy, a significant number of stars in the sky, such as Aldebaran, Altair and Deneb, and astronomical terms such as alidade, azimuth, and nadir, are still referred to by their Arabic names. A large corpus of literature from Islamic astronomy remains today, numbering approximately 10,000 manuscripts scattered throughout the world, even so, a reasonably accurate picture of Islamic activity in the field of astronomy can be reconstructed. These observations were based on the rising and setting of stars. Anwa continued to be developed after Islamization by the Arabs, where Islamic astronomers added mathematical methods to their empirical observations, according to David King, after the rise of Islam, the religious obligation to determine the qibla and prayer times inspired more progress in astronomy for centuries. The first astronomical texts that were translated into Arabic were of Indian and Persian origin, another text translated was the Zij al-Shah, a collection of astronomical tables compiled in Sasanid Persia over two centuries. Fragments of texts during this period indicate that Arabs adopted the function in place of the chords of arc used in Greek trigonometry. The House of Wisdom was an established in Baghdad under Abbasid caliph Al-Mamun in the early 9th century. From this time, independent investigation into the Ptolemaic system became possible, Astronomical research was greatly supported by the Abbasid caliph al-Mamun through The House of Wisdom. Baghdad and Damascus became the centers of such activity, the caliphs not only supported this work financially, but endowed the work with formal prestige. The first major Muslim work of astronomy was Zij al-Sindh by al-Khwarizmi in 830, the work contains tables for the movements of the sun, the moon and the five planets known at the time. The work is significant as it introduced Ptolemaic concepts into Islamic sciences and this work also marks the turning point in Islamic astronomy. Hitherto, Muslim astronomers had adopted a primarily research approach to the field, translating works of others, al-Khwarizmis work marked the beginning of nontraditional methods of study and calculations. In 850, al-Farghani wrote Kitab fi Jawani, the book primarily gave a summary of Ptolemic cosmography. However, it also corrected Ptolemy based on findings of earlier Arab astronomers, al-Farghani gave revised values for the obliquity of the ecliptic, the precessional movement of the apogees of the sun and the moon, and the circumference of the earth. The book was circulated through the Muslim world, and even translated into Latin. The period when a distinctive Islamic system of astronomy flourished, the period began as the Muslim astronomers began questioning the framework of the Ptolemaic system of astronomy
20.
Ancient Greek medicine
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Ancient Greek medicine was a compilation of theories and practices that were constantly expanding through new ideologies and trials. Many components were considered in ancient Greek medicine, intertwining the spiritual with the physical, specifically, the ancient Greeks believed health was affected by the humors, gender, geographic location, social class, diet, trauma, beliefs, and mindset. Early on, ancient Greeks believed that illnesses were divine punishments, humorism refers to blood, yellow bile, black bile and phlegm. It was also theorized that gender played a role in medicine because some diseases, diet was thought to be an issue as well and might be affected by a lack of access to adequate nourishment. Trauma, such as that suffered by gladiators, from dog bites or other injuries, played a role in relating to understanding anatomy. Additionally, there was significant focus on the beliefs and mind set of the patient in the diagnosis and it was recognized that the mind played a role in healing, or that it might also be the sole basis for the illness. Ancient Greek medicine began to revolve around the theory of humors, humoral theory states that good health comes from perfect balance of the four humors blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile. Consequently, poor health resulted from improper balance of the four humors, Hippocrates, known as the Father of Modern Medicine, established a medical school at Cos sin and is the most important figure in ancient Greek medicine. Hippocrates and his students documented numerous illnesses in the Hippocratic Corpus, and developed the Hippocratic Oath for physicians, the earliest known Greek medical school opened in Cnidus in 700 BC. Alcmaeon, author of the first anatomical compilation, worked at this school, knowledge of the field of medicine in ancient Greece during the Pre-Hippocratic era is relatively limited and most information we have comes from Homer and his epics. Throughout his stories, Homer used a myriad of medical and anatomical descriptions, Homer has been attributed with moving his society towards humanism, which led to the interest in medicine and scientific approaches to it. It was at point that the people of ancient Greece started to blame less on the gods and to look for more practical reasons. In order for them to be cured they would have to sacrifice to him and appease the angered god, which when done successfully lifted the plague. Based on this, historians believe that ancient Greeks saw disease as a work of angered gods, another way ancient Greeks sought relief from their ailments was through help from the healing god Asclepius. Although disease was seen as a work of the gods, cases of injury and trauma were dealt with more practically, the Achaeans had dedicated healers, specifically Machaon, who was often described dealing with the injuries associated with war. The treatments used were rudimentary, and consisted mainly of herbs, bandages. The herbs used were generally meant to be analgesics or used for coagulation to prevent bleeding out on the battlefield. Along with practical treatment, it was common for the healers to offer a prayer along with treatment because there was still a belief that gods could and would heal at their discretion
21.
