1.
Penelope Lyttelton, Viscountess Cobham
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Penelope Ann Lyttelton, Viscountess Cobham, CBE, is a British businesswoman known for her involvement in a number of quangos. She presently serves as Chairwoman of VisitEngland, penelope Ann Cooper was educated at St Jamess School, West Malvern. In 1974, she married John Lyttelton, son of Charles Lyttelton, 10th Viscount Cobham, three years later, upon the death of her father-in-law, the couple became Viscount and Viscountess Cobham. Along with the title came the two-century old Hagley Hall, a mansion in Worcestershire, lady Cobham proceeded to convert the hall into a conference venue. Cobham became an adviser to the heritage minister David Mellor in the newly created Department of National Heritage in 1992. In 1994, Cobham said that she had developed a bond with Mellor. In a separate statement, he announced his decision to divorce his wife Judith because he had extremely close to Cobham. The Cobhams childless marriage ended in divorce in 1995, with Cobham gaining a £1 million divorce settlement, the couple were no longer on speaking terms, but Cobham retained her title as a divorcée. She and Mellor live in a Georgian house in London and she also owns a farmed estate in Croucheston in Wiltshire. Cobham has been referred to as the Quango Queen because of the number of trusteeships and directorships she holds in the arts. During her marriage, to make money to maintain and conserve Hagley Hall, Cobham led a successful corporate entertainment. Prior to becoming special adviser on tourism and heritage in 1992, she was on the boards of English Tourist Board, English Heritage, Cobham later served on the boards of the Victoria and Albert Museum, British Waterways and the London Docklands Development Corporation. For fourteen years, Cobham chaired Britains largest radio station outside London, from 2000 until 2009, she chaired the British Casino Association, serving during the passage of the Gambling Act 2005. Between 2005 and 2009, Cobham served as Deputy Chairman of VisitBritain, in April 2009, she became Chairman of VisitEngland. Having been reappointed by the minister Hugh Robertson in April 2013 and she is currently an adviser to Citi Private Bank and Chairman of the Art Fund Prize. She was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 2014 Birthday Honours for services to tourism
2.
Wimbledon, London
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Wimbledon had a population of 68,187 in 2011 which includes the electoral wards of Abbey, Dundonald, Hillside, Trinity, Village, Raynes Park and Wimbledon Park. It is home to the Wimbledon Tennis Championships and New Wimbledon Theatre, Wimbledon has been inhabited since at least the Iron Age when the hill fort on Wimbledon Common is thought to have been constructed. In 1087 when the Domesday Book was compiled, Wimbledon was part of the manor of Mortlake, the village developed with a stable rural population coexisting alongside nobility and wealthy merchants from the city. The location of the station shifted the focus of the subsequent growth away from the original village centre. Since 2005, the north and west of the Borough has been represented in Westminster by Stephen Hammond, the eastern and southern of the Borough are represented by Siobhain McDonagh, a Labour MP. It has established minority groups, among the most prominent are British Asians, British Ghanaians, Wimbledon has been inhabited since at least the Iron Age when the hill fort on Wimbledon Common, the second-largest in London, is thought to have been constructed. The original nucleus of Wimbledon was at the top of the close to the common – the area now known locally as the village. The village is referred to as Wimbedounyng in a signed by King Edgar the Peaceful in 967. The name Wimbledon means Wynnmans hill, with the element of the name being the Old English dun. At the time the Domesday Book was compiled, Wimbledon was part of the manor of Mortlake, the ownership of the manor of Wimbledon changed hands many times during its history. The manor was held by the church until 1398 when Thomas Arundel, the manor was confiscated and became crown property. The manor remained crown property until the reign of Henry VIII when it was granted briefly to Thomas Cromwell, Earl of Essex, until Cromwell was executed in 1540 and the land was again confiscated. The manor was held by Henry VIIIs last wife and widow Catherine Parr until her death in 1548 when it again reverted to the monarch. In the 1550s, Henrys daughter, Mary I, granted the manor to Cardinal Reginald Pole who held it until his death in 1558 when it again become royal property. Marys sister, Elizabeth I held the property until 1574 when she gave the house to Christopher Hatton who sold it in the same year to Sir Thomas Cecil. The lands of the manor were given to the Cecil family in 1588, the Cecil family retained the manor for fifty years before it was bought by Charles I in 1638 for his Queen, Henrietta Maria. On his death in 1677 the manor was sold on again to the Lord High Treasurer, Thomas Osborne, the Osborne family sold the manor to Sir Theodore Janssen in 1712. Janssen, a director of the South Sea Company, began a new house to replace the Cecil-built manor house but, due to the collapse of the company
3.
Gentlemen's club
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Today, some clubs are more accommodating about the gender and social status of their members. The original clubs were established in the West End of London, today, the area of St Jamess is still sometimes called clubland. Clubs took over parts of the role occupied by coffee houses in 18th century London. The first clubs, such as Whites, Brookss and Boodles, were aristocratic in flavour, and provided an environment for gambling, the 19th century brought an explosion in the popularity of clubs, particularly around the 1880s. At their height, London had over 400 such establishments and this expansion can be explained in part by the large extensions of the franchise in the Reform Acts of 1832,1867, and 1885. Each time, hundreds of more men were qualified to vote. Each of the three great Reform Acts corresponded with an expansion of clubs, as did a further extension of the franchise in 1918. Many of these new, more inclusive clubs proved just as reluctant as their forebears to admit new members when the franchise was further extended. Club Life in London, an 1866 book, begins, The Club in the general acceptation of the term, may be regarded as one of the earliest offshoots of mans habitual gregariousness and social inclination. An increasing number of clubs were characterised by their members interest in politics, literature, sport, art, automobiles, travel, particular countries, or some other pursuit. In other cases, the connection between the members was membership of the branch of the armed forces, or the same school or university. Thus the growth of clubs provides an indicator as to what was considered a part of the Establishment at the time. This came to include professionals who had to earn their income, most gentlemen had only one club, which closely corresponded with the trade or social / political identity he felt most defined him, but a few people belonged to several. Members of the aristocracy and politicians were likely to have several clubs, the record number of memberships is believed to have been with Earl Mountbatten, who had nineteen in the 1960s. Public entertainments, such as performances and the like, were not a feature of this sort of club. The clubs were, in effect, second homes in the centre of London where men could relax, mix with their friends, play games, get a meal. Expatriates, when staying in England, could use their clubs, as the East India Club or the Oriental Club and they allowed upper- and upper-middle-class men with modest incomes to spend their time in grand surroundings. The richer clubs were built by the architects as the finest country houses of the time
4.
The Championships, Wimbledon
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The Championships, Wimbledon, commonly known simply as Wimbledon, is the oldest tennis tournament in the world, and is widely considered the most prestigious. It has been held at the All England Club in Wimbledon, London, Wimbledon is one of the four Grand Slam tennis tournaments, the others being the Australian Open, the French Open and the US Open. Since the Australian Open shifted to hardcourt in 1988, Wimbledon is the only major still played on grass. The tournament takes place two weeks in late June and early July, culminating with the Ladies and Gentlemens Singles Final. Five major, junior, and invitational events are each year. Wimbledon traditions include a dress code for competitors and Royal patronage. The tournament is notable for the absence of sponsor advertising around the courts. In 2009, Wimbledons Centre Court was fitted with a roof to lessen the loss of playing time due to rain. The All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club is a club founded on 23 July 1868. Its first ground was off Worple Road, Wimbledon, in 1876, lawn tennis, a game devised by Major Walter Clopton Wingfield a year or so earlier and originally given the name Sphairistikè, was added to the activities of the club. In spring 1877, the club was renamed The All England Croquet and Lawn Tennis Club, a new code of laws, replacing the code administered by the Marylebone Cricket Club, was drawn up for the event. Todays rules are similar except for such as the height of the net and posts. The inaugural 1877 Wimbledon Championship started on 9 July 1877 and the Gentlemens Singles was the event held. It was won by Spencer Gore, an old Harrovian rackets player, about 200 spectators paid one shilling each to watch the final. The lawns at the ground were arranged so that the court was in the middle with the others arranged around it. The name was retained when the Club moved in 1922 to the present site in Church Road, however, in 1980 four new courts were brought into commission on the north side of the ground, which meant the Centre Court was once more correctly defined. The opening of the new No.1 Court in 1997 emphasised the description, by 1882, activity at the club was almost exclusively confined to lawn tennis and that year the word croquet was dropped from the title. However, for reasons it was restored in 1899
5.
Grand Slam (tennis)
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The Grand Slam tournaments, also called majors, are the four most important annual tennis events. They offer the most ranking points, prize money, public and media attention, the greatest strength and size of field, and greater number of best of sets for men. The Grand Slam itinerary consists of the Australian Open in mid January, the French Open in May and June, Wimbledon in June and July, each tournament is played over a period of two weeks. The Australian and United States tournaments are played on courts, the French on clay. Wimbledon is the oldest, founded in 1877, followed by the US in 1881, the French in 1891, however, of these four, only Wimbledon was a major before 1924/25, the time when all four became designated Grand Slam tournaments. In doubles, one team may accomplish a Grand Slam playing together or one player may achieve it with different partners, the term Grand Slam without qualification refers to winning the four majors in a single calendar year. Winning the gold medal at the Summer Olympic Games in addition to the four majors in a one year is known as a Golden Grand Slam or more commonly the Golden Slam. Also, winning the Year-End Championship in the period is known as a Super Slam. Together, all four Majors in all three disciplines are called a set of Grand Slam titles. No male or female player has won all events in one calendar year. The term slam for winning all of the tricks in the whist family card games is attested early in the 17th century. Grand slam for all of the tricks, in contrast to small slam or little slam for all but one and this use was inherited by contract bridge, a modern development of whist defined in 1925 that became very popular in Britain and America by 1930. Grand slam has been used in golf since 1930, when Bobby Jones won the four major championships, before that time only three events, Wimbledon, the World Hard Court Championships and the World Covered Court Championships were considered the premier international tennis events by the ILTF. Tony Wilding of New Zealand won all three of those majors in one year –1913. It has been possible to complete a Grand Slam in most years, phil Dent has pointed out that skipping Grand Slam tournaments—especially the Australian Open—was not unusual then, before counting Grand Slam titles became the norm. Nevertheless, except for the 1969 and 1971 tournaments, many of the best players missed this championship until 1982, because of the remoteness, the inconvenient dates, the tournament was won by Arthur Ashe. The first definitive Grand Slam, of the current four majors, was accomplished when Don Budge won all four mens singles Majors in 1938, to date,17 players have completed a Grand Slam, though only six in the most prestigious singles titles. The four Junior disciplines, boys and girls singles and doubles, Players are only eligible from age 13 to 18, with 18-year-olds likely to hold a physical advantage
6.
