1.
John F. Kennedy
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Kennedy was a member of the Democratic Party, and his New Frontier domestic program was largely enacted as a memorial to him after his death. Kennedy also established the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1963, Kennedys time in office was marked by high tensions with Communist states. He increased the number of American military advisers in South Vietnam by a factor of 18 over President Dwight D. Eisenhower, in Cuba, a failed attempt was made at the Bay of Pigs to overthrow the government of Fidel Castro in April 1961. He subsequently rejected plans by the Joint Chiefs of Staff to orchestrate false-flag attacks on American soil in order to gain approval for a war against Cuba. After military service in the United States Naval Reserve in World War II and he was elected subsequently to the U. S. Senate and served as the junior Senator from Massachusetts from 1953 until 1960. Kennedy defeated Vice President, and Republican presidential candidate, Richard Nixon in the 1960 U. S, at age 43, he became the youngest elected president and the second-youngest president. Kennedy was also the first person born in the 20th century to serve as president, to date, Kennedy has been the only Roman Catholic president and the only president to have won a Pulitzer Prize. Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas, on November 22,1963, Lee Harvey Oswald was arrested that afternoon and determined to have fired the shots that hit the President from a sixth floor window of the Texas School Book Depository. Dallas nightclub owner Jack Ruby fatally shot Oswald two days later in a jail corridor, then-Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson succeeded Kennedy after he died in the hospital. The FBI and the Warren Commission officially concluded that Oswald was the lone assassin, the majority of Americans alive at the time of the assassination, and continuing through 2013, believed that there was a conspiracy and that Oswald was not the only shooter. Since the 1960s, information concerning Kennedys private life has come to light, including his health problems, Kennedy continues to rank highly in historians polls of U. S. presidents and with the general public. His average approval rating of 70% is the highest of any president in Gallups history of systematically measuring job approval and his grandfathers P. J. Kennedy and Boston Mayor John F. Fitzgerald were both Massachusetts politicians. All four of his grandparents were the children of Irish immigrants, Kennedy had an elder brother, Joseph Jr. and seven younger siblings, Rosemary, Kathleen, Eunice, Patricia, Robert, Jean, and Ted. Kennedy lived in Brookline for ten years and attended the Edward Devotion School, the Noble and Greenough Lower School, and the Dexter School through 4th grade. In 1927, the Kennedy family moved to a stately twenty-room, Georgian-style mansion at 5040 Independence Avenue in the Hudson Hill neighborhood of Riverdale, Bronx and he attended the lower campus of Riverdale Country School, a private school for boys, from 5th to 7th grade. Two years later, the moved to 294 Pondfield Road in the New York City suburb of Bronxville, New York. The Kennedy family spent summers at their home in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts, in September 1930, Kennedy—then 13 years old—attended the Canterbury School in New Milford, Connecticut. In late April 1931, he required an appendectomy, after which he withdrew from Canterbury, in September 1931, Kennedy attended Choate, a boarding school in Wallingford, Connecticut, for 9th through 12th grade
2.
Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis
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Jacqueline Lee Jackie Kennedy Onassis was the wife of the 35th President of the United States, John F. Kennedy, and First Lady of the United States from 1961 until his assassination in 1963. Bouvier was the daughter of Wall Street stockbroker John Vernou Bouvier III. In 1951, she graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in French literature from George Washington University, in 1952, Bouvier met Congressman John F. Kennedy at a dinner party. In November of that year, he was elected as a United States Senator from Massachusetts, and they had four children, two of whom died in infancy. As First Lady, she was known for her highly publicized restoration of the White House and her emphasis on arts, on November 22,1963, she was riding with the President in a motorcade in Dallas, Texas, when he was assassinated. She and her children withdrew from view after his funeral. Following her second death in 1975, she had a career as a book editor for the final two decades of her life. She is remembered for her contributions to the arts and preservation of historic architecture, as well as for her style, elegance. She was an icon, and her famous ensemble of pink Chanel suit. She ranks as one of the most popular First Ladies and in 1999 was named on Gallups list of Most Admired Men and Women in 20th-century America. Jacqueline Lee Bouvier was born on July 28,1929, at Southampton Hospital in Southampton, New York, to Wall Street stockbroker John Vernou Black Jack Bouvier III, Bouviers mother was of Irish descent, and her father had French, Scottish, and English ancestry. Named after her father, Bouvier was baptized at the Church of St. Ignatius Loyola in Manhattan and her younger sister Lee was born in 1933. Bouvier spent her childhood years in Manhattan and at Lasata. She idolized her father, who favored her over her sister. From an early age, Bouvier was an equestrienne and successfully competed in the sport. She also took lessons, was an avid reader, and excelled at learning languages. Bouvier enrolled in the Chapin School in Manhattan in 1935, which she attended for grades 1–6. She was a student but often misbehaved, one of her teachers described her as a darling child, the prettiest little girl, very clever, very artistic
3.
Puerto Rico
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Puerto Rico, officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico and briefly called Porto Rico, is an unincorporated territory of the United States located in the northeast Caribbean Sea. It is an archipelago that includes the island of Puerto Rico and a number of smaller ones such as Mona, Culebra. The capital and most populous city is San Juan and its official languages are Spanish and English, though Spanish predominates. The islands population is approximately 3.4 million, Puerto Ricos rich history, tropical climate, diverse natural scenery, renowned traditional cuisine, and attractive tax incentives make it a popular destination for travelers from around the world. Four centuries of Spanish colonial government transformed the ethnic, cultural and physical landscapes primarily with waves of African captives, and Canarian. In the Spanish imperial imagination, Puerto Rico played a secondary, in 1898, following the Spanish–American War, the United States appropriated Puerto Rico together with most former Spanish colonies under the terms of the Treaty of Paris. Puerto Ricans are natural-born citizens of the United States, however, Puerto Rico does not have a vote in the United States Congress, which governs the territory with full jurisdiction under the Puerto Rico Federal Relations Act of 1950. As a U. S. territory, American citizens residing on the island are disenfranchised at the level and may not vote for president. However, Congress approved a constitution, allowing U. S. citizens on the territory to elect a governor. A fifth referendum will be held in June 2017, with only Statehood, in early 2017, the Puerto Rican government-debt crisis posed serious problems for the government. The outstanding bond debt that had climbed to $70 billion or $12,000 per capita at a time with 12. 4% unemployment, the debt had been increasing during a decade long recession. Puerto Ricans often call the island Borinquen – a derivation of Borikén, its indigenous Taíno name, the terms boricua and borincano derive from Borikén and Borinquen respectively, and are commonly used to identify someone of Puerto Rican heritage. The island is also known in Spanish as la isla del encanto. Columbus named the island San Juan Bautista, in honor of Saint John the Baptist, eventually traders and other maritime visitors came to refer to the entire island as Puerto Rico, while San Juan became the name used for the main trading/shipping port and the capital city. The islands name was changed to Porto Rico by the United States after the Treaty of Paris of 1898, the anglicized name was used by the US government and private enterprises. The name was changed back to Puerto Rico by a joint resolution in Congress introduced by Félix Córdova Dávila in 1931, the ancient history of the archipelago known today as Puerto Rico is not well known. The scarce archaeological findings and early Spanish scholarly accounts from the colonial era constitute the basis of knowledge about them. The first comprehensive book on the history of Puerto Rico was written by Fray Íñigo Abbad y Lasierra in 1786, the first settlers were the Ortoiroid people, an Archaic Period culture of Amerindian hunters and fishermen who migrated from the South American mainland
4.
Operation Bootstrap
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Operation Bootstrap is the name given to a series of projects which transformed the economy of Puerto Rico into an industrial and developed one. Bootstrap is still considered the model of Puerto Rico as the island has still not been able to evolve into a knowledge economy. The islands traditional economy was based around sugarcane plantations, the Administration of Economic Development invited investment of external capital, importing the raw materials, and exporting the finished products to the mainland. To entice participation, tax exemptions and differential rental rates were offered for industrial facilities, as a result, Puerto Ricos economy shifted labor from agriculture to manufacturing and tourism. Through this project, an agricultural society was transformed into an industrial working class. Although initially touted as a miracle, by the 1960s. As living standards and wages in Puerto Rico rose, manpower-intensive industries faced competition from outside the United States, as of 2005 the continental United States remains Puerto Ricos major trading partner, received 86% of Puerto Ricos exports and providing 69% of its imports. United States Department of Agriculture Commonwealth Oil Refining Company, Inc, Puerto Rican Pottery Teodoro Moscoso and Puerto Ricos Operation Bootstrap by A. W. Gainesville, University Press of Florida,1997, ISBN 0-8130-1501-4 Las campañas de control de la natalidad contra las mujeres, by Gloria Arimón en Servir al pueblo, número 233,1984. Economic History of Puerto Rico, Institutional Change and Capitalist Development, Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press,1986. The Disenchanted Island, Puerto Rico and the United States in the Twentieth Century, 2ª ed. Westport CT, Praeger,1996. Factories and Food Stamps, The Puerto Rico Model of Development, baltimore, MD, Johns Hopkins University Press,1985. Democracy at Work in Rural Puerto Rico A Puerto Rican resource Young Lords in Lincoln Park
5.
Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower
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The presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower began on January 20,1953 at noon Eastern Standard Time, when he was inaugurated as the 34th President of the United States, and ended on January 20,1961. Eisenhower, a Republican, took office as president following a win over Democrat Adlai Stevenson in the 1952 presidential election. This victory upended the New Deal Coalition that had kept the presidency in the hands of the Democratic Party for 20 years, four years later, in the 1956 presidential election, he defeated Stevenson in a landslide again, winning a second term in office. Eisenhower was the first U. S. president to be limited to two terms in office under the 22nd Amendment. He was succeeded in office by Democrat John F. Kennedy, the nation experienced considerable economic prosperity during the Eisenhower Presidency, except for a sharp recession in 1958–59. It was also, following the conclusion of the Korean War in the summer of 1953, at peace, the Presidents main goals in office were to keep pressure on the Soviet Union and reduce federal deficits. A self-described progressive conservative, he continued New Deal programs and expanded Social Security and he also spurred development of the Interstate Highway System, and after the Soviet Union launched Sputnik in 1957, authorized the establishment of NASA. Voted Gallups most admired man twelve times, he achieved widespread popular esteem both in and out of office, since the late 20th century, consensus among Western scholars has consistently held Eisenhower as one of the greatest U. S. Presidents. Eisenhower had been a favorite of the New Dealers during the war, especially Franklin D. Roosevelt, rejecting Democratic efforts to nominate him in 1948 and 1952, Eisenhower instead chose to run for the Republican Party nomination in 1952. His goal was to prevent Robert A. Tafts non-interventionism—such as opposition to NATO—from becoming public policy, on domestic issues they were in general agreement, and a compromise was reached after Eisenhower won the nomination that Taft would be dominant in domestic affairs and stay out of foreign affairs. Ike crusaded against Korea—Communism—Corruption, identifying these as failures of the Truman administration and he electrified the country just before the election by promising to personally go to Korea and end that stalemated conflict. Eisenhowers choice for vice-president on his ticket was Richard Nixon and he saw Nixons strong vocal opposition against communism as an asset to his campaign. When Nixons Checkers scandal was revealed to the public, Eisenhower still kept Nixon on the ticket, in the 1952 U. S. presidential election, Eisenhower easily defeated Illinois Governor Adlai Stevenson II and became the first career soldier since Ulysses S. Grant to be elected president. Although many presidents have served in the military, Eisenhower was the general to serve as president in the 20th century. The United States presidential election of 1956 was held on November 6,1956, Eisenhower, the popular incumbent, successfully ran for re-election. The election was a re-match of 1952, as his opponent in 1956 was Adlai Stevenson, a former Illinois governor, compared to the 1952 election, Eisenhower gained Kentucky, Louisiana, and West Virginia from Stevenson, while losing Missouri. This was the last presidential election before the admissions of Alaska and Hawaii, Eisenhower created the positions of White House Chief of Staff and National Security Advisor. He expanded the role of the National Security Council and was the first president to conduct televised press conferences, reporters of that time have said that Eisenhower was the first president to employ the non-answer during these events
6.
C. Douglas Dillon
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Clarence Douglas Dillon was an American diplomat and politician, who served as U. S. Ambassador to France and as the 57th Secretary of the Treasury. He was also a member of the Executive Committee of the National Security Council during the Cuban Missile Crisis, Dillon was born in Geneva, Switzerland, the son of American parents, Anne McEldin and financier Clarence Dillon. Although Dillon grew up as a patrician, his paternal grandfather, after leaving Poland, his grandfather settled in Texas after the American Civil War and married Dillons Swedish-American grandmother. Dillons father later changed his name to Dillon, his grandmothers maiden name. Dillons mother was descended from Grahams Lairds of Tamrawer Castle at Kilsyth, Stirling, Dillon began his education at Pine Lodge School in Lakehurst, Ocean County, New Jersey which he attended at the same time as the three Rockefeller brothers Nelson, Laurance, and John. He continued at Groton School in Massachusetts, then at Harvard University, A. B. magna cum laude 1931 in American history, Dillon earned a varsity letter for football his senior year. In 1938 be became Vice-President and Director of Dillon, Read & Co. a firm that bore his fathers name. After his World War II service on Guam, on Saipan, in 1946 he became chairman of Dillon, Read, by 1952 he had doubled the firms investments. Dillon had been active in Republican politics since 1934 and he worked for John Foster Dulles in Thomas E. Deweys 1948 presidential campaign. In 1951 he organized the New Jersey effort to secure the 1952 Republican nomination for Dwight D. Eisenhower and he was also a major contributor to Eisenhowers general election campaign in 1952. President Eisenhower appointed him United States Ambassador to France in 1953, following that appointment he became Under Secretary of State for Economic Affairs in 1958 before becoming Under Secretary of State the following year. In 1961, John F. Kennedy, appointed Republican, Dillon Treasury Secretary, Dillon remained Treasury Secretary under President Lyndon B. Johnson until 1965. Dillon was important in securing presidential power for reciprocal tariff reductions under the Trade Expansion Act of 1962 and he also played a role in crafting the Revenue Act of 1962, which established a 7 percent investment credit to spur industrial growth. He supervised revision of rules to benefit corporate investment. A close friend of John D. Rockefeller III, he was chairman of the Rockefeller Foundation from 1972 to 1975 and he also served alongside John Rockefeller on the 1973 Commission on Private Philanthropy and Public Needs, and under Nelson Rockefeller in the Rockefeller Commission to investigate CIA activities. He had been president of Harvard Board of Overseers, chairman of the Brookings Institution, with his first wife, Dillon collected impressionist art. He was a trustee of the Metropolitan Museum, serving as its President. He built up its Chinese galleries and served as a member of the Museums Centennial committee and he personally donated $20 million to the museum and led a fundraising campaign, which raised an additional $100 million
7.
Punta del Este
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Punta del Este is a city and resort on the Atlantic Coast in the Maldonado Department of southeastern Uruguay. Although the city has a population of about 9,280. Punta del Este is also the name of the municipality to which the city belongs and it includes Punta del Este proper and Península areas. The city is located on the intersection of Route 10 with Route 39, southeast of the department capital Maldonado, the first Europeans to set foot in what is now Punta del Este were the Spanish at the beginning of the 16th century. However, the colonization of the area began around Maldonado at the end of the 18th century due to Portuguese expansionism. Later the trees started to spread on their own, and now the area is full of mostly Pines, Eucalyptus, Acacias, on 5 July 1907, it was declared a Pueblo by Act of Ley 3.186. Its status was elevated to Ciudad on 2 July 1957 by the Act of Ley Nº12.397, Punta del Este hosted an American Summit in 1967 attended by U. S. President Lyndon Johnson. In September 1986, Punta del Este played host to the start of the Uruguay Round of international trade negotiations and these negotiations ultimately led to the creation of the World Trade Organization in 1994. In 2011 Punta del Este had a population of 9,277 and 23,954 households, according to the Intendencia Departamental de Maldonado, the municipality of Punta del Este has an area of 48 km2 and a population of 15,000. Source, Instituto Nacional de Estadística de Uruguay Argentines, Brazilians and Europeans are gradually choosing Punta del Este as their permanent residence, some of the reasons are peace in the midst of nature and increasing educational offerings. Punta del Este has a oceanic climate, with pleasant summers. The precipitation is distributed throughout the year, with an average of 1,010 mm. The hottest month, February, has a temperature of 21.7 °C. The average yearly temperature is 16.4 °C, Punta del Estes scenic coastline is divided in two regions, Brava and Mansa. Beaches on the Mansa side feature thick and golden sand, while on the Brava side the sand is white, every beach of the peninsula has public access. La Barra is popular for sports and fishing during the day. At later hours, La Barra becomes an attraction for the younger generation. Starting from the end of December through to the week of January
8.
Uruguay
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Uruguay, officially the Oriental Republic of Uruguay, is a country in the southeastern region of South America. It borders Argentina to its west and Brazil to its north and east, with the Río de la Plata to the south and the Atlantic Ocean to the southeast. Uruguay is home to an estimated 3.42 million people, of whom 1.8 million live in the area of its capital and largest city. With an area of approximately 176,000 square kilometres, Uruguay is geographically the second-smallest nation in South America, only larger in size than Suriname. Uruguay was inhabited by the Charrúa people for approximately 4000 years before the Portuguese established Colonia del Sacramento, one of the oldest European settlements in the region, in 1680. Montevideo was founded as a stronghold by the Spanish in the early 18th century. Uruguay won its independence between 1811 and 1828, following a struggle between Spain, Portugal, Argentina and Brazil. It remained subject to influence and intervention throughout the 19th century. Modern Uruguay is a constitutional republic, with a president who serves as both head of state and head of government. Uruguay is ranked first in Latin America in democracy, peace, lack of corruption, e-government, on a per-capita basis, Uruguay contributes more troops to United Nations peace-keeping missions than any other country. It ranks second in the region on economic freedom, income equality, per-capita income, Uruguay is the third-best country on the continent in terms of HDI, GDP growth, innovation and infrastructure. It is regarded as a country by the UN. Uruguay is also the third-best ranked in the world in e-Participation, Uruguay is an important global exporter of combed wool, rice, soybeans, frozen beef, malt and milk. Nearly 95% of Uruguays electricity comes from energy, mostly hydroelectric facilities. The Economist named Uruguay country of the year in 2013, acknowledging the innovative policy of legalizing the production, sale, the name of the namesake river comes from the Spanish pronunciation of the regional Guarani word for it. There are several interpretations, including bird-river, the name could also refer to a river snail called uruguá that was plentiful in the water. The only documented inhabitants of Uruguay before European colonization of the area were the Charrúa, the Portuguese discovered the region of present-day Uruguay in 1512. The Spanish arrived in present-day Uruguay in 1516, the indigenous peoples fierce resistance to conquest, combined with the absence of gold and silver, limited their settlement in the region during the 16th and 17th centuries
9.
