1.
Grindelwald
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Grindelwald is a village and municipality in the Interlaken-Oberhasli administrative district in the canton of Berne in Switzerland. In addition to the village of Grindelwald, the municipality includes the settlements of Alpiglen, Burglauenen, Grund, Itramen, Mühlebach, Schwendi, Tschingelberg. Grindelwald village is located at 1,034 m above sea level in the Bernese Alps, Grindelwald was first mentioned in 1146 as Grindelwalt. The oldest traces of a settlement in the area are scattered neolithic tools which have discovered around Grindelwald village. Several Roman era coins have also found in the municipality. A castle was built on the Burgbühl hill above the village during the High Middle Ages, in 1146, King Conrad III granted estates in Grindelwald to Interlaken Monastery. In the late 12th century, the barons of the valleys in what became the Berner Oberland went to war against the expansionist Duke Berthold V of Zähringen. The Duke defeated a coalition of nobles in the Grindlewald valley in 1191 and his victory allowed him to expand Zähringen power into the Oberland, to expand the city of Thun and found the city of Bern. Beginning in the 13th century, Interlaken Monastery began to purchase rights and land in Grindelwald, the Monastery continued to exert influence in the village and in 1315 and again in 1332 ordered the villagers to raid Unterwalden to further the political ambitions of the Abbots patrons. In response to the raids, in 1342, Unterwalden attacked Grindelwald, a few years later, in 1348–49, the villagers joined in an unsuccessful rebellion against ecclesiastical power. In 1528, the city of Bern adopted the Protestant Reformation, Berne was able to impose its will, converted the village and secularized Interlaken Abbey and the Abbeys lands. Grindelwald became part of the bailiwick of Interlaken, under a Bernese bailiff, the first village church was a wooden building from the mid-12th century. The wooden building was replaced with the stone St. Marys Church in 1180 and this church was replaced in the 16th century, and the present church was built in 1793. The tourism industry began in Grindelwald in the late 18th century as foreigners discovered the scenic town, pictures of the vistas were widely reprinted, quickly making the village internationally famous. In the 19th century many Englishmen came to the village to climb the peaks around the valley. The Finsteraarhorn, the Wetterhorn, the Eiger, the Schreckhorn, the first resort opened in 1888, there were 10 hotels in 1889, and by 1914 there were 33 in Grindelwald. A rack railway was built to Kleine Scheidegg in 1893, numerous ski lifts, cable cars, hiking trails and alpine huts were built in the late 19th and 20th centuries to allow tourists to explore the mountains. Today, almost the entire economy of Grindelwald is based on tourism, the municipality is quite large and is divided into seven mountain communities
2.
Nuremberg
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Nuremberg is a city on the river Pegnitz and the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal in the German state of Bavaria, in the administrative region of Middle Franconia, about 170 kilometres north of Munich. It is the second-largest city in Bavaria, and the largest in Franconia, the population as of February 2015, is 517,498, which makes it Germanys fourteenth-largest city. The urban area also includes Fürth, Erlangen and Schwabach with a population of 763,854. The European Metropolitan Area Nuremberg has ca.3.5 million inhabitants, Nuremberg was, according to the first documentary mention of the city in 1050, the location of an Imperial castle between the East Franks and the Bavarian March of the Nordgau. From 1050 to 1571, the city expanded and rose dramatically in importance due to its location on key trade routes, Nuremberg is often referred to as having been the unofficial capital of the Holy Roman Empire, particularly because Imperial Diet and courts met at Nuremberg Castle. The Diets of Nuremberg were an important part of the structure of the empire. The increasing demand of the court and the increasing importance of the city attracted increased trade. Nuremberg soon became, with Augsburg, one of the two great trade centers on the route from Italy to Northern Europe. In 1298, the Jews of the town were accused of having desecrated the host, behind the massacre of 1298 was also the desire to combine the northern and southern parts of the city, which were divided by the Pegnitz. The Jews of the German lands suffered many massacres during the plague years, in 1349, Nurembergs Jews were subjected to a pogrom. They were burned at the stake or expelled, and a marketplace was built over the former Jewish quarter, the plague returned to the city in 1405,1435,1437,1482,1494,1520 and 1534. Charles was the patron of the Frauenkirche, built between 1352 and 1362, where the Imperial court worshipped during its stays in Nuremberg. Charles IV conferred upon the city the right to conclude alliances independently, frequent fights took place with the burgraves without, however, inflicting lasting damage upon the city. Through these and other acquisitions the city accumulated considerable territory, the Hussite Wars, recurrence of the Black Death in 1437, and the First Margrave War led to a severe fall in population in the mid-15th century. During the Middle Ages, Nurembergs literary culture was rich, varied, the cultural flowering of Nuremberg, in the 15th and 16th centuries, made it the centre of the German Renaissance. In 1525, Nuremberg accepted the Protestant Reformation, and in 1532, during the 1552 revolution against Charles V, Nuremberg tried to purchase its neutrality, but the city was attacked without a declaration of war and was forced into a disadvantageous peace. The state of affairs in the early 16th century, increased trade routes elsewhere, frequent quartering of Imperial, Swedish and League soldiers, the financial costs of the war and the cessation of trade caused irreparable damage to the city and a near-halving of the population. In 1632, the city, occupied by the forces of Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, was besieged by the army of Imperial general Albrecht von Wallenstein, the city declined after the war and recovered its importance only in the 19th century, when it grew as an industrial centre
3.
Brass instrument
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A brass instrument is a musical instrument that produces sound by sympathetic vibration of air in a tubular resonator in sympathy with the vibration of the players lips. Brass instruments are also called labrosones, literally meaning lip-vibrated instruments, there are several factors involved in producing different pitches on a brass instrument. The view of most scholars is that the brass instrument should be defined by the way the sound is made, as above. Thus one finds brass instruments made of wood, like the alphorn, the cornett, the serpent, as valved instruments are predominant among the brasses today, a more thorough discussion of their workings can be found below. The valves are usually piston valves, but can be rotary valves, slide brass instruments use a slide to change the length of tubing. The main instruments in this category are the family, though valve trombones are occasionally used. The trombone familys ancestor, the sackbut, and the folk instrument bazooka are also in the slide family, there are two other families that have, in general, become functionally obsolete for practical purposes. Instruments of both types, however, are used for period-instrument performances of Baroque or Classical pieces. In more modern compositions, they are used for their intonation or tone color. Natural brass instruments only play notes in the harmonic series. These include the bugle and older variants of the trumpet and horn, the trumpet was a natural brass instrument prior to about 1795, and the horn before about 1820. In the 18th century, makers developed interchangeable crooks of different lengths, natural instruments are still played for period performances and some ceremonial functions, and are occasionally found in more modern scores, such as those by Richard Wagner and Richard Strauss. Keyed or Fingered brass instruments used holes along the body of the instrument and these included the cornett, serpent, ophicleide, keyed bugle and keyed trumpet. They are more difficult to play than valved instruments, Brass instruments may also be characterised by two generalizations about geometry of the bore, that is, the tubing between the mouthpiece and the flaring of the tubing into the bell. Those two generalizations are with regard to the degree of taper or conicity of the bore and the diameter of the bore with respect to its length, cylindrical bore brass instruments are generally perceived as having a brighter, more penetrating tone quality compared to conical bore brass instruments. The trumpet, baritone horn and all trombones are cylindrical bore, in particular, the slide design of the trombone necessitates this. Conical bore brass instruments are those in which tubing of constantly increasing diameter predominates, conical bore instruments are generally perceived as having a more mellow tone quality than the cylindrical bore brass instruments. The British brass band group of instruments fall into this category and this includes the flugelhorn, cornet, tenor horn, horn, euphonium and tuba
4.
Natural horn
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The natural horn is a musical instrument that is the ancestor of the modern-day horn, and is differentiated by its lack of valves. It consists of a mouthpiece, some long coiled tubing, pitch changes are made through a few techniques, Modulating the lip tension as done with modern brass instruments. This allows for notes in the series to be played. Changing the length of the instrument by switching the crooks and this is a rather slow process. Before the advent of the valved horn many ideas were attempted to speed up the process of changing the key of the instrument. Changing the position of the hand in the bell, this is called hand-stopping and this instrument was used extensively until the emergence of the valved horn in the early 19th century. The natural horn has several gaps in its harmonic range, to play chromatically, in addition to crooking the instrument into the right key, two additional techniques are required, bending and hand-stopping. Bending a note is achieved by modifying the embouchure to raise or lower the pitch fractionally, hand-stopping is a technique whereby the player can modify the pitch of a note by up to a semitone by inserting a cupped hand into the bell. Both change the timbre as well as the pitch, the List of compositions for horn includes many pieces that were originally written with the natural horn in mind. Until the development of the horn in the early to mid 19th century, Western music employed the natural horn. Substantial contributors to the horn repertoire include Handel, Mozart, Beethoven, Telemann, Weber, the chromatic abilities of recently developed brass instruments, however, opened new possibilities for composers of the Romantic era, and fit with the artistic currents of the time. By the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, however, the natural horn still found its way into the works of some composers. Brahms did not care for the horn and wrote for natural horn. Benjamin Brittens Serenade for Tenor, Horn and Strings, though written for the modern horn, györgy Ligetis Hamburg Concerto makes a great use of the natural horn and of natural sounds on the modern horn in the solo part and requires four natural horns in the orchestra. Below lists natural horn keys with their corresponding fingering on the modern horn, if a piece of music says the key on the left you can press the key combination on the right on the modern double horn to get the correct tube length. This is useful for simulating natural horn when playing older compositions, even then, the intonation may still be sharp, and a greater degree of hand in the horn can be needed. The Cyber Horn Museum Ericson, John
5.