Gerard of Cremona
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Gerard of Cremona was an Italian translator of scientific books from Arabic into Latin. He worked in Toledo, Kingdom of Castile and obtained the Arabic books in the libraries at Toledo, some of the books had been originally written in Greek and were unavailable in Greek or Latin in Europe at the time. One of Gerards most famous translations is of Ptolemys Almagest from Arabic texts found in Toledo, Gerard was born in Cremona in northern Italy. Dissatisfied with the philosophies of his Italian teachers, Gerard went to Toledo. The first Latin translation was made, from the Greek around 1160 in Sicily, although we do not have detailed information of the date when Gerard went to Castile, it was no later than 1144. Toledo remained a capital, insofar as its rulers protected the large Jewish and Muslim quarters. One of the scholars associated with Toledo was Rabbi Abraham ibn Ezra. The Muslim and Jewish inhabitants of Toledo adopted the language and many customs of their conquerors, the city was full of libraries and manuscripts, and was one of the few places in medieval Europe where a Christian could be exposed to Arabic language and culture. In Toledo Gerard devoted the remainder of his life to making Latin translations from the Arabic scientific literature, Gerard of Cremonas Latin translation of the Arabic version of Ptolemy’s Almagest made c.1175 was the most widely known in Western Europe before the Renaissance. George of Trebizond and then Johannes Regiomontanus retranslated it from the Greek original in the fifteenth century, the Almagest formed the basis for Western astronomy until it was eclipsed by the theories of Copernicus. Gerard edited for Latin readers the Tables of Toledo, the most accurate compilation of data ever seen in Europe at the time. The Tables were partly the work of Al-Zarqali, known to the West as Arzachel, al-Farabi, the Islamic second teacher after Aristotle, wrote hundreds of treatises. His book on the sciences, Kitab lhsa al Ulum, discussed classification and fundamental principles of science in a unique, Gerard rendered it as De scientiis. Gerard translated Euclid’s Geometry and Alfraganuss Elements of Astronomy, Gerard also composed original treatises on algebra, arithmetic and astrology. In the astrology text, longitudes are reckoned both from Cremona and Toledo, the later Gerard focused on translating medical texts rather than astronomical texts, but the two translators have understandably been confused with one another. His translations from works of Avicenna are said to have made by order of the emperor Frederick II. The attribution of the Theorica to Gerard of Sabbionetta is not well supported by manuscript evidence, Toledo School of Translators Latin translations of the 12th century Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe Burnett, Charles. The Coherence of the Arabic-Latin Translation Program in Toledo in the Twelfth Century, arabian Medicine and Its Influence on the Middle Ages
22.
Recorded history
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Recorded history or written history is a historical narrative based on a written record or other documented communication. Recorded history can be contrasted with other narratives of the past, for broader world history, recorded history begins with the accounts of the ancient world around the 4th millennium BC, and coincides with the invention of writing. Examples of written texts, however, can be found dating as far back as 1750 BCE in Ancient Mesopotamia, for some geographic regions or cultures, written history is limited to a relatively recent period in human history because of the limited use of written records. Because of these limits, recorded history in different contexts may refer to different periods of time depending on the historical topic. The question of the nature, and even the possibility, of a method for interpreting recorded history is raised in the philosophy of history as a question of epistemology. Prehistory traditionally refers to the span of time before recorded history, prehistory refers to the past in an area where no written records exist, or where the writing of a culture is not understood. Protohistory refers to the period between prehistory and history, after the advent of literacy in a society but before the writings of the first historians. Protohistory may also refer to the period during which a culture or civilization has not yet developed writing, more complete writing systems were preceded by proto-writing. Early examples are the Jiahu symbols, Vinča signs, early Indus script, earliest recorded history, which varies greatly in quality and reliability, deals with Pharaohs and their reigns, made by ancient Egyptians. Much of the earliest recorded history was re-discovered relatively recently due to archaeological dig sites findings, since these initial accounts, a number of different traditions have developed in different parts of the world in how to handle the writing and production of historical accounts. In China, the earliest history was recorded in oracle bone script which was deciphered, the Zuo Zhuan, attributed to Zuo Qiuming in the 5th century BCE, is the earliest written of narrative history in the world and covers the period from 722 to 468 BCE. The Classic of History is one of the Five Classics of Chinese classic texts and it is traditionally attributed to Confucius. Zhan Guo Ce was a renowned ancient Chinese historical compilation of materials on the Warring States period compiled between the 3rd and 1st centuries BCE. Sima Qian was the first in China to lay the groundwork for professional historical writing and his written work was the Shiji, a monumental lifelong achievement in literature. His work influenced every subsequent author of history in China, including the prestigious Ban family of the Eastern Han Dynasty era, Herodotus of Halicarnassus has generally been acclaimed as the father of history composing his The Histories written from 450s to the 420s BCE. However, his contemporary Thucydides is credited with having first approached history with a historical method in his work the History of the Peloponnesian War. Thucydides, unlike Herodotus, regarded history as being the product of the choices and actions of human beings, saint Augustine was influential in Christian and Western thought at the beginning of the medieval period. Through the Medieval and Renaissance periods, history was studied through a sacred or religious perspective
23.