Income distribution
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In economics, income distribution is how a nation’s total GDP is distributed amongst its population. Income and its distribution have always been a concern of economic theory. Modern economists have also addressed this issue, but have been concerned with the distribution of income across individuals. Important theoretical and policy concerns include the relationship between income inequality and economic growth, the distribution of income within a society may be represented by the Lorenz curve. The Lorenz curve is closely associated with measures of income inequality, the concept of inequality is distinct from that of poverty and fairness. While different theories may try to explain how income inequality comes about, using Gini coefficients, several organizations, such as the United Nations and the US Central Intelligence Agency, have measured income inequality by country. The Gini index is widely used within the World Bank. It is an accurate and reliable index for measuring income distribution on a country by country level, the Gini index measurements go from 0 to 1 for 1 being perfect inequality and 0 being perfect equality. The world Gini index is measured at 0.52 as of 2016, standard economic theory stipulates that inequality tends to increase over time as a country develops, and to decrease as a certain average income is attained. This theory is known as the Kuznets curve after Simon Kuznets. However, many prominent economists disagree with the need for inequality to increase as a country develops, further, empirical data on the proclaimed subsequent decrease of inequality is conflicting. There are two ways of looking at income inequality, within country inequality – which is inequality within a nation, or between country inequality which is inequality between countries. Furthermore, increased income inequality over a long period is conclusive. However, scholars disagree about whether inter-country income inequality has increased, remained relatively stable and this has much to do with the recent average income rise in China and to some extent India, who represent almost two-fifths of the world. In the United States, income has become distributed more unequally over the past 30 years, cambridge Massachusetts, The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. Inequality and Unsustainable Growth, Two Sides of the Same Coin, prepared by Andrew G. Berg and Jonathan D. Ostry1 The Chartbook of Income Inequality from INET at the University of Oxford by Anthony Atkinson, Salvatore Morelli, and Max Roser
10.
Land reform
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Land reform involves the changing of laws, regulations or customs regarding land ownership. Land reform may consist of a government-initiated or government-backed property redistribution, such transfers of ownership may be with or without compensation, compensation may vary from token amounts to the full value of the land. The common characteristic of all reforms, however, is modification or replacement of existing institutional arrangements governing possession. Thus even small-scale land reforms and legal modifications may be subject to debate or conflict. Land reforms, which change what it means to land, therefore create tensions. Western conceptions of land have evolved over the past several centuries to place emphasis on individual land ownership. Control over land, however, may also be perceived less in terms of ownership and more in terms land use. Historically, in parts of Africa for example, land was not owned by an individual. Different people in a family or community had different rights to access land for different purposes. Such rights were often conveyed through oral history and not formally documented and these different ideas of land ownership and tenure are sometimes referred to using different terminology. For example, formal or statutory land systems refer to ideas of control more closely affiliated with individual land ownership. Informal or customary land systems refer to ideas of control more closely affiliated with land tenure. Terms dictating control over and use of land can therefore take many forms, feudal land ownership, through fiefdoms Life estate, interest in real property that ends at death. Fee tail, hereditary, non-transferable ownership of real property, under common law, this is the most complete ownership interest one can have in real property. Government collectives, such as those that might be found in communist states, Land reform is a deeply political process and therefore many arguments for and against it have emerged. These arguments vary tremendously over time and place, for example, in the twentieth century, many land reforms emerged from a particular political ideology, such as communism or socialism. Land reforms need not be as dramatic in scale as Zimbabwe, such benefits may include eradicating food insecurity and alleviating rural poverty. Arguments in support of such reforms gained momentum after the publication of The Mystery of Capital by Peruvian economist Hernando de Soto in 2000
11.
Tax law
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Tax law is an area of legal study dealing with the constitutional, common-law, statutory, tax treaty, and regulatory rules that constitute the law applicable to taxation. Primary taxation issues facing the world over include, Taxes on income. Taxation of capital gains versus labor income, ecotax refers to taxes intended to promote environmentally friendly activities via economic incentives. Tax evasion and avoidance leading to reduced government revenue, due to an Inefficient tax system in many underdeveloped countries, the majority of small businesses are not taxed. In law schools, tax law is a sub-discipline and area of specialist study, U. S. law schools require 30 semester credit hours of required courses,60 hours or more of electives and a combined total of at least 90 credit hours completed. Law students must choose available courses on which to focus before graduation with the J. D. degree in the United States. S, Master of Laws programs are offered in Canada, United States, United Kingdom, Australia, Netherlands and an increasing number of countries. Many of these focus on domestic and international taxation. In the United States, most LL. M, programs require that the candidate be a graduate of an American Bar Association-accredited law school. In other countries a graduate law degree is sufficient for admission to LL. M. in Taxation law programs, the Master of Laws program is an advanced legal study. General Requirements J. D. or First degree in law, an English proficiency test score for students with a native language besides English. The Juris Doctor program is offered by only a number of countries and these include, United States, Australia, Canada, Hong Kong, Japan, Philippines, Singapore and the United Kingdom. The courses vary in duration of years, curriculum and whether or not further training is required, law School Admission Test - Required for law school admission in United States, Canada and a growing number of countries. A list of tax faculty ranked by publication downloads is maintained by Paul Caron at TaxProf Blog
12.
Richard Nixon
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Richard Milhous Nixon was an American politician who served as the 37th President of the United States from 1969 until 1974, when he became the only U. S. president to resign from office. He had previously served as a U. S, Representative and Senator from California and as the 36th Vice President of the United States from 1953 to 1961 under the presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower. Nixon was born in Yorba Linda, California, after completing his undergraduate studies at Whittier College, he graduated from Duke University School of Law in 1937 and returned to California to practice law. He and his wife Pat moved to Washington in 1942 to work for the federal government and he subsequently served on active duty in the U. S. Navy Reserve during World War II. Nixon was elected to the House of Representatives in 1946 and to the Senate in 1950 and his pursuit of the Hiss Case established his reputation as a leading anti-communist, and elevated him to national prominence. He was the mate of Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Republican Party presidential nominee in the 1952 election. Nixon served for eight years as vice president and he waged an unsuccessful presidential campaign in 1960, narrowly losing to John F. Kennedy, and lost a race for Governor of California to Pat Brown in 1962. In 1968, he ran for the presidency again and was elected by defeating incumbent Vice President Hubert Humphrey, Nixon ended American involvement in the war in Vietnam in 1973 and brought the American POWs home, and ended the military draft. His administration generally transferred power from Washington D. C. to the states and he imposed wage and price controls for a period of ninety days, enforced desegregation of Southern schools and established the Environmental Protection Agency. Nixon also presided over the Apollo 11 moon landing, which signaled the end of the moon race and he was reelected in one of the largest electoral landslides in U. S. history in 1972, when he defeated George McGovern. The year 1973 saw an Arab oil embargo, gasoline rationing, the scandal escalated, costing Nixon much of his political support, and on August 9,1974, he resigned in the face of almost certain impeachment and removal from office. After his resignation, he was issued a pardon by his successor, in retirement, Nixons work writing several books and undertaking of many foreign trips helped to rehabilitate his image. He suffered a stroke on April 18,1994. Richard Milhous Nixon was born on January 9,1913 in Yorba Linda, California and his parents were Hannah Nixon and Francis A. Nixon. His mother was a Quaker and his father converted from Methodism to the Quaker faith, Nixons upbringing was marked by evangelical Quaker observances of the time, such as refraining from alcohol, dancing, and swearing. Nixon had four brothers, Harold, Donald, Arthur, four of the five Nixon boys were named after kings who had ruled in historical or legendary England, Richard, for example, was named after Richard the Lionheart. Nixons early life was marked by hardship, and he quoted a saying of Eisenhower to describe his boyhood, We were poor. The Nixon family ranch failed in 1922, and the moved to Whittier
13.
Organization of American States
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The Organization of American States, or the OAS or OEA, is a continental organization founded on 30 April 1948, for the purposes of regional solidarity and cooperation among its member states. Headquartered in Washington, United States, the OASs members are the 35 independent states of the Americas, as of 26 May 2015, the Secretary General of OAS is Luis Almagro. Bolívars dream of American unity was meant to unify Hispanic American nations against external powers, the pursuit of regional solidarity and cooperation again came to the forefront in 1889–1890, at the First International Conference of American States. These two bodies, in existence as of 14 April 1890, represent the point of inception to which the OAS and its General Secretariat trace their origins. At the Fourth International Conference of American States, the name of the organization was changed to the Union of American Republics, the Pan American Union Building was constructed in 1910, on Constitution Avenue, Northwest, Washington, D. C. In the mid-1930s, U. S. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt organized a conference in Buenos Aires. One of the items at the conference was a League of Nations of the Americas, an idea proposed by Colombia, Guatemala, and the Dominican Republic. At the subsequent Inter-American Conference for the Maintenance of Peace,21 nations pledged to remain neutral in the event of a conflict between any two members. The experience of World War II convinced hemispheric governments that unilateral action could not ensure the integrity of the American nations in the event of external aggression. This was the event that saw the birth of the OAS as it stands today, the meeting also adopted the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man, the worlds first general human rights instrument. The transition from the Pan American Union to OAS would have been if it had not been for the assassination of Colombian leader Jorge Eliécer Gaitán. The Director General of the former, Alberto Lleras Camargo, became the Organizations first Secretary General, the current Secretary General is former Uruguayan minister of foreign affairs Luis Almagro. Significant milestones in the history of the OAS since the signing of the Charter have included the following,1959,1969, American Convention on Human Rights signed. 1970, OAS General Assembly established as the Organizations supreme decision-making body,1979, Inter-American Court of Human Rights created. 1991, Adoption of Resolution 1080, which requires the Secretary General to convene the Permanent Council within ten days of a coup détat in any member country,1994, First Summit of the Americas, which resolved to establish a Free Trade Area of the Americas by 2005. 2009, OAS revokes 1962 suspension of Cuba,2009, OAS suspends Honduras due to the coup which ousted president Manuel Zelaya. 2011, OAS lifts the suspension of Honduras with the return of Manuel Zelaya from exile, article 2 then defines eight essential purposes, To strengthen the peace and security of the continent. To promote and consolidate representative democracy, with due respect for the principle of nonintervention, to prevent possible causes of difficulties and to ensure the pacific settlement of disputes that may arise among the member states
14.
Foreign Assistance Act
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The Foreign Assistance Act is a United States Act of Congress. The Act reorganized the structure of existing U. S, on November 3,1961, President John F. Kennedy signed the Act and issued Executive Order 10973, detailing the reorganization. The agency unified already existing U. S and this Act was amended in 2004 specific to the treatment of orphans and other vulnerable children. Chronological timeline of amendments and revisions to the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961, university of California - Santa Barbara. Bill signing - S.2996 Public Law 87-565, Foreign Assistance Act,10, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum
15.
