1.
Gorbals
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The Gorbals is an area in the city of Glasgow, Scotland, on the south bank of the River Clyde. By the late 19th century, it had become densely populated, many people lived here because their jobs provided worker housing and they could not afford their own. Poor sanitation and poverty contributed to problems, as industrial jobs declined during restructuring, this area became widely known as a dangerous slum associated with drunkenness and crime. In the later 20th century, it was subject to efforts at redevelopment, since the late 20th century, much of the area has been demolished and redeveloped with a mixture of market and social housing. Some buildings are being refurbished and restored to a higher standard, in the early 21st century, a local group has started a campaign to reinstate the Cross fountain, aided by people attracted to their Facebook page, Old Gorbals Pictures. The group have discovered that a copy of the original fountain was installed on the Caribbean island of St Kitts & Nevis. They are working to engage professional help to digitally scan this object to allow for the manufacture of Gorbals Cross, No 3, the name is first documented in the 15th and 16th centuries as Gorbaldis, and its etymology is unclear. It may be related to the Latin word garbale, found in the Scots term garbal teind, the taking of garbal teind was a right given to George Elphinstone in 1616 as part of his 19-year tack. The placename would therefore mean the Sheaves, the name is similar to a Lowland Scots word gorbal/gorbel/garbal/garbel, perhaps a reference to lepers who were allowed to beg for alms in public. Any Gaelic form of the name is conjectural, since none survives from medieval times, gort a bhaile conforms with certain suggestions made by A. G. Callant in 1888, but other interpretations are also popular. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the area was home to numbers of migrants from the Scottish Highlands. They often left homelands struggling with problems and poverty. It also housed a new wave of Jewish immigrants from Eastern and Central Europe, the Jewish population moved out of the area as its members gained education and rose in economic class. Although the Irish-Catholic population has declined to an extent, many of this group have remained since the areas redevelopment, Govan parish was one of the oldest possessions of the church in the region. The merk land of Brigend and Gorbaldis is referred to in several sources, the village of Brigend was named after the bridge which Bishop William Rae had built in 1345 over the River Clyde, it lasted until the 19th century. The lands on which the hospital was built were named St Ninians Croft and they were later incorporated into Hutchesontown. After the Protestant Reformation, in 1579 the church granted the land for ground rents to Sir George Elphinstone, the barony and regality of the Gorbals was confirmed in 1606 by a charter of King James VI, which vested Elphinstone and his descendants. These powers descended to Sir Robert Douglas of Blackerstone, who in 1650 disponed the Gorbals to Glasgows magistrates for the benefit of the city, the Trades House, and Hutchesons Hospital
2.
Glasgow
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Glasgow is the largest city in Scotland, and third largest in the United Kingdom. Historically part of Lanarkshire, it is now one of the 32 council areas of Scotland and it is situated on the River Clyde in the countrys West Central Lowlands. Inhabitants of the city are referred to as Glaswegians, Glasgow grew from a small rural settlement on the River Clyde to become the largest seaport in Britain. From the 18th century the city grew as one of Great Britains main hubs of transatlantic trade with North America. Glasgow was the Second City of the British Empire for much of the Victorian era and Edwardian period, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries Glasgow grew in population, reaching a peak of 1,128,473 in 1939. The entire region surrounding the conurbation covers about 2.3 million people, at the 2011 census, Glasgow had a population density of 8, 790/sq mi, the highest of any Scottish city. Glasgow hosted the 2014 Commonwealth Games and is well known in the sporting world for the football rivalry of the Old Firm between Celtic and Rangers. Glasgow is also known for Glasgow patter, a dialect that is noted for being difficult to understand by those from outside the city. Glasgow is the form of the ancient Cumbric name Glas Cau. Possibly referring to the area of Molendinar Burn where Glasgow Cathedral now stands, the later Gaelic name Baile Glas Chu, town of the grey dog, is purely a folk-etymology. The present site of Glasgow has been settled since prehistoric times, it is for settlement, being the furthest downstream fording point of the River Clyde, the origins of Glasgow as an established city derive ultimately from its medieval position as Scotlands second largest bishopric. Glasgow increased in importance during the 10th and 11th centuries as the site of this bishopric, reorganised by King David I of Scotland and John, there had been an earlier religious site established by Saint Mungo in the 6th century. The bishopric became one of the largest and wealthiest in the Kingdom of Scotland, bringing wealth, sometime between 1189 and 1195 this status was supplemented by an annual fair, which survives as the Glasgow Fair. Glasgow grew over the following centuries, the first bridge over the River Clyde at Glasgow was recorded from around 1285, giving its name to the Briggait area of the city, forming the main North-South route over the river via Glasgow Cross. The founding of the University of Glasgow in 1451 and elevation of the bishopric to become the Archdiocese of Glasgow in 1492 increased the towns religious and educational status and landed wealth. Its early trade was in agriculture, brewing and fishing, with cured salmon and herring being exported to Europe, Glasgow was subsequently raised to the status of Royal Burgh in 1611. The citys Tobacco Lords created a water port at Port Glasgow on the Firth of Clyde. By the late 18th century more than half of the British tobacco trade was concentrated on Glasgows River Clyde, at the time, Glasgow held a commercial importance as the city participated in the trade of sugar, tobacco and later cotton
3.
Chicago
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Chicago, officially the City of Chicago, is the third-most populous city in the United States. With over 2.7 million residents, it is the most populous city in the state of Illinois, and it is the county seat of Cook County. In 2012, Chicago was listed as a global city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. Chicago has the third-largest gross metropolitan product in the United States—about $640 billion according to 2015 estimates, the city has one of the worlds largest and most diversified economies with no single industry employing more than 14% of the workforce. In 2016, Chicago hosted over 54 million domestic and international visitors, landmarks in the city include Millennium Park, Navy Pier, the Magnificent Mile, Art Institute of Chicago, Museum Campus, the Willis Tower, Museum of Science and Industry, and Lincoln Park Zoo. Chicagos culture includes the arts, novels, film, theater, especially improvisational comedy. Chicago also has sports teams in each of the major professional leagues. The city has many nicknames, the best-known being the Windy City, the name Chicago is derived from a French rendering of the Native American word shikaakwa, known to botanists as Allium tricoccum, from the Miami-Illinois language. The first known reference to the site of the current city of Chicago as Checagou was by Robert de LaSalle around 1679 in a memoir, henri Joutel, in his journal of 1688, noted that the wild garlic, called chicagoua, grew abundantly in the area. In the mid-18th century, the area was inhabited by a Native American tribe known as the Potawatomi, the first known non-indigenous permanent settler in Chicago was Jean Baptiste Point du Sable. Du Sable was of African and French descent and arrived in the 1780s and he is commonly known as the Founder of Chicago. In 1803, the United States Army built Fort Dearborn, which was destroyed in 1812 in the Battle of Fort Dearborn, the Ottawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi tribes had ceded additional land to the United States in the 1816 Treaty of St. Louis. The Potawatomi were forcibly removed from their land after the Treaty of Chicago in 1833, on August 12,1833, the Town of Chicago was organized with a population of about 200. Within seven years it grew to more than 4,000 people, on June 15,1835, the first public land sales began with Edmund Dick Taylor as U. S. The City of Chicago was incorporated on Saturday, March 4,1837, as the site of the Chicago Portage, the city became an important transportation hub between the eastern and western United States. Chicagos first railway, Galena and Chicago Union Railroad, and the Illinois, the canal allowed steamboats and sailing ships on the Great Lakes to connect to the Mississippi River. A flourishing economy brought residents from rural communities and immigrants from abroad, manufacturing and retail and finance sectors became dominant, influencing the American economy. The Chicago Board of Trade listed the first ever standardized exchange traded forward contracts and these issues also helped propel another Illinoisan, Abraham Lincoln, to the national stage
4.
Graceland Cemetery
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Graceland Cemetery is a large Victorian era cemetery located in the north side community area of Uptown, in the city of Chicago, Illinois, USA. Established in 1860, its entrance is at the intersection of Clark Street. The Sheridan stop on the Red Line is the nearest CTA L station, among the cemeterys 121 acres, are the burial sites of several well-known Chicagoans. In the 19th century, a train to the suburbs occupied the eastern edge of the cemetery where the Chicago L train now runs. The line was used to carry mourners to funerals, in specially rented funeral cars, requiring an entry on the east wall. At that point, the cemetery would have been well outside the city limits of Chicago, after the Great Chicago Fire in 1871, Lincoln Park which had been the citys cemetery, was deconsecrated and some of the bodies moved here. The edge of the pond around Daniel Burnhams burial island was once lined with broken headstones, Lincoln Park then became a recreational area, with a single mausoleum remaining, the Couch tomb, containing the remains of Ira Couch. The Couch Tomb is probably the oldest extant structure in the City, the cemetery is typical of those that reflect Queen Victorias reconception of the early 19th century graveyard. The landscape architecture for Graceland was designed by Ossian Cole Simonds, the cemeterys walls are topped off with wrought iron spear point fencing. Many of the tombs are of great architectural or artistic interest, including the Getty Tomb, the Martin Ryerson Mausoleum. The cemetery is also the resting place of several victims of the tragic Iroquois Theater fire in which more than 600 people died. Burnham, architect Fred A. George Elmslie, architect John Jacob Esher, marshall Field, businessman, retailer, whose memorial was designed by Henry Bacon, with sculpture by Daniel Chester French. The Washington and Jane Smith Home was named in his honor, in addition, directly south of Graceland across Irving Park Road is the smaller German Protestant Wunders Cemetery and Jewish Graceland Cemetery, established in 1851. Also, the Roman Catholic, Saint Boniface Cemetery, is four blocks north of Graceland at the corner of Clark and Lawrence
5.
Cooper (profession)
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A cooper is someone in the trade of making utensils and barrels and other accessories, usually out of wood that was steamed, but sometimes using other materials. Traditionally, a cooper is someone who makes wooden, staved vessels, bound together with hoops and possessing flat ends or heads. Examples of a coopers work include casks, barrels, buckets, tubs, butter churns, hogsheads, firkins, tierces, rundlets, puncheons, pipes, tuns, butts, pins and breakers. Traditionally, a hooper was the man who fitted the metal hoops around the barrels or buckets that the cooper had made, the English name Hooper is derived from that profession. With time, many Coopers took on the role of the Hooper themselves, the word cooper is derived from Middle Dutch or Middle Low German kūper cooper from kūpe cask, in turn from Latin cupa tun, barrel. Everything a cooper produces is referred to collectively as cooperage, a cask is any piece of cooperage containing a bouge, bilge, or bulge in the middle of the container. A barrel is a type of cask, so the terms barrel-maker, the facility in which casks are made is also referred to as a cooperage. There were four divisions in the coopers craft, the dry or slack cooper made containers that would be used to ship dry goods such as cereals, nails, tobacco, fruits, and vegetables. The dry-tight cooper made casks designed to dry goods in. Gunpowder and flour casks are examples of a coopers work. The white cooper made straight-staved containers like washtubs, buckets, and butter churns, usually there was no bending of wood involved in white cooperage. The wet or tight cooper made casks for long-term storage and transportation of liquids that could even be under pressure, the general cooper worked on ships, on the docks, and in warehouses, and was responsible for cargo while in storage or transit. With a specialized skill, the general cooper could repair a broken stave without losing the contents of a cask, plastics, stainless steel, pallets, and corrugated cardboard replaced during the last half of the 20th century most wooden containers, and largely made the cooperage trade obsolete. In the 21st century, coopers mostly operate barrel-making machinery and assemble casks for the wine, there is still demand for high-quality wooden barrels, and it is thought that the highest-quality barrels are those hand-made by professional coopers. Examples may be seen in the cooperage at Seguin Moreau, a cooperage which was incorporated into the House of Rémy in 1971 for the purpose of providing casks of oak. Limousin oak is renowned for the rich vanilla-like flavor it imparts to cognac, in the United Kingdom, the trade of master cooper is dwindling, it is thought that the last remaining cooper company in England is a beer barrel manufacturer in Wetherby, West Yorkshire. Wagner, J. B. Cooperage, a treatise on modern practice and methods. National coopers journal, vol.38 CBC article on Englands last master cooper Japanese cooper from Kyoto Cooperage
6.
