1.
Seattle
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Seattle is a seaport city on the west coast of the United States and the seat of King County, Washington. With an estimated 684,451 residents as of 2015, Seattle is the largest city in both the state of Washington and the Pacific Northwest region of North America. In July 2013, it was the major city in the United States. The city is situated on an isthmus between Puget Sound and Lake Washington, about 100 miles south of the Canada–United States border, a major gateway for trade with Asia, Seattle is the fourth-largest port in North America in terms of container handling as of 2015. The Seattle area was inhabited by Native Americans for at least 4,000 years before the first permanent European settlers. Arthur A. Denny and his group of travelers, subsequently known as the Denny Party, arrived from Illinois via Portland, the settlement was moved to the eastern shore of Elliott Bay and named Seattle in 1852, after Chief Siahl of the local Duwamish and Suquamish tribes. Logging was Seattles first major industry, but by the late-19th century, growth after World War II was partially due to the local Boeing company, which established Seattle as a center for aircraft manufacturing. The Seattle area developed as a technology center beginning in the 1980s, in 1994, Internet retailer Amazon was founded in Seattle. The stream of new software, biotechnology, and Internet companies led to an economic revival, Seattle has a noteworthy musical history. From 1918 to 1951, nearly two dozen jazz nightclubs existed along Jackson Street, from the current Chinatown/International District, to the Central District, the jazz scene developed the early careers of Ray Charles, Quincy Jones, Ernestine Anderson, and others. Seattle is also the birthplace of rock musician Jimi Hendrix and the alternative rock subgenre grunge, archaeological excavations suggest that Native Americans have inhabited the Seattle area for at least 4,000 years. By the time the first European settlers arrived, the people occupied at least seventeen villages in the areas around Elliott Bay, the first European to visit the Seattle area was George Vancouver, in May 1792 during his 1791–95 expedition to chart the Pacific Northwest. In 1851, a party led by Luther Collins made a location on land at the mouth of the Duwamish River. Thirteen days later, members of the Collins Party on the way to their claim passed three scouts of the Denny Party, members of the Denny Party claimed land on Alki Point on September 28,1851. The rest of the Denny Party set sail from Portland, Oregon, after a difficult winter, most of the Denny Party relocated across Elliott Bay and claimed land a second time at the site of present-day Pioneer Square, naming this new settlement Duwamps. For the next few years, New York Alki and Duwamps competed for dominance, david Swinson Doc Maynard, one of the founders of Duwamps, was the primary advocate to name the settlement after Chief Sealth of the Duwamish and Suquamish tribes. The name Seattle appears on official Washington Territory papers dated May 23,1853, in 1855, nominal land settlements were established. On January 14,1865, the Legislature of Territorial Washington incorporated the Town of Seattle with a board of managing the city
2.
Contemporary philosophy
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The phrase contemporary philosophy is a piece of technical terminology in philosophy that refers to a specific period in the history of Western philosophy. However, the phrase is often confused with philosophy, postmodern philosophy. No longer will researches usually be embodied in books addressed to anyone who might be interested in the matter of the field. Philosophy underwent this process toward the end of the 19th century, Germany was the first country to professionalize philosophy. At the end of 1817, Hegel was the first philosopher to be appointed professor by the State, namely by the Prussian Minister of Education, in the United States, the professionalisation grew out of reforms to the American higher-education system largely based on the German model. James Campbell describes the professionalisation of philosophy in America as follows, philosopher Michael Sandels book Justice, Whats the Right Thing to Do. Both works became New York Times best sellers, the Association has three divisions - Pacific, Central and Eastern. Each division organises an annual conference. The biggest of these is the Eastern Division Meeting, which attracts around 2,000 philosophers. The Eastern Division Meeting is also the USAs largest recruitment event for philosophy jobs, among its many other tasks, the association is responsible for administering many of the professions top honors. The largest academic organization devoted to furthering the study of continental philosophy is the Society for Phenomenology. Concerning professional journals today, a 2009 survey of professional philosophers asked them to rank the highest quality general philosophy journals in English. The directory is published two years, alternating with its companion volume, the International Directory of Philosophy and Philosophers. Since the start of the 21st century, philosophers have seen the growing utilization of blogs as a means of professional exchange. In bringing attention to the experience of women in the profession, as a result, most of the serious philosophical work on Rand has appeared in non-academic, non-peer-reviewed journals, or in books, and the bibliography reflects this fact. Also working from outside the profession were philosophers such as Gerd B, achenbach and Michel Weber who have proposed since the 1980s various forms of philosophical counseling claiming to bring Socratic dialogues back to life in a quasi-psychotherapeutic framework. Contemporary continental philosophy began with the work of Franz Brentano, Edmund Husserl, Adolf Reinach, and Martin Heidegger and this development was roughly contemporaneous with work by Gottlob Frege and Bertrand Russell inaugurating a new philosophical method based on the analysis of language via modern logic. Analytic philosophy dominates in the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, Scandinavia, the Netherlands, Germany, Austria, Continental philosophy prevails in France, Italy, Spain, and parts of the United States
3.
Western philosophy
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Western philosophy is the philosophical thought and work of the Western world. The word philosophy itself originated from the Hellenic, philosophia, literally, the scope of philosophy in the ancient understanding, and the writings of the ancient philosophers, were all intellectual endeavors. Western Philosophy is generally said to begin in the Greek cities of western Asia Minor with Thales of Miletus and his most noted students were respectively Anaximander and Anaximenes of Miletus. Pythagoras, from the island of Samos off the coast of Ionia, pythagoreans hold that all is number, giving formal accounts in contrast to the previous material of the Ionians. They also believe in metempsychosis, the transmigration of souls, or reincarnation, Socrates The key figure in Greek philosophy is Socrates. Socrates studied under several Sophists but transformed Greek philosophy into a unified, Socrates used a critical approach called the elenchus or Socratic method to examine peoples views. He aimed to study human things, the life, justice, beauty. Although Socrates wrote nothing himself, some of his many disciples wrote down his conversations and he was tried for corrupting the youth and impiety by the Greek democracy. He was found guilty and sentenced to death, although his friends offered to help him escape from prison, he chose to remain in Athens and abide by his principles. His execution consisting in drinking the poison hemlock and he died in 399 B. C, Plato Socrates most important student was Plato. Plato founded the Academy of Athens and wrote a number of dialogues, some central ideas of Platos dialogues are the immortality of the soul, the benefits of being just, that evil is ignorance, and the Theory of Forms. Forms are universal properties that constitute reality and contrast with the changeable material things he called becoming. Aristotle Platos most outstanding student was Aristotle, Aristotle was perhaps the first truly systematic philosopher and scientist. He wrote books on physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, aesthetics, poetry, theater, music, rhetoric, politics, Aristotelian logic was the first type of logic to attempt to categorize every valid syllogism. Aristotelian philosophy exercised considerable influence on almost all western philosophers, including Greek, Roman, Christian, Jewish, the Neoplatonic and Christian philosophers of Late Antiquity. Early medieval philosophy was influenced by the likes of Stoicism, neo-Platonism, but, above all, the prominent figure of this period was St. Augustinianism was the preferred starting point for most philosophers up until the 13th century. The foundations of many northern European universities were built in the Middle Ages by waves of Irish, Scottish & English monks from the Celtic Church begun by Columba, see Celtic Christianity. Erigena is said to have been stabbed to death by his students with their pens and his theology would today be called pantheistic, in keeping with Celtic resolutions of pagan and Christian philosophy
4.
Analytic philosophy
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Analytic philosophy is a style of philosophy that became dominant in English-speaking countries at the beginning of the 20th century. In the United Kingdom, United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Scandinavia, as a historical development, analytical philosophy refers to certain developments in early 20th-century philosophy that were the historical antecedents of the current practice. Central figures in historical development are Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein, G. E. Moore, Gottlob Frege. This may be contrasted with the traditional foundationalism, which considers philosophy to be a science that investigates the fundamental reasons. Consequently, many philosophers have considered their inquiries as continuous with, or subordinate to. This is an attitude that begins with John Locke, who described his work as that of an underlabourer to the achievements of scientists such as Newton. During the twentieth century, the most influential advocate of the continuity of philosophy with science was Willard Van Orman Quine, the principle that the logical clarification of thoughts can be achieved only by analysis of the logical form of philosophical propositions. The logical form of a proposition is a way of representing it, to reduce it to simpler components if necessary, however, analytic philosophers disagree widely about the correct logical form of ordinary language. The neglect of generalized philosophical systems in favour of more restricted inquiries stated rigorously and it is thus able, in regard to certain problems, to achieve definite answers, which have the quality of science rather than of philosophy. Its methods, in respect, resemble those of science. Analytic philosophy is often understood in contrast to other traditions, most notably continental philosophies such as existentialism and phenomenology. British idealism, as taught by such as F. H. Bradley and Thomas Hill Green. With reference to this basis the initiators of analytic philosophy, G. E. Moore and Bertrand Russell. Inspired by developments in logic, the early Russell claimed that the problems of philosophy can be solved by showing the simple constituents of complex notions. An important aspect of British idealism was logical holism — the opinion that the aspects of the world cannot be wholly without also knowing the whole world. This is closely related to the opinion that relations between items are actually internal relations, that is, properties internal to the nature of those items. Russell, along with Wittgenstein, in response promulgated logical atomism, Frege was also influential as a philosopher of mathematics in Germany at the beginning of the 20th century. Like Frege, Russell attempted to show that mathematics is reducible to logical fundamentals in The Principles of Mathematics, later, his book written with Whitehead, Principia Mathematica, encouraged many philosophers to renew their interest in the development of symbolic logic
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Ethics
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Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong conduct. The term ethics derives from the Ancient Greek word ἠθικός ethikos, the branch of philosophy axiology comprises the sub-branches of ethics and aesthetics, each concerned with values. As a branch of philosophy, ethics investigates the questions What is the best way for people to live, and What actions are right or wrong in particular circumstances. In practice, ethics seeks to resolve questions of morality by defining concepts such as good and evil, right and wrong, virtue and vice, justice. As a field of enquiry, moral philosophy also is related to the fields of moral psychology, descriptive ethics. Richard William Paul and Linda Elder define ethics as a set of concepts, the Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy states that the word ethics is commonly used interchangeably with morality. And sometimes it is used narrowly to mean the moral principles of a particular tradition. Paul and Elder state that most people confuse ethics with behaving in accordance with social conventions, religious beliefs, the word ethics in English refers to several things. It can refer to philosophical ethics or moral philosophy—a project that attempts to use reason in order to various kinds of ethical questions. As bioethicist Larry Churchill has written, Ethics, understood as the capacity to think critically about moral values, Ethics can also be used to describe a particular persons own idiosyncratic principles or habits. For example, Joe has strange ethics, the English word ethics is derived from an Ancient Greek word êthikos, which means relating to ones character. The Ancient Greek adjective êthikos is itself derived from another Greek word, meta-ethics asks how we understand, know about, and what we mean when we talk about what is right and what is wrong. An ethical question fixed on some particular practical question—such as, Should I eat this particular piece of chocolate cake. —cannot be a meta-ethical question, a meta-ethical question is abstract and relates to a wide range of more specific practical questions. For example, Is it ever possible to have knowledge of what is right. Meta-ethics has always accompanied philosophical ethics, meta-ethics is also important in G. E. In it he first wrote about what he called the naturalistic fallacy, moore was seen to reject naturalism in ethics, in his Open Question Argument. This made thinkers look again at second order questions about ethics, earlier, the Scottish philosopher David Hume had put forward a similar view on the difference between facts and values. Studies of how we know in ethics divide into cognitivism and non-cognitivism, non-cognitivism is the claim that when we judge something as right or wrong, this is neither true nor false
6.