Ptolemy
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Claudius Ptolemy was a Greek writer, known as a mathematician, astronomer, geographer, astrologer, and poet of a single epigram in the Greek Anthology. He lived in the city of Alexandria in the Roman province of Egypt, wrote in Koine Greek, beyond that, few reliable details of his life are known. His birthplace has been given as Ptolemais Hermiou in the Thebaid in a statement by the 14th-century astronomer Theodore Meliteniotes. This is a very late attestation, however, and there is no reason to suppose that he ever lived elsewhere than Alexandria. Ptolemy wrote several treatises, three of which were of importance to later Byzantine, Islamic and European science. The first is the astronomical treatise now known as the Almagest, although it was entitled the Mathematical Treatise. The second is the Geography, which is a discussion of the geographic knowledge of the Greco-Roman world. The third is the treatise in which he attempted to adapt horoscopic astrology to the Aristotelian natural philosophy of his day. This is sometimes known as the Apotelesmatika but more known as the Tetrabiblos from the Greek meaning Four Books or by the Latin Quadripartitum. The name Claudius is a Roman nomen, the fact that Ptolemy bore it indicates he lived under the Roman rule of Egypt with the privileges and political rights of Roman citizenship. It would have suited custom if the first of Ptolemys family to become a citizen took the nomen from a Roman called Claudius who was responsible for granting citizenship, if, as was common, this was the emperor, citizenship would have been granted between AD41 and 68. The astronomer would also have had a praenomen, which remains unknown and it occurs once in Greek mythology, and is of Homeric form. All the kings after him, until Egypt became a Roman province in 30 BC, were also Ptolemies, abu Mashar recorded a belief that a different member of this royal line composed the book on astrology and attributed it to Ptolemy. The correct answer is not known”, Ptolemy wrote in Greek and can be shown to have utilized Babylonian astronomical data. He was a Roman citizen, but most scholars conclude that Ptolemy was ethnically Greek and he was often known in later Arabic sources as the Upper Egyptian, suggesting he may have had origins in southern Egypt. Later Arabic astronomers, geographers and physicists referred to him by his name in Arabic, Ptolemys Almagest is the only surviving comprehensive ancient treatise on astronomy. Ptolemy presented his models in convenient tables, which could be used to compute the future or past position of the planets. The Almagest also contains a catalogue, which is a version of a catalogue created by Hipparchus
24.
Tetrabiblos
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But whilst the Almagest as an astronomical authority was superseded by acceptance of the heliocentric model of the solar system, the Tetrabiblos remains an important theoretical work for astrology. This allowed Ptolemaic teachings on astrology to be included in universities during the Renaissance, the books intellectual standing had collapsed by the end of the 17th century, when Ptolemys work and the principles it presented faced criticisms of being outmoded and based on superstition. The historical importance of the Tetrabiblos is seen by the ancient, Medieval. It was copied, commented on, paraphrased, abridged, the latest critical Greek edition, by Wolfgang Hübner, was published by Teubner in 1998. Ptolemy is referred to as the most famous of Greek astrologers, as a source of reference his Tetrabiblos is described as having enjoyed almost the authority of a Bible among the astrological writers of a thousand years or more. Compiled in Alexandria in the 2nd century, the work gathered commentaries about it from its first publication and it was translated into Arabic in the 9th century, and is described as by far the most influential source of medieval Islamic astrology. With the translation of the Tetrabiblos into Latin in the 12th century, Ptolemaic astrology became integrated by Albertus Magnus and this theological acceptance encouraged the teaching of Ptolemaic astrology in universities, often linked to medical studies. This, in turn, brought attention in literary works, such as Dantes, at this time, the contents of the Tetrabiblos started to draw stigmatisation as part of a diabolical art of divination. One 17th-century critic was to write of its subject, no art is more fitted to forward the aims of the devil than the astrology of Ptolemy. The early 20th-century Humanist astrologer Dane Rudhyar reported that the astrology of his era originated almost entirely in the work of the Alexandrian astrologer, even 21st-century astrological textbooks have described the Tetrabiblos as being without a doubt, indispensable for any serious student of astrology. The outstanding mark of Ptolemy’s astrology is described as informed by the philosophical, the book opens with an explanation of the philosophical framework of astrology which aims to answer the arguments of critics who questioned the subjects validity. Ptolemy was not responsible for originating the astrological techniques he presented in the Tetrabiblos and his contribution was to arrange the material systematically, in order to demonstrate that astrology is based upon logical, hierarchical principles. The Greek text has undergone transmission into Arabic, Latin and many modern languages, an ancient anonymous commentary on the work states that some considered the term Tetrabiblos to be a fictitious name. Hübner, editor of the 1998 Teubner Greek edition, uses the title Apotelesmatiká, effects, alexander Jones, editor of the Springer publication Ptolemy in Perspective considers that Ptolemys own title remains unknown, but agrees that the term Apotelesmatika is a credible guess. D. The text begins with Ptolemys address to Syrus, a character to whom all Ptolemys works are dedicated. He states that each has its own science and the former is desirable in its own even though it does not attain the result given by its combination with the second. Chapters 2 and 3 are important for giving Ptolemys philosophical defense of his subject, Franz Boll noticed the arguments were paralleled in older sources, particularly those of the Stoic philosopher Posidonius. Ptolemy then answers each criticism in the two chapters
25.