Abolitionism
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Abolitionism is a movement to end slavery, whether formal or informal. In Western Europe and the Americas, abolitionism is a movement to end the African and Indian slave trade. An abolitionist movement only started in the late 18th century, however, soon after his death in 1785, they joined with William Wilberforce and others in forming the Clapham Sect. Massachusetts ratified a constitution that declared all men equal, freedom suits challenging slavery based on this principle brought an end to slavery in the state, Vermont, which existed as an unrecognized state from 1777 to 1791, abolished adult slavery in 1777. In other states, such as Virginia, similar declarations of rights were interpreted by the courts as not applicable to Africans, during the following decades, the abolitionist movement grew in northern states, and Congress regulated the expansion of slavery in new states admitted to the union. France abolished slavery within the French Kingdom in 1315, Haiti achieved independence from France in 1804 and brought an end to slavery in its territory. The northern states in the U. S. all abolished slavery by 1804, the United Kingdom and the United States outlawed the international slave trade in 1807, after which Britain led efforts to block slave ships. In Eastern Europe, groups organized to abolish the enslavement of the Roma in Wallachia and Moldavia and it was declared illegal in 1948 under the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The last country to abolish slavery was Mauritania, where it was officially abolished by presidential decree in 1981. In 1315, Louis X, king of France, published a decree proclaiming that France signifies freedom and this prompted subsequent governments to circumscribe slavery in the overseas colonies. Some cases of African slaves freed by setting foot on the French soil were recorded such as example of a Norman slave merchant who tried to sell slaves in Bordeaux in 1571. He was arrested and his slaves were freed according to a declaration of the Parlement of Guyenne which stated that slavery was intolerable in France, born into slavery in Saint Domingue, Thomas-Alexandre Dumas became free when his father brought him to France in 1776. As in other New World colonies, the French relied on the Atlantic slave trade for labour for their sugar plantations in their Caribbean colonies. In addition, French colonists in Louisiane in North America held slaves, particularly in the South around New Orleans, Louis XIVs Code Noir regulated the slave trade and institution in the colonies. It gave unparalleled rights to slaves and it includes the right to marry, gather publicly, or take Sundays off. Although the Code Noir authorized and codified cruel corporal punishment against slaves under certain conditions and it also forced the owners to instruct them in the Catholic faith, implying that Africans were human beings endowed with a soul, a fact that was not seen as evident until then. It resulted in a far higher percentage of blacks being free in 1830 and they were on average exceptionally literate, with a significant number of them owning businesses, properties, and even slaves. Other free people of colour, such as Julien Raimond, spoke out against slavery, during the Age of Enlightenment, many philosophers wrote pamphlets against slavery and its moral and economical justifications, including Montesquieu in The Spirit of the Laws or in the Encyclopédie
7.
Detective
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A detective is an investigator, usually a member of a law enforcement agency. Some are private persons, and may be known as private investigators, as The Eye That Never Sleeps, in some police departments, a detective position is achieved by passing a written test after a person completes the requirements for being a police officer. In many other systems, detectives are college graduates who join directly from civilian life without first serving as uniformed officers. Some people argue that detectives do a different job and therefore require completely different training, qualifications. In some countries, the practice of a detective is not yet recognized in courts, one of these countries is Portugal, where the proof presented loses all significance when collected by a private detective. Even under this circumstance, the practice of this activity is in demand, some private detectives also disguise themselves as other people so that no one could recognize them. Before the 1800s, there were few police departments, though the first had been created in Paris in 1667. As police activities moved from appointees helped by volunteers to professionals, the first private detective agency was founded by Eugène François Vidocq in Paris in the early 1800s, who had also headed a police agency in addition to being a criminal himself. Police detective activities were pioneered in England by the Bow Street Runners, the first police detective unit in the United States was formed in 1846 in Boston. Detectives have a variety of techniques available in conducting investigations. However, the majority of cases are solved by the interrogation of suspects and the interviewing of witnesses, besides interrogations, detectives may rely on a network of informants they have cultivated over the years. Informants often have connections with persons a detective would not be able to approach formally, evidence collection and preservation can also help in identifying a potential suspect. Criminal investigation, the investigation of criminal activity is conducted by the police, Criminal activity can relate to road use such as speeding, drunk driving, or to matters such as theft, drug distribution, assault, fraud, etc. In criminal investigations, once a detective has suspects in mind, physical forensic evidence in an investigation may provide leads to closing a case. Forensic science is the application of a spectrum of sciences to answer questions of interest to the legal system. This may be in relation to a crime or to a civil action, many major police stations in a city, county, or state, maintain their own forensic laboratories while others contract out the services. Detectives may use public and private records to provide information on a subject. Police detectives can search through files of fingerprint records, Police maintain records of people who have committed felonies and some misdemeanors
8.
Espionage
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Espionage is the obtaining of information considered secret or confidential without the permission of the holder of the information. Espionage can be committed by an individual or a spy ring, in the service of a government or a company, the practice is inherently clandestine, as it is by definition unwelcome and in many cases illegal and punishable by law. Espionage is a subset of intelligence gathering, which includes espionage as well as information gathering from public sources, Espionage is often part of an institutional effort by a government or commercial concern. However, the term is associated with state spying on potential or actual enemies primarily for military purposes. Spying involving corporations is known as industrial espionage, one of the most effective ways to gather data and information about the enemy is by infiltrating the enemys ranks. This is the job of the spy, Spies can bring back all sorts of information concerning the size and strength of enemy forces. They can also find dissidents within the forces and influence them to defect. In times of crisis, spies can also be used to steal technology, counterintelligence operatives can feed false information to enemy spies, protecting important domestic secrets, and preventing attempts at subversion. Nearly every country has strict laws concerning espionage, and the penalty for being caught is often severe. However, the benefits that can be gained through espionage are generally great enough that most governments, events involving espionage are well documented throughout history. The Old Testament of the Christian Bible, which is based primarily on the Hebrew Bible, speaks about Joshua and Caleb, the ancient writings of Chinese and Indian military strategists such as Sun-Tzu and Chanakya contain information on deception and subversion. Chanakyas student Chandragupta Maurya, founder of the Maurya Empire in India, made use of assassinations, spies and secret agents, the ancient Egyptians had a thoroughly developed system for the acquisition of intelligence, and the Hebrews used spies as well, as in the story of Rahab. Spies were also prevalent in the Greek and Roman empires, during the 13th and 14th centuries, the Mongols relied heavily on espionage in their conquests in Asia and Europe. Feudal Japan often used ninjas to gather intelligence, aztecs used Pochtecas, people in charge of commerce, as spies and diplomats, and had diplomatic immunity. Many modern espionage methods were established by Francis Walsingham in Elizabethan England, in 1585, Mary, Queen of Scots was placed in the custody of Sir Amias Paulet, who was instructed to open and read all of Marys clandestine correspondence. In a successful attempt to expose her, Walsingham arranged a single exception, Mary was misled into thinking these secret letters were secure, while in reality they were deciphered and read by Walsinghams agents. He succeeded in intercepting letters that indicated a conspiracy to displace Elizabeth I with Mary, in foreign intelligence, Walsinghams extensive network of intelligencers, who passed on general news as well as secrets, spanned Europe and the Mediterranean. While foreign intelligence was a part of the principal secretarys activities, Walsingham brought to it flair and ambition
9.
Pinkerton (detective agency)
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Pinkerton became famous when he claimed to have foiled a plot to assassinate president-elect Abraham Lincoln, who later hired Pinkerton agents for his personal security during the Civil War. Pinkertons agents performed services ranging from security guarding to private military contracting work, Pinkerton was the largest private law enforcement organization in the world at the height of its power. The ensuing battle between Pinkerton agents and striking workers led to the deaths of seven Pinkerton agents and nine steelworkers, the organization was pejoratively called the Pinks by its opponents. The company now operates as Pinkerton Consulting & Investigations, Inc. d. b. a, Pinkerton Corporate Risk Management, a division of the Swedish security company Securitas AB. The former Government Services division, PGS, now operates as Securitas Critical Infrastructure Services, in the 1850s, Allan Pinkerton met Chicago attorney Edward Rucker in a local Masonic Hall and formed the North-Western Police Agency, later known as the Pinkerton Agency. Historian Frank Morn writes, By the mid-1850s a few businessmen saw the need for control over their employees. In February 1855, Allan Pinkerton, after consulting with six midwestern railroads, in 1871, Congress appropriated $50,000 to the new Department of Justice to form a suborganization devoted to the detection and prosecution of those guilty of violating federal law. The amount was insufficient for the DOJ to fashion an integral investigating unit, white, who had been hired as a Special Officer during a strike, was shot and killed. July 19,1919, Hans Rassmuson, Special Officer, was shot, March 12,1924, Frank Miller, Pinkerton Watchman, was shot and killed. Gowen, then president of the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad, hired the agency to investigate the labor unions in the companys mines, the incident inspired Arthur Conan Doyles Sherlock Holmes novel The Valley of Fear. This resulted in a fight and siege in which 16 men were killed and 23 others were wounded. To restore order, two brigades of the Pennsylvania militia were called out by the Governor, as a legacy of the Pinkertons involvement a bridge connecting the nearby Pittsburgh suburbs of Munhall and Rankin was named Pinkertons Landing Bridge. In 1895, detective Frank Geyer tracked down the murderer of the three Pitezel children, leading to the trial and execution of the United States first known serial killer H. H. Holmes. His story is told in his book, The Holmes-Pitezel Case, Pinkertons had previously apprehended Holmes in 1894 in Boston on an outstanding warrant for insurance fraud perpetrated in Chicago. Harry Orchard was arrested by the Idaho police and confessed to Pinkerton agent James McParland that he assassinated former Governor Frank Steunenberg of Idaho in 1905. Orchard testified, under threat of hanging, against Western Federation of Miners president Big Bill Haywood, with a stirring defense by Clarence Darrow, Haywood and the other defendants of the WFM were acquitted in a nationally publicized trial. Orchard received a sentence, but it was commuted. In 1890, Indiana University hired the Pinkerton Agency to investigate the authorship of a student bogus that had been distributed throughout town, while boguses were not uncommon, this particular one attacked IU faculty and students with such graphic language that Bloomington residents complained
10.
Scottish Americans
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Scottish Americans or Scots Americans are Americans whose ancestry originates wholly or partly in Scotland. Scottish Americans are closely related to Scotch-Irish Americans, descendants of Ulster Scots, in the 2013 American Community Survey 5,310,285 were identified as Scottish and 2,976,878 of Scotch-Irish descent. Large scale emigration from Scotland to America began in the 1700s after the Battle of Culloden where the Clan structures were broken up, the Scots went in search of a better life and settled in the thirteen colonies, mainly around South Carolina and Virginia. The table shows the ethnic Scottish population in the United States from 1700 to 2013, in 1700 the total population of the American colonies was 250,888, of whom 223,071 were white and 3. 0% were ethnically Scottish. In the 2000 census,4.8 million Americans self-reported Scottish ancestry,1. 7% of the total US population, another 4.3 million self-reported Scotch-Irish ancestry, for a total of 9.2 million Americans self-reporting some kind of Scottish descent. Americans of Scottish descent outnumber the population of Scotland, where 4,459,071 or 88. 09% of people identified as ethnic Scottish in the 2001 Census. A Christian bard from the Hebrides accompanied Bjarni Herjolfsson on his voyage around Greenland in 985/6 which sighted the mainland to the west. The first Scots recorded as having set foot in the New World were a man named Haki, the Scottish couple were runners who scouted for Thorfinn Karlsefnis expedition in c. 1010, gathering wheat and the grapes for which Vinland was named, the controversial Zeno letters have been cited in support of a claim that Henry Sinclair, earl of Orkney, visited Nova Scotia in 1398. In the early years of Spanish colonization of the Americas, a Scot named Tam Blake spent 20 years in Colombia and he took part in the conquest of New Granada in 1532 with Alonso de Heredia. He arrived in Mexico in 1534-5, and joined Coronados 1540 expedition to the American Southwest, Scottish-American naturalist John Muir is perhaps best known for his exploration of Californias Sierra Nevada mountains during the 19th century. After the Union of the Crowns of Scotland and England in 1603, King James VI, a Scot, promoted joint expeditions overseas, the first permanent English settlement in the Americas, Jamestown, was thus named for a Scot. The earliest Scottish communities in America were formed by traders and planters rather than farmer settlers, the hub of Scottish commercial activity in the colonial period was Virginia. Regular contacts began with the transportation of indentured servants to the colony from Scotland, trade between Scotland and the American colonies was finally regularized by the parliamentary Act of Union of Scotland and England in 1707. Scots arriving in Florida and the Gulf Coast traded extensively with Native Americans, American bluegrass and folk music styles have roots in the Appalachian ballad culture of Scottish and the Scotch-Irish Americans. There has also been a tradition of influences between Scottish American and African American communities. Psalm-singing and gospel music are a mainstay of African American churchgoers, the great influx of Scots Presbyterians into the Carolinas introduced African slaves to this form of worship. The style of gospel-singing was also influenced by Scottish Gaelic-speaking settlers from the Western Isles, the first foreign tongue spoken by some slaves in America was Scottish Gaelic picked up from Gaelic-speakers from the Western Isles
11.