Ludwig Wittgenstein
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Ludwig Josef Johann Wittgenstein was an Austrian-British philosopher who worked primarily in logic, the philosophy of mathematics, the philosophy of mind, and the philosophy of language. From 1929 to 1947, Wittgenstein taught at the University of Cambridge, during his lifetime he published just one slim book, the 75-page Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, one article, one book review and a childrens dictionary. His voluminous manuscripts were edited and published posthumously, Philosophical Investigations appeared as a book in 1953, and has since come to be recognised as one of the most important works of philosophy in the twentieth century. His teacher Bertrand Russell described Wittgenstein as the most perfect example I have ever known of genius as traditionally conceived, passionate, profound, intense, born in Vienna into one of Europes richest families, he inherited a large fortune from his father in 1913. Three of his brothers committed suicide, with Wittgenstein contemplating it too and he described philosophy as the only work that gives me real satisfaction. His philosophy is divided into an early period, exemplified by the Tractatus. The later Wittgenstein rejected many of the assumptions of the Tractatus, ludwigs grandmother Fanny was a first cousin of the famous violinist Joseph Joachim. They had 11 children—among them Wittgensteins father, Karl Otto Clemens Wittgenstein became an industrial tycoon, and by the late 1880s was one of the richest men in Europe, with an effective monopoly on Austrias steel cartel. Thanks to Karl, the Wittgensteins became the second wealthiest family in Austria-Hungary, however, their wealth diminished due to post-1918 hyperinflation and subsequently during the Great Depression, although even as late as 1938 they owned 13 mansions in Vienna alone. Wittgensteins mother was Leopoldine Maria Josefa Kalmus, known among friends as Poldi and her father was a Bohemian Jew and her mother was Austrian-Slovene Catholic—she was Wittgensteins only non-Jewish grandparent. She was an aunt of the Nobel Prize laureate Friedrich Hayek on her maternal side, Wittgenstein was born at 8,30 pm on 26 April 1889 in the so-called Wittgenstein Palace at Alleegasse 16, now the Argentinierstrasse, near the Karlskirche. Karl and Poldi had nine children in all, the children were baptized as Catholics, received formal Catholic instruction, and raised in an exceptionally intense environment. The family was at the center of Viennas cultural life, Bruno Walter described the life at the Wittgensteins palace as an atmosphere of humanity. Karl was a patron of the arts, commissioning works by Auguste Rodin and financing the citys exhibition hall and art gallery. Gustav Klimt painted Wittgensteins sister for her portrait, and Johannes Brahms. For Wittgenstein, who highly valued precision and discipline, contemporary music was never considered acceptable at all, music, he said to his friend Drury in 1930, came to a full stop with Brahms, and even in Brahms I can begin to hear the noise of machinery. He also learnt to play the clarinet in his thirties, a fragment of music, composed by Wittgenstein, was discovered in one of his 1931 notebooks, by Michael Nedo, Director of the Wittgenstein Institute in Cambridge. Three of the five brothers would commit suicide
7.
John McDowell
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John Henry McDowell is a South African philosopher, formerly a fellow of University College, Oxford and now University Professor at the University of Pittsburgh. Although he has written extensively on metaphysics, epistemology, ancient philosophy, McDowell was one of three recipients of the 2010 Andrew W. Mellon Foundations Distinguished Achievement Award. and is a Fellow of both the American Academy of Arts & Sciences and the British Academy. McDowell has, throughout his career, understood philosophy to be therapeutic and thereby to leave everything as it is, McDowell completed a B. A. at the University College of Rhodesia and Nyasaland before moving to New College, Oxford as a Rhodes scholar in 1963. McDowells earliest published work was in ancient philosophy, most notably including a translation of, in the 1970s he was active in the Davidsonian project of providing a semantic theory for natural language, co-editing a volume of essays entitled Truth and Meaning. McDowell edited and published Evanss influential posthumous book The Varieties of Reference, acquaintance with such data is the highest common factor across the two cases. That seems to force us into a concession that our knowledge of the world is indirect. McDowell strongly resists this argument, he not deny that there is something psychologically in common between the subject who really sees the cat and the one that fails to do so. But that psychological commonality has no bearing on the status of the state of mind from the point of view of assessing whether she is in a position to acquire knowledge. In favourable conditions, experience can be such as to make manifest the presence of objects to observers – that is perceptual knowledge, when we succeed in knowing something by perceiving it, experience does not fall short of the fact known. But this just shows that a successful and a failed perceptual thought have nothing interesting in common from the point of view of appraising them as knowledge, McDowell developed the view that has come to be known as secondary property realism, or sensibility or moral sense theory. The theory proceeds via the device of an ideally virtuous agent and she has the right concepts and the correct grasp of concepts to think about situations in which she finds herself by coming to moral beliefs. Secondly, for such a person such moral beliefs are automatically over-riding over other reasons she may have and in a way, they silence other reasons. He believes that this is the best way to capture the idea that moral reasons are specially authoritative. McDowell also here departs from the interpretation of the Humean theory of how action is motivated. The Humean claims that any action, hence any moral action, is motivated by a combination of two mental states, one a belief and one a desire. The belief functions as a representation, the desire functions to supply the distinctively motivational part of the combination. For example, we understand the desire, as a Humean original existence, without relating it back to the circumstances that impinged on the agent. Implicit in this account is a theory of the status of values, moral agents form beliefs about the moral facts
8.
Iris Murdoch
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Dame Jean Iris Murdoch DBE was an Anglo-Irish novelist and philosopher, best known for her novels about good and evil, sexual relationships, morality, and the power of the unconscious. Her first published novel, Under the Net, was selected in 1998 as one of Modern Librarys 100 best English-language novels of the 20th century, in 1987, she was made a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire. In 2008, The Times ranked Murdoch twelfth on a list of The 50 greatest British writers since 1945, Iris Murdoch was born in Phibsborough, Dublin, Ireland, the daughter of Irene Alice and Wills John Hughes Murdoch. Her father, a servant, came from a mainly Presbyterian sheep farming family from Hillhall. In 1915, he enlisted as a soldier in King Edwards Horse and her mother had trained as a singer before Iris was born, and was from a middle class Church of Ireland family in Dublin. Iris Murdochs parents first met in Dublin when her father was on leave and were married in 1918, Iris was the couples only child. When she was a few weeks old the family moved to London, Murdoch was educated in progressive independent schools, entering the Froebel Demonstration School in 1925 and attending Badminton School in Bristol as a boarder from 1932 to 1938. In 1938 she went up to Somerville College, Oxford, with the intention of studying English, at Oxford she studied philosophy with Donald M. MacKinnon and attended Eduard Fraenkels seminars on Agamemnon. She was awarded a First Class Honours degree in 1942, after leaving Oxford she went to work in London for HM Treasury. In June 1944 she left the Treasury and went to work for the UNRRA, at first she was stationed in London at the agencys European Regional Office. In 1945 she was transferred first to Brussels, then to Innsbruck, and finally to Graz, Austria and she left the UNRRA in 1946. From 1947 to 1948 Iris Murdoch studied philosophy as a postgraduate at Newnham College, Cambridge and she met Wittgenstein at Cambridge but did not hear him lecture, as he had left his Trinity College professorship before she arrived. In 1948 she became a fellow of St Annes College, Oxford, the unusual romantic partnership lasted more than forty years until Murdochs death. Bayley thought that sex was inescapably ridiculous, Murdoch in contrast had multiple affairs with both men and women which, on discomposing occasions, witnessed for himself. Iris Murdochs first novel, Under the Net, was published in 1954 and she had previously published essays on philosophy, and the first monograph about Jean-Paul Sartre published in English. She went on to produce 25 more novels and additional works of philosophy, as well as poetry, in 1976 she was named to the Commander of Order of the British Empire and in 1987 was made a Dame Commander of Order of the British Empire. She was awarded honorary degrees by the University of Bath, University of Cambridge and Kingston University and she was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1982. Her last novel, Jacksons Dilemma, was published in 1995, Iris Murdoch was diagnosed with Alzheimers disease in 1997 and died in 1999 in Oxford
9.