Ibn Butlan
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Ibn Butlan was an Arab Nestorian Christian physician who was active in Baghdad during the Islamic Golden Age. The work treated matters of hygiene, dietetics, and exercise and it emphasized the benefits of regular attention to the personal physical and mental well-being. One of his Greek sources was Dioscorides
26.
Luca Gaurico
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Luca Gaurico was an Italian astrologer, astronomer, astrological data collector and mathematician. He was born to a family in the Kingdom of Naples, and studied judicial astrology. Judicial astrology concerned the fate of man as influenced by the stars and his most famous work is the Tractatus Astrologicus. Gauricos reputation was such that he served as an consultant to Catherine de Medici. Giulio de Medici later was to become Pope Clement VII, who involved with disputes with both Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and Henry VIII of England, giovanni II Bentivoglio, ruler of Bologna, consulted him about his destiny. Displeased with Gaurico’s prophecy, Bentivoglio subjected Gaurico to the torture of mancuerda, the effects of which he suffered for the rest of his life, when Bologna fell to Pope Julius II, Gaurico returned to general favor. Gaurico became famous after predicting the ascension of Alessandro Farnese, a prediction that came true with Farneses ascension as Paul III, Gaurico foretold also the sickness and death of this Pontiff, who died on November 20,1549, the day said to have been indicated by Gaurico. Paul III obviously did not wait for his death in order to verify Gauricos prediction, Paul III made Gaurico bishop of Civitate, in Capitanata, in southern Italy, in 1545. Four years after the death of Paul III, Gaurico abandoned these duties, the Tractatus Astrologicus contained the natal charts of popes and cardinals, kings and nobles, scholars, musicians and artists. Gaurico systematically examined each natal chart, compared it to the life of the person in question, Gaurico also attempted to calculate the exact date of Jesus crucifixion, and the number of hours between it and the resurrection. Allegedly, both he and Nostradamus were responsible for predicting the death of Henry II of France in a tournament in 1559, allegedly, Catherine de Medici had wished to know Henrys destiny as the Apparent Heir of France. Allegedly, Gaurico replied that the Heir would exert his power, which would first marked by a duel. Allegedly, he explained in detail the kind of wound that would result in the death of Henry II during this duel. Allegedly, the danger of this duel was considered impossible because of the condition of the Prince. Allegedly, Gaurico insisted on his statements, printed in France in 1552, allegedly, the letter did not deter Henry. He suffered terribly, and, despite the efforts of royal surgeon Ambroise Paré, in fact, the one known horoscope of Henri II by Gaurico is literally quoted in the Dictionnaire of Pierre Bayle. There is no question of a duel, Gaurico promises the best successes to Henri II and adds that he shall live up to the age of 69 year,10 month and 12 days, provided that he passes the years 56,63 and 64 of his age. In regard to the birth of Martin Luther, Gaurico found a connection between this date and a grand conjunction, that is, a meeting of the planets Jupiter, grand conjunctions were meant to predict extensive changes in the secular and religious power structures
27.
Venice
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Venice is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto region. It is situated across a group of 118 small islands that are separated by canals and these are located in the shallow Venetian Lagoon, an enclosed bay that lies between the mouths of the Po and the Piave Rivers. Parts of Venice are renowned for the beauty of their settings, their architecture, the lagoon and a part of the city are listed as a World Heritage Site. In 2014,264,579 people resided in Comune di Venezia, together with Padua and Treviso, the city is included in the Padua-Treviso-Venice Metropolitan Area, with a total population of 2.6 million. PATREVE is a metropolitan area without any degree of autonomy. The name is derived from the ancient Veneti people who inhabited the region by the 10th century BC, the city was historically the capital of the Republic of Venice. Venice has been known as the La Dominante, Serenissima, Queen of the Adriatic, City of Water, City of Masks, City of Bridges, The Floating City, and City of Canals. The City State of Venice is considered to have been the first real international financial center which gradually emerged from the 9th century to its peak in the 14th century and this made Venice a wealthy city throughout most of its history. It is also known for its several important artistic movements, especially the Renaissance period, Venice has played an important role in the history of symphonic and operatic music, and it is the birthplace of Antonio Vivaldi. Venice has been ranked the most beautiful city in the world as of 2016, the name Venetia, however, derives from the Roman name for the people known as the Veneti, and called by the Greeks Eneti. The meaning of the word is uncertain, although there are other Indo-European tribes with similar-sounding names, such as the Celtic Veneti, Baltic Veneti, and the Slavic Wends. Linguists suggest that the name is based on an Indo-European root *wen, so that *wenetoi would mean beloved, lovable, a connection with the Latin word venetus, meaning the color sea-blue, is also possible. The alternative obsolete form is Vinegia, some late Roman sources reveal the existence of fishermen on the islands in the original marshy lagoons. They were referred to as incolae lacunae, the traditional founding is identified with the dedication of the first church, that of San Giacomo on the islet of Rialto — said to have taken place at the stroke of noon on 25 March 421. Beginning as early as AD166 to 168, the Quadi and Marcomanni destroyed the center in the area. The Roman defences were again overthrown in the early 5th century by the Visigoths and, some 50 years later, New ports were built, including those at Malamocco and Torcello in the Venetian lagoon. The tribuni maiores, the earliest central standing governing committee of the islands in the Lagoon, the traditional first doge of Venice, Paolo Lucio Anafesto, was actually Exarch Paul, and his successor, Marcello Tegalliano, was Pauls magister militum. In 726 the soldiers and citizens of the Exarchate rose in a rebellion over the controversy at the urging of Pope Gregory II
28.