Chartism
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Chartism was a working-class movement for political reform in Britain that existed from 1838 to 1857. Support for the movement was at its highest in 1839,1842, and 1848, the strategy employed was to use the scale of support which these petitions and the accompanying mass meetings demonstrated to put pressure on politicians to concede manhood suffrage. Chartism thus relied on constitutional methods to secure its aims, though there were some who became involved in activities, notably in south Wales. The Peoples Charter called for six reforms to make the system more democratic, A vote for every man twenty-one years of age, of sound mind. The secret ballot to protect the elector in the exercise of his vote, no property qualification for Members of Parliament in order to allow the constituencies to return the man of their choice. Payment of Members, enabling tradesmen, working men, or other persons of modest means to leave or interrupt their livelihood to attend to the interests of the nation. Equal constituencies, securing the same amount of representation for the number of electors. This sense that the class had been betrayed by the middle class was strengthened by the actions of the Whig governments of the 1830s. Notably, the hated new Poor Law Amendment was passed in 1834, depriving working people of outdoor relief and driving the poor into workhouses, where families were separated. It was the wave of opposition to this measure in the north of England in the late 1830s that gave Chartism the numbers that made it a mass movement. In 1836 the London Working Mens Association was founded by William Lovett and Henry Hetherington, the origins of Chartism in Wales can be traced to the foundation in the autumn of 1836 of Carmarthen Working Mens Association. Both nationally and locally a Chartist press thrived in the form of periodicals, the Poor Mans Guardian in the 1830s, edited by Henry Hetherington, dealt with questions of class solidarity, manhood suffrage, property, and temperance, and condemned the Reform Act of 1832. The paper explored the rhetoric of violence versus non-violence, or what its writers referred to as moral versus physical force and it was succeeded as the voice of radicalism by an even more famous paper, the Northern Star and Leeds General Advertiser. The Star was published between 1837 and 1852, and in 1839 was the provincial newspaper in Britain, with a circulation of 50,000 copies. Like other Chartist papers it was read aloud in coffee houses, workplaces. Other Chartist periodicals included the Northern Liberator, English Chartist Circular, the papers gave justifications for the demands of the Peoples Charter, accounts of local meetings, commentaries on education and temperance and a great deal of poetry. The papers also advertised upcoming meetings, typically organised by local grass roots branches, held either in public houses, readers also found denunciations of imperialism—the First Opium War was condemned—and of the arguments of free traders about the civilizing and pacifying influences of free trade. In 1837, six Members of Parliament and six working men, including William Lovett formed a committee and this set out the six main aims of the movement
12.
Duddingston
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Duddingston is a former village in the east of Edinburgh, Scotland, next to Holyrood Park. There are several possibilities exist for the etymology of Treverlen, the last two names, in particular, fit well as a possible name for the Celtic crannog settlement which stood in the southernmost corner of Duddingston Loch. The last Celtic owner of the Treverlen estates is said to have been Uviet the White who owned it from at least 1090 onwards. By 1128, though, at the founding of Holyrood Abbey, malcolm IV of Scotland inherited the throne from his grandfather David I of Scotland, and was perhaps called upon to confirm many such gifts of land in case of later disputes. The name was superseded during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries by Dodinestun from Dodin’s Estate and this name change came about just after the lands and estates were given to Kelso Abbey by David I. The Abbey quickly feued the estate to one Dodin de Berwic, evidently, from his name, apparently, then, it was Dodin who changed the name of the settlement, as by 1150 he was referring to himself as Dodin of Dodinestoun. This last may be misleading, though, as there was a toft near Berwick-Upon-Tweed, also referred to as Dodins Town. However, it likely that the names are connected through branches of the same Norman family. Thereafter the village is often, though not always, referred to as Duddingston, for instance, from heraldic sources we are told that in May 1290 Edward I granted a protection against proceedings for debts to William de Dodingstone, burgess of Edinburgh. Also, with quite a different spelling, but six years later, we are told the name is that of a locality near Edinburgh, Duddingston Loch has been used for ice-skating and curling, even boasting a curling house, for several centuries. Bonnie Prince Charlie held a council of war in a house in the village, in the same year, James Hamilton, 8th Earl of Abercorn purchased the Duddingston Estate from the Duke of Argyll. Lord Abercorn commissioned the architect Sir William Chambers to design Duddingston House in the Palladian style, Dr. James Tytler, author, balloonist and encyclopedist, lived in Duddingston. In 1774 he was living on the Holyrood Abbey sanctuary lands to avoid his creditors, after his wife left him and their children in 1775, he was known thereafter to be co-habiting with at least one, if not two women, one of them a Duddingston washerwoman. This circumstance eventually led to his flight from Scottish justice for the crime of bigamy in 1788, when he left Duddingston, sadly, even his attempt at ballooning in 1784 was something of a debacle. The Sheep Heid Inn, popularly referred to as the Sheeps Heid, is said to be Scotlands oldest pub and it is named after a snuff box either embellished with, or in the shape of a rams head presented to the landlord by King James VI in 1580. Since 1923, the loch has been a reserve, managed by the Scottish Wildlife Trust. It contains a variety of wildfowl and reedbeds, the loch is part of Holyrood Park which is owned by the Scottish Ministers. The Scottish Wildlife Trust purchased the adjacent land at Bawsinch in 1971, Dr Neils Garden is located between Duddingston Kirk and the Loch
13.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
14.
Dundee Township, Kane County, Illinois
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Dundee Township occupies the 6-mile square in the Northeast corner of Kane County, Illinois. It includes West and East Dundee, Carpentersville, Sleepy Hollow, Gilberts and portions of Elgin, Barrington Hills, Hoffman Estates and it is divided by the Fox River. As of the 2010 census, its population was 64,167, Dundee Township is named after Dundee, New York. Historically, industry and residential areas straddled the river, with most of the land on the half of the township devoted to agriculture. Today, the township has become predominantly a suburb of Chicago, the townships history is documented by the Dundee Township Historical Society, and parts of Carpentersville and East and West Dundee are recognized as the Dundee Township Historic District. The Milk Pail Restaurant east of East Dundee is also considered a historic site, according to the 2010 census, the township has a total area of 35.96 square miles, of which 35.03 square miles is land and 0.93 square miles is water. It is located at 42.111813 N,88.286978 W, the township is governed by a four-person elected Board of Trustees. The Township also has an elected Assessor, Clerk, Highway Commissioner, the Township Office is located at 611 E. Main Street, Suite 201 East Dundee, IL, in addition to the township government, two other entities serve an area that approximates the Township. The Dundee Township Park District administers 564 acres of parks, two courses and two swimming pools. The Dundee Township Library District operates a library in East Dundee, official Website Library District Website Park District Website
15.
Fox River (Illinois River tributary)
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The Fox River is a 202-mile-long tributary of the Illinois River, flowing from southeastern Wisconsin to Ottawa, Illinois in the United States. The Wisconsin section was known as the Pishtaka River in the 19th century, there are two other Fox Rivers in southern Illinois, the Fox River and a smaller Fox River that joins the Wabash River near New Harmony, Indiana. A major dam in Waterford forms a 1, 200-acre navigable waterway which is one of the busiest in southeastern Wisconsin, the river is generally navigable from the Iron Bridge in Tichigan, Wisconsin down to the dam. The river connects several small lakes in this section, and one lake, Tichigan Lake and one smaller lake. The entire area including connected lakes and the Fox are often referred to as Tichigan Lake, at the southern end of this section, Foxwood Isle separates the main dam to its west and a spillway to the east. A small dam is present just a few miles south in downtown Rochester, the river then flows unobstructed through Burlington, where it joins the White River, and on to Wilmot. This is a popular and picturesque day-canoe trip never straying far from the road, flooding is common on this section of the river, especially near Wheatland to the border. The river enters Illinois where it widens into an area of interconnected lakes known as the Chain OLakes. Fox Lake is the largest village in this area, from the chain, the river flows generally southward for 118 miles, until it joins the Illinois River at Ottawa. Charles, Geneva, Batavia, North Aurora, Aurora, Montgomery, Oswego, Yorkville, Plano, Millington, Sheridan, collectively, the area surrounding the Fox River is known as the Fox Valley. Around 1 million people live in this area, native American tribes that lived near the Fox River included the Potawatomi, Sac, and Fox tribes. The Fox River has 15 dams, including McHenry Dam, which raises the river slightly to maintain depth in the Chain OLakes in northern Illinois, in the winter, bald eagles can be found nesting along the banks. Early in the history of Illinois, the Fox River provided water for the Illinois and Michigan Canal via a feeder canal, allowing the canal to pass over the Fox River on an aqueduct. The river has flooded at least three times within the last fifty years, with some responsibility placed upon the recent rapid growth. In 1996, a flood devastated the area. The Farnsworth House, a designed by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe in 1952. In 1998, winter melt sent water downstream too fast for the frozen ground to be able to handle without flooding the valley. In 2008, the remnants of Hurricane Ike moved north into Illinois, List of rivers of Illinois List of rivers of Wisconsin Fox River Trail Tri-Cities, Illinois Wisconsin Dept
16.
Underground Railroad
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The term is also applied to the abolitionists, both black and white, free and enslaved, who aided the fugitives. Various other routes led to Mexico or overseas, an earlier escape route running south toward Florida, then a Spanish possession, existed from the late 17th century until shortly after the American Revolution. However, the now generally known as the Underground Railroad was formed in the late 1700s. One estimate suggests that by 1850,100,000 slaves had escaped via the Railroad, British North America, where slavery was prohibited, was a popular destination, as its long border gave many points of access. Most former slaves settled in Ontario, more than 30,000 people were said to have escaped there via the network during its 20-year peak period, although U. S. Census figures account for only 6,000. Numerous fugitives stories are documented in the 1872 book The Underground Railroad Records by William Still, the resulting economic impact was minuscule, but the psychological influence on slaveholders was immense. With heavy lobbying by Southern politicians, the Compromise of 1850 was passed by Congress after the Mexican–American War, because the law required sparse documentation to claim a person was a fugitive, slave catchers also kidnapped free blacks, especially children, and sold them into slavery. Southern politicians often exaggerated the number of escaped slaves and often blamed escapes on Northerners interfering with Southern property rights. The law deprived suspected slaves of the right to themselves in court. In a de facto bribe, judges were paid a fee for a decision that confirmed a suspect as a slave than for one ruling that the suspect was free. Many Northerners who might have ignored slave issues in the South were confronted by local challenges that bound them to support slavery. This was a primary grievance cited by the Union during the American Civil War, the escape network was not literally underground nor a railroad. It was figuratively underground in the sense of being an underground resistance and it was known as a railroad by way of the use of rail terminology in the code. The Underground Railroad consisted of meeting points, secret routes, transportation, and safe houses, escaped slaves would move north along the route from one way station to the next. Conductors on the railroad came from various backgrounds and included blacks, white abolitionists, former slaves. Without the presence and support of black residents, there would have been almost no chance for fugitive slaves to pass into freedom unmolested. To reduce the risk of infiltration, many associated with the Underground Railroad knew only their part of the operation. Conductors led or transported the fugitives from station to station, a conductor sometimes pretended to be a slave in order to enter a plantation
17.
Barrel
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A barrel, cask, or tun is a hollow cylindrical container, traditionally made of wooden staves bound by wooden or metal hoops. Traditionally, the barrel was a size of measure referring to a set capacity or weight of a given commodity. For example, in the UK a barrel of beer refers to a quantity of 36 imperial gallons, wine was shipped in barrels of 119 litres. Modern barrels and casks can also be made of aluminum, stainless steel, someone who makes barrels is called a barrel maker or cooper. Barrels are only one type of cooperage, other types include, but are not limited to, buckets, tubs, butter churns, hogsheads, firkins, kegs, kilderkins, tierces, rundlets, puncheons, pipes, tuns, butts, pins, and breakers. An aging barrel is used to age wine, distilled spirits such as whiskey, brandy, or rum, beer, tabasco sauce, when a wine or spirit ages in a barrel, small amounts of oxygen are introduced as the barrel lets some air in. Oxygen enters a barrel when water or alcohol is lost due to evaporation, in an environment with 100% relative humidity, very little water evaporates and so most of the loss is alcohol, a useful trick if one has a wine with very high proof. Most beverages are topped up from other barrels to prevent significant oxidation, although others such as vin jaune, beverages aged in wooden barrels take on some of the compounds in the barrel, such as vanillin and wood tannins. The presence of these depends on many factors, including the place of origin, how the staves were cut and dried. After roughly three years, most of a barrels flavor compounds have been leached out and it is well on its way to becoming neutral, barrels used for aging are typically made of French or American oak, but chestnut and redwood are also used. Some Asian beverages use Japanese cedar, which imparts an unusual, in Peru and Chile, a grape distillate named pisco is either aged in oak or in earthenware. Some wines are fermented on barrel, as opposed to in a container like steel or wine-grade HDPE tanks. Wine can also be fermented in large tanks, which—when open to the atmosphere—are called open-tops. Other wooden cooperage for storing wine or spirits range from smaller barriques to huge casks, the tastes yielded by French and American species of oak are slightly different, with French oak being subtler, while American oak gives stronger aromas. To retain the desired measure of oak influence, a winery will replace a certain percentage of its barrels every year, some winemakers use 200% new oak, where the wine is put into new oak barrels twice during the aging process. Bulk wines are more cheaply flavored by soaking oak chips in them instead of being aged in a barrel. Sherry is stored in 600-litre casks made of North American oak, the casks, or butts, are filled five-sixths full, leaving the space of two fists empty at the top to allow flor to develop on top of the wine. NOTE, This section uses both the U. S. –Irish typical spelling whiskey and the British–Canadian typical spelling whisky, laws in several jurisdictions require that whiskey be aged in wooden barrels
18.