Ivan Illich
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Illich was born in Vienna to a Croatian Catholic father, engineer Ivan Peter Illich, and a Sephardic Jewish mother, Ellen née Regenstreif-Ortlieb. His maternal grandmother was from Texas, Illich had Italian, Spanish, French, and German as native languages. He later learned Croatian, the language of his grandfathers, then Ancient Greek and Latin, in addition to Portuguese, Hindi, English, and other languages. He studied histology and crystallography at the University of Florence as well as theology and philosophy at the Pontifical Gregorian University in Rome and he wrote a dissertation focusing on the historian Arnold J. Toynbee and would return to that subject in his later years. It was in Puerto Rico that Illich met Everett Reimer and the two began to analyze their own functions as educational leaders, in 1959, he traveled throughout South America on foot and by bus. His real intent was to document the participation of the Vatican in the development of the so-called Third World. Illich looked askance at the liberal pity or conservative imperiousness that motivated the rising tide of global industrial development and he viewed such emissaries as a form of industrial hegemony and, as such, an act of war on subsistence. He sought to teach missionaries dispatched by the Church not to impose their own cultural values, throughout the late ’60s and early ’70s, CIDOC was part language school and part free university for intellectual hippies from all over the Americas. After ten years, critical analysis from the CIDOC of the actions by the Church brought the organization into conflict with the Vatican. Unpopular with the chapter of Opus Dei, Illich was called to Rome for questioning. Several of the members subsequently continued language schools in Cuernavaca, of some still exist. Illich himself resigned from the priesthood in the late 1960s. In the 1970s, Illich was popular among leftist intellectuals in France, however, his influence declined after the 1981 election of François Mitterrand as Illich was considered too pessimistic at a time when the French Left took control of the government. In the 1980s and beyond, Illich traveled extensively, mainly splitting his time between the United States, Mexico, and Germany and he held an appointment as a Visiting Professor of Philosophy, Science, Technology and Society at Penn State. He also taught at the University of Bremen and University of Hagen, during his last days of his life he admitted that he was greatly influenced by one of the Indian economists and adviser to M. K. Gandhi, J. C. Kumarappa, most notably, his book, the book that brought Ivan Illich to public attention was Deschooling Society, a radical critical discourse on education as practised in modern economies. It would be no more if it were attempted by means of alternative institutions built on the style of present schools. We hope to contribute concepts needed by those who conduct such research on education--and also to those who seek alternatives to other established service industries
16.
Brazilian nationalism
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Brazilian nationalism refers to the nationalism of Brazilian people and Brazilian culture. It became strong during the declaration of Independence of Brazil, in the 19th century, Brazil was initially a colony of Portugal, established during the Portuguese colonization of the Americas. Historians are not sure on the moment when Brazilians developed a local nationalism. In some cases it is pointed to the discovery itself, in others it is attributed to the explorations of the bandeirantes or the South American theater of the Dutch–Portuguese War in the 17th century, still, the first cases of a strong nationalist sentiment emerged in the 19th century. The white Brazilian-born colonial oligarchy developed sentiments against the colonial system, Brazilians had a desire for self-governance and resented that wealth of the nation was taken to Portugal. After independence, Brazilian nationalism maintained its anti-Portuguese sentiment, expanding to anti-British and anti-Spanish American sentiments, the Brazilian monarchy was also an unifying factor, as the majority of the elite accepted the authority of the kings and feared the consequences of a potential revolution of their slaves. The elite envisioned a country of white peoples, but the slaves, mulattoes, for this end, they encouraged European immigration, to increase the number of white people. The anti-Portuguese sentiment also led to a use of the French language. France was seen at the time as a model of civilization, the literary nationalism began in the 1840s with the works of José de Alencar, who used French literary models to describe the regions and social milieus of Brazil. Nationalist literary works became more complex in the half of the 19th century. Immigration and Xenophobia, Portuguese Immigrants in Early 19th Century Rio de Janeiro, united States, University Press of America. Brazil in the making, facets of national identity, united States, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc
17.
Democratic socialism
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Some tendencies of democratic socialism advocate for revolution in order to transition to socialism, distinguishing it from some forms of social democracy. For Hain, this divide is more important than the revolutionary/reformist divide. A similar, but more complex, argument is made by Nicos Poulantzas, Draper himself uses the term revolutionary-democratic socialism as a type of socialism from below in his The Two Souls of Socialism. Similarly, about Eugene Debs, he writes, Debsian socialism evoked a response from the heart of the people. In contrast, other tendencies of democratic socialism advocate for eventual socialism that follow a gradual, reformist or evolutionary path to socialism, rather than a revolutionary one. We are socialists because we are developing a strategy for achieving that vision. The term is used to refer to policies that are compatible with and exist within capitalism. Though this is not always the case, for example, Robert M. contended that a more benevolent form of capitalism had emerged since the. According to Crosland, it was now possible to achieve equality in society without the need for fundamental economic transformation. Some proponents of market socialism see it as a system compatible with the political ideology of democratic socialism. The term democratic socialism can be used even another way, to refer to a version of the Soviet model that was reformed in a democratic way, for example, Mikhail Gorbachev described perestroika as building a new, humane and democratic socialism. Consequently, some former Communist parties have rebranded themselves as democratic socialist, justification of democratic socialism can be found in the works of social philosophers like Charles Taylor and Axel Honneth, among others. Honneth has put forward the view that political and economic ideologies have a social basis, contra liberal individualism, Honneth has emphasised the inter-subjective dependence between humans, that is, our well-being depends on recognising others and being recognised by them. Democratic socialism, with its emphasis on social collectivism, could be seen as a way of safeguarding this dependency and their concern for both democracy and social justice marks them out as key precursors of democratic socialism. Owens followers again stressed both participatory democracy and economic socialisation, in the form of consumer co-operatives, credit unions, the Chartists similarly combined a working class politics with a call for greater democracy. The British moral philosopher John Stuart Mill also came to advocate a form of socialism within a liberal context. Democratic socialism became a prominent movement at the end of the 19th century, in Germany, the Eisenacher socialist group merged with the Lassallean socialist group, in 1875, to form the German Social Democratic Party. In Australia, the Labour and Socialist movements were gaining traction, the ALP has been the main driving force for workers rights in Australia, backed by Australian Trade Unions, in particular the Australian Workers Union
18.
Nelson Rockefeller
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Nelson Aldrich Rockefeller was an American businessman and politician. He served as the 41st Vice President of the United States under President Gerald Ford from 1974 to 1977 and he also served in the administrations of Presidents Franklin Roosevelt, Harry S. Truman, and Dwight Eisenhower. A member of the wealthy Rockefeller family, he was also an art collector. Rockefeller, a Republican, was considered politically liberal and progressive. He successfully altered the political platform of the Republican Party just before the 1960 Republican Convention in what is termed the Treaty of Fifth Avenue, in his time, liberals in the Republican Party were called Rockefeller Republicans. After unsuccessfully seeking the Republican presidential nomination in 1960,1964, Rockefeller did not join the 1976 Republican national ticket with Ford, marking his retirement from politics. Ford later selected then-Senator Bob Dole from Kansas for his new running mate but ultimately lost the election to Democrat Jimmy Carter and his running mate, Rockefeller remains, as of 2017, the last Vice President who declined to seek re-election. As a businessman he was president and later chairman of Rockefeller Center, Inc. Rockefeller assembled a significant art collection and promoted public access to the arts. He served as trustee, treasurer, and president of the Museum of Modern Art, Rockefeller was born in 1908 in Bar Harbor, Maine. He was the son of financier and philanthropist John Davison Rockefeller Jr. and philanthropist. He had a sister, Abby, and four brothers, John III, Laurance, Winthrop and their father John Jr. was the only son of Standard Oil co-founder John Davison Rockefeller Sr. and schoolteacher Laura Celestia Cettie Spelman. Their mother Abby was a daughter of Senator Nelson Wilmarth Aldrich, Rockefeller received his elementary, middle and high school education at the Lincoln School, an experimental school administered by Teachers College of Columbia University. In 1930 he graduated cum laude with an A. B. in economics from Dartmouth College, where he was a member of Casque and Gauntlet, Phi Beta Kappa, and the Zeta chapter of the Psi Upsilon. Following his graduation, he worked in a number of family-related businesses, including Chase National Bank, Rockefeller Center, Inc. From 1932 to 1979 he served as a trustee of the Museum of Modern Art, where he served as treasurer, 1935–39. He and his four brothers established the Rockefeller Brothers Fund, a philanthropy, in 1940, where he served as trustee, 1940–75 and 1977–79, Rockefeller was a patient of famous psychic Edgar Cayce. Rockefeller served as a member of the Westchester County Board of Health and his service with Creole Petroleum led to his deep, lifelong interest in Latin America. He became fluent in the Spanish language, Rockefeller was charged with overseeing a program of U. S
19.