Rowman & Littlefield
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Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group is an independent publishing house founded in 1949. Under several imprints, the company offers scholarly books and journals for the academic market, Rowman & Littlefield is the worlds largest publisher in museum studies. The company also owns two book distributing businesses, National Book Network based in Lanham, Maryland, and NBN International based in Plymouth, UK. The current company took shape when University Press of America acquired Rowman & Littlefield in 1988, a publishing phenomenon that begins and ends with Scarecrow Press
29.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
30.
Edinburgh University Press
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Edinburgh University Press is a scholarly publisher of academic books and journals, based in Edinburgh, Scotland. Edinburgh University Press was founded in the 1940s and became a wholly owned subsidiary of the University of Edinburgh in 1992, Books and journals published by the Press carry the imprimatur of The University of Edinburgh. All proposed publishing projects are appraised and approved by the Press Committee, since August 2004, the Press has had Charitable Status. In November 2013, Edinburgh University Press acquired Dundee University Press for a sum, with a stated aim to increase textbook and digital sales. Brodies advised Edinburgh University Press on the terms of the acquisition, Edinburgh University Press publishes a range of research publications, which include scholarly monographs and reference works, as well as materials which are available on-line. The Press also publishes textbooks for students and lecturers, the press publishes around 120 books and 30 journals each year. Edinburgh University Press publishes mostly in humanities and social sciences, the press participates in the ebook platforms University Press Scholarship Online, Books at JSTOR and University Publishing Online, and also works with a number of ebook aggregators. The Trustees normally meet five times a year, and are responsible for the conduct of the Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh University Press achieved combined book and journal revenues of over £2. 37m for the year ending 31 July 2013, a 7% increase on the previous year. Profit before interest was £197,000, which was marginally down on 2012 due to continued investment in editorial, Official website - Corporate information and journals publishing programme Official website – books publishing programme
31.
Bukhtishu
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Bakhtshooa Gondishapoori were Persian or Assyrian Nestorian Christian physicians from the 7th, 8th, and 9th centuries, spanning 6 generations and 250 years. The Middle Persian-Syriac name which can be found as early as at the beginning of the 5th century refers to the ancestor of this Syro-Persian Nestorian family. Some of the members of the served as the personal physicians of Caliphs. Jurjis son of Bukht-Yishu was awarded 10,000 dinars by al-Mansur after attending to his malady in 765CE and it is even said that one of the members of this family was received as physician to Imam Sajjad during his illness in the events of Karbala. Like most physicians in the early Abbasid courts, they came from the Academy of Gondishapur in Persia and they were well versed in the Greek and Hindi sciences, including those of Plato, Aristotle, Pythagoras, and Galen, which they aided in translating while working in Gondishapur. In the course of their integration into the society after the Islamic invasion of Persia. Consisting of a first, Middle Persian term meaning redeemed and a Syriac component for Jesus, however, in his book Kitāb Uyūn al-anbā fī ṭabaqāt al-aṭibbā, the Arab, 12th century historian Ibn Abi Usaibia renders the meaning as Servant of Jesus in Syriac language. There are no remaining records of the first two members of the family. And the remaining records of the start from Jurjis. He was called to Baghdad in 765 CE to treat the stomach complaint of the Caliph al-Mansur, after successfully curing the caliph, he was asked to remain in attendance in Baghdad, which he did until he fell ill in 769 CE. Before allowing him to return to Gondeshapur, the caliph invited him to convert to Islam but he declined, amused by his obstinacy, the caliph sent an attendant with Jurjis to ensure he reached his destination. In exchange for the attendant and a 10,000 dinar wage, Jurjis promised to send his pupil Isa ibn Sahl to the caliph, since his son, Bukhtishu II, Bukhtishu II was the son of Jurjis ibn Bukhtishu and the father of Jibril ibn Bukhtishu. He was left in charge of the hospital at Gondeshapur when his father was summoned to treat the stomach complaints of Caliph al-Mansur, Jurjis never intended for Bukhtishu II to go to Baghdad and tend to the caliphs and had offered to send one of his pupils in his stead. Nevertheless, Bukhtishu II was in turn called to the city to treat the Caliph al-Hadi and he was unable to establish himself in Baghdad until 787 CE, when Caliph Harun al-Rashid was suffering violently painful headaches. He successfully treated Harun al-Rashid and in gratitude the caliph made him physician-in-chief, bukhtishu’, Jibril ibn Bakhtishu, Jibra’il ibn Bukhtyishu, Djabra’il b. Bakhtishu Jibril ibn Bukhtishu was the son of Bukhtishu II, who served the caliphs in Baghdad from 787 CE until his death in 801 CE, in 791 CE, Bukhtishu II recommended Jibril as a physician to Jafar the Barmakid, the vizier of the Caliph Harun al-Rashid. Despite the recommendation, Jibril did not succeed his father until 805 CE, after he successfully treated one of Harun al-Rashid’s slaves, during Jibril’s time in Baghdad, he advised Harun al-Rashid in the building of its first hospital. The hospital and connected observatory was modeled after the one in Gondeshapur where Jibril had studied medicine, being a part of such court interactions, Jibril would occasionally approach the caliph with a level of frankness not allowed most attendants
32.