Mouthpiece (brass)
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On brass instruments the mouthpiece is the part of the instrument placed on the players lips. The mouthpiece is a circular opening that leads, via a semi-spherical or conical cavity. Mouthpieces vary to suit the tone of the instrument, lower instruments also have larger mouthpieces, to maximize resonance. Also, mouthpieces are selected to suit the embouchure of the player, to produce a certain timbre, for example, trumpet and trombone mouthpieces are usually semi-spherical whereas French horn mouthpieces are conical. The mouthpiece has an effect on instrument sound. Major effects are due to the shape of the cup, shape of the throat, in addition, players often choose a mouthpiece that complements their playing styles. In general, brass players who concentrate on the upper range prefer a mouthpiece with a narrow bore, the cup depth also heavily influences the tone of the brass instrument. A shallow cup will brighten the sound, which is good for doing a solo, while the deep cups darken the sound. Makers commonly construct mouthpieces from one of two types of material, with different costs, properties, and features, metal mouthpieces can be plated with some other metal. Some of the assertions, especially those regarding the effect of plating on tone color, are questioned by many players. Mouthpieces have traditionally been formed of solid brass, due to brass often containing lead and being toxic upon contact, brass mouthpieces are usually plated with either gold or silver to protect the player from potential brass poisoning. Plastic mouthpieces are made of Lexan plastic, and are often available in various colors. They are durable and dont dent as do metal mouthpieces, less expensive than metal mouthpieces, players commonly use them when playing outdoors—particularly marching brass players—because their heat conductivity is far less than in a metal mouthpiece. Players who prefer metal mouthpieces generally believe plastic mouthpieces have a tone quality. Recent additions to the world include stainless steel, titanium. They are relatively rare, produced by few manufacturers. —but they are more expensive. Silver plating is common on all brass mouthpieces because it is cost-effective, Silver plating is not as comfortable or as expensive as gold, but has properties and qualities that some feel facilitate certain styles of playing. Some believe that silver plate provides a clearer, darker sound than gold and is good for styles of playing that require clarity, silver-plate is less expensive than gold, but requires more maintenance because it tarnishes easily
6.
Swiss Alps
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The Swiss Alps extend over both the Western Alps and the Eastern Alps, encompassing an area sometimes called Central Alps. The Swiss Alps comprise almost all the highest mountains of the Alps, such as Dufourspitze, the Dom, the Liskamm, the Weisshorn, the other following major summits can be found in this list of mountains of Switzerland. Since the Middle Ages, transit across the Alps played an important role in history, the region north of St Gotthard Pass became the nucleus of the Swiss Confederacy in the early 14th century. The Alps cover 65% of Switzerlands total 41,285 square kilometres surface area, making it one of the most alpine countries. The glaciers of the Swiss Alps cover an area of 1,220 square kilometres — 3% of the Swiss territory, the Swiss Alps are situated south of the Swiss Plateau and north of the national border. The limit between the Alps and the runs from Vevey on the shores of Lake Geneva to Rorschach on the shores of Lake Constance, passing close to the cities of Thun. The not well defined regions in Switzerland that lie on the margin of the Alps, the Swiss Prealps are mainly made of limestone and they generally do not exceed 2,500 metres. The Alpine cantons are Valais, Bern, Graubünden, Uri, Glarus, Ticino, St. Gallen, Vaud, Obwalden, Nidwalden, Schwyz, Appenzell Innerrhoden, Appenzell Ausserrhoden, Fribourg, Lucerne and Zug. The countries with which Switzerland shares mountain ranges of the Alps are, France, Italy, Austria, the Alps are usually divided into two main parts, the Western Alps and Eastern Alps, whose division is along the Rhine from Lake Constance to the Splügen Pass. The western ranges occupy the greatest part of Switzerland while the more numerous eastern ranges are smaller and are all situated in the canton of Graubünden. The latter are part of the Central Eastern Alps, except the Ortler Alps which belong to the Southern Limestone Alps, the Pennine, Bernese and Bernina Range are the highest ranges of the country, they contain respectively 38,9 and 1 summit over 4000 metres. The lowest range is the Appenzell Alps culminating at 2,500 metres, Western Alps Eastern Alps The north side of the Swiss Alps is drained by the Rhône, Rhine and Inn while the south side is mainly drained by the Ticino. The rivers on the empty into the Mediterranean, North and Black Sea. The major triple watersheds in the Alps are located within the country, they are, Piz Lunghin, Witenwasserenstock, between the Witenwasserenstock and Piz Lunghin runs the European Watershed separating the basin of the Atlantic and the Mediterranean Sea. The European watershed lies in fact only partially on the main chain, Switzerland possesses 6% of Europes fresh water, and is sometimes referred to as the water tower of Europe. Since the highest dams are located in Alpine regions, many mountain lakes are artificial and are used as hydroelectric reservoirs. Some large artificial lakes can be found above 2,300 m, the melting of low-altitude glaciers can generate new lakes, such as the 0.25 km² large Triftsee which formed between 2002–2003. The following table gives the area above 2000 m and 3000 m
7.
Austria
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Austria, officially the Republic of Austria, is a federal republic and a landlocked country of over 8.7 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Hungary and Slovakia to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, the territory of Austria covers 83,879 km2. The terrain is mountainous, lying within the Alps, only 32% of the country is below 500 m. The majority of the population speaks local Bavarian dialects of German as their native language, other local official languages are Hungarian, Burgenland Croatian, and Slovene. The origins of modern-day Austria date back to the time of the Habsburg dynasty, from the time of the Reformation, many northern German princes, resenting the authority of the Emperor, used Protestantism as a flag of rebellion. Following Napoleons defeat, Prussia emerged as Austrias chief competitor for rule of a greater Germany, Austrias defeat by Prussia at the Battle of Königgrätz, during the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, cleared the way for Prussia to assert control over the rest of Germany. In 1867, the empire was reformed into Austria-Hungary, Austria was thus the first to go to war in the July Crisis, which would ultimately escalate into World War I. The First Austrian Republic was established in 1919, in 1938 Nazi Germany annexed Austria in the Anschluss. This lasted until the end of World War II in 1945, after which Germany was occupied by the Allies, in 1955, the Austrian State Treaty re-established Austria as a sovereign state, ending the occupation. In the same year, the Austrian Parliament created the Declaration of Neutrality which declared that the Second Austrian Republic would become permanently neutral, today, Austria is a parliamentary representative democracy comprising nine federal states. The capital and largest city, with a population exceeding 1.7 million, is Vienna, other major urban areas of Austria include Graz, Linz, Salzburg and Innsbruck. Austria is one of the richest countries in the world, with a nominal per capita GDP of $43,724, the country has developed a high standard of living and in 2014 was ranked 21st in the world for its Human Development Index. Austria has been a member of the United Nations since 1955, joined the European Union in 1995, Austria also signed the Schengen Agreement in 1995, and adopted the euro currency in 1999. The German name for Austria, Österreich, meant eastern realm in Old High German, and is cognate with the word Ostarrîchi and this word is probably a translation of Medieval Latin Marchia orientalis into a local dialect. Austria was a prefecture of Bavaria created in 976, the word Austria is a Latinisation of the German name and was first recorded in the 12th century. Accordingly, Norig would essentially mean the same as Ostarrîchi and Österreich, the Celtic name was eventually Latinised to Noricum after the Romans conquered the area that encloses most of modern-day Austria, around 15 BC. Noricum later became a Roman province in the mid-first century AD, heers hypothesis is not accepted by linguists. Settled in ancient times, the Central European land that is now Austria was occupied in pre-Roman times by various Celtic tribes, the Celtic kingdom of Noricum was later claimed by the Roman Empire and made a province
8.