Grass court
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A grass court is one of the four different types of tennis court on which the sport of tennis, originally known as lawn tennis, is played. Grass courts are made of grasses in different compositions depending on the tournament, although grass courts are more traditional than other types of tennis courts, maintenance costs of grass courts are higher than those of hard courts and clay courts. Grass courts must be left for the day if rain appears, Grass courts are most common in Britain, although the Northeastern United States also has some private grass courts. Because grass courts tend to be slippery, the ball often skids and bounces low while retaining most of its speed, in addition, there are often bad bounces. As a result, players must reach the ball relative to other surfaces. A grass-court favours a serve and volley style of play, all have won at least five grand slam singles titles on grass, Navratilova won twelve, Court won eight, while King, Sampras, Graf, Serena Williams and Federer each won seven. Sampras is lauded by many analysts as one of the greatest grass-court players of all time. He won seven Wimbledon singles titles in eight years from 1993 through 2000, the most successful male player currently is Roger Federer, a seven-time Wimbledon singles champion. His variety in the shots, speed, footwork, and slices, are his biggest weapons, before being beaten in 2008 at Wimbledon by Rafael Nadal, Federer had a 65-match winning streak on grass, and 40 consecutive wins at Wimbledon alone. The most successful female players currently playing are Serena Williams and her sister Venus Williams, with seven, Venus has won five out of her eight Wimbledon finals appearances and achieving five titles in the ladies doubles with her sister. The professional grass court season is comparatively short, in 2015 it was extended, with an extra week between the French Open and Wimbledon. In the ATP Tour, the Stuttgart Open became a court tournament in 2015, and in 2017 a new ATP250 tournament is being hosted in Antalya. In the WTA Tour Mallorca will host a grass court tournament beginning in 2016, clay court hardcourt carpet court LTA – Grass Court Guidance
7.
Amateur sports
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Amateur sports are sports in which participants engage largely or entirely without remuneration. The distinction is made between amateur sporting participants and professional sporting participants, who are financially remunerated for the time they spend competing and training, the majority of worldwide sporting participants are amateurs. Modern organized sports developed in the 19th century, with the United Kingdom, sporting culture was especially strong in private schools and universities, and the upper and middle class men who attended these institutions played as amateurs. Opportunities for working classes to participate in sport were restricted by their long six-day work weeks, in the UK, the Factory Act of 1844 gave working men half a day off, making the opportunity to take part in sport more widely available. Working class sportsmen found it hard to top level sport due to the need to turn up to work. On occasion, cash prizes, particularly in competitions, could make up the difference. Proponents of the amateur ideal deplored the influence of money and the effect it has on sports, working class sportsmen didnt see why they shouldnt be paid to play. Hence there were competing interests between those who wished sport to be open to all and those who feared that professionalism would destroy the Corinthian spirit and this conflict played out over the course of more than one hundred years. Corinthian has come to describe the most virtuous of amateur athletes—those for whom fairness, to that end, club rules ensured that crews consisted of amateurs, while no professional or paid hand is allowed to touch the tiller or in any way assist in steering. The earlier origins of the term are somewhat murky, though it must certainly be linked to the Isthmian games of ancient Corinth, it more proximately originates from common slang usage in early 19th century England. The Seawhanaka Yacht Club—founded in 1874—added Corinthian to its name in 1881, the Corinthian Football Club was founded in 1882. The Corinthian Yacht Club was founded in 1886 in Tiburon, California in the United States, the Yale Yacht Club was renamed the Yale Corinthian Yacht Club in 1893. By the early 21st century the Olympic Games and all the team sports accepted professional competitors. However, there are some sports which maintain a distinction between amateur and professional status with separate competitive leagues. The most prominent of these are golf and boxing, in particular, only amateur boxers could compete at the Olympics up to 2016. This may jeopardise their status as amateurs, and if allowed to let slide, where professionals are permitted, it is hard for amateurs to compete against them. Whether this is a triumph of capitalism or an example of corruption depends on the viewers perspective, to some an amateur means an incompetent or also-ran, and to others it means an idealist. To say that the athlete should not be paid can prevent performances only possible for an athlete who is free to pursue the sport full-time without other sources of income, the term shamateurism is used to describe state-sponsored athletes
8.
Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge
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Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge is the wife of Prince William, Duke of Cambridge. Following his father Charles, Prince of Wales, William is second in line to succeed his grandmother, Queen Elizabeth II, the duchess grew up in Chapel Row, a village near Newbury, Berkshire, England. She studied art history in Scotland at the University of St Andrews and their engagement was announced on 16 November 2010 before they married on 29 April 2011 at Westminster Abbey. The duke and duchess have two children, Prince George and Princess Charlotte of Cambridge, who are third and fourth in line to the British throne. Catherine Elizabeth Middleton was born at Royal Berkshire Hospital in Reading on 9 January 1982 to an upper-middle-class family and she was christened at St Andrews Bradfield, Berkshire, on 20 June 1982. The family of her father Michael has ties to British aristocracy and her Middleton relatives were reported as having played host to British royalty as long ago as 1926. She has a sister, Philippa Pippa, and a younger brother. The family lived in Amman, Jordan, from May 1984 to September 1986, her father worked for British Airways, following her return to Berkshire in 1986, she was enrolled aged four at St Andrews School, a private school near the village of Pangbourne in Berkshire. She boarded part-weekly at St Andrews in her later years and she then studied briefly at Downe House. In November 2006, Middleton accepted a position as a buyer with the clothing chain Jigsaw. She also worked until January 2011 at Party Pieces, her role within the business included catalogue design and production, marketing. In 2001, Middleton met Prince William while they were students in residence at St Salvators Hall at the University of St Andrews. The couple began dating in 2003, although their relationship remained unconfirmed, on 17 October 2005, Middleton complained through her lawyer about harassment from the media, stating that she had done nothing significant to warrant publicity. Middleton attended Prince Williams Passing Out Parade at the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst on 15 December 2006, on 17 May 2008, Middleton attended the wedding of Prince Williams cousin Peter Phillips to Autumn Kelly, which the prince did not attend. On 19 July 2008, she was a guest at the wedding of Lady Rose Windsor, Prince William was away on military operations in the Caribbean, serving aboard HMS Iron Duke. In 2010, Middleton pursued an invasion of privacy claim against two agencies and photographer Niraj Tanna, who took photographs of her over Christmas 2009 and she obtained a public apology, £5,000 in damages, and legal costs. In April 2007, Prince William and Middleton split up, the couple decided to break up during a holiday in the Swiss resort of Zermatt. Newspapers speculated about the reasons for the split, although these reports relied on anonymous sources, Middleton and her family attended the Concert for Diana at Wembley Stadium, where she and Prince William sat two rows apart
9.
Prince Edward, Duke of Kent
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Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, KG, GCMG, GCVO, ADC is a grandchild of King George V and Queen Mary. He has held the title of Duke of Kent since the death of his father in 1942, the Duke of Kent carries out engagements on behalf of his first cousin, Elizabeth II. He is perhaps best known as president of the All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club, presenting the trophies to the Wimbledon champion and he also served as the United Kingdoms Special Representative for International Trade and Investment, retiring in 2001. He is also the president of The Scout Association, the Royal United Services Institute, and the Royal Institution of Great Britain, and since 1967 Grand Master of the United Grand Lodge of England. The Duke of Kent is also patron of the Institute of Advanced Motorists, as of the birth of the Duke of Cambridges second child, the Queens fifth great-grandchild, on 2 May 2015, the Duke of Kent was 34th in line. As of the death of the 7th Earl of Harewood in 2011, he became the Queens oldest living paternal cousin, since his mother was a cousin of Prince Philip, he is also a second cousin to Prince Charles and his siblings. Prince Edward was born on 9 October 1935, at No.3 Belgrave Square, home Secretary Sir John Simon was present to verify the birth. Prince Edwards father was Prince George, Duke of Kent, the son of George V. His mother was Princess Marina, Duchess of Kent, the daughter of Prince Nicholas of Greece and Denmark and he was baptised in the Private Chapel of Buckingham Palace on 20 November 1935 by the Archbishop of Canterbury Cosmo Lang. Prince Edward began his schooling at Ludgrove, a school in Berkshire, before going on to Eton College. After school he entered the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst where he won the Sir James Moncrieff Grierson prize for foreign languages, on 25 August 1942, Prince Edwards father, the Duke of Kent, was killed when his plane crashed in bad weather in Caithness. Prince Edward, who was almost 7, succeeded his father as Duke of Kent, Earl of St Andrews and he later took his seat in the House of Lords in 1959. As a member of the family, he began performing engagements at an early age. In 1953, he attended the coronation of his cousin, Elizabeth II, the Duke of Kent graduated from the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst on 29 July 1955 as a Second Lieutenant in the Royal Scots Greys, the beginning of a military career that would last over 20 years. He was promoted to captain on 29 July 1961, the Duke of Kent saw service in Hong Kong from 1962–63 and later served on the staff in Eastern Command. He was promoted to Major on 31 December 1967, during the early 70s, the Duke also served in Northern Ireland with his Regiment. He was promoted to Lieutenant-Colonel on 30 June 1973, the Duke retired from the Army on 15 April 1976. He was subsequently promoted Major-General on 11 June 1983 and Field Marshal on 11 June 1993, the Duke of Kent married Katharine Worsley at York Minster on 8 June 1961
10.
Centre Court
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Centre Court is also a generic English term for the main tennis court at any tennis complex. Centre Court is the court at the Wimbledon Championship, the third annual Grand Slam event of the tennis calendar. It is considered the worlds most famous tennis court and it incorporates the clubhouse of the All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club. Its only regular use for play is during the two weeks a year that the Championships take place, Centre Court has a premier box, known as the Royal Box, for use by the Royal Family and other distinguished guests. A retractable roof was installed in 2009, enabling play to continue during rain, Centre Court, along with No.1 Court and No.2 Court, was also host to the tennis competition at the 2012 Summer Olympics. For the first Wimbledon Championship in 1877 a total of 12 courts were available which were out in a 3×4 grid. This changed in 1881 when the two courts of the middle row were combined to form a Centre Court. The name was kept when the relocated to its present site at Church Road in 1922. It was not until a further four courts were added in 1980 that Centre Courts location in the grounds again matched its name, the initial capacity of the Centre Court is not known. In 1881 temporary covered stands were erected on three sides of the Centre Court and in 1884 stand A was converted into a permanent stand, in 1886 the three stands were joined at the corners to form a continuous structure. The stands were enlarged in 1906 and in 1909 a new stand B was constructed increasing capacity by 600 seats. In 1914 the seating capacity was increased from 2,300 to 3,500, the court suffered from bomb damage during World War II when five 500 lb bombs hit the Centre Court during an air attack in October 1940. 1,200 seats in the stadium were destroyed and although play resumed on time after the war in 1946, the original centre court roof from 1922, which partly covers the stands, has been modified several times. In 1979, it was raised by one metre to allow the capacity to be increased by 1,088. A full retractable roof was completed in 2009, and capacity increased to 15,000 by adding six rows of seats to the upper tier on the east, north, and west sides. New media facilities, scoreboards including video, and commentary boxes were built to replace those currently in the upper tier, new wider seats were installed and new additional stairs and lifts were added. After many years of debate by players, fans, media and officials that often occurred during rain delays, building work began with the removal of the existing roof over the stands at the end of the 2006 championships. There was no roof over the stands for the 2007 event, the roof takes up to 10 minutes to close, during which time play is suspended
11.