Rufaida Al-Aslamia
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Rufaida Al-Aslamia was an Islamic medical and social worker recognized as the first female Muslim nurse and the first female surgeon in Islam. Rufaida Al-Aslamia is depicted as a kind, empathetic nurse and a good organizer, with her clinical skills, she trained other women, Including the famous female companions of Prophet Muhammad- Khadijah, Ayesha, to be nurses and to work in the area of health care. She also worked as a worker, helping to solve social problems associated with the disease. In addition, she helped children in need and took care of orphans, handicapped, born into a family with strong ties to the medical community, Rufaidas father, Saad Al Aslamy, was a physician and mentor under whom Rufaida initially obtained clinical experience. Devoting herself to nursing and taking care of people, Rufaida Al-Aslamia became an expert healer. A charismatic and capable leader, published records testify that Rufaida Al-Aslamia, Rufaida Al-Aslamia implemented her clinical skills and medical experience into developing the first ever documented mobile care units that were able to meet the medical needs of the community. The scope of the majority of her work in her organized medical command units consisted primarily in hygiene and stabilizing patients prior to further, during military expeditions, Rufaida Al-Aslamia led groups of volunteer nurses who went to the battlefield and treated the casualties. She participated in the battles of Badr, Uhud, Khandaq, Khaibar, during times of peace, Rufaida Al-Aslamia continued her involvement with humanitarian efforts by providing assistance to Muslims who were in need. Rufaidah had trained a group of companions as nurses. When Muhammads army was getting ready to go to the battle of Khaibar, Rufaidah and they asked him for permission O Messenger of Allah, we want to go out with you to the battle and treat the injured and help Muslims as much as we can. Muhammad gave them permission to go, the nurse volunteers did such a good job that Muhammad assigned a share of the booty to Rufaidah. Her share was equivalent to that of soldiers who had actually fought and this was in recognition of her medical and nursing work. Each year the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland at the University of Bahrain awards one student the coveted and prestigious Rufaida Al-Aslamia Prize in Nursing
33.
Ja'far al-Sadiq
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Jaʿfar ibn Muḥammad al-Ṣādiq, commonly known as Jaʿfar al-Sadiq or simply al-Sadiq, is the sixth Shia Imam and major figure in the Hanafi and Maliki schools of Sunni jurisprudence. He was a descendant of Ali on the side of his father, Muhammad al-Baqir, Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr was raised by Ali, but was not his son. Ali used to say, Muhammad Ibn Abu Bakr is my son, Al-Sadiq is the last individual to be recognized by all Shia sects as an Imam, and is revered in traditional Sunnism as a transmitter of Hadith, prominent jurist, and mystic. Al-Sadiq was born in either 700 or 702 CE and he inherited the position of imam from his father in his mid-thirties. As imam, al-Sadiq stayed out of the conflicts that embroiled the region. He was the victim of harassment by the Abbasid caliphs. He was a significant figure in the formulation of Shia doctrine, the traditions recorded from al-Sadiq are said to be more numerous than all hadiths recorded from all other Shia imams combined. As the founder of Jafari jurisprudence, al-Sadiq also elaborated the doctrine of Nass, the first group became known as the Ismailis and the second, larger, group was named Jafari or the Twelvers. Jafar al-Sadiq was born in Medina either in 80/699–700 or 83/703–704, on his fathers side he was a great-great grandson of Ali, the first Shia imam. His mother, Farwah bint al-Qasim was a great-granddaughter of Abu Bakr, Al-Sadiq was the first of the Shia imams to be descended from both Abu Bakr the first ruler of the Rashidun Caliphate, and Ali, the first Shia imam. Also about Osman, He was convinced that he had weaseled out of Gods commandments, during the first fourteen years of his life he lived alongside his grandfather Zayn al-Abedin, and witnessed the latters withdrawal from politics. He also noted the respect that the famous jurists of Medina held toward Zayn al-Abedin in spite of his few followers, in his mothers house al-Sadiq also interacted with his grandfather Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr, who was respected by the people of Medina as a famous traditionalist. Al-Sadiq was thirty four or thirty seven when he inherited the position of Imamah or imamate from his father Muhammad al-Baqir and he held the imamate for 28 years, longer than any other Shia imam. His Imamate was a period in Islamic history for both political and doctrinal areas. Prior to al-Sadiq, the majority of Shias had preferred the revolutionary politics of Zaid to the mystical quietism of al-Sadiqs father and grandfather, Zaid had claimed that the position of an imam was conditional on his appearing publicly to claim his rights. This knowledge was passed down from the prophet Muhammad through the line of Alis immediate descendants, the doctrine of Nass or divinely inspired designation of each imam by the previous imam, therefore, was completed by al-Sadiq. In spite of being designated as the imam, al-Sadiq would hold, Al-Sadiq maintained his predecessors policy of quietism, and played no part in the numerous rebellions. He stayed out of the uprising of Zaydits who gathered around al-Sadiqs uncle, Zayd, who had the support Mutazilites, Al-Sadiq also did not support the rebellion led by his cousin, Muhammad al-Nafs al-Zakiyya who was inspired by Kaysanites
34.