Bavarian Alps
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Bavarian Alps is a summarizing term of several mountain ranges of the Northern Limestone Alps in the German state of Bavaria. The term in its wider sense refers to part of the Eastern Alps that lies on Bavarian state territory. However it is understood that the Bavarian Alps are only those ranges between the rivers Lech and Saalach. In this narrower sense, the Allgäu Alps in Swabia, which have only been part of Bavaria in more recent times, and the Berchtesgaden Alps in the east are not considered part of the Bavarian Alps. The term is used, but does not correspond to the common classification of the Eastern Alps developed by the German, Austrian. It should not be confused with the term Bavarian Prealps either, the latter only covers the Bavarian section of the prealps between the River Loisach in the west and the River Inn in the east. According to the Italian Partizione delle Alpi classification, the Bavarian Alps comprise the Allgäu, the highest peaks and elevations shown relate to that part of the mountain group that lies in Bavaria, and not to the overall group. For example, the highest mountain of the Allgäu Alps, the 2,657 m high Großer Krottenkopf, the highest peak in the Bavarian Alps and in Germany as a whole is the Zugspitze. It lies in the part of the Wetterstein range and has a high Alpine character with its height of 2,962 m above NN as well as its two small glaciers. By clicking on the word List in the rows of the Lists column. The table may be sorted by clicking on the symbols in the column headers. Like the Alps as a whole, the Bavarian Alps as part of the Northern Limestone Alps were heavily influenced by the last ice age, cirques, lakes and typical U-shaped valleys were formed by the glaciers. Depositions by ice age rivers and glaciers left behind a rolling landscape in the Alpine Foreland with lakes. DAV, Alpenvereins-Jahrbuch Berg 84, Die Einteilung der Ostalpen Bogner Franz X. Die deutschen Alpen aus der Luft, tour descriptions for the Bavarian Alps
9.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
10.
French Alps
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The French Alps are the portions of the Alps mountain range that stand within France, located in the Rhône-Alpes and Provence-Alpes-Côte dAzur regions. While some of the ranges of the French Alps are entirely in France, others, at 4,808 metres, Mont Blanc, on the French-Italian border, is the highest mountain in the Alps, and the highest Western European mountain. Notable towns in the French Alps include Grenoble, Chamonix, Annecy, Chambéry, Évian-les-Bains, the largest connected ski areas are, Les Trois Vallées,338 slopes,600 km of pistes. Portes du Soleil,288 slopes,650 km of slopes not entirely connected, paradiski, Champagny-en-Vanoise,239 slopes,420 km of slopes. Via Lattea,214 slopes,400 km of slopes, Évasion Mont-Blanc,183 slopes,420 km of slopes not entirely connected. Espace Killy,137 slopes,300 km of slopes, grand Massif,134 slopes,265 km of slopes. Les Aravis,133 slopes,220 km of slopes not entirely connected, Les Grandes Rousses,117 slopes,236 km of slopes. Serre Chevalier,111 slopes,250 km of slopes, La Forêt Blanche,104 slopes,180 km of slopes. Les Sybelles,96 slopes,310 km of slopes, valloire and Valmeinier,83 slopes,150 km of slopes. Grand Domaine,82 slopes,150 km of slopes Espace San Bernardo,73 slopes,150 km of slopes, Les Deux Alpes and La Grave,69 slopes,220 km of slopes. The other large ski areas are, Le Val dArly,150 km of slopes, in the winter, these include skiing and snowboarding as well as alternatives such as snowshoeing, sledging. There is a range of activities that happen such as gliding which most happens during the summer months. Summer activities include hiking, mountaineering, biking and rock climbing, roger Frison-Roche, Les montagnes de la terre. Sergio Marazzi, Atlante Orografico delle Alpi, pavone Canavese, Priuli & Verlucca editori. ISBN 978-88-8068-273-8 Sergio Marazzi, La Suddivisione orografica internazionale unificata del Sistema Alpino - article with maps and illustrations, PDF
11.
Communication
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Communication is the act of conveying intended meanings from one entity or group to another through the use of mutually understood signs and semiotic rules. The main steps inherent to all communication are, The forming of communicative motivation or reason, transmission of the encoded message as a sequence of signals using a specific channel or medium. Noise sources such as forces and in some cases human activity begin influencing the quality of signals propagating from the sender to one or more receivers. Reception of signals and reassemblying of the message from a sequence of received signals. Decoding of the encoded message. Interpretation and making sense of the original message. The channel of communication can be visual, auditory, tactile and haptic, olfactory, electromagnetic, human communication is unique for its extensive use of abstract language. Development of civilization has been linked with progress in telecommunication. Nonverbal communication describes the process of conveying information in the form of non-linguistic representations, examples of nonverbal communication include haptic communication, chronemic communication, gestures, body language, facial expressions, eye contact, and how one dresses. Nonverbal communication also relates to intent of a message, examples of intent are voluntary, intentional movements like shaking a hand or winking, as well as involuntary, such as sweating. Speech also contains nonverbal elements known as paralanguage, e. g. rhythm, intonation, tempo and it affects communication most at the subconscious level and establishes trust. Likewise, written texts include nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of words, Nonverbal communication demonstrates one of Wazlawicks laws, you cannot not communicate. Once proximity has formed awareness, living creatures begin interpreting any signals received, Nonverbal cues are heavily relied on to express communication and to interpret others’ communication and can replace or substitute verbal messages. There are several reasons as to why non-verbal communication plays a role in communication. Written communication can also have non-verbal attributes, e-mails and web chats allow individual’s the option to change text font colours, stationary, emoticons, and capitalization in order to capture non-verbal cues into a verbal medium. Many different non-verbal channels are engaged at the time in communication acts. “Non-verbal behaviours may form a language system. ”Smiling, crying, pointing, caressing. Such non-verbal signals allow the most basic form of communication when verbal communication is not effective due to language barriers, Verbal communication is the spoken or written conveyance of a message
12.
Europe
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Europe is a continent that comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia. Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, yet the non-oceanic borders of Europe—a concept dating back to classical antiquity—are arbitrary. Europe covers about 10,180,000 square kilometres, or 2% of the Earths surface, politically, Europe is divided into about fifty sovereign states of which the Russian Federation is the largest and most populous, spanning 39% of the continent and comprising 15% of its population. Europe had a population of about 740 million as of 2015. Further from the sea, seasonal differences are more noticeable than close to the coast, Europe, in particular ancient Greece, was the birthplace of Western civilization. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, during the period, marked the end of ancient history. Renaissance humanism, exploration, art, and science led to the modern era, from the Age of Discovery onwards, Europe played a predominant role in global affairs. Between the 16th and 20th centuries, European powers controlled at times the Americas, most of Africa, Oceania. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain at the end of the 18th century, gave rise to economic, cultural, and social change in Western Europe. During the Cold War, Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the west and the Warsaw Pact in the east, until the revolutions of 1989 and fall of the Berlin Wall. In 1955, the Council of Europe was formed following a speech by Sir Winston Churchill and it includes all states except for Belarus, Kazakhstan and Vatican City. Further European integration by some states led to the formation of the European Union, the EU originated in Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. The European Anthem is Ode to Joy and states celebrate peace, in classical Greek mythology, Europa is the name of either a Phoenician princess or of a queen of Crete. The name contains the elements εὐρύς, wide, broad and ὤψ eye, broad has been an epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion and the poetry devoted to it. For the second part also the divine attributes of grey-eyed Athena or ox-eyed Hera. The same naming motive according to cartographic convention appears in Greek Ανατολή, Martin Litchfield West stated that phonologically, the match between Europas name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor. Next to these there is also a Proto-Indo-European root *h1regʷos, meaning darkness. Most major world languages use words derived from Eurṓpē or Europa to refer to the continent, in some Turkic languages the originally Persian name Frangistan is used casually in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as Avrupa or Evropa
13.
Alps
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The mountains were formed over tens of millions of years as the African and Eurasian tectonic plates collided. Extreme shortening caused by the event resulted in marine sedimentary rocks rising by thrusting and folding into high mountain peaks such as Mont Blanc, Mont Blanc spans the French–Italian border, and at 4,810 m is the highest mountain in the Alps. The Alpine region area contains about a hundred peaks higher than 4000 metres, the altitude and size of the range affects the climate in Europe, in the mountains precipitation levels vary greatly and climatic conditions consist of distinct zones. Wildlife such as live in the higher peaks to elevations of 3,400 m. Evidence of human habitation in the Alps goes back to the Palaeolithic era, a mummified man, determined to be 5,000 years old, was discovered on a glacier at the Austrian–Italian border in 1991. By the 6th century BC, the Celtic La Tène culture was well established, Hannibal famously crossed the Alps with a herd of elephants, and the Romans had settlements in the region. In 1800 Napoleon crossed one of the passes with an army of 40,000. The 18th and 19th centuries saw an influx of naturalists, writers, in World War II, Adolf Hitler kept a base of operation in the Bavarian Alps throughout the war. The Alpine region has a cultural identity. The Winter Olympic Games have been hosted in the Swiss, French, at present, the region is home to 14 million people and has 120 million annual visitors. The English word Alps derives from the Latin Alpes, maurus Servius Honoratus, an ancient commentator of Virgil, says in his commentary that all high mountains are called Alpes by Celts. The term may be common to Italo-Celtic, because the Celtic languages have terms for high mountains derived from alp and this may be consistent with the theory that in Greek Alpes is a name of non-Indo-European origin. According to the Old English Dictionary, the Latin Alpes might possibly derive from a pre-Indo-European word *alb hill, Albania, a name not native to the region known as the country of Albania, has been used as a name for a number of mountainous areas across Europe. In Roman times, Albania was a name for the eastern Caucasus, in modern languages the term alp, alm, albe or alpe refers to a grazing pastures in the alpine regions below the glaciers, not the peaks. An alp refers to a mountain pasture where cows are taken to be grazed during the summer months and where hay barns can be found. The Alps are a crescent shaped geographic feature of central Europe that ranges in a 800 km arc from east to west and is 200 km in width, the mean height of the mountain peaks is 2.5 km. The range stretches from the Mediterranean Sea north above the Po basin, extending through France from Grenoble, the range continues onward toward Vienna, Austria, and east to the Adriatic Sea and Slovenia. To the south it dips into northern Italy and to the north extends to the border of Bavaria in Germany
14.
