1.
David Wilkie Wynfield
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David Wilkie Wynfield was a British painter and photographer. Wynfield was distantly related to the Scottish artist David Wilkie, after whom he was named, born in India, he was originally intended by his family for the priesthood, but instead chose art as a profession. He studied at Leighs art school in the 1850s and his first painting was accepted for the Royal Academy summer exhibition in 1859, Wynfield associated with a group of other artists who became known as the St. Johns Wood Clique. Their work typically took the form of historical narratives. Wynfield himself painted many works set in Medieval or Renaissance Europe, in the 1860s Wynfield became interested in photography. Many of Wynfields photographs portrayed members of the St. Johns Wood Clique, the combination of soft focus, close-up, large-format print and historical costumes produced a photographic style that was completely original at the time. Wynfield was attempting to imitate the effects of old master artists such as Titian. A selection of the photographs was published in 1864 as a book entitled The Studio, A Collection of Photographic Portraits of Living Artists, Taken in the Style of Old Masters, as with many of the subjects of his photographs Wynfield served in The Artists Rifles. He reached the rank of Captain and was commanding H Company in 1880, in his autobiography his friend Henry Stacy Marks said that Wynfield died of consumption
2.
Etching
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Etching is traditionally the process of using strong acid or mordant to cut into the unprotected parts of a metal surface to create a design in intaglio in the metal. In modern manufacturing, other chemicals may be used on other types of material, as a method of printmaking, it is, along with engraving, the most important technique for old master prints, and remains in wide use today. In a number of variants such as microfabrication etching and photochemical milling it is a crucial technique in much modern technology. In traditional pure etching, a plate is covered with a waxy ground which is resistant to acid. The artist then scratches off the ground with an etching needle where he or she wants a line to appear in the finished piece. The échoppe, a tool with an oval section, is also used for swelling lines. The plate is dipped in a bath of acid, technically called the mordant or etchant. The acid bites into the metal where it is exposed, leaving behind lines sunk into the plate, the remaining ground is then cleaned off the plate. The plate is inked all over, and then the ink wiped off the surface, the plate is then put through a high-pressure printing press together with a sheet of paper. The paper picks up the ink from the lines, making a print. The process can be repeated many times, typically several hundred impressions could be printed before the shows much sign of wear. The work on the plate can also be added to by repeating the whole process, Etching has often been combined with other intaglio techniques such as engraving or aquatint. The process as applied to printmaking is believed to have been invented by Daniel Hopfer of Augsburg, Hopfer was a craftsman who decorated armour in this way, and applied the method to printmaking, using iron plates. Apart from his prints, there are two examples of his work on armour, a shield from 1536 now in the Real Armeria of Madrid. The switch to copper plates was made in Italy. On the other hand, the handling of the ground and acid need skill and experience, prior to 1100 AD, the New World Hohokam independently utilized the technique of acid etching in marine shell designs. Jacques Callot from Nancy in Lorraine made important technical advances in etching technique and he developed the échoppe, a type of etching-needle with a slanting oval section at the end, which enabled etchers to create a swelling line, as engravers were able to do. Callot also appears to have responsible for an improved, harder, recipe for the etching ground
3.
Medallist
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A medalist or medallist is an artist who designs medals, plaquettes, badges, coins and similar small works in relief in metal. Somewhat confusingly, medalist/medallist is also used in sport and other areas for the winner of a medal as an award, historically medalists were typically also involved in producing their designs, and were usually either sculptors or goldsmiths by background. From the 19th century the education of a medalist often began with as an engraver, or an education in an academy, particularly modeling. On coins a mark or symbol signifying the medalist as the designer was often included in a hidden location on the coin and is not to be mistaken for the symbol of the mint master. Artistic medals and plaquettes are often signed prominently by the artist and he cast them like bronze sculptures, rather than minting them like coins. Artistic medals and plaquettes have mostly been produced by lost wax casting, the design for the coin faces were originally engraved into the coin dies. It was necessary to use a burin to engrave the designs directly into the die inverted and this resulted in the early medalists being called steel-chiselers. Medalists who were contracted by the state to produce the coins and medallions for the mint were given official state titles. In addition to their contracts, medalists were also allowed to earn income through private commissions for medals. List of medallists How are Coins Made, the United States Mint The Art of Minting. The Royal Mint The History of Minting, the Royal Mint Museum How a Coin Comes into Being Austrian Mint
4.
Dijon
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Dijon is a city in eastern France, capital of the Côte-dOr département and of the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region. The earliest archaeological finds within the city limits of Dijon date to the Neolithic period, Dijon later became a Roman settlement named Divio, located on the road from Lyon to Paris. Population,151,576 within the city limits,250,516 for the greater Dijon area, the city has retained varied architectural styles from many of the main periods of the past millennium, including Capetian, Gothic and Renaissance. Many still-inhabited town houses in the central district date from the 18th century. Dijon architecture is distinguished by, among other things, toits bourguignons made of tiles glazed in terracotta, green, yellow and black, Dijon holds an International and Gastronomic Fair every year in autumn. With over 500 exhibitors and 200,000 visitors every year, Dijon is also home, every three years, to the international flower show Florissimo. The historical center of the city has been registered since July 4,2015 as a UNESCO World Heritage site, the earliest archaeological finds within the city limits of Dijon date to the Neolithic period. Dijon later became a Roman settlement called Divio, which may mean sacred fountain, saint Benignus, the citys apocryphal patron saint, is said to have introduced Christianity to the area before being martyred. The Duchy of Burgundy was a key in the transformation of medieval times toward early modern Europe, the Palace of the Dukes of Burgundy now houses city hall and a museum of art. In 1513, Swiss and Imperial armies invaded Burgundy and besieged Dijon, the siege was extremely violent, but the town succeeded in resisting the invaders. After long negotiations, Louis II de la Trémoille managed to persuade the Swiss, during the siege, the population called on the Virgin Mary for help and saw the towns successful resistance and the subsequent withdrawal of the invaders as a miracle. For those reasons, in the following the siege the inhabitants of Dijon began to venerate Notre-Dame de Bon-Espoir. Although a few areas of the town were destroyed, there are no signs of the siege of 1513 visible today. However, Dijons museum of arts has a large tapestry depicting this episode in the towns history. Dijon is situated at the heart of a plain drained by two small converging rivers, the Suzon, which crosses it mostly underground from north to south, farther south is the côte, or hillside, of vineyards that gives the department its name. Dijon lies 310 km southeast of Paris,190 km northwest of Geneva, the average low of winter is −1 °C, with an average high of 4.2 °C. The average high of summer is 25.3 °C with a low of 14.7 °C. Average normal temperatures are between 2.3 °C and 5.3 °C from November to March, and 17.2 to 19.7 °C from June to August, the climate is oceanic but with a greater temperature range than closer to the Atlantic coastline
5.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
6.
Lyon
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Lyon or Lyons is a city in east-central France, in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region, about 470 km from Paris and 320 km from Marseille. Inhabitants of the city are called Lyonnais, Lyon had a population of 506,615 in 2014 and is Frances third-largest city after Paris and Marseille. Lyon is the capital of the Metropolis of Lyon and the region of Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes, the metropolitan area of Lyon had a population of 2,237,676 in 2013, the second-largest in France after Paris. The city is known for its cuisine and gastronomy and historical and architectural landmarks and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Lyon was historically an important area for the production and weaving of silk. It played a significant role in the history of cinema, Auguste, the city is also known for its famous light festival, Fête des Lumières, which occurs every 8 December and lasts for four days, earning Lyon the title of Capital of Lights. Economically, Lyon is a centre for banking, as well as for the chemical, pharmaceutical. The city contains a significant software industry with a focus on video games. Lyon hosts the headquarters of Interpol, Euronews, and International Agency for Research on Cancer. Lyon was ranked 19th globally and second in France for innovation in 2014 and it ranked second in France and 39th globally in Mercers 2015 liveability rankings. These refugees had been expelled from Vienne by the Allobroges and were now encamped at the confluence of the Saône and Rhône rivers, dio Cassius says this task was to keep the two men from joining Mark Antony and bringing their armies into the developing conflict. The Roman foundation was at Fourvière hill and was officially called Colonia Copia Felix Munatia, a name invoking prosperity, the city became increasingly referred to as Lugdunum. The earliest translation of this Gaulish place-name as Desired Mountain is offered by the 9th-century Endlicher Glossary, in contrast, some modern scholars have proposed a Gaulish hill-fort named Lugdunon, after the Celtic god Lugus, and dúnon. It then became the capital of Gaul, partly due to its convenient location at the convergence of two rivers, and quickly became the main city of Gaul. Two emperors were born in city, Claudius, whose speech is preserved in the Lyon Tablet in which he justifies the nomination of Gallic senators. Today, the archbishop of Lyon is still referred to as Primat des Gaules, the Christians in Lyon were martyred for their beliefs under the reigns of various Roman emperors, most notably Marcus Aurelius and Septimus Severus. Local saints from this period include Blandina, Pothinus, and Epipodius, in the second century AD, the great Christian bishop of Lyon was the Easterner, Irenaeus. Burgundian refugees fleeing the destruction of Worms by the Huns in 437 were re-settled by the commander of the west, Aëtius. This became the capital of the new Burgundian kingdom in 461, in 843, by the Treaty of Verdun, Lyon, with the country beyond the Saône, went to Lothair I
7.
