1.
Alpha
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Alpha is the first letter of the Greek alphabet. In the system of Greek numerals it has a value of 1 and it was derived from the Phoenician and Hebrew letter aleph - an ox or leader. Letters that arose from alpha include the Latin A and the Cyrillic letter А, in English, the noun alpha is used as a synonym for beginning, or first, reflecting its Greek roots. In Ancient Greek, alpha was pronounced and could be either long or short. Where there is ambiguity, long and short alpha are sometimes written with a macron and breve today, Ᾱᾱ, ὥρα = ὥρᾱ hōrā a time γλῶσσα = γλῶσσᾰ glôssa tongue In Modern Greek, vowel length has been lost, and all instances of alpha simply represent. It can also combine with the iota subscript, in the Attic-Ionic dialect of Ancient Greek, long alpha fronted to. In Ionic, the took place in all positions. In Attic, the shift did not take place after epsilon, iota, in Doric and Aeolic, long alpha is preserved in all positions. It originates from the Proto-Indo-European *n̥- and is cognate with English un-, copulative a is the Greek prefix ἁ- or ἀ- ha-, a-. The letter alpha represents various concepts in physics and chemistry, including radiation, angular acceleration, alpha particles, alpha carbon. Alpha also stands for thermal expansion coefficient of a compound in physical chemistry and it is also commonly used in mathematics in algebraic solutions representing quantities such as angles. Furthermore, in mathematics, the alpha is used to denote the area underneath a normal curve in statistics to denote significance level when proving null. In zoology, it is used to name the dominant individual in a wolf or dog pack, the proportionality operator ∝ is sometimes mistaken for alpha. The uppercase letter alpha is not generally used as a symbol because it tends to be rendered identically to the uppercase Latin A, in the International Phonetic Alphabet, a letter based on the lower case of alpha represents the open back unrounded vowel. Alpha was derived from aleph, which in Phoenician means ox, plutarch, in Moralia, presents a discussion on why the letter alpha stands first in the alphabet. He then added that he would rather be assisted by Lamprias, his own grandfather, than by Dionysus grandfather, according to Plutarchs natural order of attribution of the vowels to the planets, alpha was connected with the Moon. Alpha, both as a symbol and term, is used to refer to or describe a variety of things, the New Testament has God declaring himself to be the Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the end, the first and the last. The term alpha has been used to position in social hierarchy
2.
Omega (letter)
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Omega is the 24th and last letter of the Greek alphabet. In the Greek numeric system, it has a value of 800, the word literally means great O, as opposed to omicron, which means little O. In phonetic terms, the Ancient Greek Ω is a long open-mid o, in Modern Greek, Ω represents the mid back rounded vowel /o/, the same sound as omicron. The letter omega is transcribed ō or simply o, as the last letter of the Greek alphabet, Omega is often used to denote the last, the end, or the ultimate limit of a set, in contrast to alpha, the first letter of the Greek alphabet. Ω was not part of the early Greek alphabets and it was introduced in the late 7th century BC in the Ionian cities of Asia Minor to denote the long half-open. It is a variant of omicron, broken up at the side, the name Ωμέγα is Byzantine, in Classical Greek, the letter was called ō, whereas the omicron was called ou. In addition to the Greek alphabet, Omega was also adopted into the early Cyrillic alphabet, a Raetic variant is conjectured to be at the origin or parallel evolution of the Elder Futhark ᛟ. Omega was also adopted into the Latin alphabet, as a letter of the 1982 revision to the African reference alphabet, the uppercase letter Ω is used as a symbol, In chemistry, For oxygen-18, a natural, stable isotope of oxygen. In physics, For ohm – SI unit of resistance, formerly also used upside down to represent mho. Unicode has a code point for the ohm sign, but it is included only for backward compatibility. In statistical mechanics, Ω refers to the multiplicity in a system, the solid angle or the rate of precession in a gyroscope. In particle physics to represent the Omega baryons, in astronomy, Ω refers to the density of the universe, also called the density parameter. In astronomy, Ω refers to the longitude of the node of an orbit. In mathematics and computer science, In complex analysis, the Omega constant, a solution of Lamberts W function In differential geometry, a variable for a 2-dimensional region in calculus, usually corresponding to the domain of a double integral. In topos theory, the subobject classifier of an elementary topos, in combinatory logic, the looping combinator, In group theory, the omega and agemo subgroups of a p-group, Ω and ℧ In group theory, Cayleys Ω process as a partial differential operator. In statistics, it is used as the symbol for the sample space, in number theory, Ω is the number of prime divisors of n. In notation related to Big O notation to describe the behavior of functions. As part of logo or trademark, The logo of Omega Watches SA, part of the Badge of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom
3.
Greek alphabet
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It is the ancestor of the Latin and Cyrillic scripts. In its classical and modern forms, the alphabet has 24 letters, Modern and Ancient Greek use different diacritics. In standard Modern Greek spelling, orthography has been simplified to the monotonic system, examples In both Ancient and Modern Greek, the letters of the Greek alphabet have fairly stable and consistent symbol-to-sound mappings, making pronunciation of words largely predictable. Ancient Greek spelling was generally near-phonemic, among consonant letters, all letters that denoted voiced plosive consonants and aspirated plosives in Ancient Greek stand for corresponding fricative sounds in Modern Greek. This leads to groups of vowel letters denoting identical sounds today. Modern Greek orthography remains true to the spellings in most of these cases. The following vowel letters and digraphs are involved in the mergers, Modern Greek speakers typically use the same, modern, in other countries, students of Ancient Greek may use a variety of conventional approximations of the historical sound system in pronouncing Ancient Greek. Several letter combinations have special conventional sound values different from those of their single components, among them are several digraphs of vowel letters that formerly represented diphthongs but are now monophthongized. In addition to the three mentioned above, there is also ⟨ου⟩, pronounced /u/, the Ancient Greek diphthongs ⟨αυ⟩, ⟨ευ⟩ and ⟨ηυ⟩ are pronounced, and respectively in voicing environments in Modern Greek. The Modern Greek consonant combinations ⟨μπ⟩ and ⟨ντ⟩ stand for and respectively, ⟨τζ⟩ stands for, in addition, both in Ancient and Modern Greek, the letter ⟨γ⟩, before another velar consonant, stands for the velar nasal, thus ⟨γγ⟩ and ⟨γκ⟩ are pronounced like English ⟨ng⟩. There are also the combinations ⟨γχ⟩ and ⟨γξ⟩ and these signs were originally designed to mark different forms of the phonological pitch accent in Ancient Greek. The letter rho, although not a vowel, also carries a rough breathing in word-initial position, if a rho was geminated within a word, the first ρ always had the smooth breathing and the second the rough breathing leading to the transiliteration rrh. The vowel letters ⟨α, η, ω⟩ carry an additional diacritic in certain words, the iota subscript. This iota represents the former offglide of what were originally long diphthongs, ⟨ᾱι, ηι, ωι⟩, another diacritic used in Greek is the diaeresis, indicating a hiatus. In 1982, a new, simplified orthography, known as monotonic, was adopted for use in Modern Greek by the Greek state. Although it is not a diacritic, the comma has a function as a silent letter in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing ό. There are many different methods of rendering Greek text or Greek names in the Latin script, the form in which classical Greek names are conventionally rendered in English goes back to the way Greek loanwords were incorporated into Latin in antiquity. In this system, ⟨κ⟩ is replaced with ⟨c⟩, the diphthongs ⟨αι⟩ and ⟨οι⟩ are rendered as ⟨ae⟩ and ⟨oe⟩ respectively, and ⟨ει⟩ and ⟨ου⟩ are simplified to ⟨i⟩ and ⟨u⟩ respectively
4.
Christ (title)
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In Christianity, the Christ is a title for the saviour and redeemer who would bring salvation to the Jewish people and mankind. Christians believe that Jesus is the Jewish messiah called Christ in both the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Old Testament, Christ, used by Christians as both a name and a title, is synonymous with Jesus. The role of the Christ in Christianity originated from the concept of the messiah in Judaism. Though the conceptions of the messiah in each religion are similar, for the most part they are distinct from one due to the split of early Christianity. Jesus came to be called Jesus Christ by his followers after his crucifixion and resurrection, Christians believe that the messianic prophecies were fulfilled in his mission, death, and resurrection. The Pauline epistles, the earliest texts of the New Testament, the word Christ was originally a title, but later became part of the name Jesus Christ. It is, however, still used as a title, in the reciprocal use Christ Jesus, meaning the Messiah Jesus. The followers of Jesus became known as Christians because they believed Jesus to be the Khristós or Mashiach prophesied in the Hebrew Bible. Jesus was not, and is not, accepted in Judaism as a Jewish messiah, religious Jews still await their messiahs first coming and the Messianic prophecies of Jewish tradition to be accomplished. Religious Christians believe in the Second Coming of Christ, and they await the rest of Christian messianic prophecies to be fulfilled. Muslims accept Jesus as al-Masih, the messiah in Islam, but dont believe that the messiah is divine or the Son of God, but do believe he will come again. The area of Christian theology called Christology is primarily concerned with the nature and person of Jesus Christ as recorded in the canonical gospels, the word Christ appears in English and in most European languages. English-speakers now often use Christ as if it were a name, one part of the name Jesus Christ and its usage in Christ Jesus emphasizes its nature as a title. The spelling Christ in English became standardized in the 18th century, when, in the spirit of the Enlightenment, the spelling Christ in English is attested from the 14th century. In modern and ancient usage, even in secular terminology, Christ usually refers to Jesus, at the time of Jesus, there was no single form of Second Temple Judaism, and there were significant political, social, and religious differences among the various Jews groups. However, for centuries the Jews had used the term moshiach to refer to their expected deliverer, the Greek word messias appears only twice in the Septuagint of the promised prince. This title was used when a name was wanted for the one who was to be at once King. The New Testament states that the long-awaited messiah had come and describes this savior as the Christ
5.
God
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In monotheism, God is conceived of as the Supreme Being and principal object of faith. The concept of God as described by most theologians includes the attributes of omniscience, omnipotence, omnipresence, divine simplicity, many theologians also describe God as being omnibenevolent and all loving. Furthermore, some religions attribute only a purely grammatical gender to God, incorporeity and corporeity of God are related to conceptions of transcendence and immanence of God, with positions of synthesis such as the immanent transcendence of Chinese theology. God has been conceived as personal or impersonal. In theism, God is the creator and sustainer of the universe, while in deism, God is the creator, in pantheism, God is the universe itself. In atheism, God is not believed to exist, while God is deemed unknown or unknowable within the context of agnosticism, God has also been conceived as the source of all moral obligation, and the greatest conceivable existent. Many notable philosophers have developed arguments for and against the existence of God, there are many names for God, and different names are attached to different cultural ideas about Gods identity and attributes. In the ancient Egyptian era of Atenism, possibly the earliest recorded monotheistic religion, this deity was called Aten, premised on being the one true Supreme Being and creator of the universe. In the Hebrew Bible and Judaism, He Who Is, I Am that I Am, in the Christian doctrine of the Trinity, God, consubstantial in three persons, is called the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. In Judaism, it is common to refer to God by the titular names Elohim or Adonai, in Islam, the name Allah is used, while Muslims also have a multitude of titular names for God. In Hinduism, Brahman is often considered a concept of God. In Chinese religion, God is conceived as the progenitor of the universe, intrinsic to it, other religions have names for God, for instance, Baha in the Baháí Faith, Waheguru in Sikhism, and Ahura Mazda in Zoroastrianism. The earliest written form of the Germanic word God comes from the 6th-century Christian Codex Argenteus, the English word itself is derived from the Proto-Germanic * ǥuđan. The reconstructed Proto-Indo-European form * ǵhu-tó-m was likely based on the root * ǵhau-, in the English language, the capitalized form of God continues to represent a distinction between monotheistic God and gods in polytheism. The same holds for Hebrew El, but in Judaism, God is also given a proper name, in many translations of the Bible, when the word LORD is in all capitals, it signifies that the word represents the tetragrammaton. Allāh is the Arabic term with no plural used by Muslims and Arabic speaking Christians and Jews meaning The God, Ahura Mazda is the name for God used in Zoroastrianism. Mazda, or rather the Avestan stem-form Mazdā-, nominative Mazdå and it is generally taken to be the proper name of the spirit, and like its Sanskrit cognate medhā, means intelligence or wisdom. Both the Avestan and Sanskrit words reflect Proto-Indo-Iranian *mazdhā-, from Proto-Indo-European mn̩sdʰeh1, literally meaning placing ones mind, Waheguru is a term most often used in Sikhism to refer to God
6.