Chilean land reform
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The Chilean land reform was a process of land ownership restructuring that occurred from 1962 to 1973 in different phases. For much of the 20th century agriculture was one of the most backward sectors of Chilean economy, the land reform was initially supported by Chilean right, centre and left political parties plus the Catholic Church and the United States. After the 1973 Chilean coup détat the ruling right-wing dictatorship initiated a counter-reform that reverted part of it, francisco Encina considered that Chile was ready for industrialization. Conditions in for early 20th century rural workers was harsh with Tancredo Pinochet denouncing the conditions of workers in the hacienda of president Juan Luis Sanfuentes during his presidency. Within a dual sector economic model the 20th century Chilean hacienda has been characterized as a example of a primitive. McBride, a Briton who visited Chile in the 1930s, is reported to have been astounded to see haciendas with agricultural methods that reminds of ancient Egypt, among Chilean politicians Eduardo Frei Montalva expressed his view in 1958 that both minifundia and latifundia were detrimental for Chilean agriculture. The agrarian production in Chile contracted from 1950 onwards, a government plan set up in 1954 to address this ended with meager results and in 1958 a new plan was presented. That plan allowed CORFO to develop investments in dairy plants, refrigerated slaughterhouses, sugar refineries, in 1962, during the government of Jorge Alessandri, the first land reform law was promulgated. This law allowed for the distribution of state-owned land among campesinos, the next land reform law was passed in 1967 under the Christian Democrat government of Eduardo Frei Montalva, giving legal status to farmers syndicates. A total of 100 thousand campesinos became syndicalized in 400 syndicates and this law served also to expropriate 1400 land holdings totaling 3.5 million ha. In the case of the Catholic Church, it began in the 1960s to distribute its lands among campesinos, besides state reforms in the 1960s, Chilean communists and socialists engaged in the formation of agriculture syndicates through La Frontera and semi-arid Norte Chico. The Christian Democrats did the same around Valparaíso and Aconcagua Valley and in the Central Valley locations of Curicó, Linares and Talca. The Popular Unity government led by Salvador Allende that came to power in 1970 continued the reform and. Around 59% of Chiles agricultural lands were redistributed during the Chilean land reform, the hacienda and inquilinaje institutions that characterized large parts of Chilean agriculture were eliminated by land reform. Economist and Pinochet collaborator José Piñera claims that a socialist paradigm was behind the land reform and he adds that the reform evolved into a general attack against property rights and traces the origins of the Chilean nationalization of copper during the Allende years to the Chilean land reform. In 1974 the military dictatorship begun an agrarian counter-reform, of the lands expropriated during the land reform about 30% were returned to its former owners during the military dictatorship era, an additional 5% was auctioned. Reformed lands owned by cooperatives were divided into individual properties, the 16½ years of military dictatorship neoliberal economic policies bought a new generation of capitalists to the rural world. Due to the lack of capital or credit to invest in their lands many campesinos sold their lands after the reform was over
20.
Minimum wage
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A minimum wage is the lowest remuneration that employers must legally pay their workers. Equivalently, it is the floor below which workers may not sell their labor. Although minimum wage laws are in effect in many jurisdictions, differences of opinion exist about the benefits, supporters of the minimum wage say it increases the standard of living of workers, reduces poverty, reduces inequality, boosts morale and forces businesses to be more efficient. Modern minimum wage laws trace their origin to the Ordinance of Labourers, King Edward III, who was a wealthy landowner, was dependent, like his lords, on serfs to work the land. In the autumn of 1348, the Black Plague reached England, the severe shortage of labor caused wages to soar and encouraged King Edward III to set a wage ceiling. Subsequent amendments to the ordinance, such as the Statute of Labourers, while the laws governing wages initially set a ceiling on compensation, they were eventually used to set a living wage. An amendment to the Statute of Labourers in 1389 effectively fixed wages to the price of food, as time passed, the Justice of the Peace, who was charged with setting the maximum wage, also began to set formal minimum wages. The practice was eventually formalized with the passage of the Act Fixing a Minimum Wage in 1604 by King James I for workers in the textile industry. By the early 19th century, the Statutes of Labourers was repealed as increasingly capitalistic England embraced laissez-faire policies which disfavored regulations of wages, the subsequent 19th century saw significant labor unrest affect many industrial nations. As trade unions were decriminalized during the century, attempts to control wages through collective agreement were made, however, this meant that a uniform minimum wage was not possible. It was not until the 1890s that the first modern attempts to regulate minimum wages were seen in New Zealand. The movement for a wage was initially focused on stopping sweatshop labor. The sweatshops employed large numbers of women and young workers, paying them what were considered to be substandard wages, the sweatshop owners were thought to have unfair bargaining power over their employees, and a minimum wage was proposed as a means to make them pay fairly. Over time, the changed to helping people, especially families. The first modern national minimum wage law was enacted by the government of New Zealand in 1894, followed by Australia in 1896, in the United States, statutory minimum wages were first introduced nationally in 1938, and they were reintroduced and expanded in the United Kingdom in 1998. There is now legislation or binding collective bargaining regarding minimum wage in more than 90 percent of all countries, in the European Union,22 member states out of 28 currently have national minimum wages. Currently the American federal minimum wage rests at seven dollars, twenty-five cents per hour, however, some states do not recognize the minimum wage law such as Louisiana and Tennessee. Other states operate below the minimum wage such as Georgia
21.
Marshall Plan
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The plan was in operation for four years beginning April 8,1948. The goals of the United States were to rebuild war-devastated regions, remove trade barriers, modernize industry, make Europe prosperous once more, the Marshall Plan aid was divided amongst the participant states roughly on a per capita basis. A larger amount was given to the industrial powers, as the prevailing opinion was that their resuscitation was essential for general European revival. Somewhat more aid per capita was also directed towards the Allied nations, the largest recipient of Marshall Plan money was the United Kingdom, followed by France and West Germany. Some 18 European countries received Plan benefits, although offered participation, the Soviet Union refused Plan benefits, and also blocked benefits to Eastern Bloc countries, such as East Germany and Poland. The United States provided similar aid programs in Asia, but they were not called Marshall Plan, the initiative is named after Secretary of State George Marshall, who also served as the United States Army Chief of staff during WWII. The plan had bipartisan support in Washington, where the Republicans controlled Congress, Marshall spoke of an urgent need to help the European recovery in his address at Harvard University in June 1947. The purpose of the Marshall Plan was to aid in the recovery of nations after WWII as well as to antagonize the Soviet Union. In order to combat the effects of the Marshall Plan, the USSR developed its own economic plan and it was not as effective as the Marshall Plan, and in some ways contradictory to eastern block countries that served alongside the axis powers in WWII. The phrase equivalent of the Marshall Plan is often used to describe a proposed large-scale economic rescue program, the reconstruction plan, developed at a meeting of the participating European states, was drafted on June 5,1947. It offered the aid to the Soviet Union and its allies. In fact, the Soviet Union prevented its satellite states from accepting, Secretary Marshall became convinced Stalin had no interest in helping restore economic health in Western Europe. President Harry Truman signed the Marshall Plan on April 3,1948, the Marshall Plan was replaced by the Mutual Security Plan at the end of 1951, that new plan gave away about $7 billion annually until 1961 when it was replaced by another program. The ERP addressed each of the obstacles to postwar recovery, the plan looked to the future, and did not focus on the destruction caused by the war. By 1952, as the funding ended, the economy of every participant state had surpassed pre-war levels, for all Marshall Plan recipients, by the end of World War II, much of Europe was devastated. Sustained aerial bombardment during the war had badly damaged most major cities, the regions trade flows had been thoroughly disrupted, millions were in refugee camps living on aid from United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration and other agencies. Food shortages were severe, especially in the winter of 1946–47. From July 1945 through June 1946, the United States shipped 16.5 million tons of food, primarily wheat, to Europe and Japan
22.
Lincoln Gordon
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Abraham Lincoln Gordon was the 9th President of the Johns Hopkins University and a United States Ambassador to Brazil. Gordon had a career both in government and in academia, becoming a Professor of International Economic Relations at Harvard University in the 1950s, before turning his attention to foreign affairs. Gordon had a career in business after his resignation as president of the Johns Hopkins University and his full name was Abraham Lincoln Gordon, but he never used his first name. Born in 1913 in New York City, Gordon attended the Ethical Culture Fieldston School in Riverdale, as an undergraduate at Harvard, Gordon was involved with the universitys glee club, because Prohibition was still in place, wine was usually served at the Club’s parties. While he was a student at Harvard, Gordon met his wife, Allison Wright. He received a BA from Harvard in 1933 and he received a DPhil from Oxford University as a Rhodes Scholar in 1936. Gordon was program vice-chairman of the War Production Board from 1944 to 1945 and he started in the Bureau of Research and Statistics of the War Production Board before joining the staff of the Requirements Committee, helping design the Controlled Materials Plan. This Plan regulated the conservation and allocation of critical materials such as steel, copper, zinc, Gordon then worked for the US State Department as Director of the Marshall Plan Mission and Minister for Economic Affairs and at the United States embassy in London. To let Western Europe collapse for want of some dollars, Gordon has stated in regards to his role in the Marshall Plan and it would have been repeating the terrible mistake after World War I. In 1960, Gordon helped develop the Alliance for Progress, an aid program designed to prevent Latin America from turning to revolution, Brazil also enjoyed large overall balance of payments surpluses during the Alliance years. In 1961, Time reported that Gordon has become Kennedys leading expert on Latin American economics, Gordon drew up the U. S. agenda for the July inter-American economic meeting approved last week by the Organization of American States. Gordon served as U. S. Ambassador to Brazil, where he played a role for the support of the opposition against the government of President João Goulart. Gordon believed that Goulart, wanting to seize power, was working with the Brazilian Communist Party. ”Noam Chomsky has been critical of the coup. The support for the coup was initiated by Kennedy but finally carried to a conclusion by Johnson, Kennedys ambassador, Lincoln Gordon, the single most decisive victory for freedom in the mid-twentieth century. We installed the first really major national security state, Nazi-like state, in Latin America, with high-technology torture, Gordon called it totally democratic, the best government Brazil ever had. Well, there was a miracle and there was an increase in the GNP. There was also an increase in suffering for much of the population, thomas Skidmore, a well-respected Brazilian historian and moderately Marxist professor at Brown University takes a notedly different view than Chomsky. While he acknowledges that the U. S. supported the Brazilian military, he notes that the credit for the coup belongs to the Brazilian military and not to the U. S
23.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
24.