Charles-Antoine Cambon
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Charles-Antoine Cambon was a French scenographer who acquired international notoriety in the Romantic Era. Little biographical information exists on Cambons early years, other than that he would have been active as an aquarelle, at Ciceris workshop Cambon made acquaintance with Humanité-René Philastre, who would become his first long-term associate. As a stage design for a Salon at the Bibliothèque-Musée de lOpéra testifies, Philastre, from that time until 1848, Philastre and Cambon accepted numerous joint commissions for theatrical interior decorations and stage designs. Thus, they decorated the interiors of venues in Angoulême, Antwerp, Beaune, Brest, Choiseul, Dijon, Douai, Ghent, Lille, Lyon, Paris, Cambon separated from Philastre in 1848 as the latter emigrated to Spain. Cambon was to co-design the premiere of Verdis Aida, but dropped out of the due to unknown circumstances. Cambon taught many pupils at his studio at 3 rue Neuve-Samson. Cambon was named Chevalier de la Légion dhonneur in 1869 and he was a fried of Prosper Mérimée and Stendhal. Although Cambon, like most contemporary scenographers, created scenery of various types and styles during his long career, Cambons designs and scale-models in Conté crayon, sepia or pastel furthermore reveal an exquisite draughtsmanship in its own right. On 17 May 1877,2,000 designs by Cambon were sold by his widow at the Hôtel Drouot in Paris, two hundred of these were acquired by the Bibliothèque-Musée de lOpéra, which would also preserve Cambons maquettes for the Académie Royale de Musique from 1866 onwards. A number of scale-models predating 1866 have also been preserved, other stage designs by Cambon are held at the Archives of the Comédie-Française. The Grand Théâtre of Ghent, interior decorations by Philastre and Cambon from 1841, the Théâtre of Montbéliard, ceiling painted by Cambon and Thierry in 1857. The Château des Princes in Chimay, interior decorations and act curtain designed by Cambon between 1860 and 1863, the curtain was altered in moder times into a backdrop with newly added flats to create a garden set. Marie-Antoinette Allevy, La mise-en-scène en France dans la première moitié du dix-neuvième siècle, germain Bapst, Essai sur l’histoire du théâtre, la mise en scène, le décor, le costume, l’architecture, l’éclairage, l’hygiène. Peter Beudert, ‘Stage Painters at the Paris Opéra in the Nineteenth Century’, Music in Art, International Journal for Music Iconography 31/1-2, 63-72, sylvie Chevalley, ‘L’atelier Philastre et Cambon et la Comédie-Française’, in Anatomy of an illusion, studies in nineteenth-century scene design, 13-18. Pierre De Clercq, ‘Humanité-René Philastre en Charles-Antoine Cambon, decorateurs van theatergebouwen’, in De Opera van Gent, het ‘Grand Théâtre’ van Roelandt, architectuur-interieurs-restauratie, ed. Luc Demeester and Birgit Waeterloos, 51-68. Nicole Decugis and Suzanne Reymond, Le décor de théâtre en France du Moyen Age à1925, bruno Forment, ‘Staging Verdi in the Provinces, The Aida Scenery of Albert Dubosq’, in Staging Verdi and Wagner, ed. Naomi Matsumoto, 263-286,266. Catherine Join-Diéterle, Les décors de scène de l’Opéra de Paris à l’époque romantique, l’envers du décor à la Comédie-Française et à lOpéra de Paris au XIXe siècle. Eugène-Oscar Lami, ed. Dictionnaire encyclopédique et biographique de l’industrie et des arts industriels, Madeleine Manderyck, ‘De bouwgeschiedenis van het Théâtre Royal Français’, in De Bourla Schouwburg, een tempel voor de muzen, ed. Madeleine Manderyck and et al
8.
Jules Dalou
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Aimé-Jules Dalou was a French sculptor, recognized as one of the most brilliant virtuosos of nineteenth-century France, admired for his perceptiveness, execution, and unpretentious realism. Born in Paris to a family of Huguenot background, he was raised in an atmosphere of secularity. He was the pupil of Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux, who sponsored him for the Petite École, in 1854 he attended the École des Beaux-Arts de Paris in the François-Joseph Duret classroom. Dalou first exhibited at the Paris Salon in 1861, but he made no secret of his working-class sympathies and his politics obstructed his career under the Second Empire, he was repeatedly refused the Prix de Rome that opened sculptors careers to future official commissions. He started to work for decorators, and there met Rodin with which began their friendship and he made a quiet living providing decorative sculpture for the structures that lined Pariss new boulevards and providing wax models for jewelry. He married Irma Vuillier, a partnership that sustained him throughout his life, they had one daughter, Georgette, dalous Daphnis and Chloe shown at the Paris salon of 1869, was purchased by the State. He rapidly made a name through his appointment teaching at the South London Technical Art School and he was convicted in absentia by the French government of participation in the Commune, and given a life sentence. He also recommended his friend and colleague Édouard Lantéri to move from France to England and he returned to France in 1879, after the declaration of amnesty, and produced a number of masterpieces. It is somewhat in the taste of the Louis XIV period, ornate, within a few days, his great Monument to Alphand, which almost equalled the success achieved by the Monument to Delacroix in the Luxembourg Garden, was inaugurated. Dalou, who was awarded the Grand Prix of the Exposition Universelle, was made a commander of the Legion of Honor and he was one of the founders of the Société Nationale des Beaux-Arts, and was the first president of the sculpture section. Dalou died in Paris on 15 April 1902, aged 63, and was interred in the Cimetière du Montparnasse in Paris. W
9.
Auguste Rodin
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François Auguste René Rodin, known as Auguste Rodin, was a French sculptor. Although Rodin is generally considered the progenitor of modern sculpture, he did not set out to rebel against the past and he was schooled traditionally, took a craftsman-like approach to his work, and desired academic recognition, although he was never accepted into Pariss foremost school of art. Sculpturally, Rodin possessed an ability to model a complex, turbulent. Many of his most notable sculptures were roundly criticized during his lifetime and they clashed with predominant figurative sculpture traditions, in which works were decorative, formulaic, or highly thematic. Rodins most original work departed from traditional themes of mythology and allegory, modeled the human body with realism, Rodin was sensitive to the controversy surrounding his work, but refused to change his style. Successive works brought increasing favor from the government and the artistic community, by 1900, he was a world-renowned artist. Wealthy private clients sought Rodins work after his Worlds Fair exhibit and he married his lifelong companion, Rose Beuret, in the last year of both their lives. His sculptures suffered a decline in popularity after his death in 1917, Rodin remains one of the few sculptors widely known outside the visual arts community. Rodin was born in 1840 into a family in Paris, the second child of Marie Cheffer and Jean-Baptiste Rodin. He was largely self-educated, and began to draw at age ten, between ages 14 and 17, Rodin attended the Petite École, a school specializing in art and mathematics, where he studied drawing and painting. His drawing teacher, Horace Lecoq de Boisbaudran, believed in first developing the personality of his students so that they observed with their own eyes, Rodin still expressed appreciation for his teacher much later in life. It was at Petite École that he first met Jules Dalou, in 1857, Rodin submitted a clay model of a companion to the École des Beaux-Arts in an attempt to win entrance, he did not succeed, and two further applications were also denied. Given that entrance requirements at the Grande École were not particularly high, Rodins inability to gain entrance may have been due to the judges Neoclassical tastes, while Rodin had been schooled in light, 18th-century sculpture. Leaving the Petite École in 1857, Rodin earned a living as a craftsman, Rodins sister Maria, two years his senior, died of peritonitis in a convent in 1862. Rodin was anguished and felt guilty because he had introduced Maria to an unfaithful suitor, turning away from art, he briefly joined a Catholic order, the Congregation of the Blessed Sacrament. Saint Peter Julian Eymard, founder and head of the congregation, recognized Rodins talent and, sensing his lack of suitability for the order and he returned to work as a decorator, while taking classes with animal sculptor Antoine-Louis Barye. The teachers attention to detail – his finely rendered musculature of animals in motion – significantly influenced Rodin, in 1864, Rodin began to live with a young seamstress named Rose Beuret, with whom he would stay – with ranging commitment – for the rest of his life. The couple had a son, Auguste-Eugène Beuret and that year, Rodin offered his first sculpture for exhibition, and entered the studio of Albert-Ernest Carrier-Belleuse, a successful mass producer of objets dart
10.