Ali al-Ridha
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He was an Imam of knowledge according to the Zaydi Shia school and Sufis. He lived in a period when Abbasid caliphs were facing numerous difficulties, the Caliph Al-Mamun sought out a remedy for this problem by appointing Al-Ridha as his successor, through whom he could be involved in worldly affairs. However, according to the Shia view, when Al-Mamun saw that the Imam gained even more popularity, the Imam was buried in a village in Khorasan, which afterwards gained the name Mashhad, meaning the place of martyrdom. On the eleventh of Dhu al-Qidah,148 AH, a son was born in the house of Imam Musa al-Kadhim in Medina. He was named Ali and titled al-Ridha, however in the Shia sources he is commonly called Abu’l-Ḥasan al-Ṯānī so as not to be confused with his father and his father was known as Abu’l-Ḥasan al-Awwal. He was born one month after the death of his grandfather, Jafar as-Sādiq and his mother, Najmah, was also a distinguished and pious lady. She was purchased and freed by Bibi Hamidah Khatun, the wife of Imam Jafar al-Sadiq, disputes exist regarding the number of his offspring and their names. A group of say that they were five sons and one daughter, and that they were, Muhammad al- Qani, al-Hasan, Ja’far, Ibrahim, al-Husayn. Sabt ibn al-Jawzi, in his work Tadhkiratul-Khawass, says that the sons were only four and he described among Shia Narrations as the second abul hasan in contrary of first Abul Hasan who was his father Imam Musa Kazim. As such, Makhzumi says that one day Musa al-Kadhim summoned and gathered us and entitled him as his executor and successor. Yazid ibn Salit has also related a similar narration from the seventh Imam when he met him on his way to Mecca, Ali, whose name is the same as the First and the forth Imam, is the Imam after me. Ali al-Ridha was not looked upon favorably by Hārūn Rashīd, after the death of Harun al-Rashid in 809, Haruns two sons began fighting for control of the Abbasid Empire. One son, Al-Amin, had an Arab mother and thus had the support of Arabs, while his half-brother Al-Mamun had a Persian mother, after defeating his brother, al-Mamun faced many insurrections from the followers of the Prophets family in many areas. Thirdly, he intended it to fool other Shias into believing that his government was not so bad after all, and fourthly, he wanted to keep a close watch over the Imam of the Shias himself, so that nothing could happen without al-Mamuns knowledge. Word spread quickly among al-Mamuns circles that al-Mamun was not sincere in his offer to make Ali ibn Musa al-Ridha the Crown Prince, Al-Mamun also became paranoid and thought that al-Ridha would see through it as well, and so would his Shias. In order to quiet the doubts of the people, al-Mamun first offered al-Ridha the caliphate itself, if the caliphate does not belong to you, then it is not permissible for you to give me that which does not belong to you. Al-Mamun kept trying to make his offer seem sincere and kept re-offering the caliphate, if you do not accept the position of Crown Prince in my government, I will follow through on the same threat. Al-Ridha said he would accept, under the condition that none of the affairs of government would be his and he would neither appoint anyone, nor dismiss
35.
Jabril ibn Bukhtishu
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Jabril ibn Bukhtishu, also written as Bakhtyshu, was an 8-9th century physician from the Bukhtishu family of Assyrian Nestorian physicians from the Academy of Gundishapur. He was a Nestorian and spoke the Syriac language, grandson of Jirjis ibn Jibril, he lived in the second half of the eighth century. He was physician to Jafar the Barmakide, then in 805-6 to Harun al-Rashid and later to al-Mamun, died in 828-29 and he wrote various medical works and exerted much influence upon the progress of science in Baghdad. Works attributed to him include Kitāb ṭabā’i‘ al-ḥayawān wa-khawāṣṣihā wa-manāfi‘ a‘ḍā’ihā, written for Nasir al-Dawla, Risāla fī al-ṭibb wa-al-aḥdāth al-nafsāniyya and he was a member of the Bakhtyashu family. He took pains to obtain Greek medical manuscripts and patronized the translators, list of Persian scientists The Bukhtishu family. Yuhanna ibn Bukhtishu F. Wüstenfeld, Arabische Aerzte, max Meyerhof, New Light on Hunain ibn Ishaq
36.