Counterfeit money
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Counterfeit money is imitation currency produced without the legal sanction of the state or government. Producing or using counterfeit money is a form of fraud or forgery, counterfeiting is almost as old as money itself. Plated copies have found of Lydian coins which are thought to be among the first western coins. Before the introduction of money, the most prevalent method of counterfeiting involved mixing base metals with pure gold or silver. A form of counterfeiting is the production of documents by legitimate printers in response to fraudulent instructions, during World War II, the Nazis forged British pounds and American dollars. Today some of the finest counterfeit banknotes are called Superdollars because of their high quality, there has been significant counterfeiting of Euro banknotes and coins since the launch of the currency in 2002, but considerably less than for the US dollar. Traditionally, anti-counterfeiting measures involved including fine detail with raised intaglio printing on bills which allows non-experts to easily spot forgeries, on coins, milled or reeded edges are used to show that none of the valuable metal has been scraped off. Counterfeiting is as old as money itself, and is prevalent throughout history that it has been called the worlds second oldest profession. Coinage of money began in the Greek city of Lydia around 600 B. C, before the introduction of paper money, the most prevalent method of counterfeiting involved mixing base metals with pure gold or silver. A common practice was to shave the edges of a coin, precious metals collected in this way could be used to produce counterfeit coinage. A fourrée is an ancient type of coin, in which a base metal core has been plated with a precious metal to resemble its solid metal counterpart. When paper money was introduced in China in the 13th century, to control access to the paper, guards were stationed around mulberry forests, while counterfeiters were punished by death. In the 13th century Mastro Adamo was mentioned by Dante Alighieri as a counterfeiter of the Florentine fiorino, the English couple Thomas and Anne Rogers were convicted on 15 October 1690 for Clipping 40 pieces of Silver. Thomas Rogers was hanged, drawn and quartered while Anne Rogers was burnt alive, evidence supplied by an informant led to the arrest of the last of the English Coiners King David Hartley, who was executed by hanging in 1770. The extreme forms of punishment were meted out for acts of treason against state or Crown and these include producing the false money and selling it wholesale. Similarly, in America, Colonial paper currency printed by Benjamin Franklin, the theory behind such harsh punishments was that one who had the skills to counterfeit currency was considered a threat to the safety of the State, and had to be eliminated. Far more fortunate was a practitioner of the same art. Rather than executing Alexander the Barber, the Emperor chose to employ his talents in the governments own service, nations have used counterfeiting as a means of warfare
19.
Banditti of the Prairie
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Though bands of roving criminals were common in many parts of Illinois, the counties of Lee, DeKalb, Ogle, and Winnebago were especially affected by them. As the crimes continued, local citizens formed bands of vigilantes known as Regulators, a clash between the Banditti and the Regulators in Ogle County near Oregon, Illinois, resulted in the outlaws demise and decreased Banditti activity and violent crime within the county. Banditti and Regulator activity continued well after the lynching took place in 1841. Crimes continued, committed by both sides, across northern/central Illinois, the Banditti were involved in other notable events as well, including the 1845 torture-murder of merchant Colonel George Davenport, the namesake of Davenport, Iowa. A Tale of the Mississippi Valley, published in Chicago in 1850, the outlaw gangs also continued to be active in Lee and Winnebago counties following the events in Oregon. The Prairie Bandits were active across northern Illinois, especially in Lee, Ogle, Winnebago, the Banditti posed a far greater threat, for a much longer period, than the exaggerated paranoia of the two month Native American conflict. Former Illinois Governor Thomas Ford wrote in History of Illinois, In Lee County, Illinois, the group had enough allies that they were scattered throughout the county. The connections the Banditti had around the county made illegal activities such as counterfeiting and dealing in and it was reported that, at one time, every township officer in Lee County was a member of the Banditti. Acts of theft were carried on in defiance of authority, citizens were threatened when they tried to seek redress from the thieves. In the end, the Prairie Bandits activity in Ogle and Lee County became more than area residents were willing to withstand, in Ogle County the crimes that occurred in March 1841 resulted in a kangaroo court which culminated with the lynching of two Banditti near Oregon, Illinois. In nearby Lee County, a Vigilance Committee was formed by men from throughout Lee County, beginning with the events on March 21,1841, violence and retribution escalated in the area around the Ogle County seat of Oregon. Illinois, still frontier in 1841, was settled by large numbers of migrants after the Black Hawk War, the settlers were followed to the area by a criminal element. The Banditti of the Prairie were part of the problem that plagued much of northern Illinois. As such, the citizens of Ogle County organized and eventually took the law into their own hands. On March 21,1841, six members of the Banditti were arrested on charges of counterfeiting and they were held at the Ogle County Jail in the city of Oregon. That night a fire out in the newly completed courthouse. The fire, set by the Banditti, was meant as a diversion to facilitate the escape of the gang members. The diversion failed, though the courthouse burned to the ground, the court records concerning the case had been safely concealed in the home of the court clerk
20.
Cook County, Illinois
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Cook County is a county in the U. S. state of Illinois. It is the second-most populous county in the United States after Los Angeles County, as of 2015, the population was 5,238,216. Its county seat is Chicago, the largest city in Illinois, more than 40% of all residents of Illinois live in Cook County. Cook Countys population is larger than that of 29 individual U. S. states, there are 135 incorporated municipalities partially or wholly within Cook County, the largest of which is Chicago, which is home to approximately 54% of the population of the county. That part of the county which lies outside of the Chicago city limits is divided into 29 townships, geographically, the county is the sixth-largest in Illinois by land area. It shares the states Lake Michigan shoreline with Lake County, including its lake area, the county has a total area of 1,635 square miles, the largest county in Illinois, of which 945 square miles is land and 690 square miles is water. Land-use in Cook County is mainly urban and densely populated, Cook County is included in the Chicago-Naperville-Elgin, IL-IN-WI Metropolitan Statistical Area. It is surrounded by what are known as the five collar counties, Cook County was created on January 15,1831, out of Putnam County by an act of the Illinois General Assembly. It was the 54th county established in Illinois and was named after Daniel Cook and he served as the second U. S. Representative from Illinois and the states first Attorney General, in 1839, DuPage County was carved out of Cook County. Cook County is the home rule county in Illinois. The Cook County Code is the codification of Cook Countys local ordinances, Cook Countys current County Board president is Toni Preckwinkle. The Circuit Court of Cook County, which is a State agency funded, in part, by Cook County, the Cook County Department of Corrections, also known as the Cook County Jail, is the largest single-site jail in the nation. The Cook County Juvenile Detention Center, under the authority of the Chief Judge of the State court, is the first juvenile center in the nation, the Cook County Law Library is the second-largest county law library in the nation. In the 1980s, Cook County was ground zero to an extensive FBI investigation called Operation Greylord, ninety-two officials were indicted, including 17 judges,48 lawyers,8 policemen,10 deputy sheriffs,8 court officials, and a state legislator. The Bureau of Health Services administers the public health services and is the third-largest public health system in the nation. Three hospitals are part of system, John H. Stroger. Hospital of Cook County, Provident Hospital, and Oak Forest Hospital of Cook County, the Cook County Department of Transportation is responsible for the design and maintenance of roadways in the county
21.
Securitas (Swedish security company)
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Securitas AB is a security services, monitoring, consulting and investigation group, based in Stockholm, Sweden. The group has approximately 300,000 employees in over 60 countries worldwide, Securitas AB is listed at Nasdaq OMX Stockholm, Large Cap segment. In 2014, the group had sales of 70, 217M SEK. Securitas AB owns the Swiss security company Protectas AG in Switzerland, Securitas AB was founded in 1934 in Helsingborg, Sweden, as AB Hälsingborgs Nattvakt, when Erik Philip-Sörensen bought a small guarding company. In 1935, the name was changed to Förenade Svenska Vakt AB, the company expanded through acquisitions of several small security companies, initially in southern Sweden. In 1949, AB Securitas Alarm was founded as the companys subsidiary, and during the following decade. In 1972, the group was rebranded as Securitas, the Roman goddess of security and stability, the dots are described as representing the groups core values of Integrity, Vigilance and Helpfulness. In 1983, Securitas was sold to the holding company Skrinet, under the new ownership, the group focused on security, and in 1989, an international expansion began, with acquisitions in Norway, Denmark and Portugal, and establishment in Hungary. In 1991, Securitas was listed at the Stockholm Stock Exchange, in 1994, the group distributed ASSA AB to its shareholders. Throughout the 1990s, foreign acquisitions were made in 11 European countries, in 1999, Securitas acquired Pinkerton, and in 2000, Burns Security, and several regional security companies in the United States. These acquisitions made Securitas one of the largest security companies in the world, in 2001, a new organization took effect, with five business areas according to types of services offered, and Loomis Fargo & Company was acquired. S. and European operations. In 2006, the divisions Securitas Systems, and Securitas Direct were distributed to the groups shareholders, in the same year, the divisions Mobile, and Alert Services were created. In 2007, the United Kingdom cash handling services of the division Loomis were sold to Vaultex Ltd, owned by HSBC, Securitas began operating in Peru in November 2007. In 2008, the division Loomis was distributed to the groups shareholders, in 2010, Securitas acquired the security-services operations of Reliance Security Group in the United Kingdom. In 2011, Securitas acquired Chubb Security Personnel in the United Kingdom and this government services division of Securitas became known as Securitas Critical Infrastructure Services. This division operates both in the United States and worldwide when cleared services are needed overseas, in 2015 Securitas acquired Diebold Incorporated’s Electronic Security business in North America. Diebold´s North American Electronic Security business, based in Green, Ohio, diebold´s North American Electronic Security business has approximately 1100 employees. The operation includes more than 55000 monitored customer locations and 200000 sites serviced, Securitas is divided into three main business segments, Security Services North America, Security Services Europe, and Security Services Ibero-America
22.
United States territorial acquisitions
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This is a United States territorial acquisitions and conquests list, beginning with American independence. Note that this list primarily concerns land the United States acquired from other nation-states, Territorial acquisitions derived from the displacement of Native Americans are not listed here. The 1783 Treaty of Paris with Great Britain defined the borders of the United States. It generally stretched from the Eastern Seaboard to the Mississippi River in the west, there were ambiguities in the treaty regarding the exact border with Canada to the north that led to disputes that were resolved by the Webster–Ashburton Treaty in 1842. Beginning in the late 18th century, the new nation organized areas west of the Original thirteen states into several United States territories, the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, was negotiated with Napoleon during the presidency of Thomas Jefferson, the territory was acquired from France for $15 million. A small portion of land was ceded to Britain in 1818 in exchange for the Red River Basin. More of this land was ceded to Spain in 1819 with the Florida Purchase, West Florida was declared to be a U. S. possession in 1810 by President James Madison after the territory had declared its independence from Spain. Madison ordered the U. S. Army to take control, six weeks later, the army entered and occupied the capital, St. Francisville, putting an end to the republic after 74 days of independence. Spain did not relinquish its claim to sovereignty until ratification of the Adams-Onís Treaty, general Andrew Jackson personally accepted the delivery of West Florida from its Spanish governor on July 17,1821. The Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819 with Spain resulted in Spains cession of East Florida, Article III of the treaty, when properly surveyed, resulted in the acquisition of a small part of central Colorado. Webster-Ashburton Treaty of 1842 with Britain split the territory in Maine and New Brunswick and finalized the border with Canada. In 1850 Britain ceded to the U. S. less than one acre of underwater rock in Lake Erie near Buffalo for a lighthouse, Congress approved the annexation of Texas on February 28,1845. On December 29,1845, Texas became the 28th state, Mexico acknowledged the loss of territory in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo of 1848. The San Juan Islands were claimed and jointly occupied by the U. S. arbitration led to the sole U. S. possession of the San Juan Islands since 1872. The United States paid $15 million and agreed to pay claims made by American citizens against Mexico which amounted to more than $3 million. In the Gadsden Purchase of 1853, the United States purchased a strip of land along the Mexico–United States border for $10 million, now in New Mexico and this territory was intended for a southern transcontinental railroad. Alaska Purchase from the Russian Empire for $7.2 million on March 30,1867, the land went through several administrative changes before becoming an organized territory on May 11,1912, and the 49th state of the U. S. on January 3,1959. The Kingdom of Hawaii was closely linked by missionary work and trade to the U. S. by the 1880s, in 1893 business leaders overthrew the Queen of Hawaii and sought annexation
23.