Salon (Paris)
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The Salon, or rarely Paris Salon, beginning in 1667 was the official art exhibition of the Académie des Beaux-Arts in Paris. Between 1748 and 1890 it was arguably the greatest annual or biennial art event in the Western world, at the 1761 Salon, thirty-three painters, nine sculptors, and eleven engravers contributed. From 1881 onward, it has been managed by the Société des Artistes Français, in 1667, the royally sanctioned French institution of art patronage, the Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture, held its first semi-public art exhibit at the Salon Carré. The Salons original focus was the display of the work of recent graduates of the École des Beaux-Arts, exhibition at the Salon de Paris was essential for any artist to achieve success in France for at least the next 200 years. Exhibition in the Salon marked a sign of royal favor, in 1725, the Salon was held in the Palace of the Louvre, when it became known as Salon or Salon de Paris. In 1737, the exhibitions, held from 18 August 1737 to 5 September 1737 at the Grand Salon of the Louvre and they were held, at first, annually, and then biennially, in odd-numbered years. They would start on the feast day of St. Louis, once made regular and public, the Salons status was never seriously in doubt. In 1748 a jury of awarded artists was introduced, from this time forward, the influence of the Salon was undisputed. The Salon exhibited paintings floor-to-ceiling and on every inch of space. The jostling of artwork became the subject of other paintings. Printed catalogues of the Salons are primary documents for art historians, critical descriptions of the exhibitions published in the gazettes mark the beginning of the modern occupation of art critic. The French revolution opened the exhibition to foreign artists, the vernissage of opening night was a grand social occasion, and a crush that gave subject matter to newspaper caricaturists like Honoré Daumier. Charles Baudelaire, Denis Diderot and others wrote reviews of the Salons, the 1848 revolution liberalized the Salon. The amount of refused works was greatly reduced, the increasingly conservative and academic juries were not receptive to the Impressionist painters, whose works were usually rejected, or poorly placed if accepted. The Salon opposed the Impressionists shift away from traditional painting styles, in 1863 the Salon jury turned away an unusually high number of the submitted paintings. An uproar resulted, particularly from regular exhibitors who had been rejected, in order to prove that the Salons were democratic, Napoleon III instituted the Salon des Refusés, containing a selection of the works that the Salon had rejected that year. It opened on 17 May 1863, marking the birth of the avant-garde, the Impressionists held their own independent exhibitions in 1874,1876,1877,1879,1880,1881,1882 and 1886. In 1881, the government withdrew official sponsorship from the annual Salon, in December 1890, the leader of the Société des Artistes Français, William-Adolphe Bouguereau, propagated the idea that Salon should be an exhibition of young, not-yet awarded, artists
11.
Jean-Charles Cazin
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Jean-Charles Cazin was a French landscape painter and ceramicist. The son of a doctor, FJ Cazin, he was born at Samer. After studying in France, he went to England, where he was influenced by the pre-Raphaelite movement. In 1890, Theodore Child discussed a few of his paintings in Harpers Magazine and he painted a scene from The Odyssey, Ulysses after the Shipwreck. He was made an officer of the Legion of Honour in 1889 and his charming and poetical treatment of landscape is the feature in his tonalism painting which in later years has given them an increasing value among connoisseurs. His wife, Marie Cazin, who was his pupil and exhibited her first picture at the Salon in 1876, works by or about Jean-Charles Cazin at Internet Archive A Harmony of Color
12.
Champfleury
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Jules François Felix Fleury-Husson, who wrote under the name Champfleury, was a French art critic and novelist, a prominent supporter of the Realist movement in painting and fiction. In 1843 Fleury-Husson moved to Paris and he met Charles Baudelaire and the next year started writing art criticism under the pen-name Champfleury for the journal LArtiste. He was one of the first to promote the work of Gustave Courbet, in 1850, during a time when the Spanish school was still largely ignored, he advocated the work of El Greco. He wrote about the Le Nain brothers and Maurice Quentin de La Tour and he also had a brief affair in 1851 with Eveline Hańska, the widow of his friend Honoré de Balzac. He edited the periodical Le réalisme in 1856 and 1857 and his novels, of which the best-known is Les bourgeois de Molinchart, were among the earliest Realist works. From 1872 until his death in 1889 he was Chief of Collections at the Sèvres porcelain factory, the character of Marcel in Henri Murgers Scènes de la vie de bohème, and thus the corresponding character Marcello in Puccinis opera based on it, was partially based on Champfleury. Champfleury was a friend of Murger and they had roomed together for a time, troubat, Souvenirs sur Champfleury et le Réalisme Works by Jules Champfleury at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Champfleury at Internet Archive
13.
Gustave Courbet
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Jean Désiré Gustave Courbet was a French painter who led the Realism movement in 19th-century French painting. Committed to painting only what he could see, he rejected academic convention and his independence set an example that was important to later artists, such as the Impressionists and the Cubists. Courbet occupies an important place in 19th-century French painting as an innovator, Courbets paintings of the late 1840s and early 1850s brought him his first recognition. They challenged convention by depicting unidealized peasants and workers, often on a grand scale traditionally reserved for paintings of religious or historical subjects, Courbets subsequent paintings were mostly of a less overtly political character, landscapes, seascapes, hunting scenes, nudes and still lifes. He was imprisoned for six months in 1871 for his involvement with the Paris Commune, Gustave Courbet was born in 1819 to Régis and Sylvie Oudot Courbet in Ornans. Being a prosperous farming family, anti-monarchical feelings prevailed in the household, Courbets sisters, Zoé, Zélie and Juliette, were his first models for drawing and painting. After moving to Paris he often returned home to Ornans to hunt, fish and he went to Paris in 1839 and worked at the studio of Steuben and Hesse. An independent spirit, he left, preferring to develop his own style by studying the paintings of Spanish, Flemish and French masters in the Louvre. Among his paintings of the early 1840s are several self-portraits, Romantic in conception, trips to the Netherlands and Belgium in 1846–47 strengthened Courbets belief that painters should portray the life around them, as Rembrandt, Hals and other Dutch masters had. By 1848, he had gained supporters among the younger critics, Courbet achieved his first Salon success in 1849 with his painting After Dinner at Ornans. The work, reminiscent of Chardin and Le Nain, earned Courbet a gold medal and was purchased by the state, the gold medal meant that his works would no longer require jury approval for exhibition at the Salon—an exemption Courbet enjoyed until 1857. In 1849-50, Courbet painted Stone-Breakers, which Proudhon admired as an icon of peasant life, the painting was inspired by a scene Courbet witnessed on the roadside. He later explained to Champfleury and the writer Francis Wey, It is not often that one encounters so complete an expression of poverty and so, right then, I told them to come to my studio the next morning. Courbets work belonged neither to the predominant Romantic nor Neoclassical schools, instead, he maintained that the only possible source for living art is the artists own experience. He and Jean-Francois Millet would find inspiration painting the life of peasants, Courbet painted figurative compositions, landscapes, seascapes, and still lifes. He courted controversy by addressing issues in his work, and by painting subjects that were considered vulgar, such as the rural bourgeoisie, peasants. His work, along with that of Honoré Daumier and Jean-François Millet and he depicted the harshness in life, and in so doing challenged contemporary academic ideas of art. The Salon of 1850–1851 found him triumphant with The Stone Breakers, the Burial, one of Courbets most important works, records the funeral of his grand uncle which he attended in September 1848
14.