Carpathian Mountains
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The Carpathian Mountains or Carpathians are a mountain range system forming an arc roughly 1,500 km long across Central and Eastern Europe, making them the second-longest mountain range in Europe. The Carpathians and their foothills also have many thermal and mineral waters, the Carpathians consist of a chain of mountain ranges that stretch in an arc from the Czech Republic in the northwest through Slovakia, Poland, Hungary and Ukraine to Romania and Serbia. The highest range within the Carpathians is the Tatras, on the border of Slovakia and Poland, the second-highest range is the Southern Carpathians in Romania, where the highest peaks exceed 2,500 m. The divisions of the Carpathians are usually in three sections, Western Carpathians — Czech Republic, Poland, and Slovakia. Eastern Carpathians — southeastern Poland, eastern Slovakia, Ukraine, Romania, the term Outer Carpathians is frequently used to describe the northern rim of the Western and Eastern Carpathians. The most important cities in or near the Carpathians are, Bratislava and Košice in Slovakia, Kraków in Poland, Cluj-Napoca, Sibiu and Braşov in Romania, and Uzhhorod in Ukraine. In modern times, the range is called Karpaty in Czech, Polish, Slovak and Карпати in Ukrainian, Carpați in Romanian, Karpaten in German, Kárpátok in Hungarian and Karpati or Карпати in Serbian. Although the toponym was recorded already by Ptolemy in the 2nd century CE, for instance, Havasok was its medieval Hungarian name, Rus and Romanian chronicles referred to it as Hungarian Mountains. The archaic Polish word karpa meant rugged irregularities, underwater obstacles/rocks, the more common word skarpa means a sharp cliff or other vertical terrain. In late Roman documents, the Eastern Carpathian Mountains were referred to as Montes Sarmatici, the Western Carpathians were called Carpates, a name that is first recorded in Ptolemys Geographia. In the Scandinavian Hervarar saga, which relates ancient Germanic legends about battles between Goths and Huns, the name Karpates appears in the predictable Germanic form as Harvaða fjöllum, inter Alpes Huniae et Oceanum est Polonia by Gervase of Tilbury, has described in his Otia Imperialia in 1211. Thirteenth- to fifteenth-century Hungarian documents named the mountains Thorchal, Tarczal or less frequently Montes Nivium, the northwestern Carpathians begin in Slovakia and southern Poland. They surround Transcarpathia and Transylvania in a semicircle, sweeping towards the southeast. The total length of the Carpathians is over 1,500 km, the highest altitudes of the Carpathians occur where they are widest. The Carpathians cover an area of 190,000 km2 and, after the Alps, although commonly referred to as a mountain chain, the Carpathians do not actually form an uninterrupted chain of mountains. Rather, they consist of several orographically and geologically distinctive groups, the Carpathians at their highest altitude are only as high as the middle region of the Alps, with which they share a common appearance, climate, and flora. The Carpathians are separated from the Alps by the Danube, the two ranges meet at only one point, the Leitha Mountains at Bratislava. The river also separates them from the Balkan Mountains at Orşova in Romania, the valley of the March and Oder separates the Carpathians from the Silesian and Moravian chains, which belong to the middle wing of the great Central Mountain System of Europe
15.
Lituus
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The word lituus originally meant a curved augural staff, or a curved war-trumpet in the ancient Latin language. This Latin word continued in use through the 18th century as an alternative to the names of various musical instruments. The lituus was a crooked wand used as an instrument in ancient Roman religion by augurs to mark out a ritual space in the sky. The passage of birds through this templum indicated divine favor or disfavor for a given undertaking, the lituus was also used as a symbol of office for the college of the augurs to mark them out as a priestly group. The ancient lituus was an Etruscan high-pitched brass instrument, which was straight but bent at the end, in the shape of a letter J and it was later used by the Romans, especially for processional music and as a signalling horn in the army. For the Roman military it may have been particular to the cavalry, unlike the Roman litui, the Etruscan instruments had detachable mouthpieces and in general appear to have been longer. The name lituus is Latin, thought to have derived from an Etruscan cultic word describing a soothsayers wand modelled on a shepherds crook and associated with sacrifice. Earlier Roman and Etruscan depictions show the instrument used in processions, players of the lituus were called liticines, though the name of the instrument appears to have been loosely used to describe other military brass instruments, such as the tuba or the buccina. In 17th-century Germany a variant of the bent ancient lituus was still used as a signalling horn by nightwatchmen, however, it is impossible to determine just what sort of instrument might have been meant, and it is unlikely there litui were the same as the Etrusco-Roman instrument. In the early 15th century, Jean de Gerson listed the lituus among those string instruments that were sounded by beating or striking, either with the fingernails, other instruments Gerson names in this category are the cythara, guiterna, psalterium, timpanum, and campanula. The crumhorn was especially associated with the lituus because of the similarity of its shape, the equation of the crumhorn with the lituus was especially strong among German writers. A study made of Swedish dictionaries found that during the seventeenth century lituus was variously translated as sinka, krumhorn, krum trometa, claret, or horn. In 1738, the horn player Anton Joseph Hampel served as a godfather at the baptism of a daughter of the renowned Dresden lutenist Silvius Leopold Weiss. In the baptismal register he was described as Lituista Regius—royal lituus player, in the second half of the 18th century the lituus was described in one source as a Latin name for the trumpet or horn. The only known Baroque composition specifying an instrument by the Latin name lituus is Bachs motet O Jesu Christ, meins Lebens Licht. Scientists from Edinburgh University tried to recreate the lituus in May 2009, in the form of a wooden trumpet. Descriptio Montis Fracti iuxta Lvcernam, et primum Chorographica, praefertim quod ad paludem Pilati in eo memorabilem, lugdunensis, Pilati Montis in Gallia descriptio, Io Rhellicani Stockhornias, qua Stockhornus mons altissimus in Bernensium Heluetiorum agro, versibus heroicis describitur, 45–67. Tigvri, Apud Andream Gesnerum F. & Iacobvm Gesnerum, frates, Roman Military Instruments and the Lituus
16.
Obwalden
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The Canton of Obwalden is a canton of Switzerland. It is located in the centre of Switzerland, the canton contains the geographical centre of Switzerland. Obwalden is one of the two valleys, along with Nidwalden, that make up Unterwalden, throughout its history, the political situation and the exact amount of independence has varied widely. Between 1291 and 1309, Unterwalden joined the nascent Swiss Confederation, during that time Obwalden was known as Unterwalden ob dem Kernwald and Nidwalden was Unterwalden nit dem Kernwald. Unterwaldens votes in the Tagsatzung were split between the two valleys, between 1798 and 1803 it became the District of Sarnen in the Canton of Waldstätten. From 1803 until 1999 it was the half-canton of Obwalden, due to the complex history of Obwalden there will be some overlap between the histories of Obwalden, Nidwalden and Unterwalden. The earliest archaeological traces in Obwalden is a knife from the 8th millennium BC. Two Horgen culture sites from the 4th millennium BC have been found in the Canton, an ax and two bone blades were found in Giswil and a hammer-ax was found in Wilen. It appears that the valleys in Obwalden were at least temporarily inhabited during this time, an Early Bronze Age grave in Foribach in Kerns implies that there was a settlement in the surrounding area between 2000 BC and 1700 BC. There may have also been a settlement along the shores of Lake Sarnen during the same period, between 1500 and 1100 BC there were several other settlements, including houses in the Rengg Pass and high alpine herding camps above the pass. Many of the names in the canton have Celtic or Gallo-Roman roots. In 1914-15 a Roman estate was unearthed in Alpnach, the estate was built in the late 1st Century AD and remained in operation until a fire destroyed the main building in 270. Around 700, the Alamanni began to migrate into Obwalden and they initially settled around the lakes while the Gallo-Romans lived up on the plateau. The Alamanni influence is noticeable around Lake Sarnen and the Kerns plateau where many place name end in -ingen, -wil, the Gallo-Romans remained around Mt. Pilatus, the Giswilerstock and in the Melch valley. During the 8th to 11th centuries, the two populations intermarried and eventually all became Germanized, by the 9th century it was part of the Second Kingdom of Burgundy. It became part of the Holy Roman Empire following the military campaign of 1032-33 by Emperor Conrad II. Obwalden was given to the Counts of Lenzburg from Aargau, the counts built a castle on Landenberg hill to help them control the land. During the Early Middle Ages, much of the land in Obwalden was controlled by monasteries, the monasteries began to spread their authority and parishes into Obwalden during this time
17.