George B. McClellan
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George Brinton McClellan was an American soldier, civil engineer, railroad executive, and politician. A graduate of West Point, McClellan served with distinction during the Mexican-American War, although McClellan was meticulous in his planning and preparations, these very characteristics hampered his ability to challenge aggressive opponents in a fast-moving battlefield environment. He chronically overestimated the strength of units and was reluctant to apply principles of mass. McClellan organised and led the Union army in the Peninsula Campaign in southeastern Virginia from March through July 1862 and it was the first large-scale offensive in the Eastern Theater. General McClellan failed to maintain the trust of President Abraham Lincoln and he did not trust his commander-in-chief and was privately derisive of him. McClellan went on to become the unsuccessful Democratic Party nominee in the 1864 presidential election against Lincoln, the effectiveness of his campaign was damaged when he repudiated his partys platform, which promised an end to the war and negotiations with the Confederacy. He served as the 24th Governor of New Jersey from 1878 to 1881 and he eventually became a writer, and vigorously defended his Civil War conduct. Most modern authorities have assessed McClellan as a battlefield general. Some historians view him as a capable commander whose reputation suffered unfairly at the hands of pro-Lincoln partisans who made him a scapegoat for the Unions military setbacks. After the war, Ulysses S. Grant was asked for his opinion of McClellan as a general and he replied, McClellan is to me one of the mysteries of the war. Also, when Robert E. Lee was asked who was the best Union general, George Brinton McClellan was born in Philadelphia, the son of a prominent surgeon, Dr. George McClellan, the founder of Jefferson Medical College. His fathers family was of Ulster Scots heritage and his mother was Elizabeth Sophia Steinmetz Brinton McClellan, daughter of a leading Pennsylvania family, a woman noted for her considerable grace and refinement. The couple had five children, a daughter, Frederica, then three sons, John, George, and Arthur, and finally a daughter, Mary. McClellan was the great-grandson of Revolutionary War general Samuel McClellan, of Woodstock and he attended the University of Pennsylvania in 1840 at age 13, resigning himself to the study of law. After two years, he changed his goal to military service, with the assistance of his fathers letter to President John Tyler, young George was accepted at the United States Military Academy in 1842, the academy having waived its normal minimum age of 16. At West Point, he was an energetic and ambitious cadet, deeply interested in the teachings of Dennis Hart Mahan and his closest friends were aristocratic Southerners such as James Stuart, Dabney Maury, Cadmus Wilcox, and A. P. Hill. He graduated in 1846, second in his class of 59 cadets and he was commissioned a brevet second lieutenant in the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers. McClellans first assignment was with a company of engineers formed at West Point and he arrived near the mouth of the Rio Grande in October 1846, well prepared for action with a double-barreled shotgun, two pistols, a saber, a dress sword, and a Bowie knife
24.
Illinois Central Railroad
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A line also connected Chicago with Sioux City, Iowa. There was a significant branch to Omaha, Nebraska, west of Fort Dodge, Iowa, the Sioux Falls branch has been abandoned in its entirety. The Canadian National Railway acquired control of the IC in 1998, riding on the City of New OrleansIllinois Central Monday morning rail Fifteen cars and fifteen restless riders Three conductors and 25 sacks of mail. Good morning America, how are you, – Steve Goodman, City of New Orleans,1970 The IC is one of the early Class I railroads in the US. Its roots go back to abortive attempts by the Illinois General Assembly to charter a railroad linking the northern and southern parts of the state of Illinois. In 1850 U. S. President Millard Fillmore signed a grant for the construction of the railroad. The Illinois Central was chartered by the Illinois General Assembly on February 10,1851, senator Stephen Douglas and later President Abraham Lincoln were both Illinois Central men who lobbied for it. Douglas owned land near the terminal in Chicago, Lincoln was a lawyer for the railroad. Upon its completion in 1856 the IC was the longest railroad in the world and its main line went from Cairo, Illinois, at the southern tip of the state, to Galena, in the northwest corner. A branch line went from Centralia, to the growing city of Chicago. In Chicago its tracks were laid along the shore of Lake Michigan and on an offshore causeway downtown, in 1867 the Illinois Central extended its track into Iowa, and during the 1870s and 1880s the IC acquired and expanded railroads in the southern United States. IC lines crisscrossed the state of Mississippi and went as far as New Orleans, Louisiana, to the south and Louisville, Kentucky, in the 1880s, northern lines were built to Dodgeville, Wisconsin, Sioux Falls, South Dakota, and Omaha, Nebraska. Further expansion continued into the twentieth century. The Illinois Central, and the other Harriman lines owned by E. H, Harriman, was the target of the Illinois Central shopmens strike of 1911. Although marked by violence and sabotage in the south, midwest, and western states, the railroads simply hired replacements and withstood diminishing union pressure. The strike was called off in 1915. The totals above do not include the Waterloo RR, Batesville Southwestern, Peabody Short Line or CofG, on December 31,1925 IC/Y&MV/G&SI operated 6,562 route-miles on 11,030 miles of track, A&V and VS&P added 330 route-miles and 491 track-miles. At the end of 1970 IC operated 6,761 miles of road and 11,159 of track, on August 10,1972, the Illinois Central Railroad merged with the Gulf, Mobile and Ohio Railroad to form the Illinois Central Gulf Railroad
25.
Abraham Lincoln
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Abraham Lincoln was an American politician and lawyer who served as the 16th President of the United States from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. Lincoln led the United States through its Civil War—its bloodiest war and perhaps its greatest moral, constitutional, in doing so, he preserved the Union, abolished slavery, strengthened the federal government, and modernized the economy. Born in Hodgenville, Kentucky, Lincoln grew up on the frontier in Kentucky. Largely self-educated, he became a lawyer in Illinois, a Whig Party leader, elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1846, Lincoln promoted rapid modernization of the economy through banks, tariffs, and railroads. Reentering politics in 1854, he became a leader in building the new Republican Party, in 1860, Lincoln secured the Republican Party presidential nomination as a moderate from a swing state. Though he gained little support in the slaveholding states of the South. Subsequently, on April 12,1861, a Confederate attack on Fort Sumter inspired the North to enthusiastically rally behind the Union. Politically, Lincoln fought back by pitting his opponents against each other, by carefully planned political patronage and his Gettysburg Address became an iconic endorsement of the principles of nationalism, republicanism, equal rights, liberty, and democracy. Lincoln initially concentrated on the military and political dimensions of the war and his primary goal was to reunite the nation. He suspended habeas corpus, leading to the ex parte Merryman decision. Lincoln closely supervised the war effort, especially the selection of top generals, including his most successful general, Lincoln tried repeatedly to capture the Confederate capital at Richmond, each time a general failed, Lincoln substituted another, until finally Grant succeeded. As the war progressed, his moves toward ending slavery included the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863. On April 14,1865, five days after the surrender of Confederate commanding general Robert E. Lee, Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, a Confederate sympathizer. Secretary of War Edwin Stanton launched a manhunt for Booth, and 12 days later on April 26, Lincoln has been consistently ranked both by scholars and the public as among the greatest U. S. presidents. Abraham Lincoln was born February 12,1809, the child of Thomas and Nancy Hanks Lincoln, in a one-room log cabin on the Sinking Spring Farm near Hodgenville. He was a descendant of Samuel Lincoln, an Englishman who migrated from Hingham, Norfolk to its namesake of Hingham, samuels grandson and great-grandson began the familys western migration, which passed through New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. Lincolns paternal grandfather and namesake, Captain Abraham Lincoln, moved the family from Virginia to Jefferson County, Captain Lincoln was killed in an Indian raid in 1786. His children, including eight-year-old Thomas, the presidents father
26.
John Brown (abolitionist)
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John Brown was an American abolitionist who believed armed insurrection was the only way to overthrow the institution of slavery in the United States. Brown first gained attention when he led groups of volunteers during the Bleeding Kansas crisis of 1856. Dissatisfied with the pacifism of the organized abolitionist movement, he said, during the Kansas campaign, Brown commanded forces at the Battle of Black Jack and the Battle of Osawatomie. He and his supporters killed five pro-slavery supporters in the Pottawatomie massacre of May 1856 in response to the sacking of Lawrence by pro-slavery forces, in 1859, Brown led a raid on the federal armory at Harpers Ferry, to start a liberation movement among the slaves there. During the raid, he seized the armory, seven people were killed and he intended to arm slaves with weapons from the arsenal, but the attack failed. Within 36 hours, Browns men had fled or been killed or captured by local farmers, militiamen. Marines led by Robert E. Lee and he was tried for treason against the Commonwealth of Virginia, the murder of five men and inciting a slave insurrection. He was found guilty on all counts and was hanged, Historians agree that the Harpers Ferry raid escalated tensions that, a year later, led to the Souths secession and Civil War. David Potter has said the effect of Browns raid was greater than the philosophical effect of the Lincoln–Douglas debates. Some writers, including Bruce Olds, describe him as a zealot, others. Oates, regard him as one of the most perceptive human beings of his generation, David S. John Browns Body was a popular Union marching song during the Civil War and made him a martyr. Browns actions prior to the Civil War as an abolitionist, and he is sometimes memorialized as a heroic martyr and a visionary, and sometimes vilified as a madman and a terrorist. John Brown was born May 9,1800, in Torrington and he was the fourth of the eight children of Owen Brown and Ruth Mills and grandson of Capt. Brown could trace his ancestry back to 17th-century English Puritans, in 1805, the family moved to Hudson, Ohio, where Owen Brown opened a tannery. Browns personal religion is well documented in the papers of the Rev Clarence Gee. Browns father had as an apprentice Jesse R. Grant, father of Ulysses S. Grant, at 16, Brown left his family and went to Plainfield, Massachusetts, where he enrolled in a preparatory program. Shortly afterward, he transferred to the Morris Academy in Litchfield and he hoped to become a Congregationalist minister, but money ran out and he suffered from eye inflammations, which forced him to give up the academy and return to Ohio. In Hudson, he worked briefly at his fathers tannery before opening a successful tannery of his own outside of town with his adopted brother, in 1820, Brown married Dianthe Lusk
27.
Frederick Douglass
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Frederick Douglass was an African-American social reformer, abolitionist, orator, writer, and statesman. In his time, he was described by abolitionists as a living counter-example to slaveholders arguments that slaves lacked the capacity to function as independent American citizens. Northerners at the found it hard to believe that such a great orator had once been a slave. After the Civil War, Douglass remained an active campaigner against slavery and wrote his last autobiography, Life, First published in 1881 and revised in 1892, three years before his death, it covered events during and after the Civil War. Douglass also actively supported womens suffrage, and held public offices. Douglass was a believer in the equality of all peoples, whether black, female, Native American. He was also a believer in dialogue and in making alliances across racial and ideological divides, one biographer argues, The most influential African American of the nineteenth century, Douglass made a career of agitating the American conscience. He spoke and wrote on behalf of a variety of causes, womens rights, temperance, peace, land reform, free public education. But he devoted the bulk of his time, immense talent and these were the central concerns of his long reform career. Douglass understood that the struggle for emancipation and equality demanded forceful, persistent, and he recognized that African Americans must play a conspicuous role in that struggle. Less than a month before his death, when a black man solicited his advice to an African American just starting out in the world, Douglass replied without hesitation. Frederick Augustus Washington Bailey was born into slavery on the Eastern Shore of the Chesapeake Bay in Talbot County, the plantation was between Hillsboro and Cordova, his birthplace was likely his grandmothers shack east of Tappers Corner, and west of Tuckahoe Creek. The exact date of his birth is unknown, and he chose to celebrate his birthday on February 14. In his first autobiography, Douglass stated, I have no knowledge of my age. Douglass was of mixed race, which likely included Native American on his mothers side and he was given his name by his mother, Harriet Bailey. After escaping to the North years later, he took the surname Douglass and he wrote of his earliest times with his mother, The opinion was. Whispered that my master was my father, but of the correctness of this opinion I know nothing and my mother and I were separated when I was but an infant. It common custom, in the part of Maryland from which I ran away, … I do not recollect ever seeing my mother by the light of day
28.
John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry
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John Browns raid on Harpers Ferry was an effort by armed abolitionist John Brown to initiate an armed slave revolt in 1859 by taking over a United States arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia. Browns party of 22 was defeated by a company of U. S. Marines, Colonel Robert E. Lee was in overall command of the operation to retake the arsenal. Brown came with a group of men minimally trained for military action. His group included 18 men besides himself, Northern abolitionist groups sent 198 breech-loading.52 caliber Sharps carbines and 950 pikes, in preparation for the raid. The United States Armory was a complex of buildings that manufactured small arms for the U. S. Army, with an Arsenal that was thought to contain 100,000 muskets. Brown attempted to more black recruits. He tried recruiting Frederick Douglass as an officer to the slaves in a meeting held in a quarry at Chambersburg. It was at this meeting that ex-slave Emperor Shields Green consented to join with John Brown on his attack on the United States Armory, Douglass declined, indicating to Brown that he believed the raid was a suicide mission. The plan was an attack on the government that would array the whole country against us. You will never get out alive, he warned, the Kennedy Farmhouse served as barracks, arsenal, supply depot, mess hall, debate club, and home. It was very crowded and life there was tedious, Brown was worried about arousing neighbors suspicions. As a result, the raiders had to stay indoors during the daytime, without much to do but study, drill, argue politics, discuss religion, Browns daughter-in-law Martha served as cook and housekeeper. His daughter Annie served as lookout, Brown wanted women at the farm, to prevent suspicions of a large all-male group. The raiders went outside at night to drill and get fresh air, thunderstorms were welcome since they concealed noise from Browns neighbors. Brown did not plan to have a raid and escape to the mountains. He believed that on the first night of action, 200-500 black slaves would join his line and he ridiculed the militia and regular army that might oppose him. He planned to send agents to nearby plantations, rallying the slaves and he planned to hold Harpers Ferry for a short time, expecting that as many volunteers, white and black, would join him as would form against him. He would move rapidly southward, sending out armed bands along the way and they would free more slaves, obtain food, horses and hostages, and destroy slaveholders morale
29.