The Field (magazine)
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The Field is the worlds oldest country and field sports magazine, having been published continuously since 1853. Its current publisher is Time Inc, the famous sportsman Robert Smith Surtees, the creator of Jorrocks, was the driving force behind the initial publication. He envisaged a paper for sportsmen, landowners and farmers, as well as the haut ton and it was an instant success under the auspices of its first editor Mark Lemon. The Field was started as a magazine in 1853. On November 18,1854 The Field carried personal narratives of those involved in the Charge of the Light Brigade, J. H. Walsh initiated a series of field trials for guns from 1858 onwards, a catalyst to the production of the modern hammerless shotgun. In 1861 ‘Goalstick’ impressed through the pages of The Field the importance of encouraging the game of football into general use, the Field obtained the school rules from Rugby, Eton, Harrow, Shrewsbury and Marlborough, and helped to create the modern game. The Field was instrumental in instituting the first Field Trials and Dog Shows, in 1873 the rowers sliding seat was tested extensively for The Field. In March 1874 Gerald D. Fitzgerald wrote to The Field to inform readers about a new game called sphairstike, the Field Cup is still on permanent display at Wimbledon Museum. The Field covered the first Americas Cup in August 1879 and recommendations in The Field led to the official Lloyds classification of yachts in 1906. Francis Francis campaigned against salmon netting and was an authority on hatcheries, today The Field still champions the cause of wild salmon. During the 1920s the design of the golf ball was formalised on designs agreed after tests by The Field. The launch of the Field Distemper Fund in 1923 resulted in the inoculation of dogs against distemper, during the 1950s The Field improved racecourse safety through its campaign against dangerous racecourses. Among its contributors was Margery Fish, who went on to develop her own style of labour-saving cottage gardening, during the 1980s The Field campaigned against mismanagement of shooting leading to the widely recognised “Code of Good Shooting Practice”. Today The Field is considered the premier sports and country magazine and champions rural pursuits, people. The magazine is published by IPC Media a subsidiary of Time Inc. from 110 Southwark Street, London
12.
Croquet
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Croquet is a sport that involves hitting plastic or wooden balls with a mallet through hoops embedded in a grass playing court. The oldest document to bear the word croquet with a description of the game is the set of rules registered by Isaac Spratt in November 1856 with the Stationers Company in London. This record is now in the Public Record Office, in 1868, the first croquet all-comers meet was held at Moreton-in-Marsh, Gloucestershire and in the same year the All England Croquet Club was formed at Wimbledon, London. In the book Queen of Games, The History of Croquet, Nicky Smith presents two theories of the origin of the game of croquet, which took England by storm in the 1860s. This was the explanation given in the edition of Encyclopædia Britannica. It is to be observed, that there are two of these arches, that is one at end of the alley. The images caption describes the game as a curious ancient pastime, in Samuel Johnsons 1755 dictionary, his definition of pall-mall clearly describes a game with similarities to modern croquet, A play in which the ball is struck with a mallet through an iron ring. However, there is no evidence that pall-mall involved the croquet stroke which is the characteristic of the modern game. Regular contact between Ireland and France had continued since the Norman invasion of Ireland in 1169. By no later than the early 15th century, the game jeu de mail was popular in France, including in the courts of Henry II in the 16th century, at least one version of it, rouët was a multi-ball lawn game. There is, however, no pre-1858 Irish document that describes the way game was played, whatever the truth of the matter, Jaques certainly played an important role in popularising the game, producing editions of the rules in 1857,1860, and 1864. Croquet became highly popular as a pastime in England during the 1860s. By 1867, Jaques had printed 65,000 copies of his Laws and it quickly spread to other Anglophone countries, including Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, and the United States. No doubt one of the attractions was that the game could be played by both sexes, this ensured a certain amount of adverse comment. There was a revival in the 1890s, but from then onwards, croquet was always a minority sport, the All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club still has a croquet lawn, but has not hosted any significant tournaments. The English headquarters for the game is now in Cheltenham, on the page facing the title page is a picture of Eglinton Castle with a game of croquet in full swing. The croquet lawn existed on the terrace, between Eglinton Castle and the Lugton Water. In 1865 the Rules of the Eglinton Castle and Cassiobury Croquet was published by Edmund Routledge, several incomplete sets of this form of croquet are known to exist, and one complete set is still used for demonstration games in the West of Scotland
13.
Lawn tennis
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Tennis is a racket sport that can be played individually against a single opponent or between two teams of two players each. Each player uses a racket that is strung with cord to strike a hollow rubber ball covered with felt over or around a net. The object of the game is to play the ball in such a way that the opponent is not able to play a valid return, the player who is unable to return the ball will not gain a point, while the opposite player will. Tennis is an Olympic sport and is played at all levels of society, the sport can be played by anyone who can hold a racket, including wheelchair users. The modern game of tennis originated in Birmingham, England, in the late 19th century as lawn tennis and it had close connections both to various field games such as croquet and bowls as well as to the older racket sport of real tennis. The rules of tennis have changed little since the 1890s, two exceptions are that from 1908 to 1961 the server had to keep one foot on the ground at all times, and the adoption of the tiebreak in the 1970s. Tennis is played by millions of players and is also a popular worldwide spectator sport. Historians believe that the ancient origin lay in 12th century northern France. Louis X of France was a player of jeu de paume, which evolved into real tennis. Louis was unhappy with playing tennis outdoors and accordingly had indoor, in due course this design spread across royal palaces all over Europe. Because of the accounts of his death, Louis X is historys first tennis player known by name. Another of the enthusiasts of the game was King Charles V of France. It wasnt until the 16th century that rackets came into use, and the game began to be called tennis, from the French term tenez, an interjection used as a call from the server to his opponent. It was popular in England and France, although the game was played indoors where the ball could be hit off the wall. Henry VIII of England was a big fan of this game, during the 18th century and early 19th century, as real tennis declined, new racket sports emerged in England. This in turn led to the codification of rules for many sports, including lawn tennis, most football codes, lawn bowls. In 1872, along with two doctors, they founded the worlds first tennis club in Leamington Spa. Evans, turfgrass agronomist, Sports historians all agree that deserves much of the credit for the development of modern tennis, according to Honor Godfrey, museum curator at Wimbledon, Wingfield popularized this game enormously
14.
Walter Clopton Wingfield
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Major Walter Clopton Wingfield MVO was a Welsh inventor and a British Army officer who was one of the pioneers of lawn tennis. Wingfield was born on 16 October 1833 in Ruabon, Denbighshire, Wales, the son of Clopton Lewis Wingfield, major in the 66th Foot Regiment and he was of an English family traceable back to before the Norman conquest. His mother died in 1836 after the birth of her second child, Walter was brought up by his uncle and great uncle. He was educated at Rossall School, and in 1851 entered the Royal Military College, Sandhurst and he was commissioned a Cornet in the 1st Dragoon Guards and served in India. In 1858 Wingfield became a captain and in 1860 he took part in the campaign in China and was present at the capture of Peking and he returned to England in 1861 and retired from the Dragoon Guards a year later. During the decade he was based at his estate, Rhysnant, Llandrinio, in Montgomeryshire, Wales. He was a Justice of the Peace for the county and served in the Montgomeryshire Yeomanry, joining as Lieutenant in 1864, appointed adjutant of the regiment in 1868, and promoted Major in 1874. In 1870 he was appointed to the Honourable Corps of Gentlemen at Arms, giving him some employment at the courts of Queen Victoria and he was made MVO in 1902, retiring from the Corps in 1909. In the late 1860s Wingfield was one of the persons experimenting with a version of tennis. The precise date that Wingfield brought it to the public is uncertain, lord Lansdowne claimed that in 1869 Major Wingfield gave a demonstration of the game to him in the garden of his Berkeley Square house, although in that year Wingfield was not a major. Another attribution was to a party held at Nantclwyd Hall in Denbighshire, Wales, nor was Wingfield the only exponent. At the same time, Harry Gem and Augurio Perera were demonstrating their game of Pelota in Leamington Spa, the sets were available from Wingfields agent, French and Co. in Pimlico and cost between five and ten guineas. In his version the game was played on an hour-glass shaped court, the service had to be made from a diamond-shaped box at one end only and the service had to bounce beyond the service line instead of in front of it. He adopted the Rackets-based system of scoring where games consisted of 15 points, in order to differentiate his game, he named it Sphairistikè Between July 1874 and June 18751,050 tennis sets were sold, mainly to the aristocracy. Lawn tennis was becoming an important adjunct to cricket at the Marylebone Cricket Club and was played at Lords Cricket Ground, in 1875 John Moyer Heathcote instigated a meeting at the MCC to establish a universal set of rules and Wingfield was invited to participate. Wingfields hourglass court and scoring method were adopted and Wingfield considered his sport was now entrusted to the MCC, during this time he suffered personal tragedies including the developing mental illness of his wife and the death of his three young sons and he lost all interest in the game. Wingfield authored two tennis works, The Book of the Game and The Majors Game of Lawn Tennis, Wingfield became vice-president of The Universal Cookery and Food Association. In around 1890 he founded a society called Le Cordon Rouge which was intended to further the development of the science of cookery
15.
Spencer Gore (sportsman)
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Spencer William Gore was an English tennis player who won the first Wimbledon tournament in 1877 and a cricketer who played for Surrey County Cricket Club. Spencer William Gore was the son of the Hon. Charles Alexander Gore, grandson of the second Earl of Arran, and Lady Augusta Lavinia Priscilla and his mothers first marriage was to William Petty-FitzMaurice, Earl of Kerry, who died in 1836. His father was the Commissioner of Woods and Forests and his two brothers were the theologian Charles Gore, the first Bishop of Birmingham, and Sir Francis Charles Gore, Solicitor to the Board of Inland Revenue. Spencer was born and raised within a mile of the All England Croquet Club at West Side House, Wimbledon Common, Surrey. He was educated at Harrow school, where he excelled at all games, especially football and cricket, Gore made his first class cricket debut for Surrey against Middlesex in 1874 hitting 17 runs off the first four balls he received in his first match. He played again for Surrey against Middlesex in 1875 when Surrey won by 10 wickets and he played cricket mainly for I Zingari at club level, playing his last match for them in 1893. He played two first class matches for I Zingari which were against Yorkshire in 1878 and 1879 and one match for Gentlemen of the South in 1879, Gore won the Gentlemans Singles beating William Marshall 6–1, 6–2, 6–4 on 19 July 1877. He was the first player who used the technique of volleying. Gore was among the men who paid a guinea to enter the inaugural 1877 championship. The 21 matches were spread over five days, the championship was suspended for the weekend so as not to clash with the annual Eton v Harrow cricket match at Lords Cricket Ground. The scheduled final on Monday was postponed for four days because of rain, dropping only two sets in four rounds, the 27-year-old Gore reached the final after beating CG Heathcote in the semifinal. Against Marshall, he won in straight sets, 6–1, 6–2, 6–4, Gore collected the first prize of 12 guineas and a silver cup presented by The Field, a sporting magazine. He lost the Gentlemans Singles challenge round to Frank Hadow 7–5, 6–1, 9–7, Gore joined Pickering and Smith, the property advisory firm of his father-in-law Edmund James Smith who became President of the Surveyors Institute. Gore was promoted to partnership and the firm was renamed Smiths, on 9 January 1875 Gore married Amy Margaret Smith, with whom he had four children—Kathleen Amy, Florence Emily Frances, George Pym and Spencer Frederick. The last became well known as the artist Spencer Gore while George was a boxing champion, Gore died at the Granville Hotel, Ramsgate, Kent aged 56. He was buried in Ramsgate Cemetery on 23 April 1906
16.