Crumhorn
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The crumhorn is a musical instrument of the woodwind family, most commonly used during the Renaissance period. In modern times, there has been a revival of interest in early music, the name derives from the German Krumhorn meaning bent horn. This relates to the old English crump meaning curve, surviving in modern English in crumpled and it is uncertain if the Spanish wind instrument orlo designates the crumhorn, but it is known that crumhorns were used in Spain in the sixteenth century, and the identification seems likely. The crumhorn is a reed instrument. Its construction is similar to that of the chanter of a bagpipe, a double reed is mounted inside a long windcap. Blowing through a slot in the windcap produces a musical note, the pitch of the note can be varied by opening or closing finger holes along the length of the pipe. One unusual feature of the crumhorn is its shape, the end is bent upwards in a curve resembling the letter J, the curve is decorative only and does not influence the sound. Crumhorns make a buzzing sound, but quieter than their conical-bore relatives the rauschpfeife. They have a range, usually a ninth. Some modern instruments have their range extended upwards to an eleventh by two keys, Crumhorns can be chromatically played by using cross-fingerings, except for the minor second above the lowest note. Because of the range, music for crumhorns is usually played by a group of instruments of different sizes. Such a group is known as a consort of crumhorns, Crumhorns are built in imitation of the vocal quartet with soprano, alto, tenor and bass as a family, as was true of most instruments of the Renaissance. There are examples of higher- and lower-sounding instruments, of which the bass is the only commonly used one. Michael Praetorius suggested the use of crumhorns in some of his vocal works as a possible alternative to trombones, dulcians. In Ursula Dubosarskys novel Bruno and the Crumhorn, two children, Bruno and Sybil, find themselves learning to play the crumhorn almost by accident, the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. The Crumhorn and Other Renaissance Windcap Instruments, A Contribution to Renaissance Organology, buren, The Netherlands, Frits Knuf ISBN9789060274248, ISBN9789060274231. Spielanleitung für Krümmhorner, Cornamusen und Kortholte / How to Play the Crumhorn, Cornamusa, the Crumhorn, A Concise Method for the Crumhorn and Other Wind-cap Instruments. The Crumhorn, Its History, Design, Repertory, and Technique, Crumhorn Musica Antiqua Crumhorn Page Crumhorns by Moeck Renaissance Studio Mahillon, Victor-Charles, Schlesinger, Kathleen
18.
Cornett
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The cornett, cornetto, or zink is an early wind instrument that dates from the Medieval, Renaissance and Baroque periods, popular from 1500 to 1650. It was used in what are now called alta capellas or wind ensembles and it is not to be confused with the trumpet-like cornet. The sound of the cornett is produced by lip vibrations against a cup mouthpiece, a cornett consists of a conical wooden pipe covered in leather, is about 24 inches long, and has finger holes and a small horn or ivory mouthpiece. The ordinary treble cornett is made by splitting a length of wood, the halves are then glued together, and the outside planed to an octagonal cross section, the whole being bound in thin black leather. Six front finger holes and a hole on the back are bored in the instrument. The socket for the mouthpiece at the end is reinforced with a brass collar. The separate cup mouthpiece is made of horn, ivory, or bone, with a thin rim. Because it lacks a little-finger hole at the bottom, its lowest note is the A below middle C, at least three existing specimens of bass cornett reside in the collection of the Musée de la Musique, Paris. Historically, two cornetts were frequently used in consort with three sackbuts, often to double a church choir and this was particularly popular in Venetian churches such as the Basilica San Marco, where extensive instrumental accompaniment was encouraged, particularly in use with antiphonal choirs. Giovanni Bassano was an early player of the cornett. Heinrich Schütz also used the instrument extensively, especially in his earlier work, the serpent largely supplanted the bass cornett in the 17th century. Other versions include the mute cornett, which is a straight instrument with integrated mouthpiece. The cornett was used as a virtuoso solo instrument. The use of the instrument had declined by 1700, although the instrument was common in Europe until the late 18th century. Johann Sebastian Bach, Georg Philipp Telemann and their German contemporaries used both the cornett and cornettino in cantatas to play in unison with the voices of the choir. Occasionally, these composers allocated a part to the cornetto. Alessandro Scarlatti used the cornetto or pairs of cornetts in a number of his operas, johann Joseph Fux used a pair of mute cornetts in a Requiem. It was scored for by Gluck, in his opera Orfeo ed Euridice and features in the TV theme music Testament by Nigel Hess, at every stage of its development the cornett was an instrument of professional musicians
19.
Conrad Gessner
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Conrad Gessner was a Swiss naturalist and bibliographer. He was well known as a botanist, physician and classical linguist and his five-volume Historia animalium is considered the beginning of modern zoology, and the flowering plant genus Gesneria and its family Gesneriaceae are named after him. A genus of moths is also named Gesneria after him and he is denoted by the author abbreviation Gesner when citing a botanical name. Gessner was born on March 26,1516 in Zürich, Switzerland, he was the son of Ursus Gessner, Gessners father realized he was clever, and sent him to live with a great uncle, who grew and collected medicinal herbs for a living. Here the boy became familiar with many plants and their medicinal purposes which led to a lifelong interest in natural history, Gessner first attended the Carolinum in Zürich, then he entered the Fraumünster seminary. In school, he impressed his teachers so much that a few of them helped him so he could further his education at universities such as Strassburg. One even acted as a father to him after the death of his father at the Battle of Kappel. After the death of his father he left Zürich and traveled to Strasbourg, here he broadened his knowledge of ancient languages by studying Hebrew at the Strasbourg Academy. In 1535, religious unrest drove him back to Zürich, where he made an imprudent marriage and his friends again came to his aid and enabled him to study at Basel. Throughout his life Gessner was interested in history, and collected specimens and descriptions of wildlife through travel and extensive correspondence with other friends. His approach to research consisted of four components, observation, dissection, travel to distant lands. This rising observational approach was new to Renaissance scholars because people usually relied completely upon Classical writers for their research and he died of the plague, the year after his ennoblement on December 13,1565. In 1537 his sponsors obtained for him the professorship of Greek at the newly founded academy of Lausanne, here he had leisure to devote himself to scientific studies, especially botany. After three years of teaching, Gessner was able to travel to the medical university of Montpellier. He then settled down to practice medicine in Zürich, where he obtained the post of lecturer of Aristotelean physics at the Carolinum, the precursor of the University of Zürich. After 1554 he became the city physician and it is there, apart from a few journeys to foreign countries and he devoted himself to preparing works on many subjects of different sorts. Gesners great zoological work, Historiae animalium, is a 4, a fifth folio on snakes was issued in 1587. A German translation of the first 4 volumes titled Thierbuch was published in Zürich in 1563 and this book was considered to be the first modern zoological work
20.
Cistercians
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A Cistercian is a member of the Cistercian Order (/sɪˈstɜːrʃən/, abbreviated as OCist or SOCist, a religious order of monks and nuns. They are variously called the Bernardines, after the highly influential St, the original emphasis of Cistercian life was on manual labour and self-sufficiency, and many abbeys have traditionally supported themselves through activities such as agriculture and brewing ales. Over the centuries, however, education and academic pursuits came to dominate the life of their monasteries, after that the followers of the older pattern of life became known as the Cistercians of the Original Observance. The term Cistercian, derives from Cistercium, the Latin name for the village of Cîteaux and it was in this village that a group of Benedictine monks from the monastery of Molesme founded Cîteaux Abbey in 1098, with the goal of following more closely the Rule of Saint Benedict. The best known of them were Robert of Molesme, Alberic of Cîteaux and the English monk Stephen Harding, Bernard of Clairvaux entered the monastery in the early 1110s with 30 companions and helped the rapid proliferation of the order. By the end of the 12th century, the order had spread throughout France and into England, Wales, Scotland, Ireland, Spain, Portugal, Italy, the keynote of Cistercian life was a return to literal observance of the Rule of St Benedict. The most striking feature in the reform was the return to manual labour, especially field-work, Cistercian architecture is considered one of the most beautiful styles of medieval architecture. Additionally, in relation to such as agriculture, hydraulic engineering and metallurgy. The monastery church of Cluny Abbey, the largest in Europe, had become wealthy from rents, tithes, feudal rights and pilgrims who passed through Cluniac houses on the Way of St. James. On March 21,1098, Roberts small group acquired a plot of marshland just south of Dijon called Cîteaux, during the first year, the monks set about constructing lodging areas and farming the lands of Cîteaux, making use of a nearby chapel for Mass. In Roberts absence from Molesme, however, the abbey had gone into decline, and Pope Urban II, the remaining monks of Cîteaux elected Alberic as their abbot, under whose leadership the abbey would find its grounding. Robert had been the idealist of the order, and Alberic was their builder, upon assuming the role of abbot, Alberic moved the site of the fledgling community near a brook a short distance away from the original site. Alberic discontinued the use of Benedictine black garments in the abbey and he returned the community to the original Benedictine ideal of manual work and prayer, dedicated to the ideal of charity and self sustenance. Alberic also forged an alliance with the Dukes of Burgundy, working out a deal with Duke Odo of Burgundy concerning the donation of a vineyard as well as stones with which they built their church. The church was consecrated and dedicated to the Virgin Mary on November 16,1106, on January 26,1108, Alberic died and was soon succeeded by Stephen Harding, the man responsible for carrying the order into its crucial phase. The order was fortunate that Stephen was an abbot of extraordinary gifts, and he framed the original version of the Cistercian Constitution or regulations, the Carta caritatis. Although this was revised on several occasions to meet needs, from the outset it emphasised a simple life of work, love, prayer. Cistercian abbeys also refused to admit children, allowing adults to choose their religious vocation for themselves – a practice later emulated by many of the older Benedictine houses
21.