Book of Revelation
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Its title is derived from the first word of the text, written in Koine Greek, apokalypsis, meaning unveiling or revelation. The Book of Revelation is the apocalyptic document in the New Testament canon. The author names himself in the text as John, but his identity remains a point of academic debate. Modern scholarship generally takes a different view, and many consider that nothing can be known about the author except that he was a Christian prophet, Some modern scholars characterise Revelations author as a putative figure whom they call John of Patmos. The bulk of traditional sources date the book to the reign of the emperor Domitian, the book spans three literary genres, the epistolary, the apocalyptic, and the prophetic. It begins with John, on the island of Patmos in the Aegean and he then describes a series of prophetic visions, including figures such as the Whore of Babylon and the Beast, culminating in the Second Coming of Jesus. The title is taken from the first word of the book in Koine Greek, ἀποκάλυψις apokalypsis, the author names himself as John, but it is currently considered unlikely that the author of Revelation was also the author of the Gospel of John. All that is known is that this John was a Jewish Christian prophet, probably belonging to a group of such prophets and his precise identity remains unknown, and modern scholarship commonly refers to him as John of Patmos. 70 AD is the date of writing according to Martha Himmelfarb in the recently published Blackwell series. Revelation is an apocalyptic prophecy with an epistolary introduction addressed to seven churches in the Roman province of Asia, Apocalypse means the revealing of divine mysteries, John is to write down what is revealed and send it to the seven churches. The entire book constitutes the letter—the letters to the seven churches are introductions to the rest of the book. While the dominant genre is apocalyptic, the author himself as a Christian prophet, Revelation uses the word in various forms twenty-one times. The predominant view is that Revelation alludes to the Old Testament although it is difficult among scholars to agree on the number of allusions or the allusions themselves. Revelation rarely quotes directly from the Old Testament, almost every verse alludes to or echoes older scriptures. Over half of the stem from Daniel, Ezekiel, Psalms. He very frequently combines multiple references, and again the style makes it impossible to be certain to what extent he did so consciously. Revelation was the last book accepted into the Christian biblical canon and it was considered tainted because the heretical sect of the Montanists relied on it and doubts were raised over its Jewishness and authorship. Dionysius, bishop of Alexandria, disciple of Origen wrote that the Book of Revelation could have been written by Cerinthus although he himself did not adopt the view that Cerinthus was the writer and he regarded the Apocalypse as the work of an inspired man but not of an Apostle
7.
Christian symbolism
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Christian symbolism is the use of symbols, including archetypes, acts, artwork or events, by Christianity. It invests objects or actions with an inner meaning expressing Christian ideas, the symbolism of the early Church was characterized by being understood by initiates only, while after the legalization of Christianity in the 4th-century more recognizable symbols entered in use. Christianity has borrowed from the stock of significant symbols known to most periods. The shape of the cross, as represented by the letter T, at the end of the 2nd century, it is mentioned in the Octavius of Minucius Felix, rejecting the claim by detractors that Christians worship the cross. In his book De Corona, written in 204, Tertullian tells how it was already a tradition for Christians to trace repeatedly on their foreheads the sign of the cross. An early example of the halo, used to identify Christ in paintings, is found in the Miracles of the Loaves and Fishes mosaic of SantApollinare Nuovo. Instances of the St Thomas cross, a Greek cross with clover leaf edges, popular in southern India, the Patriarchal cross, a Latin cross with an additional horizontal bar, first appears in the 10th century. Although the cross was used as a symbol by early Christians, the purported discovery of the True Cross by Constantines mother, Helena, and the development of Golgotha as a site for pilgrimage led to a change of attitude. In the early period, the plain cross became depicted as the crux gemmata, covered with jewels. The first depictions of crucifixion displaying suffering are believed to have arisen in Byzantine art, Early Western examples include the Gero Cross and the reverse of the Cross of Lothair, both from the end of the 10th century. Marie-Madeleine Davy described in great detail Romanesque Symbolism as it developed in the Middle Ages in Western Europe, among the symbols employed by the early Christians, that of the fish seems to have ranked first in importance. The Staurogram ⳨, also Monogrammatic Cross or Tau-Rho symbol, is composed by a tau superimposed on a rho, in such a way the symbol expresses the idea that the Cross saves. The two letters tau and rho can also be found separately as symbols on early Christian ossuaries, the Monogrammatic Cross was later seen also as a variation of the Chi Rho symbol, and it spread over Western Europe in the 5th and 6th centuries. The Chi Rho is formed by superimposing the first two letters chi and rho of the Greek word ΧΡΙΣΤΟΣ =Christ in such a way to produce the monogram, widespread in ancient Christianity, it was the symbol used by the Roman emperor Constantine I as vexillum. This symbol was explained in the Epistle of Barnabas and by Clement of Alexandria. For other christograms such as IHS, see Article Christogram, initially it was also understood as a symbol like others used in Early Christian art. By about the 5th century the more often took on the appearance of the conventional depiction of Christ, as it had developed by this time. The dove as a Christian symbol is of frequent occurrence in ancient ecclesiastical art
8.
Christian cross
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The Christian cross, seen as a representation of the instrument of the crucifixion of Jesus, is the best-known symbol of Christianity. It is related to the crucifix and to the general family of cross symbols. The basic forms of the cross are the Latin cross and the Greek cross, with variants used in heraldry. The cross-shaped sign, represented in its simplest form by a crossing of two lines at right angles, greatly predates the introduction of Christianity, in both East and West and it goes back to a very remote period of human civilization. It is supposed to have used not just for its ornamental value. It may have represented the apparatus used in kindling fire, and thus as the symbol of sacred fire or as a symbol of the sun, denoting its daily rotation. It has also interpreted as the mystic representation of lightning or of the god of the tempest, or the emblem of the Aryan pantheon. Another associated symbol is the cross used in ancient Egypt. It was often depicted in the hands of the goddess Sekhmet, Egyptian Christians adopted it as the emblem of the cross. Yet another Egyptian symbol is the nfr - meaning, beauty or perfect, in the Bronze Age a representation of the cross as conceived in Christian art appeared, and the form was popularised. The more precise characterization coincided with a general change in customs. The cross then came into use in forms on many objects, fibulas, cinctures, earthenware fragments. De Mortillet believed that use of the sign was not merely ornamental. In the proto-Etruscan cemetery of Golasecca every tomb has a vase with a cross engraved on it, true crosses of more or less artistic design have been found in Tiryns, at Mycenæ, in Crete, and on a fibula from Vulci. According to Swami Vivekananda the Christian cross is the Shivalinga converted into a cross, according to W. E. Vine, the cross was used by worshipers of Tammuz, an Ancient Near East deity of Babylonian origin who had the cross-shaped taw as his symbol. In which there was not only a straight and erected piece of Wood fixed in the Earth, but also a transverse Beam fastned unto that towards the top thereof. A symbol similar to the cross, the staurogram, was used to abbreviate the Greek word for cross in very early New Testament manuscripts such as P66, P45 and P75, the extensive adoption of the cross as Christian iconographic symbol arose from the 4th century. Another early depictions of the cross as a Christian symbol is the Alexamenos graffito. e, in his book De Corona, written in 204, Tertullian tells how it was already a tradition for Christians to trace repeatedly on their foreheads the sign of the cross
9.
Chi Rho
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The Chi-Rho symbol was used by the Roman emperor Constantine I as part of a military standard. Constantines standard was known as the Labarum, Early symbols similar to the Chi Rho were the Staurogram and the IX monogram. In pre-Christian times, the Chi-Rho symbol was also to mark a particularly valuable or relevant passage in the margin of a page, some coins of Ptolemy III Euergetes were marked with a Chi-Rho. The Chi Rho symbol has two Unicode codepoints, U+2627 ☧ Chi Rho in the Miscellaneous symbols block and U+2CE9 ⳩ Coptic symbol Khi Ro in the Coptic block and that very day Constantines army fought the forces of Maxentius and won the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, outside Rome. Eusebius of Caesarea gave two different accounts of the events, in a memoir of the Roman emperor that Eusebius wrote after Constantines death, a miraculous appearance is said to have come in Gaul long before the Battle of the Milvian Bridge. At noon, Constantine saw a cross of light imposed over the sun, attached to it, in Greek characters, was the saying Τούτῳ Νίκα. Not only Constantine, but the army saw the miracle. That night, Christ appeared to the Roman emperor in a dream and told him to make a replica of the sign he had seen in the sky, which would be a sure defence in battle. Eusebius wrote in the Vita that Constantine himself had told him this story and confirmed it with oaths late in life when I was deemed worthy of his acquaintance, indeed, says Eusebius, had anyone else told this story, it would not have been easy to accept it. Eusebius also left a description of the labarum, the standard which incorporated the Chi-Rho sign. After Constantine, the Chi-Rho became part of the imperial insignia. Archaeologists have uncovered evidence demonstrating that the Chi-Rho was emblazoned on the helmets of some Late Roman soldiers, coins and medallions minted during Emperor Constantines reign also bore the Chi-Rho. By the year 350, the Chi-Rho began to be used on Christian sarcophagi, the usurper Magnentius appears to have been the first to use the Chi-Rho monogram flanked by Alpha and Omega, on the reverse of some coins minted in 353. In Roman Britannia, a mosaic pavement was uncovered at Hinton St. Mary, Dorset. Another Romano-British Chi-Rho, in fresco, was found at the site of a villa at Lullingstone, the symbol was also found on Late Roman Christian signet rings in Britain. Though the letters are one after the other and the X and P not combined in a monogram. Famous examples are in the Book of Kells and Book of Lindisfarne, the X was regarded as the crux decussata, a symbol of the cross, this idea is found in the works of Isidore of Seville and other patristic and Early Medieval writers. In some other works like the Carolingian Godescalc Evangelistary, XPS in sequential letters, Alpha and Omega Chi Rho Christian symbolism Christogram Ichthys Labarum Merchants mark Media related to Chi Rho at Wikimedia Commons
10.
Koine Greek
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It was based mainly on Attic and related Ionic speech forms, with various admixtures brought about through dialect levelling with other varieties. Koine Greek displayed a wide spectrum of different styles, ranging from more conservative literary forms to the vernaculars of the time. As the dominant language of the Byzantine Empire, it developed further into Medieval Greek, Koine Greek remained the court language of the Byzantine Empire until its dissolution in 1453, while Medieval and eventually Modern Greek were the everyday language. Literary Koine was the medium of much of post-classical Greek literary and scholarly writing, such as the works of Plutarch, Koine is also the language of the Christian New Testament, of the Septuagint, and of most early Christian theological writing by the Church Fathers. In this context, Koine Greek is also known as Biblical, New Testament and it continues to be used as the liturgical language of services in the Greek Orthodox Church. The word koinē is the Greek word for common, and is understood as referring to the common dialect. The word is pronounced /kɔɪˈneɪ/, /ˈkɔɪneɪ/ or /kiːˈniː/ in US English, the pronunciation of the word in Koine gradually changed from Greek pronunciation, to Greek pronunciation. Its pronunciation in Modern Greek is, the term was applied in several different senses by ancient scholars. Others chose to refer to Koine as the Alexandrian dialect or the dialect of Alexandria, the former was often used by modern classicists. Koine Greek arose as a dialect within the armies of Alexander the Great. Under the leadership of Macedon, their newly formed common variety was spoken from the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt to the Seleucid Empire of Mesopotamia and it replaced existing ancient Greek dialects with an everyday form that people anywhere could understand. The passage into the period, known as Medieval Greek. The post-Classical period of Greek thus refers to the creation and evolution of Koine Greek throughout the entire Hellenistic, the linguistic roots of the Common Greek dialect had been unclear since ancient times. During the Hellenistic period, most scholars thought of Koine as the result of the mixture of the four main Ancient Greek dialects, ἡ ἐκ τῶν τεττάρων συνεστῶσα. The view accepted by most scholars today was given by the Greek linguist Georgios Hatzidakis, who showed that, despite the composition of the Four, the stable nucleus of Koine Greek is Attic. In other words, Koine Greek can be regarded as Attic with the admixture of elements especially from Ionic, the degree of importance of the non-Attic linguistic elements on Koine can vary depending on the region of the Hellenistic World. The literary Koine of the Hellenistic age resembles Attic in such a degree that it is mentioned as Common Attic. Koine Greek was therefore considered a form of Greek which was not worthy of attention
11.