John Alexander McClernand
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John Alexander McClernand was an American lawyer and politician, and a Union general in the American Civil War. He was a prominent Democratic politician in Illinois and a member of the United States House of Representatives before the war, McClernand was firmly dedicated to the principles of Jacksonian democracy and supported the Compromise of 1850. McClernand was commissioned a general of volunteers in 1861. His was a case of the politician-in-uniform coming into conflict with career Army officers. He served as a commander under Ulysses S. Grant in the Western Theater, fighting in the battles of Belmont, Fort Donelson. McClernand left the Army in 1864 and served as a judge, McClernand was born in Breckinridge County, Kentucky, near Hardinsburg, but his family moved to Shawneetown, Illinois, when he was quite young. His early life and career were similar to that of another Illinois lawyer of the time and he was largely self-educated and was admitted to the Illinois bar in 1832. In that same year he served as a private in the Blackhawk War. In 1835 McClernand founded the Shawneetown Democrat newspaper, which he edited, as a Democrat he served in 1836 and from 1840 to 1843 in the Illinois House of Representatives. He served in the United States House of Representatives from 1843 until 1851 and he was known for his bombastic oratory and his adherence to Jacksonian principles. His dislike of abolitionists generated favor among his constituents, many of whom were natives of slaveholding states. McClernand vigorously opposed the Wilmot Proviso and he was an important ally to Illinois Senator Stephen A. Douglas. Douglas played a role in formulating the Compromise of 1850. McClernand also served as Chairman of the Committee on Public Lands from 1845 to 1847, in 1850, McClernand declined to be a candidate for renomination, and his term expired in 1851. McClernand was again elected to the House to fill a vacancy caused by the death of Thomas L. Harris and his term began on November 8. He was a strong Unionist and introduced the resolution of July 15,1861, pledging money, McClernand supported the campaign of his friend, Stephen Douglas, in the 1860 presidential election. He served as one of his managers during the divisive Democratic presidential nomination convention held in Charleston. In November 1842, McClernand married Sarah Dunlap of Jacksonville, Illinois, Sarah was a daughter of James Dunlap, who served as a quartermaster in the Union Army during the Civil War, eventually appointed to the rank of brevet major general
30.
American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
31.
Baltimore Plot
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The Baltimore Plot was an alleged conspiracy in late February 1861 to assassinate President-elect Abraham Lincoln en route to his inauguration. Allan Pinkerton, founder of the Pinkerton National Detective Agency, played a key role by managing Lincolns security throughout the journey. Though scholars debate whether or not the threat was real, clearly Lincoln and his advisors believed that there was a threat and took actions to ensure his safe passage through Baltimore, Maryland. On November 6,1860, Lincoln was elected as the 16th President of the United States, a Republican, and the first to be elected from that party. Shortly after his election, many representatives of southern states made it clear that the Confederacys secession from the U. S. was inevitable, which greatly increased tension across the nation. A plot to assassinate Lincoln in Baltimore was alleged, and he arrived secretly in Washington. However, the efforts at security may well have been prudent, Allan Pinkerton was commissioned by the railroad to provide security for the president-elect on his journey to Washington, D. C. Maryland was a state with strong Southern sympathies and therefore potentially dangerous for the Republican president elect to pass through. Two months following his journey, Baltimore citizens attacked a Union Army regiment from Massachusetts as it marched through the city on its way to Washington, when Virginia seceded and joined the Confederacy, it became necessary for Lincoln to cross Maryland to reach Washington. Pinkerton, in particular, was cautious, which he would demonstrate during the coming war. Allan Pinkerton had been hired by railroad officials to investigate suspicious activities and this opportunity would present itself during the President-elects passage through Baltimore on February 23,1861. Pinkerton tried to persuade Lincoln to cancel his stop at Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, and proceed straight through Baltimore. Pinkerton famously clashed with Lincolns friend and escort, Ward Hill Lamon, Lamon offered Lincoln a Revolver and a Bowie Knife but Pinkerton protested that he would not for the world have it said that Mr. Lincoln had to enter the National Capitol armed. On the evening of February 22, telegraph lines to Baltimore were cut at Pinkertons behest to prevent communications from passing between potential conspirators in Pennsylvania and Maryland, meanwhile, Lincoln left Harrisburg on a special train and arrived secretly in Baltimore in the middle of the night. The most dangerous link in the journey was in Baltimore, where a city ordinance prohibited night-time rail travel through the downtown area, therefore, the railcars had to be horsedrawn between the President Street and Camden Street stations. According to Pinkerton, a captain of the roads reported that there was a plot to stab the President-elect, the alleged plan was to have several assassins, armed with knives, interspersed throughout the crowd that would gather to greet Lincoln at the President Street station. When Lincoln emerged from the car, which he had to do to change trains, on the afternoon of February 23, Lincolns scheduled train arrived in Baltimore. The large crowd gathered at the station to see the president-elect quickly learned that Lincoln had already passed by
32.
Baltimore
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Baltimore is the largest city in the U. S. state of Maryland, and the 29th-most populous city in the country. It was established by the Constitution of Maryland and is not part of any county, thus, it is the largest independent city in the United States, with a population of 621,849 as of 2015. As of 2010, the population of the Baltimore Metropolitan Area was 2.7 million, founded in 1729, Baltimore is the second largest seaport in the Mid-Atlantic. Baltimores Inner Harbor was once the leading port of entry for immigrants to the United States. With hundreds of identified districts, Baltimore has been dubbed a city of neighborhoods, in the War of 1812, Francis Scott Key wrote The Star-Spangled Banner, later the American national anthem, in Baltimore. More than 65,000 properties, or roughly one in three buildings in the city, are listed on the National Register, more than any city in the nation. The city has 289 properties listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the historical records of the government of Baltimore are located at the Baltimore City Archives. The city is named after Cecil Calvert, second Lord Baltimore, of the Irish House of Lords, Baltimore Manor was the name of the estate in County Longford on which the Calvert family lived in Ireland. Baltimore is an anglicization of the Irish name Baile an Tí Mhóir, in 1608, Captain John Smith traveled 210 miles from Jamestown to the uppermost Chesapeake Bay, leading the first European expedition to the Patapsco River. The name Patapsco is derived from pota-psk-ut, which translates to backwater or tide covered with froth in Algonquian dialect, a quarter century after John Smiths voyage, English colonists began to settle in Maryland. The area constituting the modern City of Baltimore and its area was first settled by David Jones in 1661. He claimed the area today as Harbor East on the east bank of the Jones Falls stream. In the early 1600s, the immediate Baltimore vicinity was populated, if at all. The Baltimore area had been inhabited by Native Americans since at least the 10th millennium BC, one Paleo-Indian site and several Archaic period and Woodland period archaeological sites have been identified in Baltimore, including four from the Late Woodland period. During the Late Woodland period, the culture that is called the Potomac Creek complex resided in the area from Baltimore to the Rappahannock River in Virginia. It was located on the Bush River on land that in 1773 became part of Harford County, in 1674, the General Assembly passed An Act for erecting a Court-house and Prison in each County within this Province. The site of the house and jail for Baltimore County was evidently Old Baltimore near the Bush River. In 1683, the General Assembly passed An Act for Advancement of Trade to establish towns, ports, one of the towns established by the act in Baltimore County was on Bush River, on Town Land, near the Court-House
33.
Confederate States of America
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The Confederate States, officially the Confederate States of America, commonly referred to as the Confederacy, was a breakaway country of 11 secessionist slave states existing from 1861 to 1865. It was never recognized as an Independent country, although it achieved belligerent status by Britain. A new Confederate government was established in February 1861 before Lincoln took office in March, after the Civil War began in April, four slave states of the Upper South – Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina – also declared their secession and joined the Confederacy. The government of the United States rejected the claims of secession, the Civil War began with the April 12,1861, Confederate attack upon Fort Sumter, a Union fort in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. In spring 1865, after four years of fighting which led to an estimated 620,000 military deaths, all the Confederate forces surrendered. Jefferson Davis later lamented that the Confederacy had disappeared in 1865, Missouri and Kentucky were represented by partisan factions from those states, while the legitimate governments of those two states retained formal adherence to the Union. Also fighting for the Confederacy were two of the Five Civilized Tribes located in Indian Territory and a new, but uncontrolled, Confederate Territory of Arizona. Efforts by certain factions in Maryland to secede were halted by federal imposition of law, while Delaware, though of divided loyalty. A Unionist government in parts of Virginia organized the new state of West Virginia. With the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1,1863, the Union made abolition of slavery a war goal, as Union forces moved southward, large numbers of plantation slaves were freed. Many joined the Union lines, enrolling in service as soldiers, teamsters and laborers, the most notable advance was Shermans March to the Sea in late 1864. Much of the Confederacys infrastructure was destroyed, including telegraphs, railroads, plantations in the path of Shermans forces were severely damaged. Internal movement became increasingly difficult for Southerners, weakening the economy and these losses created an insurmountable disadvantage in men, materiel, and finance. Public support for Confederate President Jefferson Daviss administration eroded over time due to repeated military reverses, economic hardships, after four years of campaigning, Richmond was captured by Union forces in April 1865. Shortly afterward, Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered to Union General Ulysses S. Grant, President Davis was captured on May 10,1865, and jailed in preparation for a treason trial that was ultimately never held. The U. S. government began a process known as Reconstruction which attempted to resolve the political and constitutional issues of the Civil War. By 1877, the Compromise of 1877 ended Reconstruction in the former Confederate states, Confederate veterans had been temporarily disenfranchised by Reconstruction policy. The prewar South had many areas, the war left the entire region economically devastated by military action, ruined infrastructure
34.
United States Army Counterintelligence
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In other branches of the U. S. The Army continues to keep these two investigative channels separate via Army CI and Army CID, even though parallel investigations do happen periodically, Counterintelligence Special Agents are the operational/investigative personnel within United States Army Counterintelligence who actually conduct the various Counterintelligence activities. Senior counterintelligence personnel provide guidance to junior Special Agents and supervise their training, conduct liaison and operational coordination with foreign, the position of Counterintelligence Special Agent is not an entry level Army position, and applicants are usually drawn from the existing ranks. Department of the Army Pamphlet 611-21 requires applicants be able to, a physical profile of 222221 or better. Be a minimum age of 21 after training for accreditation as a Special Agent, be a minimum rank of E5/Sergeant after training for accreditation as a Special Agent. Possess an occupational specialty with a physical demands rating of medium, have a minimum score of 105 in aptitude area ST on ASVAB tests administered on or after July 1,2004, Be a high school graduate or equivalent. Possess good voice quality and be able to speak English without an accent or impediment. Never been a member of the U. S, must be interviewed per DA Pam 600-8, procedure 3-33 by a qualified Counterintelligence Special Agent. Must receive a command level recommendation for initial appointment, must not have immediate family members or immediate family members of the Soldiers spouse who reside in a country within whose boundaries physical or mental coercion is known to be common practice. Have neither commercial nor vested interest in a country within whose boundaries physical or mental coercion is known to be a practice against persons acting in the interest of the U. S. Must receive a waiver for any family members who are not U. S. citizens. This allows for the removal of the Counterintelligence Special Agent MOS if the probationary Agent is deemed unfit for duty as a Special Agent. Note, As of 2015, CISAC at Fort Devens, MA, has closed with a new U. S. Army Reserve CISAC being established at Fort Huachuca. This new CISAC has the same curriculum as the Active Army component school, Counterintelligence Special Agents on operational/strategic assignments within the United States usually dress in professional business attire. Assignment type will dictate what clothing is appropriate, which can include civilian attire local to the area, although agents may be issued other weapons on special assignments, they are typically issued a standard M9 or M11 pistol as their primary weapon. For combat environments, special agents are issued the M4 carbine. In the popular comic book Watchmen and its adaptation, a character named Forbes is an Agent of U. S. Army Intelligence. In the 1975 movie The Imposter, an intelligence agent is hired to impersonate a rich builder who has been marked for assassination
35.
Lafayette C. Baker
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Lafayette Curry Baker was a United States investigator and spy, serving the Union Army, during the American Civil War and under Presidents Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson. Baker was born in Stafford, New York on October 13,1826 and he became a mechanic, moved to Michigan in 1839, returned to New York in 1848, moved to California in 1853, and was a San Francisco vigilante in 1856. He moved to the District of Columbia in 1861, Bakers exploits are mainly known through his book A History of the Secret Service which he published in 1867 after his fall from grace. During the early months of the Civil War, he spied for General Winfield Scott on Confederate forces in Virginia, despite numerous scrapes, he returned to Washington, D. C. with information that Scott evidently thought valuable enough to raise him to the rank of captain. As Provost Marshal of Washington, D. C. from September 12,1862 to November 7,1863 and he was appointed colonel of D. C. According to Professor Glenn Although his accomplishments were many, Baker operated with little regard for warrants or the rights of those he pursued. He is also reported to have employed brutal interrogation techniques in order to obtain information, Baker was recalled to Washington after the assassination of President Lincoln in 1865. Within two days of his arrival in Washington, Bakers agents in Maryland had made four arrests and had the names of two conspirators, including the actual presidential assassin John Wilkes Booth. Before the month was out, Booth along with David Herold were found holed up in a barn and Booth was himself shot, Baker received a generous share of the $100,000 reward offered to the person who apprehended the presidents killer. President Andrew Johnson nominated Baker for appointment to the grade of general of volunteers, April 26,1865. Baker was mustered out of the volunteers on January 15,1866, the following year, Baker was sacked from his position as government spymaster. President Johnson accused him of spying on him, a charge Baker admitted in his book which he published in response and he also announced that he had had Booths diary in his possession which was being suppressed by the Department of War and Secretary Stanton. When the diary was produced, Baker claimed that eighteen vital pages were missing. It was suggested by Otto Eisenschiml in his book, Why Was Lincoln Murdered. that these would implicate Stanton in the assassination, however, this notion has been proven as speculation by author Edward Steers Jr. and based on non-reputable sources. On July 3,1868, Baker retired to home complaining of soreness from a gun wound during a hunting trip and he had been out drinking with Wally Pollack, his brother-in-law, and came home feeling sick, passing away later that night, reportedly from meningitis. As it was eighteen months after his explosive allegations, Lincoln conspiracists have suggested he was killed by the War Department to silence him. Baker had been unwittingly consuming the poison for months, mixed into imported beer provided by his wifes brother Wally Pollack, Wally worked for the War Department, though whether he acted on orders or alone has yet to be determined. S. Baker is buried in Forest Hills Cemetery, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Eicher, John H. and David J. Eicher, Civil War High Commands
36.