Philosopher
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A philosopher is someone who practices philosophy, which involves rational inquiry into areas that are outside of either theology or science. The term philosopher comes from the Ancient Greek φιλόσοφος meaning lover of wisdom, the coining of the term has been attributed to the Greek thinker Pythagoras. Typically, these brands of philosophy are Hellenistic ones and those who most arduously commit themselves to this lifestyle may be considered philosophers. The separation of philosophy and science from theology began in Greece during the 6th century BC, thales, an astronomer and mathematician, was considered by Aristotle to be the first philosopher of the Greek tradition. While Pythagoras coined the word, the first known elaboration on the topic was conducted by Plato, in his Symposium, he concludes that Love is that which lacks the object it seeks. Therefore, the philosopher is one who seeks wisdom, if he attains wisdom, therefore, the philosopher in antiquity was one who lives in the constant pursuit of wisdom, and living in accordance to that wisdom. Disagreements arose as to what living philosophically entailed and these disagreements gave rise to different Hellenistic schools of philosophy. In consequence, the ancient philosopher thought in a tradition, as the ancient world became schism by philosophical debate, the competition lay in living in manner that would transform his whole way of living in the world. Philosophy is a discipline which can easily carry away the individual in analyzing the universe. The second is the change through the Medieval era. With the rise of Christianity, the way of life was adopted by its theology. Thus, philosophy was divided between a way of life and the conceptual, logical, physical and metaphysical materials to justify that way of life, philosophy was then the servant to theology. The third is the sociological need with the development of the university, the modern university requires professionals to teach. Maintaining itself requires teaching future professionals to replace the current faculty, therefore, the discipline degrades into a technical language reserved for specialists, completely eschewing its original conception as a way of life. In the fourth century, the word began to designate a man or woman who led a monastic life. Gregory of Nyssa, for example, describes how his sister Macrina persuaded their mother to forsake the distractions of life for a life of philosophy. Later during the Middle Ages, persons who engaged with alchemy was called a philosopher - thus, many philosophers still emerged from the Classical tradition, as saw their philosophy as a way of life. Among the most notable are René Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, Nicolas Malebranche, with the rise of the university, the modern conception of philosophy became more prominent
10.
University of Oxford
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The University of Oxford is a collegiate research university located in Oxford, England. It grew rapidly from 1167 when Henry II banned English students from attending the University of Paris, after disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled north-east to Cambridge where they established what became the University of Cambridge. The two ancient universities are frequently referred to as Oxbridge. The university is made up of a variety of institutions, including 38 constituent colleges, All the colleges are self-governing institutions within the university, each controlling its own membership and with its own internal structure and activities. Being a city university, it not have a main campus, instead, its buildings. Oxford is the home of the Rhodes Scholarship, one of the worlds oldest and most prestigious scholarships, the university operates the worlds oldest university museum, as well as the largest university press in the world and the largest academic library system in Britain. Oxford has educated many notable alumni, including 28 Nobel laureates,27 Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom, the University of Oxford has no known foundation date. Teaching at Oxford existed in form as early as 1096. It grew quickly in 1167 when English students returned from the University of Paris, the historian Gerald of Wales lectured to such scholars in 1188 and the first known foreign scholar, Emo of Friesland, arrived in 1190. The head of the university had the title of chancellor from at least 1201, the university was granted a royal charter in 1248 during the reign of King Henry III. After disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled from the violence to Cambridge, the students associated together on the basis of geographical origins, into two nations, representing the North and the South. In later centuries, geographical origins continued to many students affiliations when membership of a college or hall became customary in Oxford. At about the time, private benefactors established colleges as self-contained scholarly communities. Among the earliest such founders were William of Durham, who in 1249 endowed University College, thereafter, an increasing number of students lived in colleges rather than in halls and religious houses. In 1333–34, an attempt by some dissatisfied Oxford scholars to found a new university at Stamford, Lincolnshire was blocked by the universities of Oxford and Cambridge petitioning King Edward III. Thereafter, until the 1820s, no new universities were allowed to be founded in England, even in London, thus, Oxford and Cambridge had a duopoly, the new learning of the Renaissance greatly influenced Oxford from the late 15th century onwards. Among university scholars of the period were William Grocyn, who contributed to the revival of Greek language studies, and John Colet, the noted biblical scholar. With the English Reformation and the breaking of communion with the Roman Catholic Church, recusant scholars from Oxford fled to continental Europe, as a centre of learning and scholarship, Oxfords reputation declined in the Age of Enlightenment, enrolments fell and teaching was neglected
11.
The New School for Social Research
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The New School for Social Research, also known by the abbreviation NSSR, is an educational institution that is part of The New School. The schools dedication to freedom and intellectual inquiry reaches back to the university’s founding in 1919 as a home for progressive thinkers. The New School for Social Research explores and promotes peace and justice as more than theoretical ideals. The New School for Social Research, enrolls more than 1,000 students from all regions of the United States, the program was founded with the start of the college in 1919. In 1933, what became known as the University in Exile, had become a haven for scholars who had dismissed from teaching positions by the Italian fascists or had to flee Nazi Germany. The University in Exile was initially founded by the director of the New School, Alvin Johnson, through the financial contributions of Hiram Halle. The University in Exile and its subsequent incarnations have been the heart of the New School. Following the collapse of totalitarian regimes in Europe, the University in Exile was renamed the Graduate Faculty of Political and Social Science and it was renamed the New School for Social Research in 2005 this time taking the original name of the university. It is worthwhile to note that The New School in its days in 1919 was actually known as The New School for Social Research. This name continued until 1997, when the university adopted a new name and this continued until 2005, when a big new rebranding occurred, with the school in general turning to The New School, its present name. Its various colleges were regrouped under various names like College of Performing Arts, Eugene Lang College of Liberal Arts, Parsons School of Design, the university also continued with a separate new institution The New School for Social Research under the general banner of The New School
12.
Institute for Advanced Study
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The IAS is perhaps best known as the academic home of Albert Einstein, John von Neumann and Kurt Gödel, after their immigration to the United States. Although it is close to and collaborates with Princeton University, Rutgers University, Flexners guiding principle in founding the Institute was the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake. There are no programs or experimental facilities at the Institute. Research is never contracted or directed, it is left to each individual researcher to pursue their own goals and it is supported entirely by endowments, grants, and gifts, and is one of the eight American mathematics institutes funded by the National Science Foundation. It is the model for the eight members of the consortium Some Institutes for Advanced Study. The institute consists of four schools–Historical Studies, Mathematics, Natural Sciences, in 2016, the Institute has been in the news for a faculty housing project proposal. While the Institute owns the property on which it wants to build these houses, historians and archaeological evidence confirm the site witnessed Gen. George Washingtons arrival and charge on horseback across the battlefield during the January 3,1777 Battle of Princeton. The Institute was founded in 1930 by Abraham Flexner, together with philanthropists Louis Bamberger, Flexner is generally regarded as one of the most important figures in the history of American medicine and played a major role in the reform of medical education. This led to an interest in education generally and as early as 1890 he had founded a school which had no formal curriculum, exams. It was a success at preparing students for prestigious colleges. The Bamberger siblings wanted to use the proceeds from the sale of their department store in Newark, New Jersey, Flexner convinced them to put their money in the service of more abstract research. In 1932 Veblen resigned from Princeton and became the first professor in the new Institute for Advanced Study and he selected most of the original faculty and also helped the Institute acquire land in Princeton for both the original facility and future expansion. Flexner and Veblen set out to recruit the best mathematicians and physicists they could find, the rise of fascism and the associated anti-semitism forced many prominent mathematicians to flee Europe and some, such as Einstein and Hermann Weyl, found a home at the new institute. Weyl as a condition of accepting insisted that the Institute also appoint the thirty year old Austrian-Hungarian polymath John von Neumann, indeed, the IAS became the key lifeline for scholars fleeing Europe. Einstein was Flexners first coup and shortly after that he was followed by Veblens brilliant student James Alexander, Flexner was fortunate in the luminaries he directly recruited but also in the people that they brought along with them. Thus, by 1934 the fledgeling institute was led by six of the most prominent mathematicians in the world, in 1935 quantum physics pioneer Wolfgang Pauli became a faculty member. With the opening of the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton replaced Göttingen as the center for mathematics in the twentieth century. Princeton Universitys science departments are less than two miles away and informal ties and collaboration between the two institutions occurred from the beginning and this helped start an incorrect impression that it was part of the University, one that has never been completely eradicated
13.