1908 Summer Olympics
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The 1908 Summer Olympics, officially the Games of the IV Olympiad, were an international multi-sport event which was held in 1908 in London, England from 27 April to 31 October 1908. These games were scheduled to be held in Rome, but were re-located on financial grounds following a disastrous eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 1906. They were the fourth chronological modern Olympic Games in keeping with the now-accepted four-year cycle as opposed to the proposed Intercalated Games alternate four-year cycle, the IOC president for these Games was Baron Pierre de Coubertin. Lasting a total of 187 days, or 6 months and 4 days, the selection process for the 1908 Summer Olympics consisted of four bids, and saw Rome selected ahead of London, Berlin and Milan. The selection was made at the 6th IOC Session in London in 1904, italian authorities were preparing to hold the games when Mount Vesuvius erupted on 7 April 1906, devastating the city of Naples. Funds were diverted to the reconstruction of Naples, so a new venue was required, London was selected for the first time to hold the Games which were held at White City alongside the Franco-British Exhibition, at the time the more noteworthy event. The White City Stadium, built in time for the games. The stadium track was three laps to the mile, not the current standard of 400 metres, with a pool for swimming and diving and platforms for wrestling and gymnastics in the middle. The distance from the start of the Marathon to the finish at the stadium was established at these games. ”As a result of changes, the marathon covered a distance of 26 miles 385 yards. The games were surrounded by controversy, on the opening day, following the practice introduced at the Intercalated Games of 1906, teams paraded behind national flags. The Swedish flag had not been displayed above the stadium, so the members of the Swedish team decided not to part in the ceremony. The flag of the United States had also not been displayed above the stadium before the opening, the United States flag bearer, Ralph Rose, refused to dip the flag to King-Emperor Edward VII in the royal box. However, the flag was dipped in the collective greeting of the royal family. Martin Sheridan, Irish American Athletic Club member and American team captain, is believed to have supported Rose by explaining This flag dips to no earthly king. It is claimed that his statement exemplified both American and Irish defiance of the British monarchy, however, research has shown that this quotation by Sheridan was first reported in 1952, some 24 years after his death. The 1908 Olympics also prompted establishment of rules for sports. One reason was the 400 meter race, in which a US runner was accused of interfering with a British runner, part of the problem was the different definition of interference under British and US rules. The race was re-run, but the Americans refused to participate, the British runner, Wyndham Halswelle, won by running around the track on his own, because three of the four original runners had been American, the only walkover in Olympic history
17.
Tennis at the 1908 Summer Olympics
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Six tennis events were contested at the 1908 Summer Olympics in London, United Kingdom. Indoor tennis events, on what were officially called covered courts, were held for the first time, womens tennis returned, with womens singles and indoor womens singles. In total 50 players,40 men and 10 women, competed, five nations made their tennis debuts, while five more returned to competition for a total of ten nations. Two players, Les Poidevin and Wimbledon champion Anthony Wilding were nominated for Australasia, indoor Outdoor 50 players from 10 nations competed. The Fourth Olympiad, Being the Official Report
18.
Royal Marines
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The Corps of Royal Marines is the United Kingdoms amphibious light infantry force, forming part of the Naval Service, along with the Royal Navy. The Royal Marines were formed in 1755 as the Royal Navys infantry troops, as a highly specialised and adaptable light infantry force, the Royal Marines are trained for rapid deployment worldwide and capable of dealing with a wide range of threats. The Royal Marines have close ties with allied marine forces, particularly the United States Marine Corps. Today, the Royal Marines are a fighting force within the British Armed forces. The Royal Marines can trace its origins back as far as 28 October 1664 when at the grounds of the Honourable Artillery Company the Duke of York and Albanys maritime regiment of foot was first formed. On 5 April 1755, His Majestys Marine Forces, fifty Companies in three Divisions, headquartered at Chatham, Portsmouth, and Plymouth, were formed by Order of Council under Admiralty control. Initially all field officers were Royal Navy officers as the Royal Navy felt that the ranks of Marine field officers were largely honorary and this meant that the furthest a Marine officer could advance was to lieutenant colonel. It was not until 1771 that the first Marine was promoted to colonel and this attitude persisted well into the 1800s. During the rest of the 18th century, they served in numerous landings all over the world and they also served in the American War of Independence, being particularly courageous in the Battle of Bunker Hill led by Major John Pitcairn. In 1788 a detachment of four companies of marines, under Major Robert Ross, due to an error the Fleet left Portsmouth without its main supply of ammunition, and were not resupplied until the Fleet docked in Rio de Janeiro midway through the voyage. In 1802, largely at the instigation of Admiral the Earl St. Vincent, the Royal Marines Artillery was formed as a separate unit in 1804 to man the artillery in bomb ketches. These had been manned by the Armys Royal Regiment of Artillery, during the Napoleonic Wars the Royal Marines participated in every notable naval battle on board the Royal Navys ships and also took part in multiple amphibious actions. In the Caribbean theatre volunteers from freed French slaves on Marie-Galante were used to form Sir Alexander Cochranes first Corps of Colonial Marines and these men bolstered the ranks, helping the British to hold the island until reinforcements arrived. This practice was repeated during the War of 1812, where escaped American slaves were formed into Cochranes second Corps of Colonial Marines and these men were commanded by Royal Marines officers and fought alongside their regular Royal Marines counterparts at the Battle of Bladensburg. Throughout the war Royal Marines units raided up and down the east coast of America including up the Penobscot River and they fought in the Battle of New Orleans and later helped capture Fort Bowyer in Mobile Bay in what was the last action of the war. In 1855 the Infantry forces were renamed the Royal Marines Light Infantry, during the Crimean War in 1854 and 1855, three Royal Marines earned the Victoria Cross, two in the Crimea and one in the Baltic. In 1862 the name was altered to Royal Marine Light Infantry. The Royal Navy did not fight any other ships after 1850, in these Naval Brigades, the function of the Royal Marines was to land first and act as skimishers ahead of the sailor Infantry and Artillery
19.
Suzanne Lenglen
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Suzanne Rachel Flore Lenglen was a French tennis player who won 31 Championship titles between 1914 and 1926. She dominated womens tennis from 1914 until 1926 when she turned professional, a flamboyant, trendsetting athlete, she was the first female tennis celebrity and one of the first international female sport stars, named La Divine by the French press. Lenglens 241 titles,181 match winning streak and 341-7 match record are hard to imagine happening in todays tennis atmosphere, Lenglen is regarded by some to be the greatest female tennis player in history. A daughter of Charles and Anaïs Lenglen, Suzanne Lenglen was born in Paris, during her youth, she suffered from numerous health problems including chronic asthma, which also plagued her at a later age. Because his daughter was so frail and sickly, Charles Lenglen and her first try at the game was in 1910, when she played on the tennis court at the family property in Marest-sur-Matz. The young girl enjoyed the game, and her decided to train her further in the sport. His training methods included an exercise where, the story goes, he would lay down a handkerchief at various places on the court, only four years after her first tennis strokes, Lenglen played in the final of the 1914 French Championships, aged only 14. She lost to reigning champion Marguerite Broquedis in the final 5–7, 6–4 and that same year, she won the World Hard Court Championships held at Saint-Cloud, turning 15 during the tournament. This made her the youngest winner of a championship in tennis history. The match, which one of the hallmarks of tennis history, was played before 8,000 spectators, including King George V. After splitting the first two sets, Lenglen took a 4–1 lead in the set before Chambers rallied to take a 6–5 lead. Lenglen saved the first match point when her service return trickled off the wood of her racket, Lenglen survived the second match point when Chambers hit a drop shot into the net. Lenglen then went on to win the match 10–8, 4–6 and it was not only her performances on the court which were noted, however. The staid British also were in shock at the boldness of the French woman who also casually sipped brandy between sets, at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp, Lenglen dominated the womens singles. On her path to the medal, she gave up only four games. She then teamed up with Max Décugis to win gold medal in the mixed doubles. She was eliminated in a womens doubles semifinal and won the medal after their opponents withdrew. From 1919 through 1925, Lenglen won the Wimbledon singles championship every year with the exception of 1924, health problems due to jaundice forced her to withdraw after winning her quarterfinal match
20.
Home Guard (United Kingdom)
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The Home Guard was a defence organisation of the British Army during the Second World War. Their role was to act as a defence force, in case of invasion by the forces of Nazi Germany. They were to try to slow down the advance of the enemy, there was a Home Guard during the First World War although this was not on the same scale as its Second World War successor. The origins of the Second World War Home Guard can be traced to Captain Tom Wintringham, despite great interest by the War Office in the books assertion that security is possible, Wintringhams call to train 100,000 men immediately was not implemented. Calls for some form of defence force soon began to be heard from the press. This apparent lack of focus led to many LDV members becoming impatient, in the absence of proper weapons, many LDV units broke into museums and appropriated whatever weapons could be found, or equipped themselves with private weapons such as shotguns. Another problem that was encountered as the LDV was organised was the definition of the role the organisation was to play, the War Office believed that the LDV would act best in such a passive role because of its lack of training, weapons and proper equipment. However such a role clashed with the expectations of LDV commanders and members, the Home Guard had a number of secret roles. This included sabotage units who would disable factories and petrol installations following invasion and these bases, upwards of 600 in number, were able to support units ranging in size from squads to companies. The Home Guard did not, initially, admit women to its ranks, some women formed their own groups like the Amazon Defence Corps. In December 1941, an organised but still unofficial Womens Home Defence was formed under the direction of Dr Edith Summerskill. WHD members were taught weapons training and basic military training, limited female involvement was permitted later on the understanding that these would be in traditional female support roles and not in any way seen as combatants. Auxiliary Units however may have had members in both support and combat roles, although records are scarce. Even once the threat of invasion had passed, the Home Guard remained in existence manning guard posts, in 1942 the National Service Act allowed for compulsory enrolment where units were below strength. At this time, the lowest rank within the Home Guard and it is a common fallacy that the Home Guard never fired a shot in anger during the whole of the Second World War. In fact individual Home Guardsmen helped man anti-aircraft guns as far back as the Battle of Britain during the summer of 1940. By 1943 the Home Guard operated its own dedicated batteries of anti-aircraft guns and they are credited with shooting down numerous Luftwaffe aircraft and the V-1 flying bombs which followed them in the summer of 1944. The Home Guards first official kill was shot down on Tyneside in 1943, the Home Guard in Northern Ireland also took part in gun battles with the IRA
21.
Aoraki / Mount Cook
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Aoraki / Mount Cook is the highest mountain in New Zealand. Its height since 2014 is listed as 3,724 metres, down from 3,764 m before December 1991, due to a rockslide and it lies in the Southern Alps, the mountain range which runs the length of the South Island. A popular tourist destination, it is also a challenge for mountain climbers. Aoraki / Mount Cook consists of three summits, from South to North the Low Peak, Middle Peak and High Peak. The summits lie slightly south and east of the divide of the Southern Alps, with the Tasman Glacier to the east. The mountain is in the Aoraki/Mount Cook National Park, in the Canterbury region, the park was established in 1953 and along with Westland National Park, Mount Aspiring National Park and Fiordland National Park forms one of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The park contains more than 140 peaks standing over 2,000 metres and 72 named glaciers and these two valleys provide the closest easily accessible view points of Aoraki / Mount Cook. A lookout point at the end of the Hooker Valley Track located only 10 km from the peak offers views of the entire mountainside. The settlement of Mount Cook Village, also referred to as Aoraki / Mount Cook, is a tourist centre and it is 7 km from the end of the Tasman Glacier and 15 km south of Aoraki / Mount Cooks summit. The near horizontal ridge connecting the three summits forms a distinctive blocky shape when viewed from an eastern or western direction. Another popular view point is from Lake Matheson on the West Coast, described as the view of views, where on calm days, the peaks of Aoraki / Mount Cook and Mt Tasman are reflected in Lake Matheson. Annual precipitation around the mountain ranges varies greatly as the climate is dominated by the eastward movement of depressions. As the air rises towards the peaks, it expands and cools, rain and snowfall is often heaviest around the 1,200 m level and can last for several days if the front is slow-moving. While the weather on the side of the mountain is generally better. This brings with it a drop in temperature and poor visibility. Temperatures at the base in the Hooker Valley around 800 metres range from −13 °C to 32 °C. From about 1,000 m and higher, semi-permanent snow, winter and spring are usually less settled than summer and autumn. Anticyclones often bring days of settled weather in summer, or clear cold conditions in winter with severe frost, Aoraki is the name of a person in the traditions of the Ngāi Tahu iwi, an early name for the South Island is Te Waka o Aoraki
22.