Royal College of Art
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The Royal College of Art or RCA is a public research university in London, in the United Kingdom. This was the third year that QS had awarded it the number 1 position for Art & Design. The RCA was founded in Somerset House in 1837 as the Government School of Design or Metropolitan School of Design, richard Burchett became head of the school in 1852. In 1853 it was expanded and moved to Marlborough House, and then, in 1853 or 1857 and it was renamed the Normal Training School of Art in 1857 and the National Art Training School in 1863. During the later 19th century it was primarily a training college, pupils during this period included George Clausen, Christopher Dresser, Luke Fildes, Kate Greenaway. In 1896 or 1897 the school received the name Royal College of Art, teaching of graphic design, industrial design and product design began in the mid-twentieth century. The school expanded further in the 1960s, and in 1967 it received a Royal Charter which gave it the status of an independent university with the power to grant its own degrees, the RCA has two campuses, in South Kensington and in Battersea. The Darwin Building in Kensington Gore dates from the 1960s and is a Grade II listed building and it was designed by a team of RCA staff members, H. T. Cadbury-Brown, Hugh Casson and Robert Goodden. In 1991 the sculpture department moved to a converted factory across the river Thames in Battersea, in the early 2000s the college conceived a substantial second campus being created on the site, with a minibus service linking it to Kensington. Thus, after a redevelopment of the premises by Wright & Wright. A masterplan was commissioned by Haworth Tompkins and phase 1 of their three phase design was completed with the opening of the Sackler Building on 19 November 2009 and its name commemorates a major gift by The Dr Mortimer and Theresa Sackler Foundation. The Dyson Building, named in honour of James Dyson, whose educational charity donated £5m to the development, was opened on 24 September 2012 and it is the home for printmaking and photography, and contains an innovation wing where start-up designers can launch their businesses. The Woo Building was opened on 30 September 2015, completing the Battersea project and it is named in honour of Sir Po-Shing and Lady Helen Woo, who have funded scholarships at the RCA since the 1990s. It accommodates the Ceramics & Glass and Jewellery & Metal programmes, the buildings anodised aluminium gates were designed by alumnus Max Lamb. The RCA offers MA, MPhil and PhD degrees in twenty-four subject areas, divided into six schools, architecture, communication, design, fine art, humanities, and materials. In April 2011 the RCA was ranked first on a list of UK graduate art schools compiled by Modern Painters magazine from a survey of professionals in the art world. In August 2015 it was ranked first on a list of courses in fashion by Business of Fashion. In 2015 the RCA placed first in the art and design subject area in the QS World University Rankings published by Quacquarelli Symonds, in 2016 and 2017 it held onto the position, increasing its overall score from 96. 0/100 to 98. 4/100
15.
University College, London
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University College London is a public research university in London, England, and a constituent college of the federal University of London. It is the largest postgraduate institution in the UK by enrollment and is regarded as one of the worlds leading research universities. UCL also makes the claims of being the third-oldest university in England. In 1836 UCL became one of the two founding colleges of the University of London, which was granted a charter in the same year. UCL has its campus in the Bloomsbury area of central London, with a number of institutes and teaching hospitals elsewhere in central London. UCL is organised into 11 constituent faculties, within there are over 100 departments, institutes. In 2015/16, UCL had around 38,300 students and 12,000 staff and had an income of £1.36 billion. UCL ranks highly in national and international league tables and its graduates rank among the most employable in the world, UCL academics discovered five of the naturally occurring noble gases, co-discovered hormones, invented the vacuum tube, and made several foundational advances in modern statistics. There are at least 29 Nobel Prize winners and 3 Fields medalists amongst UCLs alumni and current, UCL was founded on 11 February 1826 under the name London University, as an alternative to the Anglican universities of Oxford and Cambridge. London Universitys first Warden was Leonard Horner, who was the first scientist to head a British university and this suggests that while his ideas may have been influential, he himself was less so. In 1827, the Chair of Political Economy at London University was created, with John Ramsay McCulloch as the first incumbent, in 1828 the university became the first in England to offer English as a subject and the teaching of Classics and medicine began. In 1830, London University founded the London University School, which would later become University College School, in 1833, the university appointed Alexander Maconochie, Secretary to the Royal Geographical Society, as the first professor of geography in the UK. In 1834, University College Hospital opened as a hospital for the universitys medical school. In 1836, London University was incorporated by charter under the name University College. The Slade School of Fine Art was founded as part of University College in 1871, in 1878, the University of London gained a supplemental charter making it the first British university to be allowed to award degrees to women. The same year, UCL admitted women to the faculties of Arts and Law and of Science, although women remained barred from the faculties of Engineering and of Medicine. Armstrong College, an institution of Newcastle University, also allowed women to enter from its foundation in 1871. Women were finally admitted to medical studies during the First World War in 1917, in 1898, Sir William Ramsay discovered the elements krypton, neon and xenon whilst professor of chemistry at UCL
16.
Edward Poynter
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Sir Edward John Poynter, 1st Baronet, GCVO, PRA was an English painter, designer, and draughtsman who served as President of the Royal Academy. Edward Poynter was the son of the architect Ambrose Poynter and he was born in Paris, though his parents returned to Britain soon after. He was educated at Brighton College and Ipswich School, but left early for reasons of ill health, spending winters in Madeira. In 1853 he met Frederick Leighton in Rome, who made an impression on the 17-year-old Poynter. In 1866 Poynter married the famous beauty Agnes MacDonald, daughter of the Rev G B MacDonald of Wolverhampton, Visit of the Queen of Sheba and King Solomon. He was admitted as an associate of the Royal Academy in 1869 and he became a Royal Academician in 1876. In 1896, on the death of Sir John Millais, Poynter was elected President of the Royal Academy and he received a knighthood in the same year and an honorary degree from Cambridge University in 1898. It appears from the subjects of his paintings and his association with Kipling that he was a Freemason, prints of his painting The Visit of the Queen of Sheba to King Solomon are to be found in many Masonic Lodges around the world. Poynters old school, Brighton College held an exhibition of Poynters paintings and drawings entitled Life at Arms Length in its Burstow Gallery in November–December 1995, Edward Poynters works Ten lectures on art. Drawings of Sir E. J. Poynter
17.
Watford
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Watford is a town and borough in Hertfordshire, England, situated 17 miles northwest of central London and inside the circumference of the M25 motorway. It is not to be confused with Watford, Northamptonshire which is 55 miles to the north, the town developed on the River Colne on land belonging to St Albans Abbey until the 16th century. During the 12th century a charter was granted allowing a market, the town grew modestly, assisted by travellers passing through to Berkhamsted Castle and the royal palace at Kings Langley. A big house was built at Cassiobury in the 16th century and this was partly rebuilt in the 17th century and another substantial house was built nearby at The Grove. Two brewers Benskins and Sedgwicks flourished in the town until their closure in the late 20th century, Hertfordshire County Council designates Watford, along with Stevenage, to be its major sub-regional centre. Several head offices are based in Watford, both the 2006 World Golf Championship and the 2013 Bilderberg Conference took place at The Grove. Watford was created as a district under the Local Government Act 1894. The borough had 90,301 inhabitants at the time of the 2011 census, the borough is separated from Greater London to the south by the parish of Watford Rural in the Three Rivers District. Watford Borough Council is the authority with the Mayor of Watford as its head, one of only 18 directly elected mayors in England. Dorothy Thornhill has been the mayor since the elected system was set up in May 2002 and is both the first Liberal Democrat and the first female directly elected mayor in the United Kingdom. Watford elects one Member of Parliament for the Watford constituency, prior to the establishment of this constituency in 1885 the area was part of the three-seat constituency of Hertfordshire. There is evidence of some limited prehistoric occupation around the Watford area, with a few Celtic and Roman finds, watfords High Street follows the line of this route on the northern side of the ford. The town was located on the first dry ground above the edges of the River Colne. The name Watford may have arisen from the Old English for waet, or wath, St Albans Abbey claimed rights to the manor of Cashio, which included Watford, dating from a grant by King Offa in AD793. The name Watford is first mentioned in an Anglo-Saxon charter of 1007, where Watforda is one of the marking the boundary of Oxanhaege. It is not mentioned in the Domesday Book of 1086, when area was part of St Albans Abbeys manor of cashio. In the 12th century the Abbey was granted a charter allowing it to hold a market here, the town grew modestly, assisted by travellers passing through to Berkhamsted Castle and the royal palace at Kings Langley. A big house was built at Cassiobury in the 16th century and this was partly rebuilt in the 17th century and another substantial house was built nearby at The Grove
18.