University of Innsbruck
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The University of Innsbruck is a public university in Innsbruck, the capital of the Austrian federal state of Tyrol, founded in 1669. Significant contributions have made in many branches, most of all in the physics department. Further, regarding the number of Web of Science-listed publications, it occupies the third worldwide in the area of mountain research. In 1562 a Jesuit grammar school was established in Innsbruck by Peter Canisius and it was financed by the salt mines in Hall in Tirol, and was refounded as a university in 1669 by Leopold I with four faculties. In 1782 this was reduced to a lyceum, but it was reestablished as the University of Innsbruck in 1826 by Emperor Franz I. The university is named after both of its founding fathers with the official title Leopold-Franzens-Universität Innsbruck. In 1991 Lauda Air Flight 004 crashed in Thailand, killing all aboard, the passengers included professor and economist Clemens August Andreae, another professor, six assistants, and 13 students. Andreae had often led field visits to Hong Kong, in 2005, copies of letters written by the emperors Frederick II and Conrad IV were found in the universitys library. They arrived in Innsbruck in the 18th century, having left the charterhouse Allerengelberg in Schnals due to its abolishment. In the 1850s, the Habsburgs gradually closed the University of Olomouc as a consequence of the Olomouc students and professors participation in the 1848 revolutions, the ceremonial equipment of the University of Olomouc was then transferred to the University of Innsbruck. The original Olomouc ceremonial maces from the 1580s are now used as the maces of Innsbruck University, since the establishment of Czechoslovakia in 1918, the Czechs have been unsuccessfully requesting the return of the University of Olomoucs original ceremonial equipment. As of 1 January 2004, the Faculty of Medicine was sectioned off from the university to become a university in its own right. This is now called the Innsbruck Medical University, the university buildings are spread across the city and there is no university campus as such. The most important locations are, Theology faculty was opened 1562 as a Jesuit School in 1766, in 1924, main building and the university library opened. 1969 the scientific faculty and the faculty in Hotting west was opened. 1976 construction began on Geiwi tower for the former Philosophy faculty,1997 The Social Science faculty was opened. 2012 Center of Chemistry and Biomedicine was opened, several university clinics of the medical university in the area became Tyrolian national hospitals. He also succeeded in explaining the constitution of chlorophyll, fischer held chairs in Innsbruck, Vienna and Munich
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Austria
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Austria, officially the Republic of Austria, is a federal republic and a landlocked country of over 8.7 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Hungary and Slovakia to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, the territory of Austria covers 83,879 km2. The terrain is mountainous, lying within the Alps, only 32% of the country is below 500 m. The majority of the population speaks local Bavarian dialects of German as their native language, other local official languages are Hungarian, Burgenland Croatian, and Slovene. The origins of modern-day Austria date back to the time of the Habsburg dynasty, from the time of the Reformation, many northern German princes, resenting the authority of the Emperor, used Protestantism as a flag of rebellion. Following Napoleons defeat, Prussia emerged as Austrias chief competitor for rule of a greater Germany, Austrias defeat by Prussia at the Battle of Königgrätz, during the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, cleared the way for Prussia to assert control over the rest of Germany. In 1867, the empire was reformed into Austria-Hungary, Austria was thus the first to go to war in the July Crisis, which would ultimately escalate into World War I. The First Austrian Republic was established in 1919, in 1938 Nazi Germany annexed Austria in the Anschluss. This lasted until the end of World War II in 1945, after which Germany was occupied by the Allies, in 1955, the Austrian State Treaty re-established Austria as a sovereign state, ending the occupation. In the same year, the Austrian Parliament created the Declaration of Neutrality which declared that the Second Austrian Republic would become permanently neutral, today, Austria is a parliamentary representative democracy comprising nine federal states. The capital and largest city, with a population exceeding 1.7 million, is Vienna, other major urban areas of Austria include Graz, Linz, Salzburg and Innsbruck. Austria is one of the richest countries in the world, with a nominal per capita GDP of $43,724, the country has developed a high standard of living and in 2014 was ranked 21st in the world for its Human Development Index. Austria has been a member of the United Nations since 1955, joined the European Union in 1995, Austria also signed the Schengen Agreement in 1995, and adopted the euro currency in 1999. The German name for Austria, Österreich, meant eastern realm in Old High German, and is cognate with the word Ostarrîchi and this word is probably a translation of Medieval Latin Marchia orientalis into a local dialect. Austria was a prefecture of Bavaria created in 976, the word Austria is a Latinisation of the German name and was first recorded in the 12th century. Accordingly, Norig would essentially mean the same as Ostarrîchi and Österreich, the Celtic name was eventually Latinised to Noricum after the Romans conquered the area that encloses most of modern-day Austria, around 15 BC. Noricum later became a Roman province in the mid-first century AD, heers hypothesis is not accepted by linguists. Settled in ancient times, the Central European land that is now Austria was occupied in pre-Roman times by various Celtic tribes, the Celtic kingdom of Noricum was later claimed by the Roman Empire and made a province
15.
Association of College and Research Libraries
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The Association of College and Research Libraries, a division of the American Library Association, is a professional association of academic librarians and other interested individuals. ACRL is the largest division of ALA, ACRL currently has a membership of approximately 12,000, accounting for nearly 20% of the total ALA membership. ACRL provides a range of professional services and programs for a diverse membership. The Association publishes an open access journal, College & Research Libraries, in 1897 the section was renamed the College and Reference Library Section in recognition of the participation of reference librarians. In 1923, the section established bylaws and began charging dues, in 1940, ACRL became ALAs first division. In 1978, they held their first standalone conference and these awards include a citation, and in some cases also a cash award. Academic/Research Librarian of the Year Excellence in Academic Libraries Awards Hugh C
16.
Goethe University Frankfurt
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Goethe University is a university located in Frankfurt, Germany. The original name was Universität Frankfurt am Main, in 1932, the universitys name was extended in honour of one of the most famous locals of Frankfurt, the poet and writer Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. It is thus referred to as the Goethe University in both formal and informal settings. The university currently has around 46,000 students, distributed across four campuses within the city. 18 Nobel Prize winners have been affiliated with the university, including Max von Laue, the university is also affiliated with 11 winners of the prestigious Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize. The university celebrated its 100th anniversary in 2014, the first female president of the university, Birgitta Wolff, was sworn into office in 2015. The University of Frankfurt has at times been considered liberal, or left-leaning, during the Nazi period, almost one third of its academics and many of its students were dismissed for racial and/or political reasons—more than at any other German university. The university also played a part in the German student movement of 1968. Some of the scholars associated with this school include Theodor Adorno, Max Horkheimer, and Jürgen Habermas, as well as Herbert Marcuse, Erich Fromm. The university also has been influential in the sciences and medicine, with Nobel Prize winners including Max von Laue and Max Born. In recent years, the university has focused in particular on law, history, and economics, creating new institutes, such as the Institute for Law and Finance and the Center for Financial Studies. One of the universitys ambitions is to become Germanys leading university for finance and economics, the Goethe Business School offers a M. B. A. program, in cooperation with Duke University’s Fuqua School of Business. Goethe university has established an award for research in financial economics. The university consists of 16 faculties, ordered by their sorting number, these are, ：01. “Campus Westend” of the University is dominated by the IG Farben Building by architect Hans Poelzig, after the university took over the complex, new buildings were added to the campus. On 30 May 2008, the House of Finance relocated to a new building designed by the architects Kleihues+Kleihues, the upper floors of the House of Finance building have several separate offices as well as shared office space for researchers and students. The ground floor is open to the public and welcomes visitors with a spacious, naturally lit foyer that leads to lecture halls, seminar rooms, and the information center, the ground floor also accommodates computer rooms and a café. The floors, walls and ceiling of the foyer are decorated with a design that is continued throughout the entire building
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Princeton University
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Princeton University is a private Ivy League research university in Princeton, New Jersey, United States. The institution moved to Newark in 1747, then to the current site nine years later, Princeton provides undergraduate and graduate instruction in the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, and engineering. The university has ties with the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton Theological Seminary, Princeton has the largest endowment per student in the United States. The university has graduated many notable alumni, two U. S. Presidents,12 U. S. Supreme Court Justices, and numerous living billionaires and foreign heads of state are all counted among Princetons alumni body. New Light Presbyterians founded the College of New Jersey in 1746 in order to train ministers, the college was the educational and religious capital of Scots-Irish America. In 1754, trustees of the College of New Jersey suggested that, in recognition of Governors interest, gov. Jonathan Belcher replied, What a name that would be. In 1756, the moved to Princeton, New Jersey. Its home in Princeton was Nassau Hall, named for the royal House of Orange-Nassau of William III of England, following the untimely deaths of Princetons first five presidents, John Witherspoon became president in 1768 and remained in that office until his death in 1794. During his presidency, Witherspoon shifted the focus from training ministers to preparing a new generation for leadership in the new American nation. To this end, he tightened academic standards and solicited investment in the college, in 1812, the eighth president the College of New Jersey, Ashbel Green, helped establish the Princeton Theological Seminary next door. The plan to extend the theological curriculum met with approval on the part of the authorities at the College of New Jersey. Today, Princeton University and Princeton Theological Seminary maintain separate institutions with ties that include such as cross-registration. Before the construction of Stanhope Hall in 1803, Nassau Hall was the sole building. The cornerstone of the building was laid on September 17,1754, during the summer of 1783, the Continental Congress met in Nassau Hall, making Princeton the countrys capital for four months. The class of 1879 donated twin lion sculptures that flanked the entrance until 1911, Nassau Halls bell rang after the halls construction, however, the fire of 1802 melted it. The bell was then recast and melted again in the fire of 1855, James McCosh took office as the colleges president in 1868 and lifted the institution out of a low period that had been brought about by the American Civil War. McCosh Hall is named in his honor, in 1879, the first thesis for a Doctor of Philosophy Ph. D. was submitted by James F. Williamson, Class of 1877. In 1896, the officially changed its name from the College of New Jersey to Princeton University to honor the town in which it resides
18.