Jabir ibn Hayyan
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Born and educated in Tus, he later traveled to Kufa. He is sometimes referred to as the father of early chemistry, as early as the 10th century, the identity and exact corpus of works of Jabir was in dispute in Islamic circles. In 988 Ibn al-Nadim compiled the Kitab al-Fihrist which mentions Jabir as a follower and as a companion to Jafar as-Sadiq. In another reference al-Nadim reports that a group of philosophers claimed Jabir was one of their own members, another group, reported by al-Nadim, says only The Large Book of Mercy is genuine and that the rest are pseudographical. Their assertions are rejected by al-Nadim, joining al-Nadim in asserting a real Jabir, Ibn-Wahshiyya Rejecting a real Jabir, Abu Sulayman al-Mantiqi claims the real author is one al-Hasan ibn al-Nakad al-Mawili. The 14th century critic of Arabic literature, Jamal al-Din ibn Nubata al-Misri declares all the attributed to Jabir doubtful. Jabir was a philosopher who lived mostly in the 8th century, he was born in Tus, Khorasan, in Persia. Jabir in the sources has been entitled differently as al-Azdi al-Barigi or al-Kufi or al-Tusi or al-Sufi. There is a difference of opinion as to whether he was a Persian from Khorasan who later went to Kufa or whether he was, as some have suggested, of Syrian origin and later lived in Persia and Iraq. His ethnic background is not clear, but most sources reference him as a Persian, in some sources, he is reported to have been the son of Hayyan al-Azdi, a pharmacist of the Arabian Azd tribe who emigrated from Yemen to Kufa during the Umayyad Caliphate. While Henry Corbin believes Geber seems to have been a client of the Azd tribe, Hayyan had supported the Abbasid revolt against the Umayyads, and was sent by them to the province of Khorasan to gather support for their cause. He was eventually caught by the Umayyads and executed and his family fled to Yemen, where Jabir grew up and studied the Quran, mathematics and other subjects. Jabirs fathers profession may have contributed greatly to his interest in alchemy, after the Abbasids took power, Jabir went back to Kufa. He began his practicing medicine, under the patronage of a Vizir of Caliph Harun al-Rashid. His connections to the Barmakid cost him dearly in the end, when that family fell from grace in 803, Jabir was placed under house arrest in Kufa, where he remained until his death. It has been asserted that Jabir was a student of the sixth Imam Jafar al-Sadiq and Harbi al-Himyari, in total, nearly 3,000 treatises and articles are credited to Jabir ibn Hayyan. The 112 Books dedicated to the Barmakids, viziers of Caliph Harun al-Rashid and this group includes the Arabic version of the Emerald Tablet, an ancient work that proved a recurring foundation of and source for alchemical operations. In the Middle Ages it was translated into Latin and widely diffused among European alchemists, the Seventy Books, most of which were translated into Latin during the Middle Ages
37.
Hunayn ibn Ishaq
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Hunayn ibn Ishaq al-Ibadi was a famous and influential Nestorian Arab scholar, physician, and a scientist from Mesopotamia, what is now Iraq. He and his students transmitted their Syriac and Arabic translations of many classical Greek texts throughout the Islāmic world, Ḥunayn ibn Isḥaq was the most productive translator of Greek medical and scientific treatises in his day. He studied Greek and became known among the Arabs as the Sheikh of the translators and he mastered four languages, Arabic, Syriac, Greek and Persian. His translations did not require corrections, Hunayn’s method was followed by later translators. He was originally from southern Iraq but he spent his life in Baghdad. His fame went far beyond his own community, in the Abbasid era, a new interest in extending the study of Greek science had arisen. At that time, there was a vast amount of untranslated ancient Greek literature pertaining to philosophy, mathematics, natural science, and medicine. This valuable information was accessible to a very small minority of Middle Eastern scholars who knew the Greek language. In time, Hunayn ibn Ishaq became arguably the chief translator of the era, in his lifetime, ibn Ishaq translated 116 works, including Plato’s Timaeus, Aristotle’s Metaphysics, and the Old Testament, into Syriac and Arabic. Ibn Ishaq also produced 36 of his own books,21 of which covered the field of medicine and his son Ishaq, and his nephew Hubaysh, worked together with him at times to help translate. Hunayn ibn Ishaq is known for his translations, his method of translation and he has also been suggested by François Viré to be the true identity of the Arabic falconer Moamyn, author of De Scientia Venandi per Aves. Hunayn ibn Ishaq was a Nestorian Arab born in 809, during the Abbasid period, some sources describe him as an Assyrian. As a child, he learned the Syriac and Arabic languages, although al-Hira was known for commerce and banking, and his father was a pharmacist, Hunayn went to Baghdad in order to study medicine. Hunayn promised himself to return to Baghdad when he became a physician and he went abroad to master the Latin language. On his return to Baghdad, Hunayn displayed his newly acquired skills by reciting the works of Homer, in awe, ibn Masawayh reconciled with Hunayn, and the two started to work cooperatively. Hunayn was extremely motivated in his work to master Greek studies, the Abbasid Caliph al-Mamun noticed Hunayns talents and placed him in charge of the House of Wisdom, the Bayt al Hikmah. The House of Wisdom was an institution where Greek works were translated, the caliph also gave Hunayn the opportunity to travel to Byzantium in search of additional manuscripts, such as those of Aristotle and other prominent authors. In Hunayn ibn Ishaq’s lifetime, he devoted himself to working on a multitude of writings, Hunayn wrote on a variety of subjects that included philosophy, religion and medicine
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