Jesus
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In Christology, the Person of Christ refers to the study of the human and divine natures of Jesus Christ as they co-exist within one person. There is no discussion in the New Testament regarding the dual nature of the Person of Christ as both divine and human. Hence, since the days of Christianity theologians have debated various approaches to the understanding of these natures. In the period following the Apostolic Age, specific beliefs such as Arianism and Docetism were criticized. On the other end of the spectrum, Docetism argued that Jesus physical body was an illusion, docetic teachings were attacked by St. Ignatius of Antioch and were eventually abandoned by proto-orthodox Christians. However, after the First Council of Nicaea in 325 the Logos, historically in the Alexandrian school of christology, Jesus Christ is the eternal Logos paradoxically humanized in history, a divine Person who became enfleshed, uniting himself to the human nature. The views of these schools can be summarized as follows, Alexandria, Antioch, Logos assumes a specific human being The First Council of Ephesus in 431 debated a number of views regarding the Person of Christ. At the same gathering the council debated the doctrines of monophysitism or miaphysitism. The council rejected Nestorianism and adopted the term hypostatic union, referring to divine, the language used in the 431 declaration was further refined at the 451 Council of Chalcedon. However, the Chalcedon creed was not accepted by all Christians, because Saint Augustine died in 430 he did not participate in the Council of Ephesus in 431 or Chalcedon in 451, but his ideas had some impact on both councils. On the other hand, the major theological figure of the Middle Ages. The Third Council of Constantinople in 680 held that both divine and human wills exist in Jesus, with the divine will having precedence, leading and guiding the human will. John Calvin maintained that there was no element in the Person of Christ which could be separated from the person of The Word. Calvin also emphasized the importance of the Work of Christ in any attempt at understanding the Person of Christ, the study of the Person of Christ continued into the 20th century, with modern theologians such as Karl Rahner and Hans von Balthasar. Balthasar argued that the union of the human and divine natures of Christ was achieved not by the absorption of human attributes, thus in his view the divine nature of Christ was not affected by the human attributes and remained forever divine
12.
Manuscript
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A manuscript is any document written by hand or typewritten, as opposed to being mechanically printed or reproduced in some automated way. More recently, it is understood to be a written, typed, or word-processed copy of a work. Before the arrival of printing, all documents and books were manuscripts, manuscripts are not defined by their contents, which may combine writing with mathematical calculations, maps, explanatory figures or illustrations. Manuscripts may be in form, scrolls or in codex format. Illuminated manuscripts are enriched with pictures, border decorations, elaborately embossed initial letters or full-page illustrations. The traditional abbreviations are MS for manuscript and MSS for manuscripts, while the forms MS. ms or ms. for singular, and MSS. mss or mss. for plural are also accepted. The second s is not simply the plural, by an old convention, it doubles the last letter of the abbreviation to express the plural, just as pp. means pages. Before the invention of printing in China or by moveable type in a printing press in Europe. Historically, manuscripts were produced in form of scrolls or books, manuscripts were produced on vellum and other parchment, on papyrus, and on paper. In Russia birch bark documents as old as from the 11th century have survived, in India, the palm leaf manuscript, with a distinctive long rectangular shape, was used from ancient times until the 19th century. Paper spread from China via the Islamic world to Europe by the 14th century, when Greek or Latin works were published, numerous professional copies were made simultaneously by scribes in a scriptorium, each making a single copy from an original that was declaimed aloud. Manuscripts in Tocharian languages, written on leaves, survived in desert burials in the Tarim Basin of Central Asia. Volcanic ash preserved some of the Roman library of the Villa of the Papyri in Herculaneum, ironically, the manuscripts that were being most carefully preserved in the libraries of antiquity are virtually all lost. Originally, all books were in manuscript form, in China, and later other parts of East Asia, woodblock printing was used for books from about the 7th century. The earliest dated example is the Diamond Sutra of 868, in the Islamic world and the West, all books were in manuscript until the introduction of movable type printing in about 1450. Manuscript copying of books continued for a least a century, as printing remained expensive, private or government documents remained hand-written until the invention of the typewriter in the late 19th century. In the Philippines, for example, as early as 900AD, specimen documents were not inscribed by stylus and this type of document was rare compared to the usual leaves and bamboo staves that were inscribed. However, neither the leaves nor paper were as durable as the document in the hot
13.
Syriac Sinaiticus
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This palimpsest is the oldest copy of the gospels in Syriac, one of two surviving manuscripts that are conventionally dated to before the Peshitta, the standard Syriac translation of the Bible. Both the Syriac Sinaiticus and the Curetonian Gospels contain similar renderings of the gospel text, the importance of such early, least conforming texts is emphasized by the revision of the Peshitta that was made about 508, ordered by bishop Philoxenus of Mabbog. Rendel Harris, to photograph and transcribe the work in its entirety, the Sinaitic Palimpsest immediately became a central document in tracing the history of the New Testament. The palimpsests importance lies especially in making the Greek New Testament manuscripts understandable to Aramaic speaking communities during that period, the palimpsest lacks the last 12 verses of Mark, Christs agony, the Pericope Adulteræ, and the reconciliation of Pilate with Herod. In Matthew 1,16, it contains Joseph, to whom was betrothed Mary the Virgin, begat Jesus, in John 6,47, it reflects ὁ πιστεύων εις θεον ἔχει ζωὴν αἰώνιον in agreement only with syrcur. Who are you seeking. r1 vgmss Aramaic New Testament Codex Sinaiticus Agnes Smith Lewis, Catalogue of the Syriac mss. in the Convent of S. Catharine on Mount Sinai
14.
Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus
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Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus is a fifth-century Greek manuscript of the Bible, sometimes referred to as one of the four great uncials. The manuscript is called Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus because it is a codex, i. e. Manuscripts of this sort, the later text was written in the 12th century. The lower text of the palimpsest was deciphered by biblical scholar and palaeographer Tischendorf in 1840–1843, currently it is housed in the Bibliothèque nationale de France in Paris. 208 leaves of the codex are extant,144 belong to the New Testament and 64 to the Old Testament, the codex measures 12¼ in/31. 4-32.5 cm by 9 in/25. 6-26.4 cm. The text is written in a column per page, 40–46 lines per page. The uncial writing is continuous, with the punctuation consisting only of a single point, the capitals at the beginning sections stand out in the margin as in codices Codex Alexandrinus and Codex Basilensis. The breathings and accents were added by a later hand, the nomina sacra tend to be contracted into three-letter forms rather than the more common two-letter forms. Before the Gospel of Luke and the Gospel of John, a list of κεφαλαια is preserved, but their τιτλοι were apparently not placed in the upper margin of the page as in Codex Alexandrinus. It is possible, however, that the upper margins once contained τιτλοι in red ink which has faded away. The text of the Gospels is accompanied by marginal notations indicating the Ammonian Sections, probably when the codex was pristine, numerals representing the Eusebian Canons were also present in red ink which has completely vanished. There are no divisions in the other books. The Pericope Adulterae was almost certainly not included in Codex C when it was in pristine condition, the two leaves which contained John 7, 3–8,34 are not extant. The text of Mark 16, 9–20 is included in Codex C on folio 148r and it is difficult to determine whether Luke 22, 43-44 Christs agony at Gethsemane was originally in the text of Codex C, the leaves that contained the surrounding verses are not extant. Lacunae Gospel of Matthew,1, 1–2,5, 15–7,5,17, 26–18,28,22, 21–23,17,24, 10–45,25, 30–26,22,27, 11–46,28, 15-fin. Epistle to the Romans,1, 1–3,2, 5–3,21,9, 6–10,15,11, 31–13,10, First Epistle to the Corinthians,1, 1–2,7, 18–9,6,13, 8–15,40, Second Epistle to the Corinthians,1, 1–2,10, 8-fin. Epistle to the Galatians,1, 1–20 Epistle to the Ephesians,1, 1–2,18,4, Epistle to the Philippians,1, 1–22,3, 5-fin. Epistle to the Colossians,1, 1–2, First Epistle to the Thessalonians,1,1,2, Second Epistle to the Thessalonians lost First Epistle to Timothy,1, 1–3,9,5, 20-fin. Second Epistle to Timothy,1, 1–2, Epistle to Titus,1, 1–2 Epistle to Philemon, 1–2 Epistle to the Hebrews,1, 1–2,4,7, 26–9,15,10, 24–12,15, Epistle of James,1, 1–2,4, 2-fin
15.
Early Christianity
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Early Christianity is the period of Christianity preceding the First Council of Nicaea in 325. It is typically divided into the Apostolic Age and the Ante-Nicene Period, the early Gospel message was spread orally, probably in Aramaic, but almost immediately also in Greek. After the conversion of Paul the Apostle, he claimed the title of Apostle to the Gentiles, Pauls influence on Christian thinking is said to be more significant than that of any other New Testament author. As the New Testament canon developed, the Pauline epistles, the canonical gospels, Early Christians demonstrated a wide range of beliefs and practices, many of which were later denounced as heretical. The earliest followers of Jesus composed an apocalyptic, Second Temple Jewish sect, the first part of the period, during the lifetimes of the Twelve Apostles, is called the Apostolic Age. The relationship of Paul the Apostle and Judaism is still disputed although Pauls influence on Christian thinking is said to be more significant than any other New Testament author and they think the Christians the cause of every public disaster, of every affliction with which the people are visited. The first action taken against Christians by the order of an emperor occurred half a century earlier under Nero after the Great Fire of Rome in 64 AD. During the Ante-Nicene Period following the Apostolic Age, a diversity of views emerged simultaneously with strong unifying characteristics lacking in the apostolic period. Part of the trend was an increasingly harsh anti-Judaism and rejection of Judaizers. Early Christianity gradually grew apart from Judaism during the first two centuries and established itself as a predominantly gentile religion in the Roman Empire. From the writings of early Christians, historians have tried to piece together an understanding of various early Christian practices including worship services, customs, Early Christian writers such as Justin Martyr described these practices. Early Christian beliefs regarding baptism probably predate the New Testament writings and it seems certain that numerous Jewish sects and certainly Jesuss disciples practised baptism, which became integral to nearly every manifestation of the religion of the Jews. John the Baptist had baptized many people, before took place in the name of Jesus Christ. Many of the interpretations that would later become Orthodox Christian beliefs concerning baptism can be traced to such as Paul. On the basis of this description, it was supposed by some modern theologians that the early Christians practised baptism by submersion and this interpretation is debated between those Christian denominations who advocate immersion baptism exclusively and those who practice baptism by affusion or aspersion as well as by immersion. Yet the Didache, one of the earliest Christian writings on liturgical practices, the Orthodox Church continues this practice, submerging the baptized and then pouring water on the head in that formula. Infant baptism was practised at least by the 3rd century. Others believe that infants were excluded from the baptism of households, citing verses of the Bible that describe the baptized households as believing, in the 2nd century, Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons, may have referred to it
16.