The American Conservative
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The American Conservative is a bi-monthly journal of opinion published by the American Ideas Institute. It is opposed to the ideologies that ran rampant in the 20th century and the right-wing. In 2011 and 2012, the magazine expanded its website, adding several regular columnists, at present, some notable columnists include Rod Dreher, Daniel Larison, Noah Millman, Andrew Bacevich, Kelly Vlahos, and Philip Giraldi. The American Conservative is non-partisan and devoted to the conservative disposition and it is a heterogeneous publication, and incorporates a range of voices that align with its broad editorial stance. In 2002 The American Conservative was founded by Scott McConnell, Patrick Buchanan, Scott McConnell served as the magazines first editor, followed by managing editor Kara Hopkins. Ron Unz was named publisher in 2007, in 2011, Wick Allison became the magazines publisher, followed in 2013 by Jon Basil Utley, the current publisher. In 2010, Daniel McCarthy succeeded Kara Hopkins as editor, in September 2011, the magazine introduced an editorial redesign of its print publication, and in May 2012, a redesign of its website. In October 2014, Benjamin Schwarz, the national and literary editor of The Atlantic, was named national editor of the magazine. In November 2016, Robert W. Merry succeeded Daniel McCarthy as editor, with Lewis McCrary and Pratik Chougule as Executive Editors, in 2009 Reihan Salam, National Review editor, wrote that the publication had gained a devoted following as a sharp critic of the conservative mainstream. In 2012 David Brooks, columnist at The New York Times, wrote, writers like Rod Dreher and Daniel Larison tend to be suspicious of bigness, big corporations, big government, a big military, concentrated power and concentrated wealth. Writers at that Web site, and at the temperamentally aligned Front Porch Republic, treasure tight communities, they’re alert to the ways capitalism can erode community. Dispositionally, they are more Walker Percy than Pat Robertson, folio, The Magazine for Magazine Management,1 September 2002. The American Conservative Crackup, Why I quit Pat Buchanan’s magazine by Alexander Konetzki, The Washington Monthly The American Conservative by J. Bradford DeLong, May 15,2012
25.
David Horowitz
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David Joel Horowitz is an American conservative writer. Horowitz founded the organization Students for Academic Freedom to oppose what he believed to be political correctness and he has written several books with author Peter Collier, including four on prominent 20th-century American political families that had members elected to the presidency. He and Collier have collaborated on books about current cultural criticism, Horowitz has also worked as a columnist for Salon. Its then-editor Joan Walsh described him as a conservative provocateur, Horowitz was raised by parents who were members of the Communist Party USA during the Great Depression, they gave up their membership in 1956 after learning of Joseph Stalins purges and abuses. From 1956 to 1975, Horowitz was an adherent of the New Left. He later rejected liberal and progressive ideas completely and has become a proponent of conservatism. Horowitz has recounted his journey in a series of retrospective books, culminating with his 1996 memoir Radical Son. Horowitz is the son of Phil and Blanche Horowitz, who were school teachers. His father taught English and his mother taught stenography, during years of labor organizing and the Great Depression, Phil and Blanche Horowitz were long-standing members of the American Communist Party and strong supporters of Joseph Stalin. They left the party after Khrushchev published his report in 1956 about the crimes Stalin committed, according to Horowitz, Underneath the ordinary surfaces of their lives, my parents and their friends thought of themselves as secret agents. The mission they had undertaken, and about which they could not speak freely except with other, was not just an idea to them. It was more important to their sense of themselves than anything else they did, nor were its tasks of a kind they could attend or ignore, depending on their moods. They were more like the obligations of a religious faith, except that their faith was secular, and the millennium they awaited was being instituted, at that moment, in the very country that had become Americas enemy. It was this fact made their ordinary lives precarious and their secrecy necessary. If they lived under a cloud of suspicion, it was the result of more than just their political passions, the dropping of the atomic bomb on Hiroshima had created a terror in the minds of ordinary people. Newspapers reported on American spy rings working to steal atomic secrets for the Soviet state, when people read these stories, they inevitably thought of progressives like us. Even if we never encountered a Soviet agent or engaged in an illegal act, each of us knew that our commitment to socialism implied the obligation to commit treason. It took five men to replace him, according to Horowitz, The publication of the Khrushchev Report was probably the greatest blow struck against the Soviet Empire during the Cold War
26.
President of the United States
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The President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president directs the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is considered to be one of the worlds most powerful political figures, the role includes being the commander-in-chief of the worlds most expensive military with the second largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP. The office of President holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad, Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The president is empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves. The president is responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is a member. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States, since the office of President was established in 1789, its power has grown substantially, as has the power of the federal government as a whole. However, nine vice presidents have assumed the presidency without having elected to the office. The Twenty-second Amendment prohibits anyone from being elected president for a third term, in all,44 individuals have served 45 presidencies spanning 57 full four-year terms. On January 20,2017, Donald Trump was sworn in as the 45th, in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The new states, though independent of each other as nation states, desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy, Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states. Out from under any monarchy, the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives to Congress, only after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1,1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies, with peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. Prospects for the convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washingtons attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia. It was through the negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U. S. The first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto, the Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options, Sign the legislation, the bill becomes law. Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections, in this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation
27.
United States Senate
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The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the House of Representatives, the lower chamber, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution. S. From 1789 until 1913, Senators were appointed by the legislatures of the states represented, following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. The Senate chamber is located in the wing of the Capitol, in Washington. It further has the responsibility of conducting trials of those impeached by the House, in the early 20th century, the practice of majority and minority parties electing their floor leaders began, although they are not constitutional officers. This idea of having one chamber represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the Connecticut Compromise, there was also a desire to have two Houses that could act as an internal check on each other. One was intended to be a Peoples House directly elected by the people, the other was intended to represent the states to such extent as they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Senate was thus not designed to serve the people of the United States equally, the Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation. First convened in 1789, the Senate of the United States was formed on the example of the ancient Roman Senate, the name is derived from the senatus, Latin for council of elders. James Madison made the comment about the Senate, In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people. An agrarian law would take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation, landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority, the senate, therefore, ought to be this body, and to answer these purposes, the people ought to have permanency and stability. The Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a state of its equal suffrage in the Senate without that states consent, the District of Columbia and all other territories are not entitled to representation in either House of the Congress. The District of Columbia elects two senators, but they are officials of the D. C. city government. The United States has had 50 states since 1959, thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959. In 1787, Virginia had roughly ten times the population of Rhode Island, whereas today California has roughly 70 times the population of Wyoming and this means some citizens are effectively two orders of magnitude better represented in the Senate than those in other states. Seats in the House of Representatives are approximately proportionate to the population of each state, before the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, Senators were elected by the individual state legislatures
28.
United States House of Representatives
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The United States House of Representatives is the lower chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the Senate, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the House are established by Article One of the United States Constitution, since its inception in 1789, all representatives are elected popularly. The total number of voting representatives is fixed by law at 435, the House is charged with the passage of federal legislation, known as bills, which, after concurrence by the Senate, are sent to the President for consideration. The presiding officer is the Speaker of the House, who is elected by the members thereof and is traditionally the leader of the controlling party. He or she and other leaders are chosen by the Democratic Caucus or the Republican Conferences. The House meets in the wing of the United States Capitol. Under the Articles of Confederation, the Congress of the Confederation was a body in which each state was equally represented. All states except Rhode Island agreed to send delegates, the issue of how to structure Congress was one of the most divisive among the founders during the Convention. The House is referred to as the house, with the Senate being the upper house. Both houses approval is necessary for the passage of legislation, the Virginia Plan drew the support of delegates from large states such as Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, as it called for representation based on population. The smaller states, however, favored the New Jersey Plan, the Constitution was ratified by the requisite number of states in 1788, but its implementation was set for March 4,1789. The House began work on April 1,1789, when it achieved a quorum for the first time, during the first half of the 19th century, the House was frequently in conflict with the Senate over regionally divisive issues, including slavery. The North was much more populous than the South, and therefore dominated the House of Representatives, However, the North held no such advantage in the Senate, where the equal representation of states prevailed. Regional conflict was most pronounced over the issue of slavery, One example of a provision repeatedly supported by the House but blocked by the Senate was the Wilmot Proviso, which sought to ban slavery in the land gained during the Mexican–American War. Conflict over slavery and other issues persisted until the Civil War, the war culminated in the Souths defeat and in the abolition of slavery. Because all southern senators except Andrew Johnson resigned their seats at the beginning of the war, the years of Reconstruction that followed witnessed large majorities for the Republican Party, which many Americans associated with the Unions victory in the Civil War and the ending of slavery. The Reconstruction period ended in about 1877, the ensuing era, the Democratic and the Republican Party held majorities in the House at various times. The late 19th and early 20th centuries also saw an increase in the power of the Speaker of the House
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Massachusetts's 11th congressional district