United States Secret Service
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The United States Secret Service is a federal law enforcement agency under the U. S. Department of Homeland Security. Until 2003, the Service was part of the U. S. Department of the Treasury, the Secret Services initial responsibility was to investigate counterfeiting of U. S. currency, which was rampant following the U. S. Civil War. The agency then evolved into the United States first domestic intelligence and counterintelligence agency, the Secret Service has two primary missions, investigation of financial crimes and physical protection of designated protectees. After the 1901 assassination of President William McKinley, Congress also directed the Secret Service to protect the President of the United States, Protection remains the other key mission of the United States Secret Service. From 1997 until 2013, legislation became effective limiting Secret Service protection to former Presidents, President Barack Obama signed legislation reversing this limit and reinstating lifetime protection on January 10,2013. The Secret Service investigates thousands of incidents a year of individuals threatening the President of the United States, the Director of Secret Service is appointed by the President of the United States. With a reported one third of the currency in circulation being counterfeit at the time, Chief William P. Wood was sworn in by Secretary of the Treasury Hugh McCulloch. It was commissioned in Washington, D. C. as the Secret Service Division of the Department of the Treasury with the mission of suppressing counterfeiting, the legislation creating the agency was on Abraham Lincolns desk the night he was assassinated. At the time, the other federal law enforcement agencies were the United States Park Police. Post Office Departments Office of Instructions and Mail Depredations, and the U. S. Marshals Service, the Marshals did not have the manpower to investigate all crime under federal jurisdiction, so the Secret Service began to investigate everything from murder to bank robbery to illegal gambling. After the assassination of President William McKinley in 1901, Congress informally requested that the Secret Service provide presidential protection, a year later, the Secret Service assumed full-time responsibility for presidential protection. In 1902, William Craig became the first Secret Service agent to die while serving, the Secret Service was the first U. S. domestic intelligence and counterintelligence agency. Domestic intelligence collection and counterintelligence responsibilities were vested in the Federal Bureau of Investigation upon the FBIs creation in 1908, the Secret Service assisted in arresting Japanese American leaders and in the Japanese American internment during World War II. Secret Service is not a part of the U. S, on October 16, the day of the summit, Burnham discovered a man holding a concealed palm pistol standing at the El Paso Chamber of Commerce building along the procession route. Burnham signaled a Texas Ranger, Private C. R. Moore, in 1950, President Harry S. Truman was residing in Blair House while the White House, across the street, was undergoing renovations. On November 1,1950, two Puerto Rican nationalists, Oscar Collazo and Griselio Torresola, approached Blair House with the intent to assassinate President Truman, Collazo and Torresola opened fire on Private Leslie Coffelt and other White House Police officers. Though mortally wounded by three shots from a 9 mm German Luger to his chest and abdomen, Private Coffelt returned fire, as of 2017, Coffelt is the only member of the Secret Service killed while protecting a US president against an assassination attempt. Collazo was also shot, but survived his injuries and served 29 years in prison before returning to Puerto Rico in late 1979, in 1968, as a result of Robert F. Kennedys assassination, Congress authorized protection of major presidential and vice presidential candidates and nominees
37.
Union Army
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The Union Army was the land force that fought for the Union during the American Civil War,1861 to 1865. It included the permanent regular army of the United States, which was augmented by numbers of temporary units consisting of volunteers as well as conscripts. The Union Army fought and eventually defeated the Confederate Army during the war, at least two and a half million men served in the Union Army, almost all were volunteers. About 360,000 Union soldiers died from all causes,280,000 were wounded and 200,000 deserted. When the American Civil War began in April 1861, there were only 16,000 men in the U. S. Army, and of these many Southern officers resigned and joined the Confederate army. The U. S. Army consisted of ten regiments of infantry, four of artillery, Lincolns call forced the border states to choose sides, and four seceded, making the Confederacy eleven states strong. The war proved to be longer and more extensive than anyone North or South had expected, the call for volunteers initially was easily met by patriotic Northerners, abolitionists, and even immigrants who enlisted for a steady income and meals. Over 10,000 Germans in New York and Pennsylvania immediately responded to Lincolns call, as more men were needed, however, the number of volunteers fell and both money bounties and forced conscription had to be turned to. Nevertheless, between April 1861 and April 1865, at least two and a million men served in the Union Army, of whom the majority were volunteers. It is a misconception that the South held an advantage because of the percentage of professional officers who resigned to join the Confederate army. At the start of the war, there were 824 graduates of the U. S, Military Academy on the active list, of these,296 resigned or were dismissed, and 184 of those became Confederate officers. Of the approximately 900 West Point graduates who were civilians,400 returned to the Union Army and 99 to the Confederate. Therefore, the ratio of Union to Confederate professional officers was 642 to 283, the South did have the advantage of other military colleges, such as The Citadel and Virginia Military Institute, but they produced fewer officers. The Union Army was composed of numerous organizations, which were generally organized geographically, Military Division A collection of Departments reporting to one commander. Military Divisions were similar to the modern term Theater, and were modeled close to, though not synonymous with. Department An organization that covered a region, including responsibilities for the Federal installations therein. Those named for states usually referred to Southern states that had been occupied and it was more common to name departments for rivers or regions. District A subdivision of a Department, there were also Subdistricts for smaller regions
38.
Reno Gang
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The Reno Gang, also known as the Reno Brothers Gang and The Jackson Thieves, were a group of criminals that operated in the Midwestern United States during and just after the American Civil War. Though short-lived, they carried out the first three peacetime train robberies in U. S. history, most of the stolen money was never recovered. The gang was broken up by the lynchings of ten of its members by vigilante mobs in 1868, the murders created an international diplomatic incident with Canada and Great Britain, a general public uproar, and international newspaper coverage. No one was identified or prosecuted for the lynchings. The Reno Brothers have been portrayed in two movies, including Elvis Presleys first movie where he starred as brother Clint, J. Wilkison Reno moved to Indiana in 1813 from the Salt River region of Kentucky, one of the Civil War border states. He married Julia Ann Freyhafer in 1835, future gang members Franklin, John, Simeon, and William Reno were born to the couple in Rockford, Jackson County, Indiana. There was also another son, Clinton, and a daughter, in their early years, the siblings were raised in a strict, religious farming household and were required to read the Bible all day on Sunday, according to John Renos 1879 autobiography. Neither Clint nor Laura were involved in the crime spree. The brothers got into trouble early, John claimed that he and Frank bilked travelers in crooked card games. Also, the Renos were suspected when a series of fires broke out around Rockford over a period of seven years beginning in 1851. The community also suspected the brothers in the theft of a horse, the crimes caused considerable tension in the town and Wilkison and four of his sons fled, living near St. Louis, Missouri, for some time, before returning to their farm in 1860. The war broke shortly after and the enlisted in hopes of escaping the angry citizens of the town. During the American Civil War, Frank, John, and possibly Simeon became bounty jumpers and they were paid to enlist in the Union Army, then failed to appear for duty. They continued to enlist under different names and locales, taking additional money, federal records show that Frank, John and Simeon deserted. Many residents of southern Indiana were sympathetic to the Confederate States of America or were Northern Democrats wanting peace and it is not known if the Reno brothers were Copperheads or simply taking advantage of the situation. William briefly went AWOL, but did return to serve out his enlistment and he was the only one who received an honorable discharge from the army. In 1864, Frank and John returned to Rockford, a gang began to form under their leadership. Late that year, Frank and two gang members, Grant Wilson and a man named Dixon, robbed the post office and Gilberts Store in nearby Jonesville
39.
Jesse James
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Jesse Woodson James was an American outlaw, guerrilla, gang leader, bank robber, train robber, and murderer from the Little Dixie area of western Missouri. He was the most famous member of the James-Younger Gang, Jesse and his brother Frank James were Confederate guerrillas or bushwhackers during the Civil War. They were accused of participating in atrocities committed against Union soldiers, after the war, as members of various gangs of outlaws, they robbed banks, stagecoaches, and trains. They continued in crime for several years, recruiting new members, on April 3,1882, Jesse James was killed by Robert Ford, a young member of his gang who hoped to collect a reward on James head. Already a celebrity in life, James became a figure of the Wild West after his death. Despite popular portrayals of James as an embodiment of Robin Hood, robbing from the rich and giving to the poor, there is no evidence that he and his gang shared any loot from their robberies. Jesse Woodson James was born in Clay County, Missouri, near the site of present-day Kearney and this area of Missouri was settled by many people from the Upper South, especially Kentucky and Tennessee. It became known as Little Dixie for this reason, Jesse James had two full siblings, his elder brother, Alexander Franklin Frank James, and a younger sister, Susan Lavenia James. His father, Robert S. James, farmed commercial hemp in Kentucky and was a Baptist minister before coming to Missouri, after he married, he migrated to Bradford, Missouri, where he helped found William Jewell College in Liberty. He was prosperous, acquiring six slaves and more than 100 acres of farmland, Robert James traveled to California during the Gold Rush to minister to those searching for gold, he died there when Jesse was three years old. After Robert Jamess death, his widow Zerelda remarried twice, first to Benjamin Simms in 1852 and then in 1855 to Dr. Reuben Samuel, Jesses mother and Reuben Samuel had four children together, Sarah Louisa, John Thomas, Fannie Quantrell, and Archie Peyton Samuel. Zerelda and Reuben Samuel acquired a total of seven slaves, who served mainly as farmhands in tobacco cultivation, the approach of the American Civil War loomed large in the James-Samuel household. Missouri was a state, sharing characteristics of both North and South, but 75% of the population was from the South or other border states. Clay County was in a region of Missouri later dubbed Little Dixie, farmers raised the same crops and livestock as in the areas they migrated from. They brought slaves with them and purchased more according to their needs, the county counted more slaveholders, who held more slaves, than other regions of the state. Aside from slavery, the culture of Little Dixie was Southern in other ways as well and this influenced how the population acted during and for a period of time after the American Civil War. In Missouri as a whole, slaves accounted for only 10 percent of the population, numerous people from Missouri migrated to Kansas to try to influence its future. Much of the tension that led up to the Civil War centered on the violence erupted in Kansas between pro- and anti-slavery militias
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Labor unions in the United States
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Labor unions in the United States are representatives of workers in many industries recognized under US labor law. Larger unions also typically engage in lobbying activities and electioneering at the state, Most unions in the United States are aligned with one of two larger umbrella organizations, the AFL-CIO created in 1955, and the Change to Win Federation which split from the AFL-CIO in 2005. Both advocate policies and legislation on behalf of workers in the United States and Canada, the AFL-CIO is especially concerned with global trade issues. In 2013, there were 14.5 million members in the U. S. down from 17.7 million in 1983, the percentage of workers belonging to a union in the United States was 10. 8%, compared to 20. 1% in 1983. Union membership in the sector has fallen under 7% — levels not seen since 1932. From a global perspective, the density in 2013 was 7. 7% in France,18. 1% in Germany,27. 1% in Canada, and 85. 5% in Iceland, which is currently highest in the world. In the 21st century the most prominent unions are among public sector such as city employees, government workers, teachers. Members of unions are disproportionately older, male, and residents of the Northeast, the Midwest, Union workers average 10-30% higher pay than non-union in the United States after controlling for individual, job, and labor market characteristics. Of special concern are efforts by cities and states to reduce the pension obligations owed to unionized workers who retire in the future, States with higher levels of union membership tend to have higher median incomes and standards of living. Unions began forming in the century in response to the social. National labor unions began to form in the post-Civil War Era, the American Federation of Labor, founded in 1886 and led by Samuel Gompers until his death in 1924, proved much more durable. It arose as a coalition of various local unions. It helped coordinate and support strikes and eventually became a player in national politics. American labor unions benefited greatly from the New Deal policies of Franklin Delano Roosevelt in the 1930s, the Wagner Act, in particular, legally protected the right of unions to organize. Unions from this point developed increasingly closer ties to the Democratic Party, pro-business conservatives gained control of Congress in 1946, and in 1947 passed the Taft-Hartley Act, drafted by Senator Robert A. Taft. President Truman vetoed it but the Conservative coalition overrode the veto, the veto override had considerable Democratic support, including 106 out of 177 Democrats in the House, and 20 out of 42 Democrats in the Senate. The unions campaigned vigorously for years to repeal the law but failed, during the late 1950s, the Landrum Griffin Act of 1959 passed in the wake of Congressional investigations of corruption and undemocratic internal politics in the Teamsters and other unions. The percentage of workers belonging to a union in the United States peaked in 1954 at almost 35%, membership has declined since, with private sector union membership beginning a steady decline that continues into the 2010s, but the membership of public sector unions grew steadily
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Ten Years' War