Catacombs
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Catacombs are human-made subterranean passageways for religious practice. Any chamber used as a place is a catacomb, although the word is most commonly associated with the Roman Empire. The name of place in late Latin was catacumbae, a word of obscure origin, possibly deriving from a proper name, or else a corruption of the Latin phrase cata tumbas. The word referred originally only to the Roman catacombs, but was extended by 1836 to refer to any subterranean receptacle of the dead, Catacombs in the world include, Australia – Catacombs of Trinity College, Melbourne Austria – Catacombs of St. Mine workings were used at end of the 18th century and had no purpose other than as an ossuary for storing the bones of cleared graveyards. Capuchin catacombs of Palermo, Sicily were used as late as the 1920s, Catacombs were available in some of the grander English cemeteries founded in the 19th Century, such as Sheffield General Cemetery and West Norwood Cemetery. There are catacombs in Bulgaria near Aladzha Monastery and in Romania as medieval underground galleries in Bucharest, in Ukraine and Russia, catacomb also refers to the network of abandoned caves and tunnels earlier used to mine stone, especially limestone. Catacombs, although most notable as underground passageways and cemeteries, also many decorations. Most of these decorations were used to identify, immortalize and show respect to the dead, decorations in the catacombs of Rome were primarily decorated with images and words exalting Christ or depicting scenes from the Old and New Testaments of the Bible. Three representations of Christ as Orpheus charming animals with peaceful music have found in the catacombs of Domatilla. Another figure was made of gilded glass and dates back to the century, featuring Jesus with the world balanced in his hand. A common and particularly interesting one found in Roman catacombs is the Ichthys, or Monogram of Christ which reads ΙΧΘΥΣ, standing for Jesus Christ, Son of God, in recent years unique strains of bacteria have been discovered that thrive in catacombs, inducing mineral efflorescence and decay. These include Kribbella sancticallisti, Kribbella catacumbae, and three types of non-thermophilic Rubrobacter, american University in Cairo Press,2005 pp. 44–71. ISBN 978-977-424-858-0 The Catacombs of Saint Sebastian The Catacombs of Naples The Catacombs of Paris Catacombs The Catacombs of Saint Callist Subterranean Britannica The Catacombs of Lima, Peru
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Early Christian art and architecture
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In practice identifiably Christian art only survives from the 2nd century onwards. After 550 at the latest, Christian art is classified as Byzantine and it is hard to know when distinctly Christian art began. Prior to 100, Christians may have been constrained by their position as a group from producing durable works of art. Since Christianity was largely a religion of the classes in this period, the lack of surviving art may reflect a lack of funds for patronage. The Old Testament restrictions against the production of images may also have constrained Christians from producing art. Christians may have made or purchased art with pagan iconography, but given it Christian meanings, if this happened, Christian art would not be immediately recognizable as such. Early Christianity used the artistic media as the surrounding pagan culture. These media included fresco, mosaics, sculpture, and manuscript illumination, Early Christian art not only used Roman forms, it also used Roman styles. Late classical style included a portrayal of the human body. Late classical style is seen in early Christian frescos, such as those in the Catacombs of Rome, Early Christians adapted Roman motifs and gave new meanings to what had been pagan symbols. Among the motifs adopted were the peacock, grapevines, and the Good Shepherd, Early Christians also developed their own iconography, for example, such symbols as the fish, were not borrowed from pagan iconography. The earlier period being called the Pre-Constantinian or Ante-Nicene Period and after being the period of the First seven Ecumenical Councils, the earliest surviving Christian art comes from the late 2nd to early 4th centuries on the walls of Christian tombs in the catacombs of Rome. From literary evidence, there may well have been panel icons which, initially Jesus was represented indirectly by pictogram symbols such as the Ichthys, peacock, Lamb of God, or an anchor. The image of The Good Shepherd, a youth in pastoral scenes collecting sheep, was the most common of these images. These images bear some resemblance to depictions of figures in Greco-Roman art. The almost total absence from Christian monuments of the period of persecutions of the plain, the dove is a symbol of peace and purity. It can be found with a halo or celestial light, in one of the earliest known Trinitarian images, the Throne of God as a Trinitarian image, the dove represents the Spirit. It is flying above an empty throne representing God, in the throne are a chlamys, the Chi-Rho monogram, XP, apparently first used by Constantine I, consists of the first two characters of the name Christos in Greek
18.
Crux gemmata
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A crux gemmata is a form of cross typical of Early Christian and Early Medieval art, where the cross, or at least its front side, is principally decorated with jewels. In an actual cross, rather than an image of one. Examples in metalwork are the Cross of Justin II, the cross in the Staffordshire Hoard, the Cross of Lothair, the Iberian Cross of the Angels and Victory Cross. In the case of the cross, such decorative embellishment was especially common, the cross very often has splayed ends to its arms, but the proportions of the vertical axis to the horizontal one depends entirely on the needs of the composition, and varies greatly. Pendilia, or hanging jewels or ornaments, may hang from the arms, especially the letters alpha, the motif is first seen in a sarcophagus fragment from the late 4th century, the splayed ends of the arms are present from the earliest examples. The jewelled cross also served as a symbol of the Christian version of the Tree of Life, the Staffordshire Hoard crumpled cross has vine leaves showing at the corners and represents Jesus the vine. It is sometimes shown on a mound representing paradise, with four rivers flowing down it, the link of the cross generally with the Tree of Life appears frequently in the hymns of Venantius Fortunatus. Sharp has shown the interlace on the front of the Staffordshire Hoard cross corresponds with the river or tree of life described in Revelation 22. For much of the period, a jewelled cross is recorded as decorating the presumed site of the Crucifixion. It was presented by the Eastern Emperor Theodosius II, there was resistance to representations of the cross with the body of Christ on it, a practice that did not begin until the 5th century, becoming more common in the 6th. It was the Nestorians, another force of the opposite persuasion. In so-called mystical images, such as the mosaic at the Basilica of Sant Apollinare in Classe, Ravenna. A poem by St Paulinus of Nola allows a reconstruction of a mosaic apse he had commissioned in the basilica of St Felix of Nola at Cimitile in the early 5th century. At the bottom of the semi-dome were twelve lambs, six on each side, with a haloed Lamb of God on a hillock in the centre. The bottom of the mosaic at Santa Pudenziana in Rome originally also had a level with this. The crux gemmata is commonly seen on coins, often held by a figure of Victory, another common Byzantine coin type shows a cross with a stepped base, which should be understood as a crux gemmata even though scale does not normally allow any indication of gems. The apse mosaic in the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls has an example with thirteen jewels and it is not usual to use the term crux gemmata for crosses from more recent periods, especially for small crosses that fall under the category of jewellery. The Female Crucifix, Images of St. Wilgefortis Since the Middle Ages, Wilfrid Laurier University Press,2001, ISBN 0-88920-365-2, google books Hellemo, Geir
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Pendilia
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The term is commonly used in coin collecting. Pendilia are depicted on coins as jewels or pearls hanging from the sides of the crown, the pendilia which hung from the Emperors crowns began with Marcian. Although the years saw the styles of crown change, the pendilia remained, surviving crowns with pendilia include the Holy Crown of Hungary and many votive crowns of the Treasure of Guarrazar from Visigothic Spain
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Victory Cross
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The Victory Cross is an early 10th century Asturian Christian ornamented processional cross, which was, as an inscription says, made in 908 in the Castle of Gauzón. It is a crux gemmata or jewelled cross, given by King Alfonso III of Asturias, according to the legend, the wooden core was carried by King Pelagius of Asturias at the Battle of Covadonga. The old oak wooden cross was covered with gold and precious stones in 908, under King Alfonso III and donated to the dean of the Cathedral of San Salvador, however, there is no historical evidence that Pelayo used exactly this same cross. Since December 1990, the flag of modern Principality of Asturias bears the Victory Cross offset towards the hoist, tradition says that the primitive, undecorated wooden core of this cross was carried against the Muslims of al-Andalus by King Pelagius of Asturias at the Battle of Covadonga. But this is a legend, there is no evidence that Pelayo used exactly this same cross. The ornate casing, similar to that upon the Cross of the Angels, was added later, however studies based on radiocarbon dating tests have demonstrated that the wooden core is contemporary to the ornate casing. The ornate casing contains 152 gems and imitation gems, an inscription tells us that this casing was made at the Castle of Gauzón in Asturias in 908. Alfonso III donated this important Pre-Romanesque gold artifact to Cathedral of Oviedo to commemorate a hundred years of the Asturian kingdoms victories, during the Spanish Civil War, the Cross, like the rest of the artifacts in the Cámara Sancta, suffered serious damages which required its restoration. The Victoria Cross recovered its gems from 1942 on, thanks to donations for the acquisition and restoration of the relic. However, the work of goldsmiths Horacio Rivero Alvarez and Luis Aguilar did not consider the original design, in 1971 new enamels were placed by German goldsmith Werner Henneberger, but here again the original design was not taken sufficiently into account. On August 9,1977, the Cross, together with Agate box and its current appearance is the result of careful reconstruction carried out in 1978. The Latin cross is 92 by 72 centimetres, the core is made of two 2.5 centimetres thick pieces of oak with circular ends finished in three foils, and joined in the centre by a circular disk. The whole cross is covered with leaf and filigree, and richly decorated especially the anverse, covered with coloured enamel, pearls, precious stones. Arms, The arts and crafts of older Spain, foulis, pp. 40–41, OCLC732659 Schlunk, Helmut. Las cruces de Oviedo, el de la vera cruz en el reino asturiano. La Cámara Santa y su tesoro, la restauración de las joyas históricas de la Cámara Santa de Oviedo, 1977-1997. Official website of the Ayuntamiento of Oviedo
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Eastern Orthodox Church
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The Eastern Orthodox Church teaches that it is the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church established by Jesus Christ in his Great Commission to the apostles. It practices what it understands to be the original Christian faith, the Eastern Orthodox Church is a communion of autocephalous churches, each typically governed by a Holy Synod. It teaches that all bishops are equal by virtue of their ordination, prior to the Council of Chalcedon in AD451, the Eastern Orthodox had also shared communion with the Oriental Orthodox churches, separating primarily over differences in Christology. Eastern Orthodoxy spread throughout the Roman and later Eastern Roman Empires and beyond, playing a prominent role in European, Near Eastern, Slavic, and some African cultures. As a result, the term Greek Orthodox has sometimes used to describe all of Eastern Orthodoxy in general. However, the appellation Greek was never in use and was gradually abandoned by the non-Greek-speaking Eastern Orthodox churches. Its most prominent episcopal see is Constantinople, there are also many in other parts of the world, formed through immigration, conversion and missionary activity. The official name of the Eastern Orthodox Church is the Orthodox Catholic Church and it is the name by which the church refers to itself in its liturgical or canonical texts, in official publications, and in official contexts or administrative documents. Orthodox teachers refer to the Church as Catholic and this name and longer variants containing Catholic are also recognized and referenced in other books and publications by secular or non-Orthodox writers. The common name of the Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, is a shortened practicality that helps to avoid confusions in casual use, for this reason, the eastern churches were sometimes identified as Greek, even before the great schism. After 1054, Greek Orthodox or Greek Catholic marked a church as being in communion with Constantinople and this identification with Greek, however, became increasingly confusing with time. Missionaries brought Orthodoxy to many regions without ethnic Greeks, where the Greek language was not spoken. Today, many of those same Roman churches remain, while a large number of Orthodox are not of Greek national origin. Eastern, then, indicates the element in the Churchs origin and development, while Orthodox indicates the faith. While the Church continues officially to call itself Catholic, for reasons of universality, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in a letter written about 110 AD from one Greek church to another. Quote of St Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans, Wheresoever the bishop shall appear, there let the people be, even as where Jesus may be, thus, almost from the very beginning, Christians referred to the Church as the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church. The Orthodox Church claims that it is today the continuation and preservation of that same Church, a number of other Christian churches also make a similar claim, the Roman Catholic Church, the Anglican Communion, the Assyrian Church and the Oriental Orthodox Churches. The Church of England separated from the Roman Catholic Church, not directly from the Orthodox Church, the depth of this meaning in the Orthodox Church is registered first in its use of the word Orthodox itself, a union of Greek orthos and doxa
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Halo (religious iconography)