Burgundy
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Burgundy is a historical territory and a former administrative region of east-central France, entities that trace their name from the Burgundians, a Germanic people. Historically, Burgundy has referred to political entities, including kingdoms. The first known inhabitants of the area that became Burgundy were Celts, during the 4th century, the Burgundians, a Germanic people, who may have originated in Bornholm, settled in the western Alps. They founded the Kingdom of the Burgundians, which was conquered in the 6th century by another Germanic tribe, under Frankish dominion, the Kingdom of Burgundy continued for several centuries. Later, the region was divided between the Duchy of Burgundy and the Free County of Burgundy, burgundys modern existence is rooted in the dissolution of the Frankish Empire. In the 880s, there were four Burgundies, which were the Kingdom of Upper and Lower Burgundy, the duchy, during the Middle Ages, Burgundy was the seat of some of the most important Western churches and monasteries, among them Cluny, Cîteaux, and Vézelay. During the Hundred Years War, King John II of France gave the duchy to his youngest son, the duchy soon became a major rival to the crown. The court in Dijon outshone the French court both economically and culturally, in 1477, at the battle of Nancy during the Burgundian Wars, the last duke Charles the Bold was killed in battle, and the Duchy itself was annexed by France and became a province. However the northern part of the empire was taken by the Austrian Habsburgs, with the French Revolution in the end of the 18th century, the administrative units of the provinces disappeared, but were reconstituted as regions during the Fifth Republic in the 1970s. The modern-day administrative region comprises most of the former duchy, as of he region of Burgundy is both larger than the old Duchy of Burgundy and smaller than the area ruled by the Dukes of Burgundy, from the modern Netherlands to the border of Auvergne. Today, Burgundy is made up of the old provinces, Burgundy, Côte-dOr, Saône-et-Loire and this corresponds to the old duchy of Burgundy. However, the old county of Burgundy is not included inside the Burgundy region, also, a small part of the duchy of Burgundy is now inside the Champagne-Ardenne region. Nivernais, now the department of Nièvre, the climate of this region is essentially oceanic, with a continental influence. The regional council of Burgundy is the legislative assembly, the council has been chaired by the Socialist François Patriat since 2004. The councils seat is in the capital city Dijon, at 17 boulevard de la Trémouille, Burgundy is one of Frances main wine producing areas. The region is divided into the Côte-dOr, where the most expensive and prized Burgundies are found, and Beaujolais, Chablis, with regard to cuisine, the region is famous for the Burgundian dishes coq au vin, beef bourguignon, and époisses de Bourgogne cheese. Earlier, the part of Burgundy was heavily industrial, with coal mines near Montceau-les-Mines and iron foundries. These industries declined in the half of the twentieth century
19.
Earl of Portland
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Earl of Portland is a title that has been created twice in the Peerage of England, first in 1633 and again in 1689. The title Duke of Portland was created in 1716 but became extinct in 1990 upon the death of the ninth Duke, the title of Earl of Portland was first created for the politician Richard Weston, 1st Baron Weston, in 1633. He was Chancellor of the Exchequer from 1621 to 1628 and Lord High Treasurer from 1628 to 1635 and this title was also in the Peerage of England. He was succeeded by his son, the second Earl and he served as Joint Lord Lieutenant of Hampshire. His son, the third Earl, was killed at the Battle of Lowestoft in 1665 and he was unmarried and was succeeded by his uncle, the fourth Earl. He was childless and on his death in 1688 the titles became extinct, the title was created for a second time in 1689 in favour of William Bentinck, the Dutch favourite and close advisor of King William III. He was made Baron Cirencester and Viscount Woodstock at the time he was given the earldom. He was succeeded in 1709 by his son from his first marriage, Henry and he represented Southampton and Hampshire in the House of Commons. In 1716 he was created Marquess of Titchfield and Duke of Portland in the Peerage of Great Britain and his grandson, William Cavendish-Bentinck, 3rd Duke of Portland was a noted politician. He was Prime Minister in 1783 and from 1807 to 1809 and also served as Home Secretary, in 1801 he assumed by Royal licence the additional surname of Cavendish. The third Duke was succeeded by his eldest son William Bentinck, the fourth Duke was also a politician and served as Lord Privy Seal in 1827 and as Lord President of the Council from 1827 to 1828. He married Henrietta, daughter of Major-General John Scott in 1795 and his eldest son and heir apparent, William Cavendish-Scott-Bentinck, Marquess of Titchfield, represented two constituencies in Parliament but died unmarried in 1824,15 years before his father. Portland was therefore succeeded by his son, William Cavendish-Scott-Bentinck. The fifth Duke is remembered as a architect and engineer but eccentric. Charles first son, also named Charles, was a maternal great-grandfather of Queen Elizabeth II, in 1880, the sixth Duke also succeeded his stepmother as second Baron Bolsover. He was a Conservative politician and served as Master of the Horse from 1886 to 1892 and his eldest son William Cavendish-Bentinck, 7th Duke of Portland was also a Conservative politician and served as a Junior Lord of the Treasury from 1927 to 1929 and in 1932. However, the barony of Bolsover became extinct upon the death of the seventh Duke, the eighth Duke was a colonial administrator in British Kenya and served as Legislative Assembly of Kenya. The eighth Duke was childless and succeeded by his brother, Victor Cavendish-Bentinck
20.
Welbeck Abbey
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It is one of four contiguous ducal estates in North Nottinghamshire and the house is a grade I listed building. The estate was mentioned in the Domesday Book, where it is recorded as belonging to Hugh FitzBaldric, thomas de Cuckney founded the religious house in 1140. It was an abbey of Premonstratensian canons, dedicated to St James the Great, the abbey was enriched by gifts from the Goushills, D’Eyncourts, Bassets, and other families from Nottinghamshire and it received a considerable grant from King Edward I. In 1393 the abbey came under investigation by King Richard II. With so much wealth at his disposal, the Abbot of Welbeck was an influential man, in 1538, the abbot, Richard Bentley was awarded a pension of £50, and the 17 canons received pensions of between £40 and £4, and, a year. At the Dissolution of the Monasteries, the site was granted by Henry VIII to Richard Whalley and it passed to his son William Cavendish, later first Duke of Newcastle, it became the seat of the dukes. Members of the Cavendish family converted it into a house and added a riding house in the 17th century to the design of Robert Smythson. Only basements and inner walls were retained from the fabric of the old abbey buildings. In the 18th century, it passed through an heiress into the Bentinck family and became the seat of the Earls, the houses Oxford Wing which contained some of the oldest parts of the building, burned down in October 1900 although most of the contents were saved. The wing was rebuilt to the designs of Ernest George by 1905, Archduke Franz Ferdinand accepted an invitation from the 6th Duke of Portland to stay at Welbeck Abbey and arrived with his wife, Sophie, by train at Worksop on 22 November 1913. This was almost a year before his assassination, which triggered the First World War, the Archduke narrowly avoided being killed in a hunting accident during his stay when a loader fell and caused a shotgun to go off within feet of the Archduke and his host. Over the course of the First World War itself, between 1914 and 1919 the kitchen block was used as an army hospital. After the Second World War, Welbeck was leased by the Dukes of Portland to the Ministry of Defence and was operated as Welbeck College, an army training college, until 2005. Lady Anne Cavendish-Bentinck, the elder daughter of the 7th Duke, lived at Welbeck Woodhouse. William Henry Marcello Parente, son of her sister, Lady Victoria Margaret Cavendish-Bentinck who married Gaetano Parente, Prince of Castel Viscardo. Since the Ministry of Defence moved out in 2005, Welbeck Abbey has been his home, pedestrian access across the Welbeck estate is confined to footpaths forming part of the Robin Hood Way. The first No Direction Home Festival was held at Welbeck Abbey over the weekend of 8 to 10 June 2012, the End of the Road affiliated festival was headlined by Richard Hawley, The Low Anthem and Andrew Bird. In 2016 it was used as the location for the BBCs baking series Bake Off, the 5th Duke of Portland undertook the most substantial building works at Welbeck
21.