Columbia University
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Columbia University is a private Ivy League research university in Upper Manhattan, New York City. It was established in 1754 as Kings College by royal charter of George II of Great Britain, after the American Revolutionary War, Kings College briefly became a state entity, and was renamed Columbia College in 1784. Columbia is one of the fourteen founding members of the Association of American Universities and was the first school in the United States to grant the M. D. degree. The university also has global research outposts in Amman, Beijing, Istanbul, Paris, Mumbai, Rio de Janeiro, Santiago, Asunción, Columbia administers annually the Pulitzer Prize. Additionally,100 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with Columbia as students, researchers, faculty, Columbia is second only to Harvard University in the number of Nobel Prize-winning affiliates, with over 100 recipients of the award as of 2016. In 1746 an act was passed by the assembly of New York to raise funds for the foundation of a new college. Classes were initially held in July 1754 and were presided over by the colleges first president, Dr. Johnson was the only instructor of the colleges first class, which consisted of a mere eight students. Instruction was held in a new schoolhouse adjoining Trinity Church, located on what is now lower Broadway in Manhattan, in 1763, Dr. Johnson was succeeded in the presidency by Myles Cooper, a graduate of The Queens College, Oxford, and an ardent Tory. In the charged political climate of the American Revolution, his opponent in discussions at the college was an undergraduate of the class of 1777. The suspension continued through the occupation of New York City by British troops until their departure in 1783. The colleges library was looted and its sole building requisitioned for use as a hospital first by American. Loyalists were forced to abandon their Kings College in New York, the Loyalists, led by Bishop Charles Inglis fled to Windsor, Nova Scotia, where they founded Kings Collegiate School. After the Revolution, the college turned to the State of New York in order to restore its vitality, the Legislature agreed to assist the college, and on May 1,1784, it passed an Act for granting certain privileges to the College heretofore called Kings College. The Regents finally became aware of the colleges defective constitution in February 1787 and appointed a revision committee, in April of that same year, a new charter was adopted for the college, still in use today, granting power to a private board of 24 Trustees. On May 21,1787, William Samuel Johnson, the son of Dr. Samuel Johnson, was unanimously elected President of Columbia College, prior to serving at the university, Johnson had participated in the First Continental Congress and been chosen as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention. The colleges enrollment, structure, and academics stagnated for the majority of the 19th century, with many of the college presidents doing little to change the way that the college functioned. In 1857, the college moved from the Kings College campus at Park Place to a primarily Gothic Revival campus on 49th Street and Madison Avenue, during the last half of the 19th century, under the leadership of President F. A. P. Barnard, the institution assumed the shape of a modern university
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Duke University
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Duke University is an American private research university located in Durham, North Carolina. Founded by Methodists and Quakers in the town of Trinity in 1838. In 1924, tobacco and electric power industrialist James Buchanan Duke established The Duke Endowment, at time the institution changed its name to honor his deceased father. Dukes campus spans over 8,600 acres on three campuses in Durham as well as a marine lab in Beaufort. The main campus—designed largely by architect Julian Abele—incorporates Gothic architecture with the 210-foot Duke Chapel at the campus center, the first-year-populated East Campus contains Georgian-style architecture, while the main Gothic-style West Campus 1.5 miles away is adjacent to the Medical Center. Duke is the seventh-wealthiest private university in America with $11.4 billion in cash, Dukes research expenditures in the 2015 fiscal year were $1.037 billion, the seventh largest in the nation. In 2014, Thomson Reuters named 32 of Dukes professors to its list of Highly Cited Researchers, Duke also ranks fifth among national universities to have produced Rhodes, Marshall, Truman, Goldwater, and Udall Scholars. Ten Nobel laureates and three Turing Award winners are affiliated with the university, Dukes sports teams compete in the Atlantic Coast Conference and the basketball team is renowned for having won five NCAA Mens Division I Basketball Championships, most recently in 2015. Duke is consistently included among the best universities in the world by numerous university rankings, according to a Forbes study, Duke is ranked 11th among universities that have produced billionaires. Duke started in 1838 as Browns Schoolhouse, a subscription school founded in Randolph County in the present-day town of Trinity. Organized by the Union Institute Society, a group of Methodists and Quakers, the academy was renamed Normal College in 1851 and then Trinity College in 1859 because of support from the Methodist Church. Carr donated land in 1892 for the original Durham campus, which is now known as East Campus, in 1924 Washington Dukes son, James B. Duke, established The Duke Endowment with a $40 million trust fund, income from the fund was to be distributed to hospitals, orphanages, the Methodist Church, and four colleges. Duke thought the change would come off as self-serving. Money from the endowment allowed the University to grow quickly, Dukes original campus, East Campus, was rebuilt from 1925 to 1927 with Georgian-style buildings. By 1930, the majority of the Collegiate Gothic-style buildings on the one mile west were completed. In 1878, Trinity awarded A. B. degrees to three sisters—Mary, Persis, and Theresa Giles—who had studied both with private tutors and in classes with men. With the relocation of the college in 1892, the Board of Trustees voted to allow women to be formally admitted to classes as day students
20.
Queen's University
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Queens University at Kingston is a public research university in Kingston, Ontario, Canada. Founded on 16 October 1841 via a charter issued by Queen Victoria. Queens holds more than 1,400 hectares of land throughout Ontario and owns Herstmonceux Castle in East Sussex, Queens is organized into ten undergraduate, graduate and professional faculties and schools. The Church of Scotland established Queens College in 1841 with a charter from Queen Victoria. The first classes, intended to prepare students for the ministry, were held 7 March 1842 with 13 students, Queens was the first university west of the maritime provinces to admit women and to form a student government. In 1883, a college for medical education affiliated with Queens University was established. In 1888, Queens University began offering courses, becoming the first Canadian university to do so. In 1912, Queens secularized and changed to its present legal name, Queens is a co-educational university, with more than 23,000 students, and with over 131,000 living alumni worldwide. Notable alumni include government officials, academics, business leaders and 57 Rhodes Scholars, Queens varsity teams, known as the Golden Gaels, compete in the Ontario University Athletics conference of U Sports. Queens was a result of an outgrowth of educational initiatives planned by Presbyterians in the 1830s, a draft plan for the university was presented at a synod meeting in Kingston in 1839, with a modified bill introduced through the 13th Parliament of Upper Canada during a session in 1840. On 16 October 1841, a charter was issued through Queen Victoria establishing Queens College at Kingston. They modelled the university after the University of Edinburgh and the University of Glasgow, classes began on 7 March 1842, in a small wood-frame house on the edge of the city with two professors and 15 students. The college moved several times during its first eleven years, before settling in its present location, prior to Canadian Confederation, the college was financially supported by the Presbyterian Church in Scotland, the Canadian government and private citizens. The college was rescued after Principal William Snodgrass and other created a fundraising campaign across Canada. The risk of financial ruin continued to worry the administration until the final decade. They actively considered leaving Kingston and merging with the University of Toronto as late as the 1880s, with the additional funds bequeathed from Queens first major benefactor, Robert Sutherland, the college staved off financial failure and maintained its independence. Queens was given university status on 17 May 1881, in 1883, Womens Medical College was founded at Queens with a class of three. Theological Hall, completed in 1880, originally served as Queens main building throughout the late 19th century, in 1912, Queens separated from the Presbyterian Church of Scotland and changed its name to Queens University at Kingston
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Colgate University
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Colgate University is a private liberal arts college located on 575 acres in Hamilton Village, Hamilton Township, Madison County, New York, United States. Colgate has 55 undergraduate concentrations that culminate in a Bachelor of Arts degree, the student body comes from 47 states and 42 countries. In its 2017 edition, U. S. News & World Report ranked Colgate as the 12th best liberal arts college in the country, Colgate is a member of the Patriot League conference of the NCAA Division I. In 1817, the Baptist Education Society of the State of New York was founded by thirteen men, two years later, in 1819, the state granted the schools charter, and the school opened a year later, in 1820. The first classes were held in a building in the town of Hamilton, among the trustees was William Colgate, founder of a soap company. In 1826, the schools trustees bought farmland that became the focal point of the campus. One year later, the current students and faculty of the school built West Hall, originally called West Edifice before being renamed to West Hall, it is the oldest structure on campus. In 1846, the changed its name to Madison University. In 1850, the Baptist Education Society planned to move the university to Rochester, dissenting trustees, faculty, and students founded the University of Rochester. In 1890, Madison University changed its name to Colgate University in recognition of the family, Colgate, one of William Colgates sons, established a $1,000,000 endowment called the Dodge Memorial Fund. In 1912 Colgate Academy, a school and high school that had operated in Hamilton since the early 1800s, was closed. The theological side of Colgate merged with the Rochester Theological Seminary in 1928 to become the Colgate Rochester Divinity School, Colgate University is located in the rural village of Hamilton Village, Hamilton, New York. The campus itself is situated on 575 acres of land, the university owns an additional 1,100 acres of undeveloped forested lands. Colgates first building, West Hall, was built by students, nearly all the buildings on campus are built of stone, and newer buildings are built with materials that fit the style. Probably the most distinctive building on campus is the Chapel, which was built in 1918 and is used for lectures, performances, concerts, Old Biology Hall was built in 1884 and added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1973. Most of the heat is generated from a wood boiler which burns wood chips. Since the heating facility is fueled by biomass, it produces zero net carbon emissions, almost all of Colgates electricity comes from a hydroelectric dam at Niagara Falls, the rest comes from nuclear sources. The campus also has a Green Bikes program with two dozen bikes that are loaned out in an effort to encourage students to rely less on cars
22.
Philosophy and literature
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Philosophy and literature involves the literary treatment of philosophers and philosophical themes, and the philosophical treatment of issues raised by literature. Strictly speaking, the philosophy of literature is a branch of aesthetics, much of aesthetic philosophy has traditionally focused on the plastic arts or music, however, at the expense of the verbal arts. In fact, much discussion of aesthetic philosophy seeks to establish criteria of artistic quality that are indifferent to the subject matter being depicted. Since all literary works, almost by definition, contain notional content, the very existence of narrative raises philosophical issues. In narrative, a creator can embody, and readers be led to imagine, fictional characters, the ability of the human mind to imagine, and even to experience empathy with, these fictional characters is itself revealing about the nature of the human mind. Some fiction can be thought of as a sort of an experiment in ethics, it describes fictional characters, their motives, their actions. It is in light that some philosophers have chosen various narrative forms to teach their philosophy. Plato, for instance, believed that culture and even the lyrics of popular music had a strong impact on the ethical outlook of its consumers. In The Republic, Plato displays a strong hostility to the contents of the culture of his period. More recently, however, philosophers of various stripes have taken different, in more recent years, these epistemological issues have turned instead to an extended discussion of words and meaning, can language in fact bridge the barrier between minds. This cluster of issues concerning the meaning of language and of writings sometimes goes by the name of the linguistic turn, as such, techniques and tools developed for literary criticism and literary theory rose to greater prominence in Western philosophy of the late twentieth century. Philosophers of various stripes paid more attention to literature than their predecessors did, some sought to examine the question of whether it was in fact truly possible to communicate using words, whether it was possible for an authors intended meaning to be communicated to a reader. Others sought to use literary works as examples of contemporary culture, Literary works also pose issues concerning truth and the philosophy of language. In educated opinion, at least, it is reputed as true that Sherlock Holmes lived in London. It is also considered true that Samuel Pepys lived in London, yet Sherlock Holmes never lived anywhere at all, he is a fictional character. Samuel Pepys, contrarily, is judged to have been a real person and these two statements would appear to belong to two different orders of truth. A number of poets have written poems on themes. The cosmogony of Hesiod and the De Rerum Natura of Lucretius are important philosophical poems, the genre of epic poetry was also used to teach philosophy
23.