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A halo is a ring of light that surrounds a person in art. They have been used in the iconography of many religions to indicate holy or sacred figures, halos may be shown as almost any colour or combination of colours, but are most often depicted as golden, yellow or white when representing light or red when representing flames. Homer describes a light around the heads of heroes in battle. 450-30 BC, in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Colossus of Rhodes was a statue of the sun-god Helios and had his usual radiate crown. Hellenistic rulers are shown wearing radiate crowns that seem clearly to imitate this effect. The rulers of the Kushan Empire were perhaps the earliest to give themselves haloes on their coins, in Chinese and Japanese Buddhist art the halo has also been used since the earliest periods in depicting the image of Amitabha Buddha and others. Thin lines of gold often radiate outwards or inwards from the rim of the halo, elaborate haloes and especially aureoles also appear in Hindu sculpture, where they tend to develop into architectural frames in which the original idea can be hard to recognise. Theravada Buddhism and Jainism did not use the halo for many centuries, in Asian art, the nimbus is often imagined as consisting not just of light, but of flames. This type seems to first appear in Chinese bronzes of which the earliest surviving examples date from before 450 and this type is also very rarely found, and on a smaller scale, in medieval Christian art. Sometimes a thin line of flames rise up from the edges of a halo in Buddhist examples. In Tibetan paintings the flames are shown as blown by a wind. Halos are found in Islamic art from various places and periods, especially in Persian miniatures and Moghul, flaming halos derived from Buddhist art surround angels, and similar ones are often seen around Muhammad and other sacred human figures. The halo represents an aura or glow of sanctity which was conventionally drawn encircling the head, though Roman paintings have largely disappeared, save some fresco decorations, the haloed figure remains fresh in Roman mosaics. In a 2nd-century AD Roman floor mosaic preserved at Bardo, Tunisia, significantly, the triton and nereid who accompany the sea-god are not haloed. In a late 2nd century AD floor mosaic from Thysdrus, El Djem, another haloed Apollo in mosaic, from Hadrumentum, is in the museum at Sousse. The conventions of representation, head tilted, lips slightly parted, large-eyed. The halo was incorporated into Early Christian art sometime in the 4th century with the earliest iconic images of Christ, initially the only figure shown with one. At least in later Orthodox images, each bar of cross is composed of three lines, symbolising the dogmas of the Trinity, the oneness of God and the two natures of Christ
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Christogram
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A Christogram is a monogram or combination of letters that forms an abbreviation for the name of Jesus Christ, traditionally used as a religious symbol within the Christian Church. One of the oldest Christograms is the Chi-Rho and it consists of the superimposed Greek letters chi and rho, which are the first two letters of Greek χριστός Christ. It was displayed on the military standard used by Constantine I in AD312. The IX monogram is a form, using the initials of the name Ἰησοῦς Χριστός Jesus Christ, as is the ΙΗ monogram. The name Jesus, spelt ΙΗΣΟΥΣ in Greek capitals, has the abbreviations IHS, in Eastern Christian tradition, the monogram ΙϹΧϹ is used for in both Greek and Cyrillic tradition. A Middle Latin term for abbreviations of the name of Christ is chrisimus, similarly, Middle Latin crismon, chrismon refers to the Chi Rho monogram specifically. In antiquity, the cross, i. e. the instrument of Christs crucifixion was taken to be T-shaped, while the X-shape had different connotations. In Platos Timaeus, it is explained that the two bands which form the world cross each other like the letter chi, possibly referring to the ecliptic crossing the celestial equator. The most commonly encountered Christogram in English-speaking countries in modern times is the Χ, representing the first letter of the word Christ, in such abbreviations as Xmas, the Alpha and Omega symbols may at times accompany the Chi-Rho monogram. Chrismon since the 17th century has been used as a New Latin term for the Chi Rho monogram. Because the chrismon was used as a kind of invocation at the beginning of documents of the Merovingian period, the term also came to be used of the cross-signatures in early medieval charters. Chrismon in this context may refer to the Merovingian period abbreviation I. C. N. for in Christi nomine, later also I. C. for in Christo, and still later just C. for Christus. The Greek letter iota is represented by I, and the eta by H, while the Greek letter sigma is either in its form, represented by C, or its final form. Because the Latin-alphabet letters I and J were not systematically distinguished until the 17th century, JHS and JHC are equivalent to IHS, IHS is sometimes interpreted as meaning Jesus Hominum Salvator, or connected with In Hoc Signo. Such interpretations are known as backronyms, used in Latin since the seventh century, the first use of IHS in an English document dates from the fourteenth century, in The vision of William concerning Piers Plowman. The IHS monogram with the H surmounted by a cross above three nails and surrounded by a Sun is the emblem of the Jesuits, according to tradition introduced by Ignatius of Loyola in 1541, english-language interpretations of IHS have included In His Service. On icons, this Christogram may be split, ΙϹ on the left of the image and it is sometimes rendered as ΙϹ ΧϹ ΝΙΚΑ, meaning Jesus Christ Conquers. ΙϹΧϹ may also be inscribed on the Ichthys
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Catacombs of Rome
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The Catacombs of Rome are ancient catacombs, underground burial places under Rome, Italy, of which there are at least forty, some discovered only in recent decades. The Etruscans, like many other European peoples, used to bury their dead in underground chambers, the original Roman custom was cremation, after which the burnt remains were kept in a pot, ash-chest or urn, often in a columbarium. From about the 2nd century AD, inhumation became more fashionable, in graves or sarcophagi, often elaborately carved, Christians also preferred burial to cremation because of their belief in bodily resurrection at the Second Coming. The Jewish catacombs are similarly important for the study of Jewish culture at this period, a number of dubious relics of catacomb saints were promoted after the rediscovery of the catacombs. The Etruscans, like many other European people, used to bury their dead in underground chambers, the original Roman custom was cremation, after which the burnt remains were kept in a pot, ash-chest or urn, often in a columbarium. From about the 2nd century AD, inhumation became more fashionable, in graves or sarcophagi, often elaborately carved, Christians also preferred burial to cremation because of their belief in bodily resurrection. The first large-scale catacombs in the vicinity of Rome were excavated from the 2nd century onwards and they were carved through tufo, a soft volcanic rock, outside the walls of the city, because Roman law forbade burial places within city limits. The pagan custom was to incinerate corpses, while early Christians, since most Christians and Jews at that time belonged to the lower classes or were slaves, they usually lacked the resources to buy land for burial purposes. Instead, networks of tunnels were dug in the layers of tufo which occurred naturally on the outskirts of Rome. There are sixty known subterranean burial chambers in Rome and they were built outside the walls along main Roman roads, like the Via Appia, the Via Ostiense, the Via Labicana, the Via Tiburtina, and the Via Nomentana. Names of the catacombs – like St Calixtus and St Sebastian, about 80% of the excavations used for Christian burials date to after the time of the persecutions. Excavators, no slaves, built vast systems of galleries and passages on top of each other. They lie 7–19 metres below the surface in an area of more than 2.4 square kilometres, narrow steps that descend as many as four stories join the levels. Passages are about 2.5 by 1 metre, burial niches were carved into walls. They are 40–60 centimetres high and 120–150 centimetres long, bodies were placed in chambers in stone sarcophagi in their clothes and bound in linen. Then the chamber was sealed with a slab bearing the name, age, the catacomb of Saint Agnes is a small church. Some families were able to construct cubicula which would house various loculi, another excellent place for artistic programs were the arcosolia. In 380, Christianity became a state religion, at first, many still desired to be buried in chambers alongside the martyrs
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Rome
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Rome is a special comune and the capital of Italy. Rome also serves as the capital of the Lazio region, with 2,873,598 residents in 1,285 km2, it is also the countrys largest and most populated comune and fourth-most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits. It is the center of the Metropolitan City of Rome, which has a population of 4.3 million residents, the city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, within Lazio, along the shores of the Tiber. Romes history spans more than 2,500 years, while Roman mythology dates the founding of Rome at only around 753 BC, the site has been inhabited for much longer, making it one of the oldest continuously occupied sites in Europe. The citys early population originated from a mix of Latins, Etruscans and it was first called The Eternal City by the Roman poet Tibullus in the 1st century BC, and the expression was also taken up by Ovid, Virgil, and Livy. Rome is also called the Caput Mundi, due to that, Rome became first one of the major centres of the Italian Renaissance, and then the birthplace of both the Baroque style and Neoclassicism. Famous artists, painters, sculptors and architects made Rome the centre of their activity, in 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic. Rome has the status of a global city, Rome ranked in 2014 as the 14th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy. Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are among the worlds most visited tourist destinations with both locations receiving millions of tourists a year. Rome hosted the 1960 Summer Olympics and is the seat of United Nations Food, however, it is a possibility that the name Romulus was actually derived from Rome itself. As early as the 4th century, there have been alternate theories proposed on the origin of the name Roma. There is archaeological evidence of occupation of the Rome area from approximately 14,000 years ago. Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to about 10,000 years of human presence, several excavations support the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built above the area of the future Roman Forum. Between the end of the age and the beginning of the Iron age. However, none of them had yet an urban quality, nowadays, there is a wide consensus that the city was gradually born through the aggregation of several villages around the largest one, placed above the Palatine. All these happenings, which according to the excavations took place more or less around the mid of the 8th century BC. Despite recent excavations at the Palatine hill, the view that Rome has been indeed founded with an act of will as the legend suggests in the middle of the 8th century BC remains a fringe hypothesis. Traditional stories handed down by the ancient Romans themselves explain the earliest history of their city in terms of legend and myth
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Names of God in Judaism
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The name of God used most often in the Hebrew Bible is the Tetragrammaton YHWH. It is frequently anglicized as Jehovah and Yahweh and written in most English editions of the Bible as the Lord owing to the Jewish tradition of reading it as Adonai out of respect. Rabbinic Judaism describes seven names which are so holy that, once written, should not be erased, The Tetragrammaton, El, Eloah, Elohim, Shaddai, Ehyeh, and Tzevaot. The documentary hypothesis proposes that the Torah was compiled from original sources. The seven names of God that, once written, cannot be erased because of their holiness are the Tetragrammaton, El, Elohim, Eloah, Elohai, El Shaddai, in addition, the name Jah—because it forms part of the Tetragrammaton—is similarly protected. Rabbi Jose considered Tzevaot a common name and Rabbi Ishmael that Elohim was, all other names, such as Merciful, Gracious and Faithful, merely represent attributes that are also common to human beings. The name of God used most often in the Hebrew Bible is YHWH, Hebrew is a right-to-left abjad, so the words letters Yōd, Hē, Vav, Hē are usually taken for consonants and expanded to Yahweh or Jehovah in English. The Tetragrammaton first appears in Genesis and occurs 6828 times in total in the Stuttgart edition of the Masoretic Text and it is thought to be an archaic third-person singular imperfect tense of the verb to be. This agrees with the passage in Exodus where God names Himself as I Will Be What I Will Be using the first-person singular imperfect tense. Rabbinical Judaism teaches that the name is forbidden to all except the High Priest and he then pronounces the name just as it is written. As each blessing was made, the people in the courtyard were to prostrate themselves completely as they heard it spoken aloud. As the Temple has been destroyed since CE70, most modern Jews never pronounce YHWH but instead read Adonai during prayer and while reading the Torah and as HaShem at other times. Similarly, the Vulgate used Dominus and most English translations of the Bible write the Lord for YHWH and the Lord God for Adonai YHWH instead of transcribing the name. Or Theos for occurrences of the name. )El appears in Ugaritic, Phoenician and other 2nd, in the Hebrew Bible El appears very occasionally alone, but usually with some epithet or attribute attached, in which cases it can be understood as the generic god. A common name of God in the Hebrew Bible is Elohim, despite the -im ending common to many plural nouns in Hebrew, the word Elohim when referring to God is grammatically singular, and takes a singular verb in the Hebrew Bible. When the Hebrew Bible uses elohim not in reference to God, there are a few other such uses in Hebrew, for example Behemoth. In Modern Hebrew, the singular word baalim looks plural, a number of scholars have traced the etymology to the Semitic root *yl, to be first, powerful, despite some difficulties with this view. Elohim is thus the plural construct powers, Hebrew grammar allows for this form to mean He is the Power over powers, just as the word Baalim means owner
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Hebrew alphabet
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Historically, there have been two separate abjad scripts to write Hebrew. In the remainder of this article, the term Hebrew alphabet refers to the Jewish square script unless otherwise indicated, the Hebrew alphabet has 22 letters. It does not have case, but five letters have different forms used at the end of a word. Hebrew is written right to left. Originally, the alphabet was an abjad consisting only of consonants, as with other abjads, such as the Arabic alphabet, scribes later devised means of indicating vowel sounds by separate vowel points, known in Hebrew as niqqud. In both biblical and rabbinic Hebrew, the letters א ה ו י are also used as matres lectionis to represent vowels. There is a trend in modern Modern Hebrew toward the use of matres lectionis to indicate vowels that have traditionally gone unwritten, the paleo-Hebrew alphabet was used in the ancient kingdoms of Israel and Judah. The Samaritans, who remained in the Land of Israel, continued to use the paleo-Hebrew alphabet, after the fall of the Persian Empire in 330 BCE, Jews used both scripts before settling on the Assyrian form. The square Hebrew alphabet was adapted and used for writing languages of the Jewish diaspora – such as Karaim, the Judeo-Arabic languages, Judaeo-Spanish. In the traditional form, the Hebrew alphabet is an abjad consisting only of consonants and it has 22 letters, five of which use different forms at the end of a word. Also, a system of points to indicate vowels, called niqqud, was developed. In modern forms of the alphabet, as in the case of Yiddish and to some extent Modern Hebrew, today, the trend is toward full spelling with the weak letters acting as true vowels. When used to write Yiddish, vowels are indicated, using letters, either with or without niqqud-diacritics, except for Hebrew words. To preserve the proper vowel sounds, scholars developed several different sets of vocalization, one of these, the Tiberian system, eventually prevailed. Aaron ben Moses ben Asher, and his family for generations, are credited for refining and maintaining the system. These points are used only for special purposes, such as Biblical books intended for study. The Tiberian system also includes a set of marks, called trope. These are shown below the normal form in the following table, although Hebrew is read and written from right to left, the following table shows the letters in order from left to right
28.