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The Ten Years War, also known as the Great War and the War of 68, was part of Cubas fight for independence from Spain. The uprising was led by Cuban-born planters and other wealthy natives, on October 10,1868 sugar mill owner Carlos Manuel de Céspedes and his followers proclaimed independence, beginning the conflict. This was the first of three wars that Cuba fought against Spain, the other two being the Little War and the Cuban War of Independence. The final three months of the last conflict escalated with United States involvement and has become known also as the Spanish–American War, throughout the 1850s and into the 1860s, Cuban planters and business owners demanded fundamental social and economic reforms from Spain, which ruled the colony. Lax enforcement of the trade ban had resulted in a dramatic increase in imports of Africans. This occurred despite a strong abolitionist movement on the island, new technologies and farming techniques made large numbers of slaves unnecessary and prohibitively expensive. In the economic crisis of 1857 many businesses failed, including many sugar plantations, the abolitionist cause gained strength, favoring a gradual emancipation of slaves with financial compensation from Spain for slaveholders. Additionally, some planters preferred hiring Chinese immigrants as indentured workers, before the 1870s, more than 125,000 were recruited to Cuba. The Spanish Parliament at the time was changing, gaining much influence were reactionary, the power of military tribunals was increased, the colonial government imposed a six percent tax increase on the Cuban planters and businesses. Additionally, all opposition and the press were silenced. Dissatisfaction in Cuba spread on a scale as the mechanisms to express it were restricted. This discontent was particularly felt by the planters and hacienda owners in Eastern Cuba. The failure of the latest efforts by the reformist movements, the demise of the Information Board, the colonial administration continued to make huge profits which were not re-invested in the island for the benefit of its residents. It funded military expenditures, colonial governments expenses, and sent some money to the Spanish colony of Fernando Po, the Spaniards, representing 8% of the islands population, were appropriating over 90% of the island’s wealth. In addition, the Cuban-born population still had no political rights, objections to these conditions sparked the first serious independence movement, especially in the eastern part of the island. In July 1867, the Revolutionary Committee of Bayamo was founded under the leadership of Cuba’s wealthiest plantation owner, the conspiracy rapidly spread to Oriente’s larger towns, most of all Manzanillo, where Carlos Manuel de Céspedes became the main protagonist of the uprising in 1868. Originally from Bayamo, Céspedes owned an estate and sugar known as La Demajagua. The Spanish, aware of Céspedes’ anti-colonial intransigence, tried to force him into submission by imprisoning his son Oscar, Céspedes refused to negotiate and Oscar was executed
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Cuba
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Cuba, officially the Republic of Cuba, is a country comprising the island of Cuba as well as Isla de la Juventud and several minor archipelagos. Cuba is located in the northern Caribbean where the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, and it is south of both the U. S. state of Florida and the Bahamas, west of Haiti, and north of Jamaica. Havana is the largest city and capital, other cities include Santiago de Cuba. Cuba is the largest island in the Caribbean, with an area of 109,884 square kilometres, prior to Spanish colonization in the late 15th century, Cuba was inhabited by Amerindian tribes. It remained a colony of Spain until the Spanish–American War of 1898, as a fragile republic, Cuba attempted to strengthen its democratic system, but mounting political radicalization and social strife culminated in the dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista in 1952. Further unrest and instability led to Batistas ousting in January 1959 by the July 26 Movement, since 1965, the state has been governed by the Communist Party of Cuba. A point of contention during the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, a nuclear war broke out during the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. Culturally, Cuba is considered part of Latin America, Cuba is a Marxist–Leninist one-party republic, where the role of the vanguard Communist Party is enshrined in the Constitution. Independent observers have accused the Cuban government of human rights abuses. It is one of the worlds last planned economies and its economy is dominated by the exports of sugar, tobacco, coffee, according to the Human Development Index, Cuba is described as a country with high human development and is ranked the eighth highest in North America. It also ranks highly in some metrics of national performance, including health care, the name Cuba comes from the Taíno language. The exact meaning of the name is unclear but it may be translated either as where fertile land is abundant, authors who believe that Christopher Columbus was Portuguese state that Cuba was named by Columbus for the town of Cuba in the district of Beja in Portugal. Before the arrival of the Spanish, Cuba was inhabited by three distinct tribes of indigenous peoples of the Americas, the Taíno, the Guanajatabey, and the Ciboney people. The ancestors of the Ciboney migrated from the mainland of South America, the Taíno arrived from Hispanola sometime in the 3rd century A. D. When Columbus arrived they were the dominant culture in Cuba, having a population of 150,000. The name Cuba comes from the native Taíno language and it is derived from either coabana meaning great place, or from cubao meaning where fertile land is abundant. The Taíno were farmers, while the Ciboney were farmers as well as fishers and hunter-gatherers, Columbus claimed the island for the new Kingdom of Spain and named it Isla Juana after Juan, Prince of Asturias. In 1511, the first Spanish settlement was founded by Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar at Baracoa, other towns soon followed, including San Cristobal de la Habana, founded in 1515, which later became the capital
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Battle of Antietam
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After pursuing the Confederate general Robert E. Lee into Maryland, Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan of the Union Army launched attacks against Lees army, in defensive positions behind Antietam Creek. At dawn on September 17, Maj. Gen. Joseph Hookers corps mounted an assault on Lees left flank. Attacks and counterattacks swept across Millers Cornfield, and fighting swirled around the Dunker Church, Union assaults against the Sunken Road eventually pierced the Confederate center, but the Federal advantage was not followed up. In the afternoon, Union Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnsides corps entered the action, capturing a bridge over Antietam Creek. At a crucial moment, Confederate Maj. Gen. A. P. Hills division arrived from Harpers Ferry and launched a counterattack, driving back Burnside. Although outnumbered two-to-one, Lee committed his entire force, while McClellan sent in less than three-quarters of his army, during the night, both armies consolidated their lines. In spite of crippling casualties, Lee continued to skirmish with McClellan throughout September 18, despite having superiority of numbers, McClellans attacks failed to achieve force concentration, which allowed Lee to counter by shifting forces and moving interior lines to meet each challenge. Therefore, despite ample reserve forces that could have been deployed to exploit localized successes, McClellan had halted Lees invasion of Maryland, but Lee was able to withdraw his army back to Virginia without interference from the cautious McClellan. McClellans refusal to pursue Lees army led to his removal from command by President Abraham Lincoln in November, although the battle was tactically inconclusive, the Confederate troops had withdrawn first from the battlefield, making it, in military terms, a Union victory. Robert E. Lees Army of Northern Virginia—about 55,000 men—entered the state of Maryland on September 3,1862, emboldened by success, the Confederate leadership intended to take the war into enemy territory. Lees invasion of Maryland was intended to run simultaneously with an invasion of Kentucky by the armies of Braxton Bragg and it was also necessary for logistical reasons, as northern Virginias farms had been stripped bare of food. They sang the tune Maryland, My Maryland, as they marched, but by the fall of 1862 pro-Union sentiment was winning out, especially in the western parts of the state. Civilians generally hid inside their houses as Lees army passed through their towns, or watched in cold silence, while the Army of the Potomac was cheered and encouraged. While McClellans 87, 000-man Army of the Potomac was moving to intercept Lee, the order indicated that Lee had divided his army and dispersed portions geographically, thus making each subject to isolation and defeat if McClellan could move quickly enough. McClellan waited about 18 hours before deciding to take advantage of this intelligence and reposition his forces, McClellans Army of the Potomac, bolstered by units absorbed from John Popes Army of Virginia, included six infantry corps. The I Corps, under Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker, consisted of the divisions of, the II Corps, under Maj. Gen. Edwin V. Sumner, consisted of the divisions of, Maj. Gen. Israel B. The V Corps, under Maj. Gen. Fitz John Porter, consisted of the divisions of, the VI Corps, under Maj. Gen. William B. Franklin, consisted of the divisions of, Maj. Gen. Henry W. Slocum, Maj. Gen. William F. Baldy Smith
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Southern United States
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The Southern United States, commonly referred to as the American South, Dixie, or simply the South, is a region of the United States of America. The South does not fully match the geographic south of the United States, arizona and New Mexico, which are geographically in the southern part of the country, are rarely considered part, while West Virginia, which separated from Virginia in 1863, commonly is. Some scholars have proposed definitions of the South that do not coincide neatly with state boundaries, while the states of Delaware and Maryland, as well as the District of Columbia permitted slavery prior to the start of the Civil War, they remained with the Union. However, the United States Census Bureau puts them in the South, usually, the South is defined as including the southeastern and south-central United States. The region is known for its culture and history, having developed its own customs, musical styles, and cuisines, the Southern ethnic heritage is diverse and includes strong European, African, and some Native American components. Since the late 1960s, black people have many offices in Southern states, especially in the coastal states of Virginia. Historically, the South relied heavily on agriculture, and was rural until after 1945. It has since become more industrialized and urban and has attracted national and international migrants, the American South is now among the fastest-growing areas in the United States. Houston is the largest city in the Southern United States, sociological research indicates that Southern collective identity stems from political, demographic, and cultural distinctiveness from the rest of the United States. The region contains almost all of the Bible Belt, an area of high Protestant church attendance and predominantly conservative, indeed, studies have shown that Southerners are more conservative than non-Southerners in several areas, including religion, morality, international relations and race relations. Apart from its climate, the experience in the South increasingly resembles the rest of the nation. The arrival of millions of Northerners and millions of Hispanics meant the introduction of cultural values, the process has worked both ways, however, with aspects of Southern culture spreading throughout a greater portion of the rest of the United States in a process termed Southernization. The question of how to define the subregions in the South has been the focus of research for nearly a century, as defined by the United States Census Bureau, the Southern region of the United States includes sixteen states. As of 2010, an estimated 114,555,744 people, or thirty-seven percent of all U. S. residents, lived in the South, the nations most populous region. Other terms related to the South include, The Old South, the New South, usually including the South Atlantic States. The Solid South, region largely controlled by the Democratic Party from 1877 to 1964, before that, blacks were elected to national office and many to local office through the 1880s, Populist-Republican coalitions gained victories for Fusionist candidates for governors in the 1890s. Includes at least all the 11 former Confederate States, Southeastern United States, usually including the Carolinas, the Virginias, Tennessee, Kentucky, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Florida. The Deep South, various definitions, usually including Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi, Georgia, occasionally, parts of adjoining states are included
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National Crime Information Center
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The National Crime Information Center is the United States central database for tracking crime-related information. The NCIC has been an information sharing tool since 1967 and it is maintained by the Criminal Justice Information Services Division of the Federal Bureau of Investigation and is interlinked with federal, tribal, state, and local agencies and offices. The NCIC database was created in 1967 under FBI director J. Edgar Hoover, the purpose of the system was to create a centralized information system to facilitate information flow between the numerous law enforcement branches. The original infrastructure cost is estimated to have been over $180 million, in the mid-1990s, the program went through an upgrade from the legacy system to the current NCIC2000 system. A1993 GAO estimate concluded that in addition to the costs of the upgrades, the NCIC makes available a variety of records to be used for law enforcement and security purposes. The NCIC database includes 21 files,14 person files and 7 property files, person files, Missing Persons File - Records on individuals, including children, who have been reported missing to law enforcement and there is a reasonable concern for their safety. Foreign Fugitive File - Records on persons wanted by another country for a crime that would be a felony if it were committed in the United States, immigration Violator File - Records on criminal aliens whom immigration authorities have deported and aliens with outstanding administrative warrants of removal. Protection Order File - Records on individuals against whom protection orders have been issued, supervised Release File - Records on individuals on probation, parole, or supervised release or released on their own recognizance or during pre-trial sentencing. Unidentified Persons File- Records on unidentified deceased persons, living persons who are unable to verify their identities, unidentified victims of catastrophes, the file cross-references unidentified bodies against records in the Missing Persons File. Secret Service Protective File - Records containing names and other information on individuals who are believed to pose a threat to the U. S. president and/or others afforded protection by the U. S, gang File - Records on violent gangs and their members. Known or Appropriately Suspected Terrorist File - Records on known or appropriately suspected terrorists in accordance with HSPD-6, wanted Persons File - Records on individuals for whom a federal warrant or a felony or misdemeanor warrant is outstanding. National Sex Offender Registry File - Records on individuals who are required to register in a sex offender registry. Property files, Article File - Records on stolen articles and lost public safety, homeland security, Boat File - Records on stolen boats. License Plate File - Records on stolen license plates, securities File - Records on serially numbered stolen, embezzled, used for ransom, or counterfeit securities. Vehicle and Boat Parts File - Records on serially numbered stolen vehicle or boat parts, vehicle File - Records on stolen vehicles, vehicles involved in the commission of crimes, or vehicles that may be seized based on federally issued court order. There have also been issues and concerns regarding arrests and seizures pursuant to mistaken beliefs in the existence of warrants, Criminal Justice Information Services Division Interstate Identification Index Restraining order