Victoria and Albert Museum
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The Victoria and Albert Museum, London, is the worlds largest museum of decorative arts and design, housing a permanent collection of over 4.5 million objects. It was founded in 1852 and named after Queen Victoria and Prince Albert and these include the Natural History Museum, the Science Museum and the Royal Albert Hall. The museum is a public body sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media. Like other national British museums, entrance to the museum has been free since 2001, the V&A covers 12.5 acres and 145 galleries. Its collection spans 5,000 years of art, from ancient times to the present day, from the cultures of Europe, North America, Asia and North Africa. The museum owns the worlds largest collection of sculpture, with the holdings of Italian Renaissance items being the largest outside Italy. The departments of Asia include art from South Asia, China, Japan, Korea, the East Asian collections are among the best in Europe, with particular strengths in ceramics and metalwork, while the Islamic collection is amongst the largest in the Western world. Overall, it is one of the largest museums in the world, New 17th- and 18th-century European galleries were opened on 9 December 2015. These restored the original Aston Webb interiors and host the European collections 1600–1815, at this stage the collections covered both applied art and science. Several of the exhibits from the Exhibition were purchased to form the nucleus of the collection, by February 1854 discussions were underway to transfer the museum to the current site and it was renamed South Kensington Museum. In 1855 the German architect Gottfried Semper, at the request of Cole, produced a design for the museum, but it was rejected by the Board of Trade as too expensive. The site was occupied by Brompton Park House, this was extended including the first refreshment rooms opened in 1857, the official opening by Queen Victoria was on 22 June 1857. In the following year, late night openings were introduced, made possible by the use of gas lighting, in these early years the practical use of the collection was very much emphasised as opposed to that of High Art at the National Gallery and scholarship at the British Museum. George Wallis, the first Keeper of Fine Art Collection, passionately promoted the idea of art education through the museum collections. From the 1860s to the 1880s the scientific collections had been moved from the museum site to various improvised galleries to the west of Exhibition Road. In 1893 the Science Museum had effectively come into existence when a director was appointed. The laying of the stone of the Aston Webb building on 17 May 1899 was the last official public appearance by Queen Victoria. It was during this ceremony that the change of name from the South Kensington Museum to the Victoria, the exhibition which the museum organised to celebrate the centennial of the 1899 renaming, A Grand Design, first toured in North America from 1997, returning to London in 1999
22.
Tate
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Tate is an institution that houses the United Kingdoms national collection of British art, and international modern and contemporary art. It is a network of four art museums, Tate Britain, London, Tate Liverpool, Tate St Ives, Cornwall and Tate Modern, London, Tate is not a government institution, but its main sponsor is the UK Department for Culture, Media and Sport. The name Tate is used also as the name for the corporate body. The gallery was founded in 1897, as the National Gallery of British Art, the Tate Gallery was housed in the current building occupied by Tate Britain, which is situated in Millbank, London. Tate Liverpool has the purpose as Tate Modern but on a smaller scale. All four museums share the Tate Collection, one of the Tates most publicised art events is the awarding of the annual Turner Prize, which takes place at Tate Britain. The original Tate was called the National Gallery of British Art, situated on Millbank, Pimlico, the idea of a National Gallery of British Art was first proposed in the 1820s by Sir John Leicester, Baron de Tabley. It took a step nearer when Robert Vernon gave his collection to the National Gallery in 1847, a decade later John Sheepshanks gave his collection to the South Kensington Museum, known for years as the National Gallery of Art. Henry Tate also donated his own collection to the gallery and it was initially a collection solely of modern British art, concentrating on the works of modern—that is Victorian era—painters. It was controlled by the National Gallery until 1954, in 1926 and 1937, the art dealer and patron Joseph Duveen paid for two major expansions of the gallery building. His father had paid for an extension to house the major part of the Turner Bequest. Henry Courtauld also endowed Tate with a purchase fund, by the mid 20th century, it was fulfilling a dual function of showing the history of British art as well as international modern art. In 1954, the Tate Gallery was finally separated from the National Gallery, later, the Tate began organising its own temporary exhibition programme. In 1979 with funding from a Japanese bank a large extension was opened that would also house larger income generating exhibitions. In 1987, the Clore Wing opened to house the major part of the Turner bequest, in 1988, an outpost in north west England opened as Tate Liverpool. This shows various works of art from the Tate collection as well as mounting its own temporary exhibitions. In 2007, Tate Liverpool hosted the Turner Prize, the first time this has been held outside London and this was an overture to Liverpools being the European Capital of Culture 2008. In 1993, another offshoot opened, Tate St Ives and it exhibits work by modern British artists, particularly those of the St Ives School
23.
George Frederic Watts
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George Frederic Watts OM RA was an English Victorian painter and sculptor associated with the Symbolist movement. He said I paint ideas, not things, Watts became famous in his lifetime for his allegorical works, such as Hope and Love and Life. These paintings were intended to form part of an epic symbolic cycle called the House of Life, Watts was born in Marylebone, London on the birthday of George Frederic Handel, to the second wife of a poor piano-maker. The former put him off conventional religion for life, while the latter was an influence on his art. He first exhibited at the Academy in 1837 and he also began his portraiture career, receiving patronage from his close contemporary Alexander Constantine Ionides, who later came to be a close friend. He came to the eye with a drawing entitled Caractacus. Watts won a first prize in the competition, which was intended to promote narrative paintings on patriotic subjects, also while in Italy Watts began producing landscapes and was inspired by Michelangelos Sistine Chapel and Giottos Scrovegni Chapel. Leaving Florence in April 1847 for what was intended to be a return to London. In consequence most of his works are conventional oil paintings. In his studio he met Henry Thoby Prinsep and his wife Sara, Watts thus joined the Prinsep circle of bohemians, including Saras seven sisters, and Julia Margaret Cameron. One of only two pupils Watts ever accepted was Henrys son Valentine Cameron Prinsep, the other was John Roddam Spencer Stanhope – both remained friends, but neither became a major artist. He also took a trip back to Italy in 1853 and with Charles Thomas Newton to excavate Halicarnassus in 1856–57, via Constantinople. In the 1860s, Watts work shows the influence of Rossetti, often emphasising sensuous pleasure, when she eloped with another man after less than a year of marriage, Watts was obliged to divorce her. These works formed part of a version of the House of Life, influenced by the ideas of Max Müller. Watts hoped to trace the evolving mythologies of the races in a synthesis of spiritual ideas with modern science. To maintain his friendship with the Prinsep family as their children began leaving home, he built The Briary for them near Freshwater, in 1877, his decree nisi from Ellen Terry finally came through, and the Grosvenor Gallery was opened by his friend Coutts Lindsay. This was to prove his ideal venue for the ten years. In 1886, at the age of 69, Watts remarried, to Mary Fraser Tytler, in 1891 he bought land near Compton, south of Guildford, in Surrey
24.
Walker Art Gallery
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The Walker Art Gallery is an art gallery in Liverpool, which houses one of the largest art collections in England, outside London. In 1843, the Royal Institution’s collection was displayed in a gallery next to the Institution’s main premises. In 1850 negotiations by an association of citizens to take over the Institution’s collection, for display in an art gallery, library and museum. The competition between the Academy and Society eventually led to both collapsing, the success of the exhibition enabled the Library, Museum and Arts Committee to purchase works for the council’s permanent collection, buying around 150 works between 1871 and 1910. Works acquired included WF Yeames’ And when did you last see your father, designed by local architects Cornelius Sherlock and H. H. Vale, the Walker Art Gallery was opened on 6 September 1877 by Edward Henry Stanley, 15th Earl of Derby. In 1893, the Liverpool Royal Institution placed its collection on loan to the gallery and in 1948 presented William Roscoes collection. This occurred during post-war reconstruction when the gallery was closed, re-opening in 1951, during the Second World War the gallery was taken over by the Ministry of Food and the collection was dispersed for safety. Extensions to the gallery were opened in 1884 and 1933 when the gallery re-opened with an exhibition including Picasso, in 2002 the gallery re-opened following a major refurbishment. In 1986, the gallery achieved national status, as part of the National Museums, the select collection of minor or decorative arts covers a wide range, from Gothic ivories to British ceramics up to the present day. The first John Moores Contemporary Painting Prize exhibition was held in 1957, sponsored by Sir John Moores, founder of Littlewoods, the competition has been held every two years ever since and is the biggest painting prize in the UK. There is a programme of temporary exhibitions which in 2009-10 has included Aubrey Williams, Bridget Riley, Sickert. In 2004, the gallery staged The Stuckists Punk Victorian, the first national exhibition of the Stuckist art movement. The Gallery also takes part in the Liverpool Biennial, the gallery is located on William Brown Street in a neo-Classical building. The neighbouring area includes the William Brown Library, World Museum Liverpool, St. Georges Hall, Wellingtons Column, Lime Street Station, the other major art gallery in Liverpool is Tate Liverpool, at the Albert Dock, which houses modern art. On 17 December 2011, the Walker Art Gallery got a new addition to its collection - a statue of a priest vandalised by Banksy, the renowned graffiti artist has sawn off the face of an 18th-century replica stone bust and glued on a selection of bathroom tiles. The resulting pixellated portrait is entitled Cardinal Sin and is believed to be a comment on the scandal in the Church. This piece of art is displayed in Room three, which is one of the 17th-century Old Master galleries, architecture of Liverpool Liverpool Biennial The Stuckists Punk Victorian Collection Website for The Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool
25.