Quran
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The Quran is the central religious text of Islam, which Muslims believe to be a revelation from God. It is widely regarded as the finest work in classical Arabic literature, the Quran is divided into chapters, which are then divided into verses. The word Quran occurs some 70 times in the text of the Quran, although different names, according to the traditional narrative, several companions of Muhammad served as scribes and were responsible for writing down the revelations. Shortly after Muhammads death, the Quran was compiled by his companions who wrote down and these codices had differences that motivated the Caliph Uthman to establish a standard version now known as Uthmans codex, which is generally considered the archetype of the Quran known today. There are, however, variant readings, with minor differences in meaning. The Quran assumes familiarity with major narratives recounted in the Biblical scriptures and it summarizes some, dwells at length on others and, in some cases, presents alternative accounts and interpretations of events. The Quran describes itself as a book of guidance and it sometimes offers detailed accounts of specific historical events, and it often emphasizes the moral significance of an event over its narrative sequence. The Quran is used along with the hadith to interpret sharia law, during prayers, the Quran is recited only in Arabic. Someone who has memorized the entire Quran is called a hafiz, some Muslims read Quranic ayah with elocution, which is often called tajwid. During the month of Ramadan, Muslims typically complete the recitation of the whole Quran during tarawih prayers, in order to extrapolate the meaning of a particular Quranic verse, most Muslims rely on the tafsir. The word qurʼān appears about 70 times in the Quran itself and it is a verbal noun of the Arabic verb qaraʼa, meaning he read or he recited. The Syriac equivalent is qeryānā, which refers to reading or lesson. While some Western scholars consider the word to be derived from the Syriac, regardless, it had become an Arabic term by Muhammads lifetime. An important meaning of the word is the act of reciting, as reflected in an early Quranic passage, It is for Us to collect it, in other verses, the word refers to an individual passage recited. Its liturgical context is seen in a number of passages, for example, So when al-qurʼān is recited, listen to it, the word may also assume the meaning of a codified scripture when mentioned with other scriptures such as the Torah and Gospel. The term also has closely related synonyms that are employed throughout the Quran, each synonym possesses its own distinct meaning, but its use may converge with that of qurʼān in certain contexts. Such terms include kitāb, āyah, and sūrah, the latter two terms also denote units of revelation. In the large majority of contexts, usually with an article, the word is referred to as the revelation
29.
Names of God in Islam
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According to tradition there are 99 names of God in Islam, known as the ʾasmāʾu- llāhi l-ḥusnā Beautiful Names of God. Most names in these lists are divine epithets taken from the text of the Quran, the lists of names vary because there are more than 99 such epithets to choose from. Different sources give different lists of the 99 names, in the hadith, Muhammad is said to have invoked God by a number of names. According to Sahih Muslim,35,6475, Abu Hurairah reported Allahs Messenger as saying, There are ninety-nine names of Allah, verily, Allah is Odd and He loves odd numbers. And in the narration of Ibn Umar, He who enumerated them, the Quran refers to Gods most beautiful Names. Gerhard Böwering refers to Sura 17,110 as the locus classicus to which lists of 99 names used to be attached in Quranic commentary. A cluster of more than a dozen Divine epithets which are included in such lists is found in Sura 22, mystic philosopher Ibn Arabi surmised that the 99 names are outward signs of the universes inner mysteries. Most, though not all, of the traditionally listed 99 names are found somewhere in the Quran itself, the others are taken from the hadith. There is no agreement among Muslims as to what exactly counts as a name of Allah. Additionally, while some names are only in the Quran, and others are only in the hadith, different sources give different lists of the 99 names. Furthermore, in record, there are more than 1001 names given in one text, the following list is based on the one found in the Jamiʿ at-Tirmidhi. Other hadith, such as those of al-Bukhari, Muslim, Ibn Majah, all attribute the original compilation of the list of names to Abu Hurairah. Various early Muslim exegetes, including Jaʿfar al-Sadiq, Sufyan ibn Uyaynah, Ibn Hazm, al-Qurtubi, ٱ = The waṣla denoting of ٱلْ is ʾal/ ʾul/ ʾil depending on the last vowel of the previous word/sentence structure, e. g. سُوْرَةُ ٱلْرَّحْمَـٰنُ Suratu ʾr-Raḥmaān. There is a tradition in tasawwuf to the effect the 99 names of God point to a mystical Greatest Name and this Greatest Name of Allah is said to be the one which if He is called by it, He will answer. According to a hadith narrated by Abdullah ibn Masud, some of the names of God have also been hidden from mankind, more than 1000 names are listed in the Jawshan Kabir invocations. A Muslim may not be any of the 99 names of God in exactly the same form. For example, nobody may be named al-Malik the King, and this is because of the belief that God is almighty, and no human being is the equivalent of God, and no human being will ever be the equivalent of God. Muslims are allowed to use the 99 names of God for themselves, however the names of God can be combined with the word ‘Abd-, which means slave and are commonly used as Arabic name among Muslims, such as Abd al-Rahman. g
30.
God in Islam
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In Islamic theology, God is the all-powerful and all-knowing creator, sustainer, ordainer and judge of everything in existence. Islam emphasizes that God is strictly singular, unique, inherently One, also all-merciful, the Surat 112 Al-Ikhlāş says, He is God, One. He neither begets nor is born, Nor is there to Him any equivalent, in Islam, there are 99 known names of God, each of which evoke a distinct attribute of God. All these names refer to Allah, the supreme and all-comprehensive god, among the 99 names of God, the most familiar and frequent of these names are the Compassionate and the Merciful. Creation and ordering of the universe is seen as an act of mercy for which all creatures sing Gods attributes. Allah is the Arabic word referring to God in Abrahamic religions and it is distinguished from ilāh, the Arabic word meaning deity, which could refer to any of the gods worshipped in pre-Islamic Arabia. God is described and referred to in the Quran and hadith by certain names or attributes, the Quran refers to the attributes of God as most beautiful names. According to Gerhard Böwering, They are traditionally enumerated as 99 in number to which is added as the highest Name, there are numerous conventional phrases and expressions invoking God. Islams most fundamental concept is a strict monotheism called tawhid, affirming that God is one, the basic creed of Islam, the Shahada, involves لا إله إلا الله, or, I testify there is no god other than God. Muslims reject the Christian doctrine of the Trinity and divinity of Jesus, according to Vincent J. Tawhid constitutes the foremost article of the Muslim profession. The deification or worship of anyone or anything other than God is the biggest sin in Islam, the entirety of the Islamic teaching rests on the principle of Tawhid. God is the creator of the universe and all the creatures in it, praise is to Allah, Creator of the heavens and the earth, made the angels messengers having wings, two or three or four. He increases in creation what He wills, indeed, Allah is over all things competent. And it is We Who have constructed the heavens with might and verily and we created man from an extract of clay. Then We made him as a drop in a place of settlement, so blessed be Allah, the Best of creators. Be dutiful to your Lord, Who created you from a person and from Him He created his wife. And verily Allah is my Lord and your Lord, the most commonly used names in the primary sources are Al-Rahman, meaning Most Compassionate and Al-Rahim, meaning Most Merciful. God is said to love forgiving, with a hadith stating God would replace a sinless people with one who sinned but still asked repentance
31.
Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament
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Two names and a variety of titles are used to refer to Jesus in the New Testament. In Christianity, the two names Jesus and Emmanuel that refer to Jesus in the New Testament have salvific attributes, one element of the process of understanding and proclaiming Jesus was the attribution of titles to him. In time, some of titles gathered significant Christological significance. Christians have attached theological significance to the Holy Name of Jesus, the use of the name of Jesus in petitions is stressed in John 16,23 when Jesus states, If you ask the Father anything in my name he will give it you. There is widespread belief among Christians that the name Jesus is not merely a sequence of identifying symbols, in the New Testament the name Jesus is given both in the Gospel of Luke and the Gospel of Matthew, and Emmanuel only in Matthew. In Luke 1,31 an angel tells Mary to name her child Jesus, the statement in Matthew 1,21 you shall call his name Jesus, for he will save his people from their sins associates salvific attributes to the name Jesus in Christian theology. The first index of the book is entitled A collection of the Names and Titles given to Jesus Christ, with 198 names listed, there have been a number of proposals as to the origin and etymological origin of the name Jesus. The name is related to the Hebrew form יְהוֹשֻׁעַ Joshua, which is a name first mentioned within the Biblical tradition in Exodus 17,9 referring to one of Moses companions. These Bible verses refer to ten individuals and this historical change may have been due to a phonological shift whereby guttural phonemes weakened, including. Usually, the traditional theophoric element יהו was shortened at the beginning of a name to יו, in the contraction of to, the vowel is instead fronted. During the post-Biblical period, the name was adopted by Aramaic. By the time the New Testament was written, the Septuagint had already transliterated ישוע into Koine Greek as closely as possible in the 3rd-century BCE, the Greek writings of Philo of Alexandria and Josephus frequently mention this name. It also occurs in the Greek New Testament at Acts 7,45 and Hebrews 4,8, from Greek, Ἰησοῦς moved into Latin at least by the time of the Vetus Latina. The morphological jump this time was not as large as previous changes between language families, Ἰησοῦς was transliterated to Latin IESVS, where it stood for many centuries. The Latin name has an irregular declension, with a genitive, dative, ablative, and vocative of Jesu, accusative of Jesum, and nominative of Jesus. Minuscule letters were developed around 800 and some time later the U was invented to distinguish the sound from the consonantal sound. Similarly, Greek minuscules were invented about the time, prior to that the name was written in Capital letters, ΙΗCΟΥC or abbreviated as, ΙΗC with a line over the top. Modern English Jesus /ˈdʒiːzəs/ derives from Early Middle English Iesu, the name participated in the Great Vowel Shift in late Middle English
32.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
33.