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Massachusetts Congressional District 11 is an obsolete congressional district in eastern Massachusetts. It was eliminated in 1993 after the 1990 U. S. Census and its last Congressman was Brian Donnelly, its most notable wereJohn Quincy Adams following his term as president, eventual president John F. Kennedy and Speaker Tip ONeill. 1893, Suffolk County, Boston, Wards 21,22, middlesex County, City of Newton, towns of Belmont, Holliston, Sherborn, and Water- town. Norfolk County, Towns of Bellingham, Brookline, Dedham, Dover, Foxboro, Franklin, Hyde Park, Medfield, Medway, Millis, Needham, Norfolk, Norwood, Sharon, Walpole, bristol County, Town of North Attleboro. Worcester County, Towns of Hopedale and Milford,1916, Suffolk County, Boston Wards 10,11,12,18,19,21,22,23. 1968, Norfolk County, City of Quincy, Towns of Avon, Braintree, Canton, Dedham, Holbrook, Milton, Norwood, Randolph, Sharon, Stoughton, and Weymouth. Suffolk County, City of Boston, Ward 18,1977, Norfolk County, City of Quincy. Towns of Avon, Braintree, Holbrook, Milton, Randolph, Suffolk County, City of Boston, Wards 15,16,17,18. 1985, Norfolk County, City of Quincy, Towns of Avon, Braintree, Holbrook, Milton, Randolph, and Weymouth. Towns of Abington, East Bridgewater, Rockland, West Bridgewater, Suffolk County, City of Boston, Wards 15,16,17, and 18. The Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress, the Historical Atlas of United States Congressional Districts. Congressional Biographical Directory of the United States 1774–present
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Presidency of John F. Kennedy
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The presidency of John F. Kennedy was succeeded by Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson. A Democrat, he took office following the 1960 presidential election, in which he defeated Richard Nixon, Kennedy was the first person born in the 20th century to be elected president, and, at age 43, the youngest person elected to the office. He was also the first Roman Catholic elected to the presidency, Kennedys time in office was marked by Cold War tensions with the Soviet Union and its satellite states, as well as Cuba. In Cuba, an attempt was made in April 1961 at the Bay of Pigs to overthrow the government of Fidel Castro. Kennedys administration subsequently rejected plans by the Joint Chiefs of Staff to orchestrate false-flag attacks on American soil in order to gain approval for a war against Cuba. Kennedy took steps to support the Civil Rights Movement, and after his death his proposed civil rights bill was passed as the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Kennedy brought to the White House a contrast in organization compared to the structure of former-General Eisenhower. Kennedy preferred the structure of a wheel with all the spokes leading to the president. He was ready and willing to make the number of quick decisions required in such an environment. He selected a mixture of experienced and inexperienced people to serve in his cabinet and we can learn our jobs together, he stated. Kennedys brother, Robert F. Kennedy, served as Attorney General, Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson was largely sidelined during the administration. Thurgood Marshall, who Kennedy appointed to the Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit, Kennedy was sworn in as the 35th president at noon on January 20,1961. In his inaugural address he spoke of the need for all Americans to be citizens, famously saying, Ask not what your country can do for you. He asked the nations of the world to join together to fight what he called the enemies of man, tyranny, poverty, disease. He added, All this will not be finished in the first one hundred days, nor will it be finished in the first one thousand days, nor in the life of this Administration, nor even perhaps in our lifetime on this planet. The address reflected Kennedys confidence that his administration would chart an historically significant course in both policy and foreign affairs. President Kennedys foreign policy was dominated by American confrontations with the Soviet Union, in 1961, Kennedy anxiously anticipated a summit with Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev. He started off on the foot by reacting aggressively to a routine Khrushchev speech on Cold War confrontation in early 1961
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Timeline of the presidency of John F. Kennedy
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This timeline begins on January 2,1960, the date when then U. S. Senator Kennedy announced his intention to run for the Democratic Party presidential nomination, and concludes on November 25,1963, Kennedy, the 35th United States president, was the first Roman Catholic as well as the first person born in the 20th century to be elected president. Additionally, he is the youngest individual ever elected to the office, Kennedy was the eighth president to die in office and the fourth one to be assassinated. Upon his death, in accordance with Constitutional procedure, Vice President Lyndon B, Johnson, succeeded to the presidency and took the presidential oath of office aboard Air Force One less than an hour after Kennedy died. Johnson served out the remaining 425 days of Kennedys term, and was elected to the presidency in his own right in 1964, January 2 – Senator John Fitzgerald Kennedy of Massachusetts officially announces his intention to run for the Presidency of the United States. March 8 – Kennedy wins the New Hampshire primary, receiving 88% of the vote and this would be the first of 10 primary victories for the Massachusetts Senator. May 4 – Senators Kennedy and Humphrey hold a debate in West Virginia. May 10 – Kennedy wins the West Virginia primary, receiving 61% of the vote, West Virginia shows that Kennedy, a Catholic, could win in a heavily Protestant state. Senator Lyndon B. Johnson of Texas is nominated for Vice President, Kennedy was the first senator since 1920 to be nominated for the presidency by either the Democrats or the Republicans. September 26 – Senator Kennedy and Vice President Richard Nixon participate in the first televised presidential debate, October 7 – Kennedy and Nixon participate in the second presidential debate, held in Washington, D. C. October 13 – Senator Kennedy and Vice President Nixon debate each other for the third time, Kennedy participates from a New York studio, while Nixon participates from a Los Angeles studio. October 21 – Kennedy and Nixon participate in the fourth and final debate in New York. November 9 – Republican presidential candidate Richard Nixon concedes the presidency to Kennedy, Kennedys official popular vote margin is 0. 1% and his electoral margin is 84 electoral votes. Nixon won more states,26 to 22, the electoral result proves to be the closest since the 1916 presidential election. November 25 – John Fitzgerald Kennedy Jr. President-elect and Mrs. Kennedys second child, is born at Georgetown University Hospital, December 6 – President-elect Kennedy meets with President Dwight Eisenhower at the White House to discuss the presidential transition. January 20 – Kennedys presidency begins with his inauguration at the United States Capitol in Washington and he is congratulated by Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev. Kennedy also formally nominates his cabinet and attends the inaugural balls, January 21 – Kennedy meets with former President Harry S. Truman and issues Executive Order 10914 directing a doubling of the quantity of surplus food distributed to needy families. Kennedy also attends a meeting at the Democratic National Committee and hosts the swearing-in of his cabinet, January 22 – Kennedy meets with the poet Robert Frost
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Inauguration of John F. Kennedy
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The inauguration of John F. Kennedy as the 35th President of the United States was held on Friday, January 20,1961 at the eastern portico of the United States Capitol in Washington, D. C. The inauguration marked the commencement of John F. Kennedys only term as President, johnsons only term as Vice President. Kennedy died 2 years,306 days into this term, Kennedy took office following the November 1960 presidential election, in which he narrowly defeated Richard Nixon, the then–incumbent Vice President. He was the first Roman Catholic to become President, and became the youngest person elected to the office and his inaugural address encompassed the major themes of his campaign and would define his presidency during a time of economic prosperity, emerging social changes, and diplomatic challenges. This inauguration was the first in which a poet, Robert Frost, frank Sinatra and Peter Lawford organized and hosted a pre-inaugural ball at the D. C. Armory on the eve of Inauguration day, January 19,1961, considered as one of the biggest parties ever held in Washington, D. C. With tickets ranging from $100 per person to $10,000 per group, davis eventually switched his support to the Republican Party and Richard Nixon in the early 1970s. Harry Belafonte expressed sadness at the controversy, stating It was the ambassador, sammy not being there was a loss. On inauguration day, January 20,1961, the skies began to clear but the snow created chaos in Washington and this task force employed hundreds of dump trucks, front-end loaders, sanders, plows, rotaries, and flamethrowers to clear the route. Over 1,400 cars which had been stranded due to the conditions, the snowstorm dropped visibility at Washington National Airport to less than half a mile, preventing former President Herbert Hoover from flying into Washington and attending the inauguration. Before the proceeding to the Capitol in company with outgoing President Dwight D. Eisenhower, the invocation and prayers lasted a total of 28 minutes. Marian Anderson sang The Star-Spangled Banner, and a composition by musical Leonard Bernstein titled Fanfare for the Inauguration of John F. Kennedy was played, the oath of office for Vice President was administered by the Speaker of the House of Representatives Sam Rayburn to Lyndon Johnson. Robert Frost, then 86 years old, recited his poem The Gift Outright, Kennedy requested Frost to read a poem at the inauguration, suggesting The Gift Outright, considered an act of gratitude towards Frost for his help during the campaign. Kennedy would later state that he admired the courage, the skill and daring of Frost, and adding that Ive never taken the view the world of politics. I think politicians and poets share at least one thing, American poet William Meredith would say that the request focused attention on Kennedy as a man of culture, as a man interested in culture. Frost composed a new poem titled Dedication specifically for the ceremony as a preface to the poem Kennedy suggested, to the surprise of Kennedys friends. On the morning of the inauguration, Frost asked Stewart Udall, Kennedys future Secretary of the Interior, to have his handwritten draft type scripted for easier reading, once at the presidential podium, however, the glare of the sun and snow prevented him from reading his papers. When Frost started reading, he stumbled on the first three lines, squinting at his papers in view of the crowd and cameras
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John F. Kennedy Supreme Court candidates
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Although he was president for less than three years, John F. Kennedy appointed two men to the Supreme Court of the United States, Byron White and Arthur Goldberg. Associate Justice Charles Evans Whittaker retired from the Supreme Court in March 1962 after just over five years on the court, the Whittaker retirement gave Kennedy his first vacancy on the Supreme Court. Two names initially came up as nominees, Judge William H. Hastie of the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit. United States Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy had recommended Hastie, Robert F. Kennedy said it would mean so much overseas that we had a Negro on the Supreme Court. However, Hastie was opposed by Chief Justice Earl Warren, who balked because hes not a liberal and hell be opposed to all measures we are interested in, Associate Justice William O. Douglas also objected to Hastie as the nominee. In addition, President Kennedys adviser, Ted Sorensen, opposed Hastie because Kennedy was in the process of considering another African-American, Sorensen argued that the first appointment should be one hailed by all for his judicial mien. Sorensen recommended Freund as the nominee, ultimately, Kennedy selected White, who was a longtime supporter of his and who had been serving as United States Deputy Attorney General. Kennedy formally nominated White to the Supreme Court on April 3,1962, White was confirmed by the United States Senate just eight days later, on April 11,1962, in a voice vote. After suffering a stroke, Associate Justice Felix Frankfurter retired from the Supreme Court on August 28,1962, there is not much evidence that Kennedy considered any other candidate other than Goldberg for the vacancy. It had been reported that Frankfurters seat was considered a Jewish seat on the Supreme Court. Kennedy nominated Goldberg, who at time was United States Secretary of Labor. The United States Senate confirmed Goldberg in a vote on September 25,1962
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Clean Air Act (United States)