Pfaffnau
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Pfaffnau is a municipality in the district of Willisau in the canton of Lucerne in Switzerland. In the municipality two different parts are existing, the village Pfaffnau and the Former Monastery of St. Urban, Pfaffnau is first mentioned in 924 as Fafanhaa/Fafana. In 1173 it was mentioned as Phafena, Pfaffnau has an area of 17.62 km2. Of this area,11.41 km2 or 64. 8% is used for agricultural purposes, while 4.3 km2 or 24. 4% is forested. Of the rest of the land,1.71 km2 or 9. 7% is settled,0.09 km2 or 0. 5% is either rivers or lakes and 0.04 km2 or 0. 2% is unproductive land. Of the built up area, housing and buildings made up 5. 3%, out of the forested land,23. 0% of the total land area is heavily forested and 1. 4% is covered with orchards or small clusters of trees. Of the agricultural land,41. 5% is used for growing crops and 21. 6% is pastures, all the water in the municipality is flowing water. The municipality is located in the country in the north-west corner of the canton, on the border with the cantons of Bern. It consists of the abbey village of Pfaffnau and the hamlets of Burg, Buttenried, Murhof, Nuttele, Sagen, Schuelerslehn. Pfaffnau has a population of 2,529, as of 2008,8. 5% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years the population has changed at a rate of 0. 5%, migration accounted for 0%, while births and deaths accounted for 1. 2%. Most of the population speaks German as their first language, Serbo-Croatian is the second most common, there are 10 people who speak French,6 people who speak Italian and 2 people who speak Romansh. As of 2008, the population was made up of 1,941 Swiss citizens and 181 non-citizen residents, of the population in the municipality,977 or about 40. 9% were born in Pfaffnau and lived there in 2000. There were 585 or 24. 5% who were born in the canton, while 480 or 20. 1% were born somewhere else in Switzerland. As of 2010, children and teenagers make up 21. 8% of the population, while adults make up 62. 2%, as of 2000, there were 1,182 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 992 married individuals,139 widows or widowers and 77 individuals who are divorced, as of 2000, there were 205 households that consist of only one person and 115 households with five or more people. In 2000, a total of 763 apartments were permanently occupied, as of 2010, the construction rate of new housing units was 16.4 new units per 1000 residents. The vacancy rate for the municipality, in 2011, was 0. 39%, in the 2011 federal election the most popular party was the CVP which received 40. 5% of the vote
22.
Batzen
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The batzen was a coin produced by Bern, Switzerland, from the 15th century until the mid-19th century. The batzen is named for the bear depicted on the batzen of Bern, other Swiss cantons and southern German states soon followed Berns example, producing their own batzen. The batzen was originally a coin, but by the 17th century it was struck in billon. In Berns monetary system, the batzen was worth four kreuzer, with decimalization reform in the 19th century, the batzen was divided into 10 rappen, with 10 batzen worth 1 franc. When the Swiss franc was introduced in 1850 as a currency for all Swiss cantons, the batzen denomination was no longer officially used
23.
Valais
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The canton of Valais is widely known for the Matterhorn and resort towns such as Crans-Montana, Saas Fee and Zermatt. It is composed of 13 districts and its capital is Sion, the Romans called the upper Rhône valley Vallis Poenina. According to a tradition which can be traced back to the middle of the 8th century, from 888 onwards the lands were part of the kingdom of Jurane Burgundy. Valais formed part of the kingdom of Transjurane Burgundy, which fell to the Holy Roman Empire in 1032 and it became part of the duchy of Burgundia Minor, which was held from the emperors by the house of Zähringen. About the middle of the 13th century, the large communities began to develop independence, the name Zenden or tithings probably came from a very ancient division of the bishops manors for administrative and judicial purposes. In the same century the part of the valley was colonized by Germans from Hasli in the Canton of Bern. The locals became German speaking, though many Romance local names still remain, in 1354 the liberties of several of the seven Zenden were confirmed by the Emperor Charles IV. By the late 14th century, the counts of Savoy acquired the bishopric of Sion, the Zenden resisted his attempts to gather both spiritual and secular power in the valley. In 1375-76, Zenden forces crushed the army of the house of La Tour-Chatillon, and in 1388 utterly defeated the forces of the bishop, the German-speaking Zenden spread further into the valley. Starting in 1384 the Morge stream was recognized as the boundary between Savoyard, French-speaking Lower Valais and German-speaking episcopal Upper Valais, during the Raron affair rebellion in 1414 to 1420, some cantons of the Swiss Confederation took sides in the Valais. Lucerne, Uri and Unterwalden supported the Upper Valais rebels, while Bern supported the noble Raron family, the uprising was successful in driving out the Rarons, and almost brought the Confederation to civil war. Following the violence of the Raron affair, the canton was the location of the Valais witch trials between 1428 and 1447 in which at least 367 men and women were put to death and this event marks one of the earliest witch scares in late medieval Europe. The phenomenon later spread to parts of the contintent. With the election of Walther von Supersax of Conches as bishop in 1457, at the outbreak of the Burgundian War in 1475 the bishop of Sion and the Zenden made a treaty with Bern. In November of the year they seized all Lower or Savoyard Valais up to Martigny. In March 1476, after the victory of Grandson, they advanced and captured St Maurice, Évian, Thonon and they had to give up the last three districts in 1477, but won them again in 1536. In the treaty of Thonon in 1569, Monthey, Val-dllliez and these conquered districts in the Lower Valais were always ruled as subject lands by the bishop and Zenden of the Upper Valais. On March 12,1529, Valais became a member of the Swiss Confederation
24.
Church bell
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A church bell in the Christian tradition is a bell which is rung in a church for a variety of church purposes, and can be heard outside the building. Traditionally they were used to call worshippers to the church for a communal service and they are also rung on special occasions such as a wedding, or a funeral service. In some religious traditions they are used within the liturgy of the service to signify to people that a particular part of the service has been reached. The ringing of bells, in the Christian tradition, is also believed to drive out demons. It is hung within a steeple or belltower of a church or religious building, such bells are either fixed in position or hung from a pivoted beam so they can swing to and fro. A rope hangs from a lever or wheel attached to the headstock, and when the bell ringer pulls on the rope the bell back and forth. Bells that are hung dead are normally sounded by hitting the bow with a hammer or occasionally by a rope which pulls the internal clapper against the bell. A church may have a bell, or a collection of bells which are tuned to a common scale. They may be stationary and chimed, rung randomly by swinging through a small arc, before modern communications, church bells were a common way to call the community together for all purposes, both sacred and secular. The injunction to pray the Lords prayer thrice daily was given in Didache 8,2 f, as such, the Catechism of the Catholic Church states that the Early Church prayed the Lords Prayer thrice a day, supplanting the former Amidah predominant in the Hebrew tradition. The Christian tradition of the ringing of bells from a belltower is analogous to the Islamic tradition of the adhan from a minaret. Most Christian denominations ring church bells to call the faithful to worship, in the United Kingdom predominantly in the Anglican church, there is a strong tradition of change ringing on full-circle tower bells for about half an hour before a service. This originated from the early 17th century when bell ringers found that swinging a bell through a large arc gave more control over the time between successive strikes of the clapper. This culminated in ringing bells through a circle, which let ringers easily produce different striking sequences. In Christianity, the ringing of bells is traditionally believed to drive out demons. The ringing of a bell to announce a death is called a death knell. A more modern tradition where there are full-circle bells is to use half-muffles when sounding one bell as a tolled bell, or all the bells in change-ringing. This means a leather muffle is placed on the clapper of each bell so that there is a loud open strike followed by a muffled strike, which has a very sonorous and mournful effect
25.
Softwood
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Softwood is wood from gymnosperm trees such as conifers. The term is opposed to hardwood, which is the wood from angiosperm trees, softwoods are not necessarily softer than hardwoods. The woods of pine, douglas fir, and yew are much harder in the mechanical sense than several hardwoods. Certain species of softwood are more resistant to attack from woodworm. Softwood is the source of about 80% of the production of timber, with traditional centres of production being the Baltic region, North America. Typically used in construction as structural carcassing timber, as well as finishing timber, list of woods United States – Canada softwood lumber dispute Hardwood Janka hardness test Brinell scale
26.