Catholic Encyclopedia
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The first volume appeared in March 1907 and the last three volumes appeared in 1912, followed by a master index volume in 1914 and later supplementary volumes. It was designed to give its readers full and authoritative information on the cycle of Catholic interests, action. The Catholic Encyclopedia was published by the Robert Appleton Company, a company incorporated at New York in February 1905 for the express purpose of publishing the encyclopedia. The five members of the encyclopedias Editorial Board also served as the directors of the company, in 1912 the companys name was changed to The Encyclopedia Press. Publication of the volumes was the sole business conducted by the company during the projects lifetime. The encyclopedia was designed to serve the Roman Catholic Church, concentrating on information related to the Church and it records the accomplishments of Catholics and others in nearly all intellectual and professional pursuits, including artists, educators, poets and scientists. The volumes came out sequentially the first two in 1907 and the last three in 1912, The editors had their first editorial meeting at the office of The Messenger, on West 16th Street, New York City. The text received a nihil obstat from an official censor, Remy Lafort, on November 1,1908 and this review process was presumably accelerated by the reuse of older authorized publications. A first supplement was published in 1922, a supplement in nine loose-leaf sections was published by The Gilmary Society between 1950 and 1958. In 1912, a special completely illustrated commemorative volume was awarded to patrons who contributed to the start of the enterprise by buying multiple encyclopedia sets early on. The encyclopedia was later updated under the auspices of The Catholic University of America and a 17-volume New Catholic Encyclopedia was first published in 1967, and then in 2002. The Catholic Encyclopedia and its makers states that, The work is entirely new, the editors have insisted that the articles should contain the latest and most accurate information to be obtained from the standard works on each subject. Those who wrote new articles in English include Anthony Maas and Herbert Thurston, under United States copyright law, all works published in the United States before 1923 are in the public domain. Knight founded the website New Advent to house the undertaking, volunteers from the United States, Canada, France, and Brazil helped in the transcription of the original material. The site went online in 1995, and transcription work ended in 1997, in 2007, Catholic Answers published a watermarked version derived from page scans. This version has since replaced with a transcription of the Encyclopedia similar to that found at the New Advent website. The Catholic Answers transcription, however, is a transcription of the original text, whereas the New Advent version at times modernizes certain words. Other scanned copies of the 1913 Encyclopedia are available on Google Books, at the Internet Archive, wikisource also hosts a transcription project backed by the scans hosted at Commons
34.
Jewish Encyclopedia
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The Jewish Encyclopedia is an English encyclopedia containing over 15,000 articles on the history, culture, and state of Judaism and the Jews up to the early 20th century. It was originally published in 12 volumes by Funk and Wagnalls of New York City between 1901 and 1906 and reprinted in the 1960s by KTAV Publishing House and it is now in the public domain and hosted at various sites around the internet. The encyclopedias managing editor was Isidore Singer, the editorial board was chaired by Isaac K. Funk and Frank H. Vizetelly. William Popper served as the assistant revision editor and chief of translation for Vols, in the 20th century, the movements members dispersed to Jewish Studies departments in the United States and Israel. L. Rapoport, David Zvi Hoffman, Heinrich Graetz, etc, of the works cited which are not German—usually the more classical works—the large part are either Hebrew or Arabic. The only heavily cited English-language source of scholarship is Solomon Schechters publications in the Jewish Quarterly Review. Wolfson continues that if a Jewish Encyclopedia in a language were planned for the first time. The Jewish Encyclopedia was heavily used as a source by the 16-volume Jewish Encyclopedia in Russian, published by Brockhaus, the unedited text of the original can be found at the Jewish Encyclopedia website. The site offers both JPEG facsimiles of the articles and Unicode transcriptions of all texts. Thus, for example, to search for Halizah, one would have to know that they have transliterated this as Ḥaliẓah. The alphabetic index ignores diacriticals so it can be useful when searching for an article whose title is known. The scholarly apparatus of citation is thorough, but can be a bit daunting to contemporary users, a list of abbreviations used in the encyclopedia is provided on the Jewish Encyclopedia website. I, New York, Funk & Wagnalls Co, the Jewish Encyclopedia, Vol. II, New York, Funk & Wagnalls Co. The Jewish Encyclopedia, Vol. III, New York, Funk & Wagnalls Co, the Jewish Encyclopedia, Vol. IV, New York, Funk & Wagnalls Co. The Jewish Encyclopedia, Vol. V, New York, Funk & Wagnalls Co, VI & VII, New York, Funk & Wagnalls Co. The Jewish Encyclopedia, Vol. VIII, New York, Funk & Wagnalls Co, IX, X, & XI, New York, Funk & Wagnalls Co. XII, New York, Funk & Wagnalls Co, schwarz, Leo W. com, maintained by the Kopelman Foundation. Multiple copies at the Internet Archive Hathi Trust
35.
Bread of Life Discourse
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The Bread of Life Discourse is a portion of the teaching of Jesus which appears in the Gospel of John 6, 22-59 and was delivered in the synagogue at Capernaum. In the Gospel of John, Jesus said to them, “Very truly, I tell you, it was not Moses who gave you the bread from heaven, but it is my Father who gives you the true bread from heaven. For the bread of God is that comes down from heaven and gives life to the world. ”They said to him, “Sir, give us this bread always. ”Jesus said to them. Whoever comes to me never be hungry, and whoever believes in me will never be thirsty. Johns Gospel does not include an account of the blessing of the bread during the Last Supper as in the synoptic gospels e. g. Luke 22,19. Nonetheless, this discourse has often interpreted as communicating teachings regarding the Eucharist that have been very influential in the Christian tradition. Meredith J. C. Warren has challenged the Eucharistic interpretation of this passage, Warren argues that it reflects ancient Mediterranean traditions of sacrificial meals that identify a hero with a divinity. These assertions build on the Christological theme of John 5,26 where Jesus claims to possess life Just as the Father does, farewell Discourse Gospel harmony I am Last Supper Life of Jesus in the New Testament Light of the World Water of Life Discourse
36.
Jesus, King of the Jews
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In the New Testament, Jesus is referred to as the King of the Jews, both at the beginning of his life and at the end. In the Koine Greek of the New Testament, e. g. in John 19,3, both uses of the title lead to dramatic results in the New Testament accounts. In the account of the Nativity of Jesus in the Gospel of Matthew, the Greek version of the initialism read ΙΝΒΙ, representing Ἰησοῦς ὁ Ναζωραῖος ὁ Bασιλεὺς τῶν Ἰουδαίων which is best translated, Jesus the Nazorean, King of the Judeans. In the New Testament, the King of the Jews” title is used only by the gentiles, namely by the Magi, Pontius Pilate, in contrast, the Jewish leaders use the designation King of Israel. The phrase has also been translated King of the Judeans, the question troubles Herod who considers the title his own, and in Matthew 2, 7-8 he attempts to trick the Magi to reveal the exact location of the newborn King of the Jews. In the accounts of the Passion of Jesus, the title King of the Judeans is used on three separate occasions. The use of the terms King and Kingdom and the role of the Jews in using the term King to accuse Jesus are central in the discussion between Jesus and Pilate. In John 18,34, Jesus hints that the King accusation did not originate with Pilate but with others and, in John 18,36, he states, however, Jesus does not directly deny being the King of the Jews. In the New Testament, Pilate writes Jesus the Nazarene, King of the Judeans as a sign to be affixed to the cross of Jesus. John 19,21 states that the Jews told Pilate, Do not write King of the Jews but instead write that Jesus had merely claimed that title, Pilates response to the protest is recorded by John, What I have written, I have written. The continued reliance on the use of the term King by the Judeans to press charges against Jesus is a key element of the decision to crucify him. In John 19,12, the Jews then cry out and we have no king but Caesar. The final use of the title appears in Luke 23. In the parallel account in Matthew 27,42, the Jewish priests mock Jesus as King of Israel, saying, He is the King of Israel, let him now come down from the cross, and we will believe on him. In the New Testament, the King of the Jews” title is used only by the gentiles, namely by the Magi, Pontius Pilate, in contrast the Jewish leaders prefer the designation King of Israel, as in Matthew 27,42, Mark 15,32. But from Pilates perspective, it is the term King which is sensitive, in the Gospel of Mark the distinction between King of the Jews and King of Israel is made consciously, setting apart the two uses of the term by the Jews and the gentiles. The acronym INRI represents the Latin inscription IESVS·NAZARENVS·REX·IVDÆORVM, in English reads as Jesus the Nazarene, John 19,20 states that this was written in three languages, Hebrew, Latin and Greek and was put on the cross of Jesus. In Hebrew it read, Y-shua HaNotzri Vemelch HaYhudim an acronym of the Hebrew God YHVH, in the Eastern Church King of Glory may be used
37.
Lamb of God
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Lamb of God is a title for Jesus that appears in the Gospel of John. It appears at John 1,29, where John the Baptist sees Jesus and exclaims, Christian doctrine holds that divine Jesus chose to suffer crucifixion at Calvary as a sign of his full obedience to the will of his divine Father, as an agent and servant of God. In Christian theology the Lamb of God is viewed as foundational and integral to the message of Christianity, a lion-like lamb that rises to deliver victory after being slain appears several times in the Book of Revelation. It is also referred to in Pauline writings,1 Corinthians 5,7 suggests that Saint Paul intends to refer to the death of Jesus, the lamb metaphor is also in line with Psalm 23, which depicts God as a shepherd leading his flock. It also is used in liturgy and as a form of contemplative prayer, the Agnus Dei also forms a part of the musical setting for the Mass. These two proclamations of Jesus as the Lamb of God closely bracket the Baptists other proclamation in John 1,34, I have borne witness that this is the Son of God. From a Christological perspective, these proclamations and the descent of the Holy Spirit as a dove in John 1,32 reinforce each other to establish the divine element of the Person of Christ. The Book of Revelation includes over twenty-nine references to a lamb which delivers victory in a manner reminiscent of the resurrected Christ. In the first appearance of the lamb in Revelation only the lamb is found worthy to take the judgment scroll from God and break the seals. The reference to the lamb in Revelation 5,6 relates it to the Seven Spirits of God which first appear in Revelation 1,4 and are associated with Jesus who holds them along with seven stars. In Revelation 21,14 the lamb is said to have twelve apostles, the handing of the scroll to the risen lamb signifies the change in the role of the lamb. In Calvary, the lamb submitted to the will of the Father to be slain, the concept of the Lamb of God fits well within Johns agent Christology, in which sacrifice is made as an agent of God or servant of God for the sake of eventual victory. The theme of a lamb which rises in victory as the Resurrected Christ was employed in early Christology, e. g. in 375 Saint Augustine wrote. Because he underwent death without being guilty of any iniquity, why a lion in his passion. Because in being slain, he slew death, why a lamb in his resurrection. Why a lion in his resurrection, because everlasting also is his might. Anselm emphasized that as Lamb of God, Jesus chose to suffer in Calvary as a sign of his obedience to the will of the Father. However, as above Saint Anselm and John Calvins view reject the Scapegoat symbolism for they view Jesus as making a sacrifice as an agent of God
38.