Snite Museum of Art
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The Snite Museum of Art is a fine art museum on the University of Notre Dame campus, near South Bend, Indiana. It owns over 23,000 works which represent many principal world cultures and periods and it is particularly known for its Italian Renaissance paintings and their Mesoamerican galleries. According to the website. the museum now exhibits the most important collection of Olmec art in any art museum in the United States, the Unruh purchase reinforces the Museums position as one of the most important general pre-Columbian collections in this country. Before the Snite opened in 1980, Notre Dame did not have an art museum, as early as 1924, the Wightman Memorial Art Gallery at University Library was used for art exhibitions. In 1952, OShaughnessy Hall, home of the College of Arts, during the 1950s, Croatian sculptor Ivan Meštrović was in residence at the University, working in the eponymous Meštrović Studio. Snite family donated funds to construct the Snite Museum of Art, the museum opened in 1980, incorporating both Meštrovićs sculpture studio and the OShaughnessy art gallery, the latter used for the presentation of traveling and temporary exhibitions. The Snite holds paintings by such as Taddeo di Bartolo, Bernardino Luini, Memling, Francesco de Mura, Fiammingo, Corot, Gustave Colin, Walter Sickert. It has 18th-century paintings by François Boucher, Jean François de Troy, Carle Van Loo, and it also has 19th-century paintings by Léon Cogniet, Gustave Courbet, Thomas Couture, Charles-François Daubigny, Jean-Léon Gérôme, Alphonse Legros, Georges Michel, and Alexandre-Hyacinthe Dunouy. Americans represented with paintings at art museum include Diego Lasansky, Marsden Hartley, Mauricio Lasansky, Milton Avery, Ralston Crawford. 20th century painters also represented include Paula Modersohn-Becker, Natalia Goncharova, Joan Miró, Joaquín Torres García, Georgia OKeeffe, Philip Pearlstein, there are also sculptings by Ivan Meštrović
26.
Public domain
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The term public domain has two senses of meaning. Anything published is out in the domain in the sense that it is available to the public. Once published, news and information in books is in the public domain, in the sense of intellectual property, works in the public domain are those whose exclusive intellectual property rights have expired, have been forfeited, or are inapplicable. Examples for works not covered by copyright which are therefore in the domain, are the formulae of Newtonian physics, cooking recipes. Examples for works actively dedicated into public domain by their authors are reference implementations of algorithms, NIHs ImageJ. The term is not normally applied to situations where the creator of a work retains residual rights, as rights are country-based and vary, a work may be subject to rights in one country and be in the public domain in another. Some rights depend on registrations on a basis, and the absence of registration in a particular country, if required. Although the term public domain did not come into use until the mid-18th century, the Romans had a large proprietary rights system where they defined many things that cannot be privately owned as res nullius, res communes, res publicae and res universitatis. The term res nullius was defined as not yet appropriated. The term res communes was defined as things that could be enjoyed by mankind, such as air, sunlight. The term res publicae referred to things that were shared by all citizens, when the first early copyright law was first established in Britain with the Statute of Anne in 1710, public domain did not appear. However, similar concepts were developed by British and French jurists in the eighteenth century, instead of public domain they used terms such as publici juris or propriété publique to describe works that were not covered by copyright law. The phrase fall in the domain can be traced to mid-nineteenth century France to describe the end of copyright term. In this historical context Paul Torremans describes copyright as a coral reef of private right jutting up from the ocean of the public domain. Because copyright law is different from country to country, Pamela Samuelson has described the public domain as being different sizes at different times in different countries. According to James Boyle this definition underlines common usage of the public domain and equates the public domain to public property. However, the usage of the public domain can be more granular. Such a definition regards work in copyright as private property subject to fair use rights, the materials that compose our cultural heritage must be free for all living to use no less than matter necessary for biological survival
27.
Sidney Lee
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Sir Sidney Lee was an English biographer, writer and critic. Lee was born Solomon Lazarus Lee in 1859 at 12 Keppel Street, Bloomsbury and he was educated at the City of London School and at Balliol College, Oxford, where he graduated in modern history in 1882. In 1883, Lee became assistant-editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, in 1890 he became joint editor, and on the retirement of Sir Leslie Stephen in 1891, succeeded him as editor. Lee wrote over 800 articles in the Dictionary, mainly on Elizabethan authors or statesmen and his sister Elizabeth Lee also contributed. While still at Balliol, Lee had written two articles on Shakespearean questions, which were printed in The Gentlemans Magazine, in 1884, he published a book about Stratford-on-Avon, with illustrations by Edward Hull. Lees article on Shakespeare in the 51st volume of the Dictionary of National Biography formed the basis of his Life of William Shakespeare, Lee received a knighthood in 1911. Between 1913 and 1924, he served as Professor of English Literature, there are personal letters from Lee, including those written during his final illness, in the T. F. Tout Collection of the John Rylands Library in Manchester, John Denham Parsons Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Lee, Sidney. Sidney Lee Dictionary of National Biography, Index and Epitome Works by Sidney Lee at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Sidney Lee at Internet Archive
28.
Dictionary of National Biography
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The Dictionary of National Biography is a standard work of reference on notable figures from British history, published from 1885. The updated Oxford Dictionary of National Biography was published on 23 September 2004 in 60 volumes and he approached Leslie Stephen, then editor of the Cornhill Magazine, owned by Smith, to become editor. Stephen persuaded Smith that the work should focus on subjects from the UK and its present, an early working title was the Biographia Britannica, the name of an earlier eighteenth-century reference work. The first volume of the Dictionary of National Biography appeared on 1 January 1885, in May 1891 Leslie Stephen resigned and Sidney Lee, Stephens assistant editor from the beginning of the project, succeeded him as editor. While much of the dictionary was written in-house, the DNB also relied on external contributors, by 1900, more than 700 individuals had contributed to the work. Successive volumes appeared quarterly with complete punctuality until midsummer 1900, when the series closed with volume 63, the year of publication, the editor and the range of names in each volume is given below. The supplements brought the work up to the death of Queen Victoria on 22 January 1901. The dictionary was transferred from its original publishers, Smith, Elder & Co. to Oxford University Press in 1917, until 1996, Oxford University Press continued to add further supplements featuring articles on subjects who had died during the twentieth century. The supplements published between 1912 and 1996 added about 6,000 lives of people who died in the century to the 29,120 in the 63 volumes of the original DNB. In 1993 a volume containing missing biographies was published and this had an additional 1,000 lives, selected from over 100,000 suggestions. Consequently, the dictionary was becoming less and less useful as a reference work, in 1966, the University of London published a volume of corrections, cumulated from the Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research. There were various versions of the Concise Dictionary of National Biography, the last edition, in three volumes, covered everyone who died before 1986. In the early 1990s Oxford University Press committed itself to overhauling the DNB, the new dictionary would cover British history, broadly defined, up to 31 December 2000. The research project was conceived as a one, with in-house staff co-ordinating the work of nearly 10,000 contributors internationally. Following Matthews death in October 1999, he was succeeded as editor by another Oxford historian, Professor Brian Harrison, in January 2000. The new dictionary, now known as the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, was published on 23 September 2004 in 60 volumes in print at a price of £7500, most UK holders of a current library card can access it online free of charge. In subsequent years, the print edition has been able to be obtained new for a lower price. At publication, the 2004 edition had 50,113 biographical articles covering 54,922 lives, a small permanent staff remain in Oxford to update and extend the coverage of the online edition
29.
Smith, Elder & Co.
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Smith, Elder & Co. or Smith, Elder, and Co. or Smith, Elder and Co. was a firm of British publishers who were most noted for the works they published in the 19th century. The firm was founded by George Smith and Alexander Elder and successfully continued by George Murray Smith and they are known to have published as early as 1839. They are notable for producing the first edition of the Dictionary of National Biography, the firm achieved its first major success with the publication of Charlotte Brontës Jane Eyre in 1847, under the pseudonym of Currer Bell. In addition, beginning in 1841, they published The London, beginning in 1859, they published Cornhill Magazine. Up to the beginning of the 20th century
30.