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The Clean Air Act is a United States federal law designed to control air pollution on a national level. It is one of the United States first and most influential environmental laws. As with many other major U. S. federal environmental statutes, it is administered by the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, in coordination with state, local and its implementing regulations are codified at 40 C. F. R. The 1955 Air Pollution Control Act was the first U. S federal legislation that pertained to air pollution, the first federal legislation to actually pertain to controlling air pollution was the Clean Air Act of 1963. The 1963 act accomplished this by establishing a program within the U. S. Public Health Service and authorizing research into techniques for monitoring and controlling air pollution, the 1967 act also authorized expanded studies of air pollutant emission inventories, ambient monitoring techniques, and control techniques. Major amendments to the law, requiring regulatory controls for air pollution, the 1970 amendments greatly expanded the federal mandate, requiring comprehensive federal and state regulations for both stationary pollution sources and mobile sources. It also significantly expanded federal enforcement, the 1990 amendments addressed acid rain, ozone depletion, and toxic air pollution, established a national permits program for stationary sources, and increased enforcement authority. Reviewing his tenure as EPA Administrator under President George H. Bush, the Clean Air Act was the first major environmental law in the United States to include a provision for citizen suits. Numerous state and local governments have enacted legislation, either implementing federal programs or filling in locally important gaps in federal programs. This section of the act declares that protecting and enhancing the nations air quality promotes public health, the law encourages prevention of regional air pollution and control programs. It also provides technical and financial assistance for air pollution prevention at both state and local governments, additional subchapters cover of cooperation, research, investigation, training and other activities. Grants for air pollution planning and control programs, and interstate air quality agencies, the act mandates air quality control regions, designated as attainment vs non-attainment. Non-attainment areas do not meet standards for primary or secondary ambient air quality. Attainment areas meet these standards, while unclassifiable areas cannot be classified on the basis of the information that is available, Air quality criteria, national primary and secondary ambient air quality standards, state implementation plans and performance standards for new stationary sources are also covered in Part A. The list of air pollutants established by the act includes acetaldehyde, benzene, chloroform, phenols. The list also includes mineral fiber emissions from manufacturing or processing glass, the list periodically can be modified. The remaining subchapters cover smokestack heights, state plan adequacy, and estimating emissions of carbon monoxide, volatile organic compounds, measures to prevent unemployment or other economic disruption include using local coal or coal derivatives to comply with implementation requirements
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Communications Satellite Act of 1962
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The Communications Satellite Act of 1962 was put into effect in order to deal with the issue of commercialization of space communications. This act was controversial, and was left very open-ended. The act was signed August 31,1962 by President John F. Kennedy, the act aimed to join together private communication companies in order to make satellites more obtainable. Long of Louisiana said of the act, When this bill first started out I thought it was as crooked as a hind leg. I am now convinced that that would be a compliment and this bill is as crooked as a barrel of snakes. The American Telephone and Telegraph Company argued that space for communications was just a modern representation of the submarine communications cables currently in use. The Federal Communications Commission proposed that the ten companies together in a program. The compromise allowing the bill to pass was there would be government regulation on the communication industry. The United States Congress made it so that all companies registered by the FCC had nondiscriminatory access to the satellite systems and this would allow competition to develop among the companies, thus preventing trusts from forming. The United States Government, including the President, NASA, the President was to observe every aspect of the development and operation of the satellite systems. He is also responsible for providing arrangements with foreign participation, NASA was designated as a technical advisor for the FCC and the communications corporation to the extent that would aid the nation. NASA was to receive reimbursement for the services it rendered, the largest burden on regulation falls on the FCC. The FCC was deemed responsible for making sure that competition is present, the Act created a board of directors to oversee regulation of the act. There are to be 15 members of board, three appointed by the president, six chosen by public stock holders, and the remaining six chosen by communication carriers that are authorized by the FCC. This board of directors is to control the satellite systems. Stock shares for this Board were to be sold for $100 and this would provide finances for the board. The act was ambiguous about the responsibilities of the regulators and the direction that the companies were to go, however. Section 301 of the Act provided Congress the right to repeal, alter and this would be necessary in order make clear the future regulation done by the committees established by the act
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Community Mental Health Act
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The Community Mental Health Act of 1963 was an act to provide federal funding for community mental health centers in the United States. This legislation was passed as part of John F. Kennedys New Frontier, in 1955, Congress passed the Mental Health Study Act, leading to the establishment of the Joint Commission on Mental Illness and Mental Health. That Commission issued a report in 1961, which would become the basis of the 1963 Act, the CMHA provided grants to states for the establishment of local mental health centers, under the overview of the National Institute of Mental Health. The NIH also conducted a study involving adequacy in mental health issues, the purpose of the CMHA was to build mental health centers to provide for community-based care, as an alternative to institutionalization. At the centers, patients could be treated while working and living at home, only half of the proposed centers were ever built, none were fully funded, and the act didn’t provide money to operate them long-term. Some states saw an opportunity to close expensive state hospitals without spending some of the money on community-based care, deinstitutionalization accelerated after the adoption of Medicaid in 1965. During the Reagan administration, the funding for the act was converted into a mental-health block grant for states. Since the CMHA was enacted,90 percent of beds have been cut at state hospitals, the CMHA proved to be a mixed success. Many patients, formerly warehoused in institutions, were released into the community, however, not all communities had the facilities or expertise to deal with them. In many cases, patients wound up in homes or with their families, or homeless in large cities. Anthony, Vergare, Michael J. Homelessness, the mentally ill. Institute of Medicine, Committee on Health Care for Homeless People, Homelessness, Health, and Human Needs, Health Care and Human Needs. Statistics of Mental Disorders in the United States, Current Status, Some Urgent Needs, journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Series A. Blackwell Publishing for the Royal Statistical Society, from Poorhouses to Homelessness, Policy Analysis and Mental Health Care. Community Mental Health Services Act, Five Years of Operation Under the California Law, whatever Happened to Community Mental Health. Stavis, Paul F. Homeward Bound, The Developing Legal Right to a Home in the Community, New York State Commission on Quality of Care and Advocacy for Persons with Disabilities. Archived from the original on 2009-01-11
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Equal Pay Act of 1963
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The Equal Pay Act of 1963 is a United States labor law amending the Fair Labor Standards Act, aimed at abolishing wage disparity based on sex. It was signed into law on June 10,1963, by John F. Kennedy as part of his New Frontier Program. Stanley from Buffalo, N. Y. introduced H. R.5056, Prohibiting Discrimination in Pay on Account of Sex, Congress included within the text of the EPA a clear and concise policy statement and briefly described the problems it was intended to remedy. The Supreme Court has expressly recognized the view that the EPA must be construed to achieve Congress’ goal of remedying sexual discrimination. The EPA protects both men and women and it also protects administrative, professional and executive employees who are exempt under the Fair Labor Standards Act. The EPA, Section 206, prohibits employer and it is important to note that the EPA does not contain any intent requirement within the statutory language. Liability under the EPA is established by meeting the three elements of the prima facie case, regardless of the intention of the employer, as such, the EPA imposes strict liability on employers who engage in wage discrimination on the basis of gender. Any other factor other than sex Upon its initial enactment, the EPA was the first step towards an adjustment of balance in pay for women. ”As a part of the FLSA, the EPA was subject to the scope and exceptions of covered employees and employers contained within that act. On the floor of the House of Representatives, many Representatives voiced their concern that the EPA should act as the point for establishing pay parity for women. Subsequent to the enactment of the EPA, Congress undertook two actions which broadened the scope of protection against wage discrimination on the basis of sex. First, the same 88th Congress enacted Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, second, Congress expanded the EPA’s coverage to professionals and other white-collar employees. Therefore, the EPA exempted white-collar women from the protection of equal pay for equal work, the Congress did not ignore the EPA’s economic consequences on the salaries and employment opportunities for both men and women. First, as an amendment of the FLSA, the EPA is part of the legislative structure that houses the federal minimum wage laws. The EPA acts as a wage equalizer between men and women for jobs, and has the potential of acting as a price floor on the salaries of men or women for particular jobs. Second, several Representatives voiced their concerns that the impact of setting price floors on the wages paid to women would reduce the availability of jobs for women. American women’s salaries have risen relative to mens since the EPA’s enactment, the EPA’s equal pay for equal work goals have not been completely achieved, as demonstrated by the BLS data and Congressional findings within the text of the proposed Paycheck Fairness Act. The EPA did not originally cover executives, administrators, outside salespeople, and professionals, representative Rosa DeLauro first introduced an identical bill in the House of Representatives on the same day. This bill, providing that each gender-unequal paycheck is a new violation of the law, was the first signing of the Obama Presidency and came almost forty-five years after the Equal Pay Act
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Food for Peace
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In different administrative and organizational forms, the Food for Peace program of the United States has provided food assistance around the world for more than 50 years. Approximately 3 billion people in 150 countries have benefited directly from U. S. food assistance, the Office of Food for Peace within the United States Agency for International Development is the U. S. Government’s largest provider of food assistance. The food assistance programming is funded primarily through the Food for Peace Act, the Office of Food for Peace also receives International Disaster Assistance Funds through the Foreign Assistance Act that can be used in emergency settings. The Office of Food for Peace donates food based on an identified need, during the 2010s the program underwent revisions offered by in the Administrations Fiscal Year 2014 budget. These revisions would change the program to provide cash donations rather than American grown, on April 24,2013, USA Maritime Chairman James L. Henry wrote a statement which discussed the efficacy of the program and specifically the importance of the U. S. Merchant Marine in delivering the U. S. food aid to people who are undernourished around the world, Henry offers that this is a significant fact in the effort to address global hunger. Americas food assistance programs began in 1812 when James Madison sent emergency aid to victims in Venezuela. As director of the American Relief Administration, Herbert Hoover led a $20 million feeding program in Russia during the 1920s under the Russian Famine Relief Act. In 1949, the United States launched the Marshall Plan, which provided large quantities of food aid commodities to the people of Western Europe, the Marshall Plan helped rejuvenate and unite Europe while laying the foundations for a permanent U. S. food assistance program. Many of the European countries the U. S. Government helped at that time have become major food exporters. On July 10,1954, Dwight D. Eisenhower signed the Agricultural Trade Development, by signing this legislation, the President laid “the basis for a permanent expansion of our exports of agricultural products with lasting benefits to ourselves and peoples of other lands. S. dollars. Through new amendments, the law switched its focus from disposing of surplus commodities to addressing humanitarian needs. In signing the extension of the Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act in 1959 and he specifically referred to the extension as the Food for Peace program. Although Kennedy may have expanded the program, he was not the first to refer to the program as Food for Peace, former U. S. McGovern assumed the post on January 21,1961. He found space for the program in the Executive Office Building rather than be subservient to either the U. S. Department of State or U. S. Department of Agriculture. By the close of 1961, the Food for Peace program was operating in a dozen countries, during an audience in Rome, Pope John XXIII warmly praised McGoverns work. McGovern resigned his post on July 18,1962, wanting to resume his political career