Last Adam
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The Last Adam, also given as the Final Adam or the Ultimate Adam, is a title given to Jesus in the New Testament. Similar titles that refer to Jesus include Second Adam and New Adam. John MacArthur equates the Last Adam with the Second Adam, twice in the New Testament an explicit comparison is made between Jesus and Adam. In Romans 5, 12–21, Paul argues that just as through the disobedience of the one man the many were made sinners, so also through the obedience of the one man the many will be made righteous. In 1 Corinthians 15,22, Paul argues that as in Adam all die, so in Christ all will be made alive, while in verse 45 he calls Jesus the last/ultimate/final Adam. John Henry Newman used the phrase Second Adam in his hymn Praise to the Holiest in the height, first appearing in The Dream of Gerontius, when all was sin and shame, A second Adam to the fight And to the rescue came. The title New Adam is emphasised in the Recapitulation theory of atonement, Paul the Apostle contrasted Adam and Christ as two corporate personalities or representatives and saw human beings as bearing the image of both Adam and Christ. Where Adams disobedience meant sin and death for all, Christs obedience more than made good the harm due to Adam by bringing righteousness, as a life-giving spirit, the last Adam is risen from the dead and will transform us through resurrection into a heavenly, spiritual existence. Thus Pauls Adam Christology involved both the earthly Jesus obedience and the risen Christs role as giver of the Spirit. Some scholars detect an Adamic reference in several other New Testament passages, for example, in the language about the glory of Christ, perhaps this is an echo of the language of Genesis 1, 26-7 about Adam being created in the divine image. If so, Paul would be thinking here of Christ as the ideal Adam, but this exegesis is not fully convincing. One may likewise be less than fully convinced by those who find a reference to Adam in two hymnic or at least poetic passages, Colossians 1, 15–20 and Philippians 2, 6–11. Colossians 1,15 In Colossians 1,15, Christ is called the image of the invisible God, the first-born of all creation. In isolation, this verse could be merely in an Adamic sense as referring to Christ as the first created being, the archetypal human being who visibly reflects God. However, the context suggests finding the background in personified wisdom, the image of God. Any parallelism with Adam, who was made in the divine image and likeness. Further, it strains plausibility to argue that a mere Adamic model does justice to the language of the fullness of God dwelling in Christ, the whole context of Colossians 1, 15–20 suggests a more than Adamic and human interpretation of the first-born of all creation. Christ is the first-born in the sense of being prior to and supreme over all creation and he through whom the universe was created is the same Christ who formed the Church by rising from the dead
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Light of the World
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Light of the World is a phrase Jesus used to describe himself and his disciples in the New Testament. The phrase is recorded in the Gospel of John and again in the Gospel of Matthew and it is closely related to the parables of Salt and Light and Lamp under a bushel. In John 8,12 Jesus applies the title to himself while debating with the Jews and states, whoever follows me will never walk in darkness, but will have the light of life. Jesus again claims to be Light of the World in John 9,5, during the miracle of healing the blind at birth, saying, When I am in the world, I am the Light of the World. This episode leads into John 9,39 where Jesus metaphorically explains that he came to world, so that the blind may see. ”These assertions build on the Christological theme of John 5,26 where Jesus claims to possess life just as the Father does. The term “Life of the World” is applied in the sense by Jesus to himself in John 6,51. Jesus also used term to refer to his disciples in Matthew 5,14. A city on a hill cannot be hidden, neither do people light a lamp and put it under a bowl. Instead they put it on its stand, and it gives light to everyone in the house, in the same way, let your light shine before men, that they may see your good deeds and praise your Father in heaven. This application of light compared with darkness also appears in 1 John 1,5 which applies it to God and states, God is light, the fourth, gospel expresses certain ideas using the antithesis more frequently than any other writings in the New Testament. Walk while you have the light, before darkness over takes you, whoever walks in the dark, does not know where they are going. John 17,3 Now this is life, that they know you, the only true God, and Jesus Christ. When a Samaritan woman came to water, Jesus said to her. We have seen his glory, the glory of the one and only Son, John 4, 6-8 Jacob’s well was there, and Jesus, tired as he was from the journey, sat down by the well. When a Samaritan woman came to water, Jesus said to her. John 3,15 That everyone who believes may have life in him Above & Not Above John 1,14 The Word became flesh. We have seen his glory, the glory of the one and only Son, John 3,13 No one has ever gone into heaven except the one who came from heaven – the Son of Man. Spirit & Flesh John 1,14 The Word became flesh and we have seen his glory, the glory of the one and only Son, who came from the Father, full of grace and truth
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Logos (Christianity)
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In Christology, the Logos is a name or title of Jesus Christ, seen as the pre-existent second person of the Trinity. It has been important for establishing the doctrine of the divinity of Jesus and his being God the Son by Trinitarian theologians as set forth in the Chalcedonian Definition. The concept derives from the prologue to the Gospel of John, which is translated into English as, In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God. In the translations, Word is used for Λόγος, although the term is often used transliterated but untranslated in theological discourse. Christian theologians often consider John 1,1 to be a text in their belief that Jesus is God, in connection with the idea that the Father, the Son. Though only in verse and the fourteenth verse of the prologue is Jesus referred to as the Word. Theologian N. T. Wright characterizes Word as being incomprehensible in human language and he claims that through belief the Logos will transform people with its judgment and mercy. According to Wright, Johns view of the Incarnation, of the Word becoming flesh, theologian Stephen L. Harris claims the author of John adapted Philos concept of the Logos, identifying Jesus as an incarnation of the divine Logos that formed the universe. To the rabbis who spoke of the Torah as preexistent, as Gods instrument in creation, to the Gnostics who would deny a real incarnation, Johns answer was most emphatic, the Word became flesh. To those who stopped with John the Baptist, he made it clear that John was not the Light, although the term Logos is not retained as a title beyond the prologue, the whole book of John presses these basic claims. As the Logos, Jesus Christ is God in self-revelation and redemption and he is God to the extent that he can be present to man and knowable to man. The Logos is God, as Thomas stated, My Lord, yet the Logos is in some sense distinguishable from God, for the Logos was with God. God and the Logos are not two beings, and yet they are not simply identical. In contrast to the Logos, God can be conceived apart from his revelatory action─although we must not forget that the Bible speaks of God only in his revelatory action. The paradox that the Logos is God and yet it is in some sense distinguishable from God is maintained in the body of the Gospel. That God as he acts and as he is revealed does not exhaust God as he is, is reflected in sayings attributed to Jesus, I and the Father are one and also, the Logos is God active in creation, revelation, and redemption. Jesus Christ not only gives Gods Word to us humans, he is the Word and he is the true word─ultimate reality revealed in a Person. The Logos is God, distinguishable in thought yet not separable in fact and this was decreed at the First Council of Constantinople
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Kyrios
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Kyrios or kurios is a Greek word which is usually translated as lord or master. In religious usage, it is translated as God. It is used in the Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Bible, kyrios appears about 740 times in the New Testament, usually referring to Jesus. In Classical Athens, the word referred to the head of the household, who was responsible for his wife, children. In Classical Athens, the word referred to the head of the household, who was responsible for his wife, children. When an Athenian woman married, her husband became her new kyrios, the term κύριος is still in use in the Modern Greek language and is the equivalent to the English terms mister, master, and sir. For example, the English term Mr. Smith is translated to κύριος Σμίθ in Greek, kyrios appears about 740 times in the New Testament, usually referring to Jesus. The use of kyrios in the New Testament has been the subject of debate among modern scholars, the first is that based on the Septuagint usage, the designation is intended to assign to Jesus the Old Testament attributes of God. And the early Christians, the majority of whom were speakers of Greek, the second is that as the early Church expanded, Hellenistic influences resulted in the use of the term. The third is that it is a translation of the Aramaic title Mari applied to Jesus, in everyday Aramaic, Mari was a very respectful form of polite address, well above teacher and similar to rabbi. In Greek this has at times been translated as kyrios, while the term Mari expressed the relationship between Jesus and his disciples during his life, the Greek kyrios came to represent his lordship over the world. The Gospel of John seldom uses kyrios to refer to Jesus during his ministry, the Gospel of Mark never applies the term kyrios as a direct reference to Jesus, unlike Paul who uses it 163 times. When Mark uses kyrios it is in reference to YHWH/God, Mark does, however, use the word in passages where it is unclear whether it applies to God or Jesus, e. g. in 5,19 or 11,3. Kyrios is a key element of the Christology of Apostle Paul, most scholars agree that the use of kyrios, and hence the Lordship of Jesus, predated the Pauline Epistles, but that Saint Paul expanded and elaborated on that topic. In some cases, when reading the Hebrew Bible, the Jews would substitute Adonai for the Tetragrammaton, origen refers to both practices in his commentary on Psalms. The practice was due to the not to overuse the name of God. Examples of this can be seen in Philo
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Christ Pantocrator
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In Christian iconography, Christ Pantocrator refers to a specific depiction of Christ. Pantocrator or Pantokrator is, used in context, a translation of one of many names of God in Judaism. When the Hebrew Bible was translated into Greek as the Septuagint, in the New Testament, Pantokrator is used once by Paul. Aside from that one occurrence, John of Patmos is the only New Testament author to use the word Pantokrator, the most common translation of Pantocrator is Almighty or All-powerful. In this understanding, Pantokrator is a word formed from the Greek words πᾶς, pas, i. e. all and κράτος, kratos, i. e. strength, might. This is often understood in terms of power, i. e. ability to do anything. Another, more literal translation is Ruler of All or, less literally, in this understanding, Pantokrator is a compound word formed from the Greek for all and the verb meaning To accomplish something or to sustain something. This translation speaks more to Gods actual power, i. e, the Pantokrator, largely an Eastern Orthodox or Eastern Catholic theological conception, is less common by that name in Western Catholicism and largely unknown to most Protestants. In the West the equivalent image in art is known as Christ in Majesty, Christ Pantocrator has come to suggest Christ as a mild but stern, all-powerful judge of humanity. The icon of Christ Pantokrator is one of the most widely used images of Orthodox Christianity. Some scholars consider the Pantocrator a Christian adaptation of images of Zeus, the development of the earliest stages of the icon from Roman Imperial imagery is easier to trace. The image of Christ Pantocrator was one of the first images of Christ developed in the Early Christian Church, in the half-length image, Christ holds the New Testament in his left hand and makes the gesture of teaching or of blessing with his right. The gessoed panel, finely painted using a wax medium on a panel, had been coarsely overpainted around the face. It was only when the overpainting was cleaned in 1962 that the ancient image was revealed to be a high quality icon. The left hand holds a book with a richly decorated cover featuring the Cross. An icon where Christ has a book is called Christ the Teacher. Christ is bearded, his brown hair centrally parted, and his head is surrounded by a halo, the icon is usually shown against a gold background comparable to the gilded grounds of mosaic depictions of the Christian emperors. Often, the name of Christ is written on each side of the halo, as IC, christs fingers are depicted in a pose that represents the letters IC, X and C, thereby making the Christogram ICXC
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Son of man (Christianity)
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Son of man is an expression in the sayings of Jesus in Christian writings, including the Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles and the Book of Revelation. The meaning of the expression is controversial, interpretation of the use of the Son of man in the New Testament has remained challenging and after 150 years of debate no consensus on the issue has emerged among scholars. The expression the Son of man occurs 81 times in the Greek text of the four Canonical gospels, the singular Hebrew expression son of man also appears in the Hebrew Bible over a hundred times. Geza Vermes has stated that the use of the Son of man in the Christian gospels is unrelated to Hebrew Bible usages, in the Koine Greek of the New Testament, the son of man is ὁ υἱὸς τοὺ ἀνθρώπου. The singular Hebrew expression son of man also appears over a hundred times in the Hebrew Bible, in thirty two cases, the phrase appears in intermediate plural form sons of men, i. e. human beings. The expression the Son of man appears 81 times in the Koine Greek of the four Gospels, thirty times in Matthew,14 times in Mark, twenty five times in Luke and 12 times in John. However, the use of the article in the Son of man is novel. In the Christian scriptures, Jesus uses the reference for more than Son of God. And he came to the Ancient One and was presented before him, to him was given dominion and glory and kingship, that all peoples, nations, and languages should serve him. His dominion is an everlasting dominion that shall not pass away, the New Testament claims, in Revelation, that Jesus will come to earth on the clouds of heaven, and that he will be given unending dominion and authority. It describes him as the ruler of the kings of the earth, to be served and worshiped by all nations, people, geza Vermes has stated that the son of man in the New Testament is unrelated to Hebrew Bible usages. Vermes begins with the observation that there is no example of the son of man in Hebrew sources and suggests that the term originates in Aramaic — ברנש - bar nash/bar nasha. He concludes that in these sources Son of man is an expression for man in general and often serves as an indefinite pronoun. In Matthew 8,20 and Luke 9,58 Jesus states, The foxes have holes, and the birds of the sky have nests, but the Son of man has nowhere to lay his head. In Matthew 18,11 Jesus refers to Son of man came to serve and states, in the Gospel of Mark 10, 35–45 this episode takes place shortly after Jesus predicts his death. Christians commonly take the son of man in this passage to refer to Jesus himself. Matthew 12, 38-42, Mark 8, 11-13, Luke 11, 29-32 Then some of the scribes and Pharisees answered, saying, “Teacher, we want to see a sign from You. ”But He answered and said to them, “An evil and adulterous generation seeks after a sign, and no sign will be given to it except the sign of the prophet Jonah. For as Jonah was three days and three nights in the belly of the fish, so will the Son of Man be three days and three nights in the heart of the earth
Hassett, Maurice M. (1907). "A and Ω". In Herbermann, Charles. Catholic Encyclopedia. 1. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
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