J. M. Coetzee
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John Maxwell J. M. Coetzee is a South African novelist, essayist, linguist, translator and recipient of the 2003 Nobel Prize in Literature. He relocated to Australia in 2002 and lives in Adelaide and he became an Australian citizen in 2006. In 2013, Richard Poplak of the Daily Maverick described Coetzee as inarguably the most celebrated and decorated living English-language author and he was born in Cape Town, Cape Province, Union of South Africa, on 9 February 1940 to Afrikaner parents. His father, Zacharias Coetzee, was an attorney and government employee, and his mother, Vera Coetzee. The family mainly spoke English at home, but John spoke Afrikaans with other relatives and he is descended from early Dutch immigrants to South Africa in the 17th century, while his mother was a descendant of German and Polish immigrants. Coetzee spent most of his life in Cape Town and in Worcester in Cape Province, as recounted in his fictionalised memoir. The family moved to Worcester when he was eight, after his father had lost his government job and he then relocated to the United Kingdom, in 1962, worked as a computer programmer for IBM in London, and ICT in Bracknell staying until 1965. His experiences in England were later recounted in Youth, his volume of fictionalised memoirs. Coetzee went to the University of Texas at Austin, in the United States, on the Fulbright Program in 1965 and his PhD dissertation was on computer stylistic analysis of the works of Samuel Beckett and was entitled The English Fiction of Samuel Beckett, An Essay in Stylistic Analysis. In 1968, he began teaching English literature at the State University of New York at Buffalo where he stayed until 1971 and it was at Buffalo that he began his first novel, Dusklands. From as early as 1968 he sought permanent residence in the United States, in March 1970, he had been one of 45 faculty members who occupied the universitys Hayes Hall and were subsequently arrested for criminal trespass. The charges against the 45 were dropped in 1971, Coetzee has been the recipient of numerous awards throughout his career, although he has a reputation for avoiding award ceremonies. He was the first writer to be awarded the Booker Prize twice, first for Life & Times of Michael K in 1983, two other authors have since managed this — Peter Carey and Hilary Mantel. Summertime, named on the 2009 longlist, was a favourite to win an unprecedented third Booker Prize for Coetzee. It subsequently made the shortlist, but lost out to bookmakers favourite, Coetzee was also longlisted in 2003 for Elizabeth Costello and in 2005 for Slow Man. The Schooldays of Jesus, a follow up to his 2013 novel The Childhood of Jesus is longlisted for the 2016 Booker Prize, when awarding the prize, the Swedish Academy stated that Coetzee in innumerable guises portrays the surprising involvement of the outsider. The press release for the award cited his well-crafted composition, pregnant dialogue and analytical brilliance. The prize ceremony was held in Stockholm on 10 December 2003 and he has also won the French Prix Femina Étranger, the Commonwealth Writers Prize, and the 1987 Jerusalem Prize for the Freedom of the Individual in Society
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W. G. Sebald
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Winfried Georg Sebald — known as W. G. Sebald or Max Sebald — was a German writer and academic. Sebald was born in Wertach, Bavaria, one of three children of Rosa and Georg Sebald, from 1948 to 1963, he lived in Sonthofen. His father joined the Reichswehr in 1929 and remained in the Wehrmacht under the Nazis and his father remained a detached figure, a prisoner of war until 1947, a grandfather was the most important male presence in his early years. Sebald was shown images of the Holocaust while at school in Oberstdorf, the Holocaust and post-war Germany loom large in his work. Sebald studied German and English literature first at the University of Freiburg and then at the University of Fribourg and he was a Lector at the University of Manchester from 1966 to 1969. He returned to St. Gallen in Switzerland for a year hoping to work as a teacher, Sebald married his Austrian-born wife, Ute, in 1967. In 1970 he became a lecturer at the University of East Anglia and he completed his PhD at the University of East Anglia entitled The Revival of Myth, A Study of Alfred Döblins Novels in 1973. Sebald acquired habilitation from the University of Hamburg in 1986, in 1987, he was appointed to a chair of European literature at UEA. In 1989 he became the director of the British Centre for Literary Translation. He lived at Wymondham and Poringland while at UEA, Sebald died in a car crash near Norwich in December 2001. He was driving with his daughter Anna, who survived the crash and he is buried in St. Andrews churchyard in Framingham Earl, close to where he lived. In 2011, Grant Gee made the documentary Patience about the authors trek through the East Anglian landscape, Sebalds works are largely concerned with the themes of memory and loss of memory and decay. They are, in particular, attempts to reconcile himself with, and deal in terms with. In On the Natural History of Destruction, he wrote an essay on the wartime bombing of German cities. His concern with the Holocaust is expressed in several books delicately tracing his own connections with Jews. His distinctive and innovative novels were written in an intentionally somewhat old-fashioned and elaborate German and they include Vertigo, The Emigrants, The Rings of Saturn and Austerlitz. His novels are presented as observations and recollections made while travelling around Europe and they also have a dry and mischievous sense of humour. Sebald was also the author of three books of poetry, For Years Now with Tess Jaray, After Nature, and Unrecounted, English ed.19991992 The Emigrants
25.
Leo Tolstoy
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Count Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy, usually referred to in English as Leo Tolstoy, was a Russian writer who is regarded as one of the greatest authors of all time. Born to an aristocratic Russian family in 1828, he is best known for the novels War and Peace and Anna Karenina, often cited as pinnacles of realist fiction. He first achieved acclaim in his twenties with his semi-autobiographical trilogy, Childhood, Boyhood, and Youth. Tolstoys fiction includes dozens of stories and several novellas such as The Death of Ivan Ilyich, Family Happiness. He also wrote plays and numerous philosophical essays, in the 1870s Tolstoy experienced a profound moral crisis, followed by what he regarded as an equally profound spiritual awakening, as outlined in his non-fiction work A Confession. His literal interpretation of the teachings of Jesus, centering on the Sermon on the Mount, caused him to become a fervent Christian anarchist and pacifist. Tolstoy also became an advocate of Georgism, the economic philosophy of Henry George. Tolstoy was born at Yasnaya Polyana, a family estate 12 kilometres southwest of Tula, the Tolstoys were a well-known family of old Russian nobility, tracing their ancestry to a mythical Lithuanian noble Indris. He was the fourth of five children of Count Nikolai Ilyich Tolstoy, a veteran of the Patriotic War of 1812, Tolstoys parents died when he was young, so he and his siblings were brought up by relatives. In 1844, he began studying law and oriental languages at Kazan University and his teachers described him as both unable and unwilling to learn. Tolstoy left the university in the middle of his studies, returned to Yasnaya Polyana and then spent much of his time in Moscow, in 1851, after running up heavy gambling debts, he went with his older brother to the Caucasus and joined the army. It was about time that he started writing. Others who followed the path were Alexander Herzen, Mikhail Bakunin. During his 1857 visit, Tolstoy witnessed an execution in Paris. Writing in a letter to his friend Vasily Botkin, The truth is that the State is a conspiracy designed not only to exploit, henceforth, I shall never serve any government anywhere. Tolstoys concept of non-violence or Ahimsa was bolstered when he read a German version of the Tirukkural and he later instilled the concept in Mahatma Gandhi through his A Letter to a Hindu when young Gandhi corresponded with him seeking his advice. His European trip in 1860–61 shaped both his political and literary development when he met Victor Hugo, whose literary talents Tolstoy praised after reading Hugos newly finished Les Misérables, the similar evocation of battle scenes in Hugos novel and Tolstoys War and Peace indicates this influence. Tolstoys political philosophy was influenced by a March 1861 visit to French anarchist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon
26.
Animal rights
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They maintain that animals should no longer be viewed as property or used as food, clothing, research subjects, entertainment, or beasts of burden. Advocates approach the issue from a variety of perspectives, the abolitionist view is that animals have moral rights, which the pursuit of incremental reform may undermine by encouraging human beings to feel comfortable with using them. Gary Franciones abolitionist position promotes ethical veganism and he argues that animal rights groups that pursue welfare concerns, such as People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals, risk making the public feel comfortable about its use of animals. He calls such groups the new welfarists, PETA argues that Franciones criticism does little to help alleviate the suffering of individual animals and also trivializes the efforts of workers in the field who handle cruelty cases. It also creates divisiveness within the animal liberation movement instead of focusing on shared goals, sentiocentrism is the theory that sentient individuals are the subject of moral concern and therefore are deserving of rights. Protectionists seek incremental reform in how animals are treated, with a view to ending animal use entirely and this position is represented by the philosopher Peter Singer. Multiple cultural traditions around the world—such as Animism, Taoism, Hinduism, Buddhism, the animals most often considered in arguments for personhood are bonobos and chimpanzees. S. Congress with the enactment of the Animal Enterprise Protection Act, Aristotle argued that animals lacked reason, and placed humans at the top of the natural world, yet the respect for animals in ancient Greece was very high. Some animals were considered divine e. g. dolphins, the 21st-century debates about animals can be traced back to the ancient world, and the idea of a divine hierarchy. Dominion need not entail property rights, but it has been interpreted, by some, contemporary philosopher Bernard Rollin writes that dominion does not entail or allow abuse any more than does dominion a parent enjoys over a child. Rollin further states that the Biblical Sabbath requirement promulgated in the Ten Commandments required that animals be granted a day of rest along with humans, correlatively, the Bible forbids plowing with an ox and an ass together. According to the tradition, this prohibition stems from the hardship that an ass would suffer by being compelled to keep up with an ox. Similarly, one finds the prohibition against muzzling an ox when it treads out the grain and these ancient regulations, virtually forgotten, bespeak of an eloquent awareness of the status of animals as ends in themselves, a point also corroborated by Norm Phelps. The philosopher and mathematician, Pythagoras, urged respect for animals, believing that human and nonhuman souls were reincarnated from human to animal, and vice versa. Against this, Aristotle, student to the philosopher Plato, argued that animals had no interests of their own. Theophrastus, one of Aristotles pupils, argued that also had reasoning. Plutarch in his Life of Cato the Elder comments that while law and justice are strictly to men only, beneficence. This is intended as a correction and advance over the merely utilitarian treatment of animals, according to Richard D. Ryder, the first known animal protection legislation in Europe was passed in Ireland in 1635
27.