Victoria and Albert Museum
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The Victoria and Albert Museum, London, is the worlds largest museum of decorative arts and design, housing a permanent collection of over 4.5 million objects. It was founded in 1852 and named after Queen Victoria and Prince Albert and these include the Natural History Museum, the Science Museum and the Royal Albert Hall. The museum is a public body sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media. Like other national British museums, entrance to the museum has been free since 2001, the V&A covers 12.5 acres and 145 galleries. Its collection spans 5,000 years of art, from ancient times to the present day, from the cultures of Europe, North America, Asia and North Africa. The museum owns the worlds largest collection of sculpture, with the holdings of Italian Renaissance items being the largest outside Italy. The departments of Asia include art from South Asia, China, Japan, Korea, the East Asian collections are among the best in Europe, with particular strengths in ceramics and metalwork, while the Islamic collection is amongst the largest in the Western world. Overall, it is one of the largest museums in the world, New 17th- and 18th-century European galleries were opened on 9 December 2015. These restored the original Aston Webb interiors and host the European collections 1600–1815, at this stage the collections covered both applied art and science. Several of the exhibits from the Exhibition were purchased to form the nucleus of the collection, by February 1854 discussions were underway to transfer the museum to the current site and it was renamed South Kensington Museum. In 1855 the German architect Gottfried Semper, at the request of Cole, produced a design for the museum, but it was rejected by the Board of Trade as too expensive. The site was occupied by Brompton Park House, this was extended including the first refreshment rooms opened in 1857, the official opening by Queen Victoria was on 22 June 1857. In the following year, late night openings were introduced, made possible by the use of gas lighting, in these early years the practical use of the collection was very much emphasised as opposed to that of High Art at the National Gallery and scholarship at the British Museum. George Wallis, the first Keeper of Fine Art Collection, passionately promoted the idea of art education through the museum collections. From the 1860s to the 1880s the scientific collections had been moved from the museum site to various improvised galleries to the west of Exhibition Road. In 1893 the Science Museum had effectively come into existence when a director was appointed. The laying of the stone of the Aston Webb building on 17 May 1899 was the last official public appearance by Queen Victoria. It was during this ceremony that the change of name from the South Kensington Museum to the Victoria, the exhibition which the museum organised to celebrate the centennial of the 1899 renaming, A Grand Design, first toured in North America from 1997, returning to London in 1999
27.
Michael Praetorius
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Michael Praetorius was a German composer, organist, and music theorist. Praetorius was born Michael Schultze, the youngest son of a Lutheran pastor, in Creuzburg, after attending school in Torgau and Zerbst, he studied divinity and philosophy at the University of Frankfurt. He was fluent in a number of languages, after receiving his musical education, from 1587 he served as organist at the Marienkirche in Frankfurt. From 1592/3 he served at the court in Wolfenbüttel, under the employ of Henry Julius and he served in the dukes State Orchestra, first as organist and later as Kapellmeister. His first compositions appeared around 1602/3 and their publication primarily reflects the care for music at the court of Gröningen. The motets of this collection were the first in Germany to make use of the new Italian performance practices, as a result and these modern pieces mark the end of his middle creative period. The nine parts of his Musae Sioniae and the 1611 published collections of music follow the German Protestant chorale style. With these, at the behest of a circle of orthodox Lutherans, he followed the Duchess Elizabeth, in place of popular music, one now expected religious music from Praetorius. When the duke died in 1613 and was succeeded by Frederick Ulrich, from 1613 he also worked at the court of John George I, Elector of Saxony at Dresden, where he was responsible for festive music. He was exposed to the latest Italian music, including the works of the Venetian School. His subsequent development of the form of the concerto, particularly the polychoral variety. The solo-voice, polychoral, and instrumental compositions Praetorius prepared for these events mark the period of his artistic creativity. Until his death, Praetorius stayed at the court in Dresden, Michael Praetorius is said to have died on his 50th birthday, in Wolfenbüttel, Germany and is entombed in a vault beneath the organ of the Marienkirche there. His family name in German appears in various forms including Schultze, Schulte, Schultheiss, Schulz, Praetorius was the conventional Latinized form of this family name, Schultze meaning mayor in German, and a Praetor was a Roman official. Praetorius was a composer, his compositions show the influence of Italian composers. He wrote many works for the Lutheran church, and Terpsichore, a compendium of more than 300 instrumental dances. Many of Praetorius choral compositions were scored for several mini-choirs situated in locations in the church for multi-phonic effect. The familiar harmonization of Es ist ein Ros entsprungen was written by Praetorius in 1609, Praetorius was the greatest musical academic of his day and the Germanic writer of music best known to other 17th-century musicians
28.
Harmonic series (music)
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A harmonic series is the sequence of sounds where the base frequency of each sound is an integer multiple of the lowest base frequency. Pitched musical instruments are based on an approximate harmonic oscillator such as a string or a column of air. At these resonant frequencies, waves travel in both directions along the string or air column, reinforcing and canceling each other to form standing waves, interaction with the surrounding air causes audible sound waves, which travel away from the instrument. Because of the spacing of the resonances, these frequencies are mostly limited to integer multiples, or harmonics, of the lowest frequency. The musical timbre of a tone from such an instrument is determined by the relative strengths of each harmonic. A complex tone can be described as a combination of many simple periodic waves or partials, each with its own frequency of vibration, amplitude, a partial is any of the sine waves of which a complex tone is composed. A harmonic is any member of the series, an ideal set of frequencies that are positive integer multiples of a common fundamental frequency. The fundamental is also considered a harmonic because it is 1 times itself, a harmonic partial is any real partial component of a complex tone that matches an ideal harmonic. An inharmonic partial is any partial that does not match an ideal harmonic, Inharmonicity is a measure of the deviation of a partial from the closest ideal harmonic, typically measured in cents for each partial. Unpitched, or indefinite-pitched instruments, such as cymbals, gongs, or tam-tams make sounds that are rich in inharmonic partials, an overtone is any partial except the lowest partial. The term overtone does not imply harmonicity or inharmonicity and has no special meaning other than to exclude the fundamental. It is the relative strengths of the different overtones that gives an instrument its particular timbre, some electronic instruments, such as synthesizers, can play a pure frequency with no overtones. Synthesizers can also combine pure frequencies into more complex tones, such as to other instruments. Certain flutes and ocarinas are very nearly without overtones, in most pitched musical instruments, the fundamental is accompanied by other, higher-frequency harmonics. Thus shorter-wavelength, higher-frequency waves occur with varying prominence and give each instrument its characteristic tone quality, the fact that a string is fixed at each end means that the longest allowed wavelength on the string is twice the length of the string. Other allowed wavelengths are 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, 1/5, 1/6, theoretically, these shorter wavelengths correspond to vibrations at frequencies that are 2,3,4,5,6, etc. times the fundamental frequency. Physical characteristics of the vibrating medium and/or the resonator it vibrates against often alter these frequencies, the harmonic series is an arithmetic series. In terms of frequency, the difference between consecutive harmonics is therefore constant and equal to the fundamental, but because human ears respond to sound nonlinearly, higher harmonics are perceived as closer together than lower ones
29.
Equal temperament
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An equal temperament is a musical temperament, or a system of tuning, in which the frequency interval between every pair of adjacent notes has the same ratio. In equal temperament tunings, the interval is often found by dividing some larger desired interval, often the octave. That resulting smallest interval, 1⁄12 the width of an octave, is called a semitone or half step, the standard pitch has not always been 440 but has varied and generally risen over the past few hundred years. For example, some music has been written in 19-TET and 31-TET, in Western countries, when people use the term equal temperament without qualification, they usually mean 12-TET. To avoid ambiguity between equal temperaments that divide the octave and ones that divide some other interval, the equal division of the octave. According to this system, 12-TET is called 12-EDO, 31-TET is called 31-EDO. Other instruments, such as wind, keyboard, and fretted instruments, often only approximate equal temperament. Some wind instruments that can easily and spontaneously bend their tone, most notably trombones, use tuning similar to string ensembles, the two figures frequently credited with the achievement of exact calculation of equal temperament are Zhu Zaiyu in 1584 and Simon Stevin in 1585. Kenneth Robinson attributes the invention of equal temperament to Zhu Zaiyu, Zhu Zaiyu is quoted as saying that, in a text dating from 1584, I have founded a new system. I establish one foot as the number from which the others are to be extracted, altogether one has to find the exact figures for the pitch-pipers in twelve operations. Kuttner disagrees and remarks that his claim cannot be considered correct without major qualifications, kuttner proposes that neither Zhu Zaiyu or Simon Stevin achieved equal temperament, and that neither of the two should be treated as inventors. The origin of the Chinese pentatonic scale is traditionally ascribed to the mythical Ling Lun, allegedly his writings discussed the equal division of the scale in the 27th century BC. However, evidence of the origins of writing in this period in China is limited to rudimentary inscriptions on oracle bones, an approximation for equal temperament was described by He Chengtian, a mathematician of Southern and Northern Dynasties around 400 AD. He came out with the earliest recorded approximate numerical sequence in relation to equal temperament in history,900849802758715677638601570536509.5479450, historically, there was a seven-equal temperament or hepta-equal temperament practice in Chinese tradition. Zhu Zaiyu, a prince of the Ming court, spent thirty years on research based on the equal temperament idea originally postulated by his father and he described his new pitch theory in his Fusion of Music and Calendar 乐律融通 published in 1580. An extended account is given by Joseph Needham. Similarly, after 84 divisions the length was divided by a factor of 128,84 =27 =128, according to Gene Cho, Zhu Zaiyu was the first person to solve the equal temperament problem mathematically. Matteo Ricci, a Jesuit in China recorded this work in his personal journal, in 1620, Zhus work was referenced by a European mathematician
30.