Tim Henman
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Timothy Henry Tim Henman OBE is a retired English professional tennis player. Henman played a style of tennis. He was the first male player from the United Kingdom since Roger Taylor in the 1970s to reach the semi-finals of the Wimbledon Mens Singles Championship. Henman never reached the finals of any Grand Slam but reached six Grand Slam semifinals and won 15 career ATP titles, also, he scored 40 wins and 14 losses with the Great Britain Davis Cup team. Henman was ranked British number 1 in 1996 and again from 1999 to 2005 and he reached a career high ranking of World No.4 during three different periods between July 2002 and October 2004. He is one of Britains most successful open era male tennis players, in the 2004 New Year Honours, he was appointed an OBE. Henman started playing tennis before the age of three, and began training in the Slater Squad at eleven. After suffering a injury which affected him for the better part of two years, he began touring internationally as a junior and achieved some successes. He rose quickly up the ATP rankings, and by 1996 had reached the quarter-finals of the Wimbledon Championships, the year 2005 began a decline for Henman, and from that year onwards he never managed to pass through the third round in a Grand Slam tournament. Henman retired from tennis in late 2007, but he remains active in the ATP Champions Tour. Henman was born in Oxford, Oxfordshire, as the youngest of a family of three boys, Henmans father Tony, a solicitor, was accomplished at various sports, including tennis, hockey and squash. His mother Jane, a designer, played Junior Wimbledon and introduced Tim and his elder brothers Michael. His great grandfather played at Wimbledon and his maternal grandfather, Henry Billington, played at Wimbledon between 1948 and 1951, and he represented Britain in the Davis Cup in 1948,1950 and 1951. In 1901 his maternal great-grandmother, Ellen Stanwell-Brown, was reputedly the first woman to serve overarm at Wimbledon, Henman grew up in Weston-on-the-Green, Oxfordshire, a village between Oxford and Bicester with a population of around 500. At home, the owned a grass tennis court in their back garden. Henman began playing tennis before the age of three with a shortened squash racket, at this stage, he was already teaching himself how to serve and volley. At an early stage in his life, Henman decided if he did not succeed in tennis, Henman attended the Longbridge School for boys between the ages of five and seven, and was enrolled in the private Dragon School in Oxford from seven to 11. He excelled in all sports but was always best at tennis, but Henman was small for his age, a factor which would bode against him in the future
23.
Debenture
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In corporate finance, a debenture is a medium to long-term debt instrument used by large companies to borrow money, at a fixed rate of interest. The legal term debenture originally referred to a document that creates a debt or acknowledges it. Senior debentures get paid before subordinate debentures, and there are varying rates of risk, debentures are generally freely transferable by the debenture holder. Debenture holders have no rights to vote in the general meetings of shareholders. The interest paid to them is a charge against profit in the financial statements. There are also features that minimize risk, such as a sinking fund. This decreases risk for the creditors, as a hedge against inflation, bankruptcy, a sinking fund makes the bond less risky, and therefore gives it a smaller coupon. There are also options for convertibility, which means a creditor may turn their bonds into equity in the if it does well. Companies also reserve the right to call their bonds, which mean they can call it sooner than the maturity date. Often there is a clause in the contract that allows this, for example, if a bond issuer wishes to rebuy a 30-year bond at the 25th year, if a bond is called, it means that less interest is paid out. Failure to pay a bond effectively means bankruptcy, bondholders who have not received their interest can throw an offending company into bankruptcy, or seize its assets if that is stipulated in the contract. Where security is provided for loan stocks or bonds in the US, however, in the United Kingdom a debenture is usually secured. In Canada, a debenture refers to a secured loan instrument where security is generally over the debtors credit, but security is not pledged to specific assets. There are two types of debentures, Convertible debentures, which are convertible bonds or bonds that can be converted into equity shares of the company after a predetermined period of time. Convertibility is a feature that corporations may add to the bonds they issue to them more attractive to buyers. In other words, it is a feature that a corporate bond may carry. As a result of the advantage a buyer gets from the ability to convert, non-convertible debentures, which are simply regular debentures, cannot be converted into equity shares of the liable company. They are debentures without the convertibility feature attached to them, as a result, they usually carry higher interest rates than their convertible counterparts
24.
Tennis at the 2012 Summer Olympics
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The tennis tournaments at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London were staged at the All England Club in Wimbledon, from 28 July to 5 August. This was the first Olympic grass court tournament since tennis was reintroduced as an Olympic sport, a total of 190 players competed in five events, singles and doubles for both men and women and, for the first time since 1924, mixed doubles were officially included. Elena Dementieva and Rafael Nadal were the champions, neither of whom defended their titles. Dementieva had retired from tennis in 2010, while Nadal withdrew due to tendinitis. She also defended her womens doubles alongside her sister Venus Williams. In doing so, he denied Federer the chance to become the man to win a career singles Golden Grand Slam after Nadal at the 2010 US Open. He also became the first British man to win singles tennis gold since Josiah Ritchie in 1908, also, the Belorussian top seeds of Victoria Azarenka and Max Mirnyi took the mixed doubles gold after overcoming Murray and Laura Robson mere hours after Murray had defeated Federer. The 2012 Olympic tournament was the edition of tennis at the Olympics, and the seventh since 1988. The 2012 tournaments were played on grass courts at the All England Club, sessions ran from 11 a. m. until 10 p. m. as established by the All England Club policy. Twelve courts were used for the matches including Centre Court, No.1, No.3 Court was used for warm ups. The Olympic tennis events were organised jointly by the ITF, the IOC, both the mens and womens singles and doubles events counted as a part of the 2012 ATP World Tour and the 2012 WTA Tour. The points distribution for the Association of Tennis Professionals and the Womens Tennis Association tours and these points can be added to a players world ranking for the 2012 season. For the singles competitions, the top 56 players in the rankings on 11 June 2012 of the WTA. However, entry was limited to four players from a country, in the doubles competitions, twenty four teams automatically qualified as per the rankings on 11 June 2012, subject to a maximum of two teams per nation. Players in the top ten of the rankings could reserve a place. The remaining eight teams were decided by the ITFs Olympic Committee, entries for the mixed doubles were confirmed at the Games. The Tripartite Commission later decided only to places in the womens singles leaving eight wildcards to be chosen by the ITF Olympic Committee for the mens singles competition. The tennis competition at the Olympic Games consists of an elimination tournament
25.
2012 Summer Olympics
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It took place in London and to a lesser extent across the United Kingdom from 25 July to 12 August 2012. The first event, the stage in womens football began on 25 July at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff. 10,768 athletes from 204 National Olympic Committees participated, London is the first and only city thus far to host the modern Olympic Games three times, having previously done so in 1908 and in 1948. Construction for the Games involved considerable redevelopment, with an emphasis on sustainability, the main focus was a new 200-hectare Olympic Park, constructed on a former industrial site at Stratford, East London. The Games also made use of venues that already existed before the bid, the Games received widespread acclaim for their organisation, with the volunteers, the British military and public enthusiasm praised particularly highly. During the Games, Michael Phelps became the most decorated Olympic athlete of all time, saudi Arabia, Qatar, and Brunei entered female athletes for the first time, so that every currently eligible country has sent a female competitor to at least one Olympic Games. Womens boxing was included for the first time, thus the Games became the first at which every sport had female competitors and these were the final Olympic Games under the IOC presidency of Jacques Rogge. The final medal tally was led by the United States, followed by China, several world and Olympic records were set at the games. Furthermore, the focus on sporting legacy and post-games venue sustainability was seen as a blueprint for future Olympics. On 18 May 2004, as a result of a technical evaluation. All five submitted their candidate files by 19 November 2004 and were visited by the IOC inspection team during February, throughout the process, Paris was widely seen as the favourite, particularly as this was its third bid in recent years. London was initially seen as lagging behind Paris by a considerable margin and its position began to improve after the appointment of Lord Coe as the new head of London 2012 on 19 May 2004. In late August 2004, reports predicted a tie between London and Paris, on 6 June 2005, the IOC released its evaluation reports for the five candidate cities. They did not contain any scores or rankings, but the report for Paris was considered the most positive, London was close behind, having closed most of the gap observed by the initial evaluation in 2004. New York and Madrid also received positive evaluations. On 1 July 2005, when asked who would win, Jacques Rogge said, but my gut feeling tells me that it will be very close. Perhaps it will come down to a difference of say ten votes, on 6 July 2005, the final selection was announced at the 117th IOC Session in Singapore. Moscow was the first city to be eliminated, followed by New York, the final two contenders were London and Paris
26.
Lolium perenne
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Lolium perenne, common name perennial rye-grass or English ryegrass or winter ryegrass or ray grass, is a grass from the family Poaceae. It is native to Europe, Asia and northern Africa, but is cultivated and naturalised around the world. The plant is a low-growing, tufted, hairless grass, with a growth habit. The leaves are green, smooth and glossy on the lower surface, with untoothed parallel sides. The leaves are folded lengthwise in bud with a central keel. The ligule is short and truncate, often difficult to see. Leaf sheaths at the base are usually tinged pink and hairless, the inflorescence is unbranched, with spikelets on alternating sides edgeways-on to the stem. Each spikelet has only a single glume, on the side away from the stem, the anthers are pale yellow, and the plant flowers from May to November. Perennial ryegrass has a root system, with thick main roots. Perennial ryegrass is native to southern Europe, the Middle East, North Africa, as a useful species of grass for fodder and grazing livestock, it has been taken by farmers settling in new areas including North America, South Africa and Australia. It can be used to prevent erosion and to stabilise soils, as well as creating a hardwearing turf for lawns, in countries where it has been introduced, it may be regarded as an invasive species that competes with native plants. Perennial ryegrass is an important pasture and forage plant, and is used in many pasture seed mixes, in fertile soil it produces a high grass yield, and in Britain and Ireland is frequently sown for short-term ley grassland, often with red or white clover. In Britain, it is used as an indicator of non-species rich grassland, as it out-competes the more rare plants and grasses. Selected seed mixes are used extensively for sports pitches, especially sports in temperate climates, because of its wear resistance. It is commonly used in the southwest United States to overseed winter lawns, Bermudagrass is a typical summertime grass in states like Arizona, since it is able to withstand the high temperatures. However, Bermudagrass goes dormant during the winter months. Rather than have brown lawns, many homeowners, public areas, Italian ryegrass, Lolium multiflorum, differs in the fact that each scale in the spikelet has a long bristle at the top. Its stem is round rather than folded
27.