Humboldt University of Berlin
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The Humboldt university model has strongly influenced other European and Western universities. In 1949, it changed its name to Humboldt-Universität in honour of both its founder Wilhelm and his brother, geographer Alexander von Humboldt. The first semester at the newly founded Berlin university occurred in 1810 with 256 students and 52 lecturers in faculties of law, medicine, theology, du Bois and European unifier Robert Schuman, as well as the influential surgeon Johann Friedrich Dieffenbach in the early half of the 1800s. The structure of German research-intensive universities, such as Humboldt, served as a model for institutions like Johns Hopkins University, Alexander von Humboldt, brother of the founder William, promoted the new learning. With the construction of research facilities in the second half of the 19th Century teaching of the natural sciences began. During this period of enlargement, Berlin University gradually expanded to other previously separate colleges in Berlin. An example would be the Charité, the Pépinière and the Collegium Medico-chirurgicum, in 1717, King Friedrich I had built a quarantine house for Plague at the city gates, which in 1727 was rechristened by the soldier king Friedrich Wilhelm, Es soll das Haus die Charité heißen. By 1829 the site became Berlin Universitys medical campus and remained so until 1927 when the more modern University Hospital was constructed, Berlin University started a natural history collection in 1810, which, by 1889 required a separate building and became the Museum für Naturkunde. The preexisting Tierarznei School, founded in 1790 and absorbed by the university, also the Landwirtschaftliche Hochschule Berlin, founded in 1881 was affiliated with the Agricultural Faculties of the University. After 1933, like all German universities, it was affected by the Nazi regime, the rector during this period was Eugen Fischer. The Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service resulted in 250 Jewish professors and employees being fired during 1933/1934, students and scholars and political opponents of Nazis were ejected from the university and often deported. During this time one third of all of the staff were fired by the Nazis. The Soviet Military Administration in Germany ordered the opening of the university in January 1946, the SMAD wanted a redesigned Berlin University based on the Soviet model, however they insisted on the phrasing newly opened and not re-opened for political reasons. The University of Berlin must effectively start again in almost every way and you have before you this image of the old university. What remains of that is nought but ruins, the teaching was limited to seven departments working in reopened, war-damaged buildings, with many of the teachers dead or missing. However, by the semester of 1946, the Economic. This program existed at Berlin University until 1962, the East-West conflict in post-war Germany led to a growing communist influence in the university. This was controversial, and incited strong protests within the student body, Soviet NKVD secret police arrested a number of students in March 1947 as a response
28.
Berlin
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Berlin is the capital and the largest city of Germany as well as one of its constituent 16 states. With a population of approximately 3.5 million, Berlin is the second most populous city proper, due to its location in the European Plain, Berlin is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. Around one-third of the area is composed of forests, parks, gardens, rivers. Berlin in the 1920s was the third largest municipality in the world, following German reunification in 1990, Berlin once again became the capital of all-Germany. Berlin is a city of culture, politics, media. Its economy is based on high-tech firms and the sector, encompassing a diverse range of creative industries, research facilities, media corporations. Berlin serves as a hub for air and rail traffic and has a highly complex public transportation network. The metropolis is a popular tourist destination, significant industries also include IT, pharmaceuticals, biomedical engineering, clean tech, biotechnology, construction and electronics. Modern Berlin is home to world renowned universities, orchestras, museums and its urban setting has made it a sought-after location for international film productions. The city is known for its festivals, diverse architecture, nightlife, contemporary arts. Since 2000 Berlin has seen the emergence of a cosmopolitan entrepreneurial scene, the name Berlin has its roots in the language of West Slavic inhabitants of the area of todays Berlin, and may be related to the Old Polabian stem berl-/birl-. All German place names ending on -ow, -itz and -in, since the Ber- at the beginning sounds like the German word Bär, a bear appears in the coat of arms of the city. It is therefore a canting arm, the first written records of towns in the area of present-day Berlin date from the late 12th century. Spandau is first mentioned in 1197 and Köpenick in 1209, although these areas did not join Berlin until 1920, the central part of Berlin can be traced back to two towns. Cölln on the Fischerinsel is first mentioned in a 1237 document,1237 is considered the founding date of the city. The two towns over time formed close economic and social ties, and profited from the right on the two important trade routes Via Imperii and from Bruges to Novgorod. In 1307, they formed an alliance with a common external policy, in 1415 Frederick I became the elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg, which he ruled until 1440. In 1443 Frederick II Irontooth started the construction of a new palace in the twin city Berlin-Cölln
29.
Regent's Park College, Oxford
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Regents Park College is a Permanent Private Hall of the University of Oxford, situated in central Oxford, just off St Giles. Founded in 1810, the College moved to its present site in 1927, the College now admits both undergraduate and graduate students to take Oxford degrees in a variety of Arts, Humanities and Social Science subjects. The College also trains men and women for ordained ministry among Baptist churches in Great Britain, Regents Park College traces its roots to the formation of the London Baptist Education Society in 1752. In 1810 there were three students, but by 1850 the number had risen to 26. In 1849 Dr Joseph Angus became Principal at just 33 years old, at the beginning of his time as Principal, Angus admitted a small number of lay students to college. His belief was that it would benefit the students to have contact with them as well as bringing much needed finances to the Academy. Holford House was a dwelling built in the classical Georgian style on crown land. Students were able to read for university degrees in the Arts and Law, after many long ties with University College London which trace back to 1856, In 1901 the College became an official Divinity School of the University of London. In 1920 G. P. Gould passed the role of Principal on to H. Wheeler Robinson, Wheeler Robinson was educated at Regents Park College for one session, he then went to Edinburgh University and finally onto Mansfield College, Oxford. Wheeler Robinson believed that Oxford was a congenial setting than London for a college. In 1927 the main portion of the site was purchased and the buildings, including various farm buildings, the college appointed Mr T Harold Hughes as the Architect for the site. Hughes was responsible for extension and restoration work in Oxford including Exeter College, Hertford College. At this time many of the classes were held at Mansfield College, however, as early as 1924 Wheeler Robinson started to promote his plans for a new building scheme on the Oxford site to former students. Between 1935 and 1938 he and E. A. Payne spoke a various meetings, the foundation stones for Helwys Hall were laid on 21 July 1938 by representatives from the Baptist Union of Great Britain and Ireland, The Particular Baptist Fund, The Baptist Missionary Society. Stones were also laid in memory of Angus and Gould, former Principals of the college, in 1957 Regents Park College became a Permanent Private Hall of the University of Oxford. Since then, the student body has grown to include around 110 undergraduate students and 50 graduates, in 1977 the Angus student accommodation block was built, thus providing Balding Quadrangle with an extra side. Extra accommodation was built in Wheeler Robinson House in 1988, when Greyfriars Hall closed in 2008 the remaining 30 students joined Regents Park College. Regents Park College is located just off of St Giles in the heart of Oxford, near to other colleges St Cross College, the site is based around a large neoclassical quadrangle
30.
The New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
31.
Youth For Understanding
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Youth For Understanding is an international educational exchange organization. A network of over 50 independent national organizations worldwide, YFU representatives work together to advance learning across cultures, within each countrys culture, YFU organizations subscribe to and operate under a common set of principles and standards that aim to facilitate cooperation and harmony. Each year, YFU exchanges approximately 4,500 students worldwide, YFU conducts its exchange programs via direct contact between independent national organizations in over 50 countries. These autonomous organizations represent the community network of YFU. Other YFU international activities are carried out by a volunteer International Advisory Council, YFU organizations around the world subscribe to a set of basic operating and philosophic standards that embody YFU’s commitment to conducting high quality programs. The standards set the requirements that YFU programs must meet. In 1951 it was proposed to leaders in Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA that teenagers from Germany be brought to the United States to live with a family. As a result,75 German teenagers arrived in Michigan in July 1951 and were hosted by volunteer U. S. families, the exchange program itself originated in late summer 1951 by the High Commission in Germany as the Urban/Rural Teen-Age Exchange Program. Already in its first year it was supported by members of the Michigan Council of Churches under the motto Youth for Understanding, within the next 10 years it evolved into two organizations YFU-USA and YFU-Germany. The first exchange from the USA to Germany was a program with 30 US high school students organized by MCC-alumni. In 1961/62, an exchange program from the US to Germany was added with 6 initial students from the US. The first exchanges across the Pacific and to Mexico were established in 1958, YFU, Inc. the non-profit educational organization, was established in 1964, and the organizations offices were moved to Rosedale in Washington, D. C. in 1978. During most of the 1990s, YFU, Inc, with the dissolution of the USIA toward the end of 1999, the CBYX scholarship program began to be reorganized on a regional basis, and YFU ceased its central administrative control. On March 8,2002 YFU, Inc. ceased operations, the YFU organization in United States was reorganized as YFU USA Inc. which opened on March 9,2002. The organizations offices were moved to Bethesda, Maryland later in 2002, ulrich Zahlten, founder and former chair of YFU Germany, became the new chairman of the board of YFU USA. This reorganization also reversed the organizations misfortunes, the report for 2005 reports four consecutive years of budget surpluses. YFU USA has five offices, Founders, Heartland, Horizon. YFU remains a volunteer-based organization as YFU USA has almost 1,400 active volunteers, the guidelines for the work of the national YFU organizations will be decided by the International Advisory Council
32.