William Cosmo Monkhouse
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William Cosmo Monkhouse was an English poet and critic. His father, Cyril John Monkhouse, was a solicitor, his mothers name was Delafosse. He was twice married, first, to Laura, daughter of James Keymer of Dartford, Cosmo Monkhouse was one of those who have not only a vocation, but an avocation. His first bias was to poetry, and in 1865 he issued A Dream of Idleness and Other Poems and it was marked by exceptional maturity, and scarcely received the recognition it deserved. Owing perhaps to this circumstance, it was not till 1890 that he put forth Corn and Poppies, five years later appeared a limited edition of the striking ballad of The Christ upon the Hill, illustrated with etchings by William Strang. After his death his poetical output was completed by Pasiteles the Elder and other Poems, in 1868 Monkhouse wrote a novel, A Question of Honour. Then, after preluding with a Life of Turner in the Great Artists Series and he wrote a monograph on the illustrator of Alices Adventures in Wonderland entitled The Life and Work of Sir John Tenniel, R. I. He was a contributor to the Dictionary of National Biography from the beginning, Monkhouse also wrote a life of Leigh Hunt in the Great Writers Series. He wrote a monograph on Chinese ceramics entitled A history and description of Chinese Porcelain, as an art critic Monkhouses judgments were highly valued, and he had the rare gift of differing without offending, while he invariably secured respect for his honesty and ability. As a poet, his ambition was wide and his devotion to the art thorough, Monkhouse died at Skegness on 2 July 1901. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Monkhouse. Dictionary of National Biography,1912 supplement, Works by William Cosmo Monkhouse at Project Gutenberg Works by or about William Cosmo Monkhouse at Internet Archive Works by William Cosmo Monkhouse at LibriVox
31.
The Magazine of Art
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The Magazine of Art was an illustrated monthly British journal devoted to the visual arts, published from May 1878 to July 1904 in London and New York City by Cassell, Petter, Galpin & Co. Its origins can be traced back to May 1851, when the House of Cassell started publication of a devoted to The Great Exhibition of that year. It evolved, in 1852, into The Illustrated Exhibitor and Magazine of Art and it changed name in February 1853 to The Illustrated Magazine of Art but never achieved great popularity and ceased publication in 1854. The magazine was revived for a while during the 1862 International Exhibition, the Magazine of Art itself started publication on 25 April 1878, the same year as the Exposition Universelle in Paris, and was edited initially by Arthur J. R. Trendell until 1880. Editorship then passed in turn to Eric Robertson, William Ernest Henley, Sidney Galpin, within 3 years of starting publication, the magazine had become firmly established and now included art reviews. Artist Hubert Herkomer was persuaded to design a poster for the magazine depicted the goddess of art on the steps of a temple with the great masters of art looking on in approval. No expense was spared in producing the journal which was regarded as the flag of the house and it sought to engage the interest of the art lover and art collector while retaining an independent critical voice. One of its most popular contributors was artist William W. Fenn who by then had lost his sight, despite his blindness, he was able to contribute reviews with the help of his wife who took him around the galleries and gave him verbal information about the exhibits. W. E. Henley was responsible for revitalising the magazine and transforming it into a lively review of the arts that was influential in shaping the publics perception of. He also introduced poetry to its pages, M. H. Spielmann was editor for 17 years from 1886–1904 and encouraged many well known artists, as well as leading art critic John Ruskin, to contribute articles. In 1888, a supplement was introduced called Royal Academy Pictures, however, The Magazine of Art failed to make sufficient returns to justify its continued existence and publication ceased in 1904, though Royal Academy Pictures continued until 1916. The following volumes are available to online and download, The Magazine of Art Gift Book Illustrated, Comprising Volumes I & II. The Magazine of Art Volume 5, the Magazine of Art Volume 6. The Magazine of Art Volume 7, the Magazine of Art Volume 8. The Magazine of Art Volume 9, the Magazine of Art Volume 10. The Magazine of Art Volume 11, the Magazine of Art Volume 12. The Magazine of Art Volume 13, the Magazine of Art Volume 15. The Magazine of Art Volume 16, the Magazine of Art Volume 17
32.
Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
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National Library of Australia
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In 2012–2013, the National Library collection comprised 6,496,772 items, and an additional 15,506 metres of manuscript material. In 1901, a Commonwealth Parliamentary Library was established to serve the newly formed Federal Parliament of Australia, from its inception the Commonwealth Parliamentary Library was driven to development of a truly national collection. The present library building was opened in 1968, the building was designed by the architectural firm of Bunning and Madden. The foyer is decorated in marble, with windows by Leonard French. In 2012–2013 the Library collection comprised 6,496,772 items, the Librarys collections of Australiana have developed into the nations single most important resource of materials recording the Australian cultural heritage. Australian writers, editors and illustrators are actively sought and well represented—whether published in Australia or overseas, approximately 92. 1% of the Librarys collection has been catalogued and is discoverable through the online catalogue. The Library has digitized over 174,000 items from its collection and, the Library is a world leader in digital preservation techniques, and maintains an Internet-accessible archive of selected Australian websites called the Pandora Archive. A core Australiana collection is that of John A. Ferguson, the Library has particular collection strengths in the performing arts, including dance. The Librarys considerable collections of general overseas and rare materials, as well as world-class Asian. The print collections are further supported by extensive microform holdings, the Library also maintains the National Reserve Braille Collection. The Library has acquired a number of important Western and Asian language scholarly collections from researchers, williams Collection The Asian Collections are searchable via the National Librarys catalogue. The National Library holds a collection of pictures and manuscripts. The manuscript collection contains about 26 million separate items, covering in excess of 10,492 meters of shelf space, the collection relates predominantly to Australia, but there are also important holdings relating to Papua New Guinea, New Zealand and the Pacific. The collection also holds a number of European and Asian manuscript collections or single items have received as part of formed book collections. Examples are the papers of Alfred Deakin, Sir John Latham, Sir Keith Murdoch, Sir Hans Heysen, Sir John Monash, Vance Palmer and Nettie Palmer, A. D. Hope, Manning Clark, David Williamson, W. M. The Library has also acquired the records of many national non-governmental organisations and they include the records of the Federal Secretariats of the Liberal party, the A. L. P, the Democrats, the R. S. L. Finally, the Library holds about 37,000 reels of microfilm of manuscripts and archival records, mostly acquired overseas and predominantly of Australian, the National Librarys Pictures collection focuses on Australian people, places and events, from European exploration of the South Pacific to contemporary events. Art works and photographs are acquired primarily for their informational value, media represented in the collection include photographs, drawings, watercolours, oils, lithographs, engravings, etchings and sculpture/busts
34.
Netherlands Institute for Art History
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The Netherlands Institute for Art History or RKD is located in The Hague and is home to the largest art history center in the world. The center specializes in documentation, archives, and books on Western art from the late Middle Ages until modern times, all of this is open to the public, and much of it has been digitized and is available on their website. The main goal of the bureau is to collect, categorize, via the available databases, the visitor can gain insight into archival evidence on the lives of many artists of past centuries. The library owns approximately 450,000 titles, of which ca.150,000 are auction catalogs, there are ca.3,000 magazines, of which 600 are currently running subscriptions. Though most of the text is in Dutch, the record format includes a link to library entries and images of known works. The RKD also manages the Dutch version of the Art and Architecture Thesaurus, the original version is an initiative of the Getty Research Institute in Los Angeles, California. Their bequest formed the basis for both the art collection and the library, which is now housed in the Koninklijke Bibliotheek. Though not all of the holdings have been digitised, much of its metadata is accessible online. The website itself is available in both a Dutch and an English user interface, in the artist database RKDartists, each artist is assigned a record number. To reference an artist page directly, use the code listed at the bottom of the record, usually of the form, https, for example, the artist record number for Salvador Dalí is 19752, so his RKD artist page can be referenced. In the images database RKDimages, each artwork is assigned a record number, to reference an artwork page directly, use the code listed at the bottom of the record, usually of the form, https, //rkd. nl/en/explore/images/ followed by the artworks record number. For example, the record number for The Night Watch is 3063. The Art and Architecture Thesaurus also assigns a record for each term, rather, they are used in the databases and the databases can be searched for terms. For example, the painting called The Night Watch is a militia painting, the thesaurus is a set of general terms, but the RKD also contains a database for an alternate form of describing artworks, that today is mostly filled with biblical references. To see all images that depict Miriams dance, the associated iconclass code 71E1232 can be used as a search term. Official website Direct link to the databases The Dutch version of the Art and Architecture Thesaurus
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Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
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This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Legros, Alphonse". Encyclopædia Britannica. 16 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the 