Festuca rubra
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Festuca rubra is a species of grass known by the common name red fescue or creeping red fescue. It is widespread across much of the Northern Hemisphere and can tolerate many habitats and it is best adapted to well-drained soils in cool, temperate climates, it prefers shadier areas and is often planted for its shade tolerance. Wild animals browse it, but it has not been important for domestic forage due to low productivity and palatability and it is also an ornamental plant for gardens. Festuca rubra is perennial and has forms that have rhizomes and/or forms bunchgrass tufts. It mainly exists in neutral and acidic soils and it can grow between 2 and 20 cm tall. Like all fescues, the leaves are narrow and needle like, the swards that it forms are not as tufted as sheeps fescue or wavy hair grass. The tufted nature is what gives the grass its springy characteristic, there are 4 to 10 spikelet flowers, which are up to 15 mm long. The ligule is short and blunt. Festuca rubra, as red fescue or creeping red fescue, is cultivated as a plant for use as a turfgrass. It can be left unmowed, or occasionally trimmed for a lush meadow-like look. There are many subspecies, and many cultivars have been bred for the horticulture trade. com USDA Plants Profile – Festuca rubra
28.
Rudyard Kipling
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Joseph Rudyard Kipling was an English journalist, short-story writer, poet, and novelist. Kiplings works of fiction include The Jungle Book, Kim, and many short stories and his poems include Mandalay, Gunga Din, The Gods of the Copybook Headings, The White Mans Burden, and If—. Kipling was one of the most popular writers in the United Kingdom, Henry James said, Kipling strikes me personally as the most complete man of genius, as distinct from fine intelligence, that I have ever known. In 1907, at the age of 42, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, making him the first English-language writer to receive the prize and its youngest recipient to date. He was also sounded out for the British Poet Laureateship and on occasions for a knighthood. Kiplings subsequent reputation has changed according to the political and social climate of the age, George Orwell called him a prophet of British imperialism. Literary critic Douglas Kerr wrote, is still an author who can inspire passionate disagreement and his place in literary, but as the age of the European empires recedes, he is recognised as an incomparable, if controversial, interpreter of how empire was experienced. That, and a recognition of his extraordinary narrative gifts. Rudyard Kipling was born on 30 December 1865, in Bombay, in the Bombay Presidency of British India, to Alice Kipling, Alice was a vivacious woman about whom Lord Dufferin would say, Dullness and Mrs. Kipling cannot exist in the same room. Lockwood Kipling, a sculptor and pottery designer, was the Principal, John Lockwood and Alice had met in 1863 and courted at Rudyard Lake in Rudyard, Staffordshire, England. They married and moved to India in 1865 and they had been so moved by the beauty of the Rudyard Lake area that when their first child was born they referenced it when naming him. Alices sister Georgiana was married to painter Edward Burne-Jones, and her sister Agnes was married to painter Edward Poynter, Kiplings most famous relative was his first cousin, Stanley Baldwin, who was Conservative Prime Minister of the United Kingdom three times in the 1920s and 1930s. Kiplings birth home on the campus of the J J School of Art in Bombay for many years was used as the Deans residence. Although the cottage bears a plaque stating that this is the site where Kipling was born, the original cottage may have torn down decades ago. Some historians and conservationists are also of the view that the bungalow merely marks a site close to the home of his birth, as the bungalow was built in 1882, Kipling seems to have also said so to the dean when he visited J J School in the 1930s. Kipling was to write of Bombay, According to Bernice M. Murphy, Kipling’s parents considered themselves Anglo-Indians and so too would their son, complex issues of identity and national allegiance would become prominent features in his fiction. So one spoke English, haltingly translated out of the idiom that one thought. Kiplings days of light and darkness in Bombay ended when he was five years old
29.
Transparency and translucency
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In the field of optics, transparency is the physical property of allowing light to pass through the material without being scattered. On a macroscopic scale, the photons can be said to follow Snells Law, in other words, a translucent medium allows the transport of light while a transparent medium not only allows the transport of light but allows for image formation. The opposite property of translucency is opacity, transparent materials appear clear, with the overall appearance of one color, or any combination leading up to a brilliant spectrum of every color. When light encounters a material, it can interact with it in different ways. These interactions depend on the wavelength of the light and the nature of the material, photons interact with an object by some combination of reflection, absorption and transmission. Some materials, such as glass and clean water, transmit much of the light that falls on them and reflect little of it. Many liquids and aqueous solutions are highly transparent, absence of structural defects and molecular structure of most liquids are mostly responsible for excellent optical transmission. Materials which do not transmit light are called opaque, many such substances have a chemical composition which includes what are referred to as absorption centers. Many substances are selective in their absorption of light frequencies. They absorb certain portions of the spectrum while reflecting others. The frequencies of the spectrum which are not absorbed are either reflected or transmitted for our physical observation and this is what gives rise to color. The attenuation of light of all frequencies and wavelengths is due to the mechanisms of absorption. Transparency can provide almost perfect camouflage for animals able to achieve it and this is easier in dimly-lit or turbid seawater than in good illumination. Many marine animals such as jellyfish are highly transparent, at the atomic or molecular level, physical absorption in the infrared portion of the spectrum depends on the frequencies of atomic or molecular vibrations or chemical bonds, and on selection rules. Nitrogen and oxygen are not greenhouse gases because there is no absorption because there is no molecular dipole moment. With regard to the scattering of light, the most critical factor is the scale of any or all of these structural features relative to the wavelength of the light being scattered. Primary material considerations include, Crystalline structure, whether or not the atoms or molecules exhibit the long-range order evidenced in crystalline solids, glassy structure, scattering centers include fluctuations in density or composition. Microstructure, scattering centers include internal surfaces such as boundaries, crystallographic defects
30.
Sunlight
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Sunlight is a portion of the electromagnetic radiation given off by the Sun, in particular infrared, visible, and ultraviolet light. On Earth, sunlight is filtered through Earths atmosphere, and is obvious as daylight when the Sun is above the horizon, when the direct solar radiation is not blocked by clouds, it is experienced as sunshine, a combination of bright light and radiant heat. When it is blocked by clouds or reflects off other objects, the World Meteorological Organization uses the term sunshine duration to mean the cumulative time during which an area receives direct irradiance from the Sun of at least 120 watts per square meter. Other sources indicate an Average over the earth of 164 Watts per square meter over a 24 hour day. The ultraviolet radiation in sunlight has both positive and negative effects, as it is both a principal source of vitamin D3 and a mutagen. Sunlight takes about 8.3 minutes to reach Earth from the surface of the Sun. A photon starting at the center of the Sun and changing every time it encounters a charged particle would take between 10,000 and 170,000 years to get to the surface. Researchers may record sunlight using a sunshine recorder, pyranometer, or pyrheliometer, to calculate the amount of sunlight reaching the ground, both Earths elliptical orbit and the attenuation by Earths atmosphere have to be taken into account. In this formula dn–3 is used, because in modern times Earths perihelion, the closest approach to the Sun and, therefore, the value of 0.033412 is determined knowing that the ratio between the perihelion squared and the aphelion squared should be approximately 0.935338. The solar illuminance constant, is equal to 128×103 lx, the atmospheric extinction brings the number of lux down to around 100000. The total amount of energy received at ground level from the Sun at the zenith depends on the distance to the Sun and it is about 3. 3% higher than average in January and 3. 3% lower in July. In terms of energy, sunlight at Earths surface is around 52 to 55 percent infrared,42 to 43 percent visible, and 3 to 5 percent ultraviolet. At the top of the atmosphere, sunlight is about 30% more intense, having about 8% ultraviolet, direct sunlight has a luminous efficacy of about 93 lumens per watt of radiant flux. This is higher than the efficacy of most artificial lighting, which means using sunlight for illumination heats up a less than using most forms of artificial lighting. Multiplying the figure of 1050 watts per square metre by 93 lumens per watt indicates that bright sunlight provides an illuminance of approximately 98000 lux on a surface at sea level. The illumination of a surface will be considerably less than this if the Sun is not very high in the sky. Averaged over a day, the highest amount of sunlight on a horizontal surface occurs in January at the South Pole, dividing the irradiance of 1050 W/m2 by the size of the suns disk in steradians gives an average radiance of 15.4 MW per square metre per steradian. Multiplying this by π gives a limit to the irradiance which can be focused on a surface using mirrors,48.5 MW/m2
31.
No. 1 Court (Wimbledon)
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The No.1 Court is a tennis court at the All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club, Wimbledon, London. With a spectator capacity of 11,360 it replaced the now-demolished former No.1 Court which had stood at the west side of Centre Court since 1924 with a capacity of 7,328. The old court was replaced by the Millennium Building, the centre and facilities for players, members. The original No.1 Court was built in 1924 and was attached to the west side of Centre Court. The Wightman Cup, a team tennis competition for women contested between teams from the United States and Great Britain was held on Court No 1 from 1946 to 1972. The old court was replaced in 1997 by the current No.1 Court situated to the north of Centre Court in Aorangi Park, the old No.1 Court was demolished because its capacity for spectators was too low. The site of the old court is now occupied by the Millennium Building, the centre, and facilities for players, members. The current No.1 Court in Aorangi Park was built in 1997, in April 2013, the All England Club confirmed its intention to build a retractable roof over No.1 Court. The roof is expected to be in place for the 2019 Championships, list of tennis stadiums by capacity Sources Little, Alan. London, The All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club, No.1 Court tour and information Photo of the pre-1997 No.1 Court
32.
Davis Cup
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The Davis Cup is the premier international team event in mens tennis. It is run by the International Tennis Federation and is contested annually between teams from competing countries in a knock-out format and it is described by the organisers as the World Cup of Tennis, and the winners are referred to as the World Champion team. The competition began in 1900 as a challenge between Great Britain and the United States, by 2016,135 nations entered teams into the competition. The most successful countries over the history of the tournament are the United States, the present champions are Argentina who beat Croatia to win the title for the first time in 2016. The womens equivalent of the Davis Cup is the Fed Cup, Australia, the Czech Republic, and the United States are the only countries to have held both Davis Cup and Fed Cup titles in the same year. The Hopman Cup, a competition for mixed teams, carries less prestige. The tournament was conceived in 1899 by four members of the Harvard University tennis team who wished to challenge the British to a tennis competition and they in turn commissioned a classically styled design from William B. Durgins of Concord, New Hampshire, crafted by the Englishman Rowland Rhodes, Davis went on to become a prominent politician in the United States in the 1920s, serving as US Secretary of War from 1925 to 1929 and as Governor-General of the Philippines from 1929 to 1932. The first match, between the United States and Britain, was held at the Longwood Cricket Club in Boston, the American team, of which Dwight Davis was a part, surprised the British by winning the first three matches. The following year the two countries did not compete, but the US won the match in 1902 and Britain won the four matches. By 1905 the tournament expanded to include Belgium, Austria, France, and Australasia, the tournament was initially titled the International Lawn Tennis Challenge although it soon became known as the Davis Cup, after Dwight Davis trophy. The Davis Cup competition was played as a challenge cup. All teams competed against one another for the right to face the previous champion in the final round. Beginning in 1923, the teams were split into two zones, the America Zone and the Europe Zone. The winners of the two met in the Inter-Zonal Zone to decide which national team would challenge the defending champion for the cup. In 1955 a third zone, the Eastern Zone, was added, because there were three zones, the winner of one of the three zones received a bye in the first round of the INZ challenger rounds. In 1966, the Europe Zone was split into two zones, Europe Zone A and Europe Zone B, so the winners of the four competed in the INZ challenger rounds. From 1950 to 1967, Australia dominated the competition, winning the Cup 15 times in 18 years
33.