Achern
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Achern is a city in Western Baden-Württemberg, Germany. It is located approximately 18 km southwest of Baden-Baden and 19 km northeast of Offenburg, Achern is the fourth largest city in the county of Ortenau, after Offenburg, Lahr / Black Forest and Kehl. As subsequent to the reform in the 1970s the population passed the 20,000 mark. The status was granted by the State government effective January 1,1974, Achern collaborates with the communities of Lauf, Sasbach, and Sasbachwalden in administrative matters. Besides Achern itself, the municipality includes the boroughs of Fautenbach, Gamshurst, Großweier, Mösbach, Oberachern, Önsbach, Sasbachried and Wagshurst. Achern is located in the northern Black Forest near the Hornisgrinde, at the entrance to the Acher Valley and not far from the eastern edge of the Upper Rhine Valley. Coming from the Black Forest, the Acher enters the city from the southeast and passes Oberachern on its way to the center of town with the historic center, the Altstadt, situated on the right bank. The Acher then continues on in northwesterly direction between Fautenbach and Großweier and south of Gamshurst, before leaving the city to head for the Rhine, the river gave the city its name. The city contains several artificially created lakes, some of which still produce gravel, the largest lake is called Achernsee, near the Achern Autobahn ramp, in the West of the city. Achern is surrounded by the communities, Lichtenau and Ottersweier, as well as Sasbach, Lauf, Sasbachwalden, Kappelrodeck, Renchen. Except Oberachern, the boroughs also have community status under state administrative law, the borough councils are headed up by the Borough President. In some cases, named neighborhoods or developments are part of the boroughs, though often with few residents, examples of such neighborhoods are Litzloch, Michelbuch and Ziegelhütte in Gamshurst, Malghurst in Sasbachried, Lindenhof in Fautenbach and Schollenhof in Wagshurst. Achern was first mentioned in 1095 as Acchara and developed later into Oberachern and Niederachern, eventually, Niederachern was referred to only as Achern. During the High Middle Ages the town part of the German Reich, courtesy of the Staufenberger and Zähringer families. In 1334, together with Ortenau Achern became part of Baden, in 1351 it went to Strasbourg, in 1405 to the Electorate of the Palatinate, in 1551 the town became part of Further Austria and part of the Reichlandsvogtei Ortenau. In 1495 and then again in 1637 Achern burned to the ground and was uninhabited for years thereafter. In 1805 Achern again became part of what was then the Grand Duchy of Baden and was made a court seat. In 1808 it was awarded City status, in 1924 the district of Achern was dissolved and became part of the district of Bühl which was awarded County status in 1939
33.
Brandenburg
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Brandenburg is one of the sixteen federated states of Germany. It lies in the northeast of the country covering an area of 29,478 square kilometers and has 2.48 million inhabitants, the capital and largest city is Potsdam. Brandenburg surrounds but does not include the capital and city-state Berlin forming a metropolitan area. Brandenburg is one of the states that was re-created in 1990 upon the reunification of the former East Germany. Governed by the Hohenzollern dynasty from 1415, it contained the future German capital Berlin, after 1618 the Margraviate of Brandenburg and the Duchy of Prussia were combined to form Brandenburg-Prussia, which was ruled by the same branch of the House of Hohenzollern. In 1701 the state was elevated as the Kingdom of Prussia, Brandenburg is situated in territory known in antiquity as Magna Germania, which reached to the Vistula river. By the 7th century, Slavic peoples are believed to have settled in the Brandenburg area, the Slavs expanded from the east, possibly driven from their homelands in present-day Ukraine and perhaps Belarus by the invasions of the Huns and Avars. They relied heavily on river transport, the two principal Slavic groups in the present-day area of Brandenburg were the Hevelli in the west and the Sprevane in the east. Beginning in the early 10th century, Henry the Fowler and his successors conquered territory up to the Oder River, Slavic settlements such as Brenna, Budusin, and Chośebuz came under imperial control through the installation of margraves. Their main function was to defend and protect the eastern marches, in 948 Emperor Otto I established margraves to exert imperial control over the pagan Slavs west of the Oder River. Otto founded the Bishoprics of Brandenburg and Havelberg, the Northern March was founded as a northeastern border territory of the Holy Roman Empire. However, an uprising of Wends drove imperial forces from the territory of present-day Brandenburg in 983. The region returned to the control of Slavic leaders, the Roman Catholic Church brought bishoprics which, with their walled towns, afforded protection from attacks for the townspeople. With the monks and bishops, the history of the town of Brandenburg an der Havel, in 1134, in the wake of a German crusade against the Wends, the German magnate, Albert the Bear, was granted the Northern March by the Emperor Lothar III. He formally inherited the town of Brandenburg and the lands of the Hevelli from their last Wendish ruler, Pribislav, after crushing a force of Sprevane who occupied the town of Brandenburg in the 1150s, Albert proclaimed himself ruler of the new Margraviate of Brandenburg. Albert, and his descendants the Ascanians, then made progress in conquering, colonizing, Christianizing. Within this region, Slavic and German residents intermarried, during the 13th century, the Ascanians began acquiring territory east of the Oder, later known as the Neumark. In 1320, the Brandenburg Ascanian line came to an end, under the Luxembourgs, the Margrave of Brandenburg gained the status of a prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire
34.
Harvey Cox
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Harvey Gallagher Cox, Jr. is an American theologian who served as the Hollis Professor of Divinity at the Harvard Divinity School, until his retirement in October 2009. Coxs research and teaching focus on developments in world Christianity, including liberation theology. After a stint in the U. S, merchant Marine, Cox attended the University of Pennsylvania and graduated in 1951 with a B. A. degree with honors in history. He went on to earn a B. D. degree from the Yale Divinity School in 1955, Cox was ordained as an American Baptist minister in 1957, and started teaching as an assistant professor at the Andover Newton Theological School in Massachusetts. He then began teaching at the Harvard Divinity School in 1965 and he was to become the single most heeded professor in religion at Harvard. Cox became widely known with the publication of The Secular City in 1965 and it became immensely popular and influential for a book on theology, selling over one million copies. Cox developed the thesis that the church is primarily a people of faith and action and he argued that God is just as present in the secular as the religious realms of life. Thus, the title was God and the Secular City. Far from being a religious community, the church should be in the forefront of change in society. Cox revisited his topic in Religion in the Secular City, Toward a Post-Modern Theology in 1984. In 1990, an anniversary edition of The Secular City was published. the one book I recommend to people who ask me at parties which one of my books they should crack. In 1973, Cox wrote The Seduction of the Spirit, which he said has the best first chapter of anything I have ever written, throughout his years as a church theologian, Cox was visible, indeed as no other on the Divinity faculty. Later he would defend Father Leonardo Boff, a Latin American theologian, in his book The Silencing of Leonardo Boff, The Vatican, Cox retired in September 2009 in a well publicized ceremony and celebration. His new book, The Future of Faith was released to coincide with his retirement, the Future of Faith explores three important trends in Christianity’s 2,000 years. He views the religion’s first three centuries as the Age of Faith, when followers simply embraced the teachings of Jesus, then came the Age of Belief, in which church leaders increasingly took control and set acceptable limits on doctrine and orthodoxy
35.
Harvard Divinity School
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Harvard Divinity School is one of the constituent schools of Harvard University, located in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States. As of June 2015, the Schools mission is to train and educate its students either in the study of religion. It also caters to students from other Harvard schools that are interested in the former field, Harvard Divinity School is among a small group of university-based, non-denominational divinity schools in the United States. Harvard College was founded in 1636 as a Puritan/Congregationalist institution and trained ministers for many years, the separate institution of the Divinity School, however, dates from 1816, when it was established as the first non-denominational divinity school in the United States. During its first century, Harvard Divinity School was unofficially associated with American Unitarianism, however, it also retains a historical tie to one of the successor denominations of American Congregationalism, the United Church of Christ. Today, students and faculty come from a variety of backgrounds, Christian, Jewish, Muslim, Hindu, Buddhist, Sikh. Its academic programs attempt to balance theology and religious studies—that is and this is in contrast to many other divinity schools where one or the other is given primacy. In April 2014, the Faculty of HDS voted to unify the ThD and PhD in the study of religion in the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, suspending admission to the ThD starting in fall 2015. Those previously admitted to the ThD program continue to be candidates for the ThD, since its founding, it has supported more than 100 scholars, representing over 50 institutions of higher learning in the United States and around the world. The WSRP promotes critical inquiry into the interaction between religion and gender, and every year the program brings five postdoctoral scholars to HDS, the research associates each work on a book-length research project and teach courses related to their research. The Center focuses on the understanding of religions globally through its research, publications, funding and it welcomes scholars and practitioners, and highlights the intellectual and historical dimensions of religious dialogue. Its current director is Francis X. Clooney, SJ, a scholar of Hinduism and comparative theologian focusing on the Hindu, the Center’s Meditation Room is used regularly by individuals and groups. The building that houses the Center was designed by Josep Lluís Sert, as a full-time residential program, holding classes five days a week, the educational focus lies on faith-based case studies of corporations and communities. Since the SLIs inauguration in 1998, more than 450 participants have completed the program, participants also developed individual plans of action, on a case-study model, applicable to the local work in their communities. The Program in Religion and Secondary Education is an education program that prepares students to teach about religion in public schools from a non-sectarian perspective. Beginning with the 2009-10 academic year, no new students will be admitted to the program for at least the two years. Students who are already in the PRSE will continue and be able to finish their degree in normal fashion, andover-Harvard Theological Library was founded in 1836 and underwent expansion in 1911 when the collections of HDS and Andover Theological Seminary were combined. The Library is part of the larger Harvard University library system, which is available to all faculty, staff, in September 2001, the library completed a $12-million renovation that enhanced its technology facilities and improved its information systems
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