No. 2 Court (Wimbledon)
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No.2 Court is a tennis court at the All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club, Wimbledon, London. Unlike the other three Grand Slam events, Wimbledon does not name its main courts after famous players, choosing instead to use numbers, with the exception of Centre Court. The original number 2 Court had a capacity of 2,192 +770 standing and was referred to as the Graveyard of Champions until it was renumbered as the No.3 Court from the 2009 Championships. The Court itself was demolished to make way for a new No.3 court. The Graveyard of Champions tag was coined as many former champions fell to ignominious defeats on the No.13 court and this new court was renamed as No.2 court and the capacity is 4,000. This meant that the Graveyard of Champions court became No.3 Court, list of tennis stadiums by capacity Wimbledon No.2 Court virtual tour
34.
No. 3 Court (Wimbledon)
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No.3 Court is a tennis court at the All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club, Wimbledon, London. Unlike the other three Grand Slam events, Wimbledon does not name its main courts after famous players, choosing instead to use numbers, the original No.3 Court was renamed in 2009 when it was designated to become Court 4. Following the building and introduction of a new court, which was named No.2 Court. Work began at the end of the 2009 Championships and was finished in time for the 2011 Championships and it is the fourth largest court at Wimbledon after Centre Court, No.1 Court, and No.2 Court. List of tennis stadiums by capacity
35.
Wimbledon Lawn Tennis Museum
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Wimbledon Lawn Tennis Museum is the largest tennis museum in the world. The museum was inaugurated at The Championships centenary event in 1977, on the 12 April 2006, HRH The Duke of Kent declared the brand new Wimbledon Lawn Tennis Museum open to the public inside the grounds of the All England Lawn Tennis Club. This museum has exhibits and artefacts dating back to 1555 as well as touch screen computer consoles for visitors to interact with, memorabilia from many famous players from Victorian times up to present day are included in several different exhibits, which change seasonally. The Museum also has a platform called CentreCourt360 allowing guests to sample the atmosphere of Centre Court. Guided tours are available which take visitors behind the scenes of the All England Lawn Tennis Club. Audio guides are available in 8 languages, English, French, German, Spanish, Italian, Japanese, Mandarin, WLTM is opened year round to the public except during The Championships week where entry is possible for tournament ticket holders only. Cinema, The Museum’s cinema features a 200 degree screen which is showing a film about the science of tennis. Filming took place during the 2005 Championships on Centre Court of Russias Maria Sharapova against Spains Nuria Llagostera Vives, everything from outfits worn in the 1880s to Rafael Nadals dri-fit pirate trousers are on display. There are touch screen computers inside the platform that offer information in 8 different languages, English, French, German, Spanish, Italian, Japanese, Mandarin, led by London’s Blue Badge Guides, Guided Tours take visitors around the Grounds of The All England Lawn Tennis Club. Tours include access to Court No.1, the Press Interview Room, the players’ restaurant & terrace, Tours last about 90 minutes and include the price of museum admissions. Available to visitors by appointment, the Kenneth Ritchie Wimbledon Library is home to a collection of books, periodicals, videos, the library is the largest tennis library in the world. The Wimbledon Shop is at the entrance of the Museum and is entry free, items for sale include tennis and casual clothing, towelling goods, sport bags, DVD’s, books, jewellery, rackets, souvenirs, and tennis accessories. There is an online Wimbledon shop that has also has a range of merchandise. The Wimbledon Museum is inside the grounds of the All England Lawn Tennis Club, to access The Museum, guests must enter through Gate 4 of the club. Warren, Valerie The Wimbledon Lawn Tennis Museum, Wimbledon, The Museum ISBN 0-906741-09-2 Wimbledon Lawn Tennis Museum Fernedge Printers, printed by, Briggs, Susan Wandering Around Wimbledon
36.
Lawn Tennis Association
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The Lawn Tennis Association is the national governing body of tennis in Great Britain, the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man. The organisation was founded in 1888 and seven-time Wimbledon champion William Renshaw was elected as its first president, as the governing body, the LTA’s overall purpose is to grow and sustain the sport. The success of British tennis is tracked by five headline measures of success,1, number of members of registered places to play 2. Number of British tennis members 3, number of regularly competing juniors 4. Number of International A Matrix juniors 5, number of players in the top 100. These measures of success gives a snapshot of the impact of work the LTA does. The LTA’s focus is to develop participation growth to more people play tennis. The approach to growing participation is based on investment in four areas,1. Places – Investing in places to play at parks, clubs, schools, people – Supporting the people who make tennis happen, including coaches, volunteers and club officials 3. Programmes – Developing programmes including LTA Mini Tennis, Cardio Tennis and Tennis Xpress 4 and it opened in 2007 and is a focal point for Britains top players. It has 22 courts, player accommodation and a science centre. The NTC has 12 acrylic hard courts,6 clay courts, hard Courts, The NTCs 12 acrylic courts are a GreenSet Grand Prix Acrylic surface. The indoor courts have a sprung timber sub-frame, while the courts are laid directly on asphalt. This GreenSet surface is used at international tournaments including Davis Cup, Fed Cup, WTA. 4 Northern European Clay Courts and 2 FRENCH-COURT synthetic clay courts, grass Courts, The LTA consulted All England Lawn Tennis Club head groundsman Eddie Seaward to advise on the installation of its four outdoor grass courts. The quality and playing characteristics replicate those found at the Wimbledon Championships, along with its 22 tennis courts, the NTC is equipped with a state-of-the-art gymnasium, outdoor sprint track, hydrotherapy, plunge pools and relaxation egg. The NTC has overnight accommodation for up to 54 people, along with a player lounge, the NTC provides services in Performance analysis, fitness, psychology, physiotherapy and rehab, strength and conditioning, medical support and nutrition. The current structure is as follows, Level 1 Coaching Assistant - The Level 1 Coaching Assistant is an introduction to tennis coaching, Level 1’s are qualified to assist accredited coaches in groups of Mini Tennis
37.
Elizabeth II
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Elizabeth II has been Queen of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand since 6 February 1952. Elizabeth was born in London as the eldest child of the Duke and Duchess of York, later King George VI and Queen Elizabeth and her father acceded to the throne on the abdication of his brother Edward VIII in 1936, from which time she was the heir presumptive. She began to undertake duties during the Second World War. Elizabeths many historic visits and meetings include a visit to the Republic of Ireland. She has seen major changes, such as devolution in the United Kingdom, Canadian patriation. She has reigned through various wars and conflicts involving many of her realms and she is the worlds oldest reigning monarch as well as Britains longest-lived. In October 2016, she became the longest currently reigning monarch, in 2017 she became the first British monarch to commemorate a Sapphire Jubilee. Elizabeth has occasionally faced republican sentiments and press criticism of the family, however, support for the monarchy remains high. Elizabeth was born at 02,40 on 21 April 1926, during the reign of her paternal grandfather and her father, Prince Albert, Duke of York, was the second son of the King. Her mother, Elizabeth, Duchess of York, was the youngest daughter of Scottish aristocrat Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and she was delivered by Caesarean section at her maternal grandfathers London house,17 Bruton Street, Mayfair. Elizabeths only sibling, Princess Margaret, was born in 1930, the two princesses were educated at home under the supervision of their mother and their governess, Marion Crawford, who was casually known as Crawfie. Lessons concentrated on history, language, literature and music, Crawford published a biography of Elizabeth and Margarets childhood years entitled The Little Princesses in 1950, much to the dismay of the royal family. The book describes Elizabeths love of horses and dogs, her orderliness, others echoed such observations, Winston Churchill described Elizabeth when she was two as a character. She has an air of authority and reflectiveness astonishing in an infant and her cousin Margaret Rhodes described her as a jolly little girl, but fundamentally sensible and well-behaved. During her grandfathers reign, Elizabeth was third in the line of succession to the throne, behind her uncle Edward, Prince of Wales, and her father, the Duke of York. Although her birth generated public interest, she was not expected to become queen, many people believed that he would marry and have children of his own. When her grandfather died in 1936 and her uncle succeeded as Edward VIII, she became second-in-line to the throne, later that year, Edward abdicated, after his proposed marriage to divorced socialite Wallis Simpson provoked a constitutional crisis. Consequently, Elizabeths father became king, and she became heir presumptive, if her parents had had a later son, she would have lost her position as first-in-line, as her brother would have been heir apparent and above her in the line of succession
38.
Charles, Prince of Wales
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Charles, Prince of Wales is the eldest child and heir apparent of Queen Elizabeth II. Known alternatively in South West England as Duke of Cornwall and in Scotland as Duke of Rothesay, he is the heir apparent in British history. He is also the oldest person to be next in line to the throne since Sophia of Hanover, Charles was born at Buckingham Palace as the first grandchild of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth. After earning a bachelor of degree from Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1981, he married Lady Diana Spencer and they had two sons, Prince William later to become Duke of Cambridge, and Prince Harry, in 1996, the couple divorced, following well-publicised extramarital affairs. Diana died in a car crash in Paris the following year, in 2005, Charles married Camilla Parker Bowles. Charles has sought to raise awareness of the dangers facing the natural environment. As an environmentalist, he has received awards and recognition from environmental groups around the world. His support for alternative medicine, including homeopathy, has been criticised by some in the medical community and he has been outspoken on the role of architecture in society and the conservation of historic buildings. Subsequently, Charles created Poundbury, a new town based on his theories. He has authored a number of books, including A Vision of Britain, A Personal View of Architecture in 1989 and he was baptised in the palaces Music Room by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Geoffrey Fisher, on 15 December 1948. When Prince Charles was aged three his mothers accession as Queen Elizabeth II made him her heir apparent. As the monarchs eldest son, he took the titles Duke of Cornwall, Duke of Rothesay, Earl of Carrick, Baron of Renfrew, Lord of the Isles and Prince. Charles attended his mothers coronation at Westminster Abbey on 2 June 1953, seated alongside his grandmother, as was customary for upper-class children at the time, a governess, Catherine Peebles, was appointed and undertook his education between the ages of five and eight. Buckingham Palace announced in 1955 that Charles would attend school rather than have a private tutor, Charles then attended two of his fathers former schools, Cheam Preparatory School in Berkshire, England, followed by Gordonstoun in the north-east of Scotland. He reportedly despised the school, which he described as Colditz in kilts. Upon his return to Gordonstoun, Charles emulated his father in becoming Head Boy and he left in 1967, with six GCE O-levels and two A-levels in history and French, at grades B and C, respectively. Tradition was broken again when Charles proceeded straight from school into university
39.
Andy Murray
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Sir Andrew Barron Murray, OBE is a British professional tennis player from Scotland currently ranked world No.1 in mens singles. He was first ranked as British No.1 on 27 February 2006, following his run to winning the 2016 Paris Masters, Murray became world No.1 on 7 November 2016. He was created a Knight Bachelor in the 2017 New Year Honours list, and has won the BBC Sports Personality of the Year award a record three times. At the 2012 US Open, Murray became the first British player since 1977, and the first British man since 1936, to win a Grand Slam singles tournament, when he defeated Novak Djokovic in the final. In 2016, he won his second Wimbledon title to become the first British man to win multiple Wimbledon singles titles since Perry in 1935. Murray is the mens singles 2012 and 2016 Olympic gold medallist, making him the only player, male or female. He featured in Great Britains Davis Cup-winning team in 2015, going 11–0 in his matches as they secured their first Davis Cup title since 1936, Murray was born in Glasgow, Scotland, the son of Judy Murray and William Murray. His maternal grandfather, Roy Erskine, was a footballer in the late 1950s. Murray is a supporter of Hibernian Football Club, the team his grandfather represented, Murrays elder brother, Jamie, is also a professional tennis player, playing on the doubles circuit. Murray was born with a bipartite patella, where the remains as two separate bones instead of fusing together in early childhood, but was not diagnosed until the age of 16. He is seen to hold his knee due to the pain caused by the condition and has pulled out of events because of it, Murray began playing tennis at the age of three when his mother Judy took him to play on the local courts. He played in his first competitive tournament at age five and by the time he was eight he was competing with adults in the Central District Tennis League, Murray grew up in Dunblane and attended Dunblane Primary School. He and his brother were present during the 1996 Dunblane school massacre, when Thomas Hamilton killed 16 children, Murray later attended Dunblane High School. Murrays parents split up when he was only 10 and he believes the impact this had on him could be the reason behind his competitive spirit. At 15, he was asked to train with Rangers Football Club at their School of Excellence and he then decided to move to Barcelona, Spain. There he studied at the Schiller International School and trained on the courts of the Sánchez-Casal Academy. Murray described this time as a big sacrifice and his parents had to find £40,000 to pay for his 18-month stay there. While in Spain, he trained with Emilio Sánchez, formerly the world No.1 doubles player, in February 2013, Murray bought Cromlix House for £1.8 million which opened as a 15-room five-star hotel in April 2014
40.
Jarkko Nieminen
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Jarkko Kalervo Nieminen is a Finnish former professional tennis player. His highest ranking of world No,13, achieved in July 2006, is a Finnish record. He has won two ATP singles titles and five titles in his career. His best performances in Grand Slam tournaments have been reaching the quarterfinals of the 2005 US Open, the 2006 Wimbledon Championships, and the 2008 Australian Open. Arguably Finlands best player to date, Nieminen is also the first and so far only Finnish player to have won an ATP singles title and he was ranked inside the Top 75 for 11 times in 14 years. On 23 June 2015, he announced his retirement from tennis at the end of the season. His wife, Anu Nieminen, is Finlands top-ranked badminton womens single player, on April 2016, it was announced that Nieminen will compete in floorball in season 2016–2017 at Finnish Salibandyliiga representing SC Classic. As a junior Nieminen reached as high as No.9 in the world in 1999, defeated Kristian Pless of Denmark to win his first junior Grand Slam, the US Open. Finished the year at No.11 in the junior rankings. Made his Davis Cup debut against Italy, losing to Andrea Gaudenzi, won his first Davis Cup match, beating Mikael Tillström of Sweden in a dead-rubber. Posted a 38–12 Challenger record, winning four titles, finished the year in the top 100 for the first time. Reached clay-court finals in Estoril and Majorca, losing to David Nalbandian and Gastón Gaudio, became the first Finnish player to end the season in the top 50. Reached his fourth career ATP final in Munich, losing to Roger Federer, advanced to the fourth round at the 2003 French Open, losing to Fernando González. Was at best ranked World No, represented Finland at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, losing to Max Mirnyi in the second round. Finished in the top 100 for the fourth year, despite missing nearly three months due to injury. Defeated world no.7 Andre Agassi in a first round five-setter at the 2005 French Open, was defeated in five sets by Lleyton Hewitt in the quarterfinals of the 2005 U. S. Open, having become the first Finn to reach a Grand Slam quarterfinal. Won his first ATP singles title in January by defeating Mario Ančić in the final in Auckland, recorded his career-best ATP Masters Series performance by reaching the quarterfinals of the Indian Wells Masters, but lost to Paradorn Srichaphan. Broke into the top 20 for the first time in his career in April, reached the quarterfinals of the 2006 Wimbledon Championships, but lost to World No.2 Rafael Nadal in straight sets
41.
Roger Federer
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Roger Federer is a Swiss professional tennis player who is currently ranked world No.4 by the Association of Tennis Professionals. Many players and analysts have called him the greatest tennis player of all time, Federer turned professional in 1998 and was continuously ranked in the top 10 from October 2002 to November 2016. Federer has won 18 Grand Slam singles titles, the most in history for a tennis player. In majors, Federer has won seven Wimbledon titles, five Australian Open titles, five US Open titles and he is among the eight men to capture a career Grand Slam. He has reached a record 28 mens singles Grand Slam finals, Federers ATP tournament records include winning a record six ATP World Tour Finals and playing in the finals at all nine ATP Masters 1000 tournaments. He also won the Olympic gold medal in doubles with his compatriot Stan Wawrinka at the 2008 Summer Olympic Games, representing Switzerland, he was a part of the 2014 winning Davis Cup team. He was named the Laureus World Sportsman of the Year for a four consecutive years from 2005 to 2008. Federer was born at the Basel Cantonal Hospital in Basel, Switzerland, Federer has one sibling, his older sister Diana, who is the mother of a set of twins. He holds both Swiss and South African citizenship, Federer was raised as a Roman Catholic and met Pope Benedict XVI while playing the 2006 Internazionali BNL dItalia tournament in Rome. Like all male Swiss citizens, Federer was subject to military service in the Swiss Armed Forces. However, in 2003 he was ruled unsuitable and was not required to fulfil his military obligation. Instead, he served in the protection force and was required to pay 3% of his taxable income as an alternative. He grew up supporting F. C. Basel and the Swiss National Football Team, Federer also credits the range of sports he played as a child—he also played badminton and basketball—for his hand-eye coordination. Federer is married to former Womens Tennis Association player Mirka Vavrinec and he met her while both were competing for Switzerland in the 2000 Sydney Olympics. Vavrinec retired from the tour in 2002 because of a foot injury and they were married at Wenkenhof Villa in Riehen near Basel on 11 April 2009, surrounded by a small group of close friends and family. In July 2009, Mirka gave birth to twin girls, Myla Rose. The Federers had another set of twins in 2014, this time boys whom they named Leo and Lennart, in 2003, he established the Roger Federer Foundation to help disadvantaged children and to promote their access to education and sports. In 2005, he auctioned his racquet from his US Open championship to aid victims of Hurricane Katrina, at the 2005 Pacific Life Open in Indian Wells, Federer arranged an exhibition involving several top players from the ATP and WTA tour called Rally for Relief
42.
Fabio Fognini
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Fabio Fognini is an Italian professional tennis player and the current Italian No.1. His career-high singles ranking is world No,13, achieved in March 2014, and world No.7 in doubles, achieved in July 2015. Together with Simone Bolelli, Fognini won the 2015 Australian Open doubles event, Fognini was born to Silvana and Fulvio, a businessman, and has a younger sister. He began playing tennis when he was four years old and is also a fan of football, supporting Inter Milan and he also enjoys motorbike racing and is a fan of Valentino Rossi. Fognini speaks Italian, English, Spanish, and French, as a junior, Fognini posted a singles win/loss record of 72–36. He achieved a ranking of No.8 in the world in May 2004. Fognini began his career by playing a variety of Futures and Challenger tournaments, winning his first Futures title in 2005 at Spain No.1. In 2005, he also finished runner-up at Italy No.3, during 2006, Fognini had moderate success at Challengers and, after qualifying, made his debut on the ATP World Tour at Buenos Aires. He was defeated in the first round by former World No.1 Carlos Moyá, in 2007, Fognini made some real progress on the ATP Tour, notably when he qualified for the 2007 French Open to make his first appearance in a Grand Slam event. He lost in the first round to World No.35 Juan Mónaco in five sets, in addition, he had a fantastic tournament at the 2007 Rogers Masters in Montreal, Canada. Having qualified for the tournament, he defeated Peter Polansky in the first round, Fognini was halted by World No.1 Roger Federer in the third round. On the ATP Challengers circuit, Fognini made the finals in Santiago, Sanremo, partnering Frederico Gil, he also lost in the doubles final of the Fürth Challenger. He finished the year ranked in the top 100 for the first time at No.94, Fognini lost a five-set first-round encounter against Michael Russell in the 2008 Australian Open. During the South American clay swing, he reached the quarterfinals of Viña del Mar, in April 2009, Fognini reached the third round of the 2009 Monte-Carlo Masters as a qualifier, upsetting Tomáš Berdych and 14th seed Marin Čilić. Fognini then played a typically topsy-turvy match with World No.4 Andy Murray, in July, Fognini won the San Benedetto Challenger title defeating Cristian Villagran in the final. A remarkable win during this season was against the 13th seed Gaël Monfils at the 2010 French Open by also coming from two sets to love down in a match that two days. In June 2010, Fognini followed up his vein of form as he defeated Fernando Verdasco. In 2011 Fognini achieved a number of breakthroughs and he reached the quarterfinals of a Grand Slam event for the first time at the 2011 French Open
43.
Jews
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The Jews, also known as the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group originating from the Israelites, or Hebrews, of the Ancient Near East. Jews originated as a national and religious group in the Middle East during the second millennium BCE, the Merneptah Stele appears to confirm the existence of a people of Israel, associated with the god El, somewhere in Canaan as far back as the 13th century BCE. The Israelites, as an outgrowth of the Canaanite population, consolidated their hold with the emergence of the Kingdom of Israel, some consider that these Canaanite sedentary Israelites melded with incoming nomadic groups known as Hebrews. The worldwide Jewish population reached a peak of 16.7 million prior to World War II, but approximately 6 million Jews were systematically murdered during the Holocaust. Since then the population has risen again, and as of 2015 was estimated at 14.3 million by the Berman Jewish DataBank. According to the report, about 43% of all Jews reside in Israel and these numbers include all those who self-identified as Jews in a socio-demographic study or were identified as such by a respondent in the same household. The exact world Jewish population, however, is difficult to measure, Israel is the only country where Jews form a majority of the population. The modern State of Israel was established as a Jewish state and defines itself as such in its Declaration of Independence and its Law of Return grants the right of citizenship to any Jew who requests it. The English word Jew continues Middle English Gyw, Iewe, according to the Hebrew Bible, the name of both the tribe and kingdom derive from Judah, the fourth son of Jacob. The Hebrew word for Jew, יְהוּדִי ISO 259-3 Yhudi, is pronounced, with the stress on the syllable, in Israeli Hebrew. The Ladino name is ג׳ודיו, Djudio, ג׳ודיוס, Djudios, Yiddish, ייִד Yid, ייִדן, Yidn. The etymological equivalent is in use in languages, e. g. but derivations of the word Hebrew are also in use to describe a Jew, e. g. in Italian. The German word Jude is pronounced, the corresponding adjective jüdisch is the origin of the word Yiddish, in such contexts Jewish is the only acceptable possibility. Some people, however, have become so wary of this construction that they have extended the stigma to any use of Jew as a noun, a factual reconstruction for the origin of the Jews is a difficult and complex endeavor. It requires examining at least 3,000 years of ancient human history using documents in vast quantities, as archaeological discovery relies upon researchers and scholars from diverse disciplines, the goal is to interpret all of the factual data, focusing on the most consistent theory. In this case, it is complicated by long standing politics and religious, Jacob and his family migrated to Ancient Egypt after being invited to live with Jacobs son Joseph by the Pharaoh himself. The patriarchs descendants were later enslaved until the Exodus led by Moses, traditionally dated to the 13th century BCE, Modern archaeology has largely discarded the historicity of the Patriarchs and of the Exodus story, with it being reframed as constituting the Israelites inspiring national myth narrative. The growth of Yahweh-centric belief, along with a number of practices, gradually gave rise to a distinct Israelite ethnic group
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