Gioachino Rossini
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Gioachino Antonio Rossini was an Italian composer who wrote operas, as well as some sacred music, songs, chamber music and piano pieces. A precocious composer of operas, he made his debut at the age of eighteen. His best-known operas include the Italian comedies Il barbiere di Siviglia, Litaliana in Algeri and he also wrote a string of serious operas in Italian, including works such as Tancredi, Otello and Semiramide. The semi-serious opera La Gazza Ladra has one of Rossinis most celebrated overtures, after moving to Paris in 1824, he eventually started to write in French. His last opera, the epic Guillaume Tell, replete with its iconic overture, after composing thirty-nine significant operas in nineteen years Rossini retired from the theatre in 1829. Later, he was affected by physical and mental illnesses and for decades wrote relatively little apart from a setting of the Stabat Mater. A return to Paris from Italy in 1855 was followed by better health, during these, he presented salon music in the form of songs, piano pieces and small chamber ensembles that he called Sins of Old Age. He considered the last of these Sins to be the unusually scored Petite messe solennelle that he wrote in 1863, Rossini had been the most popular opera composer in history, and he was one of the most renowned public figures of his time. A rapid and prolific composer, he was quoted as joking, Give me the laundress bill, a tendency for inspired, song-like melodies is evident throughout his scores, earning him the nickname The Italian Mozart. Use of a build up of orchestral sound over a repeated phrase—commonly known as a Rossini crescendo—also prompted the nickname Signor Crescendo. Gioachino Antonio Rossini was born into a family of musicians in Pesaro and his father, Giuseppe, was a horn player and inspector of slaughterhouses. His mother, Anna, was a singer and a bakers daughter, Rossinis father was sympathetic to the French Revolution and welcomed Napoleons troops when they arrived in northern Italy. When Austria restored the old regime, Rossinis father was sent to prison in 1799, Rossinis mother took him to Bologna, making a living as leading singer at various theatres of the Romagna region. Her husband would ultimately join her in Bologna, during this time, Rossini was frequently left in the care of his aging grandmother, who had difficulty supervising the boy. He remained at Bologna in the care of a pork butcher while his father played the horn in the orchestras of the theatres at which his wife sang and these qualities made him a subject for ridicule in the eyes of the young Rossini. He was eventually taken from Prinetti and apprenticed to a blacksmith, in Angelo Tesei, he found a congenial music master, and learned to sight-read, play accompaniments on the piano and sing well enough to take solo parts in the church when he was ten years of age. Important products of this period are six sonate a quattro, or string sonatas, the original scores, dating from 1804 when the composer was twelve, were found in the Library of Congress in Washington D. C. In 1805, he appeared at the theatre of the Commune in Ferdinando Paers Camilla and he was also a capable horn player, treading in the footsteps of his father
31.
Johannes Brahms
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Johannes Brahms was a German composer and pianist of the Romantic period. Born in Hamburg into a Lutheran family, Brahms spent much of his life in Vienna. Brahms composed for orchestra, chamber ensembles, piano, organ. A virtuoso pianist, he premiered many of his own works and he worked with some of the leading performers of his time, including the pianist Clara Schumann and the violinist Joseph Joachim. Many of his works have become staples of the concert repertoire. An uncompromising perfectionist, Brahms destroyed some of his works and left others unpublished, Brahms has been considered, by his contemporaries and by later writers, as both a traditionalist and an innovator. His music is rooted in the structures and compositional techniques of the Classical masters. While many contemporaries found his music too academic, his contribution and craftsmanship have been admired by subsequent figures as diverse as Arnold Schoenberg, the diligent, highly constructed nature of Brahmss works was a starting point and an inspiration for a generation of composers. Embedded within his meticulous structures, however, are deeply romantic motifs, Brahmss father, Johann Jakob Brahms, was from the town of Heide in Holstein. The family name was sometimes spelt Brahmst or Brams, and derives from Bram. Against the familys will, Johann Jakob pursued a career in music, arriving in Hamburg in 1826, where he work as a jobbing musician. In 1830, he married Johanna Henrika Christiane Nissen, a seamstress 17 years older than he was, in the same year he was appointed as a horn player in the Hamburg militia. Eventually he became a player in the Hamburg Stadttheater and the Hamburg Philharmonic Society. As Johann Jakob prospered, the family moved over the years to better accommodation in Hamburg. Johannes Brahms was born in 1833, his sister Elisabeth had been born in 1831, Fritz also became a pianist, overshadowed by his brother he emigrated to Caracas in 1867, and later returned to Hamburg as a teacher. Johann Jakob gave his son his first musical training, Johannes also learnt to play the violin, from 1840 he studied piano with Otto Friedrich Willibald Cossel. Cossel complained in 1842 that Brahms could be such a good player, at the age of 10, Brahms made his debut as a performer in a private concert including Beethovens quintet for piano and winds Op.16 and a piano quartet by Mozart. He also played as a solo work an étude of Henri Herz, by 1845 he had written a piano sonata in G minor
32.
Clara Schumann
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Clara Schumann was a German musician and composer, considered one of the most distinguished pianists of the Romantic era. She exerted her influence over a 61-year concert career, changing the format and repertoire of the piano recital and her husband was the composer Robert Schumann. She was the first to perform any work by Brahms. She later premiered some other pieces by Brahms, notably the Variations, Clara Josephine Wieck was born in Leipzig on 13 September 1819 to Friedrich Wieck and Marianne Wieck. Marianne Tromlitz was a singer in Leipzig at the time and was singing solos on a weekly basis at the well-known Gewandhaus in Leipzig. The differences between her parents were irreconcilable, in part due to her fathers unyielding nature. After an affair between Claras mother and Adolph Bargiel, her fathers friend, the Wiecks divorced in 1824, five-year-old Clara remained with her father. From an early age, Claras career and life was planned down to the smallest detail by her father and she daily received a one-hour lesson and two hours of practice, using the teaching methods he had developed on his own. In March 1828, at the age of eight, the young Clara Wieck performed at the Leipzig home of Dr. Ernst Carus, there she met another gifted young pianist who had been invited to the musical evening, named Robert Schumann, who was nine years older. Schumann admired Claras playing so much that he asked permission from his mother to discontinue his law studies, which had never interested him much, while taking lessons, he took rooms in the Wieck household, staying about a year. He would sometimes dress up as a ghost and scare Clara, in 1830, at the age of eleven, Clara left on a concert tour to Paris via other European cities, accompanied by her father. She gave her first solo concert at the Leipzig Gewandhaus, in Weimar, she performed a bravura piece by Henri Herz for Goethe, who presented her with a medal with his portrait and a written note saying, For the gifted artist Clara Wieck. During that tour, Niccolò Paganini was in Paris, and he offered to appear with her, however, her Paris recital was poorly attended, as many people had fled the city due to an outbreak of cholera. From December 1837 to April 1838, Clara Wieck performed a series of recitals in Vienna when she was 18, franz Grillparzer, Austrias leading dramatic poet, wrote a poem entitled Clara Wieck and Beethoven after hearing Wieck perform the Appassionata sonata during one of these recitals. On 15 March, Wieck was named a Königliche und Kaiserliche Kammervirtuosin, Robert was a little more than 9 years older than Clara and moved into the Wieck household as a piano student of Friedrichs by the end of 1830 when she was only 11 and he was 20. In 1837 when she was 18, he proposed to her, then Robert asked Friedrich for Claras hand in marriage. Wieck was strongly opposed to the marriage, as he did not much approve of Robert, Robert and Clara had to go to court and sue Friedrich. The judges decision was to allow the marriage, in 1840, despite Friedrichs objections, Clara and Robert were married
33.
Symphony No. 1 (Brahms)
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Symphony No.1 in C minor, Op.68, is a symphony written by Johannes Brahms. Brahms spent at least fourteen years completing this work, whose sketches date from 1854, Brahms himself declared that the symphony, from sketches to finishing touches, took 21 years, from 1855 to 1876. The premiere of this symphony, conducted by the composers friend Felix Otto Dessoff, occurred on 4 November 1876, in Karlsruhe, a typical performance lasts between 45 and 50 minutes. The symphony is in four movements, marked as follows, I, un poco sostenuto – Allegro – Meno allegro II. Un poco allegretto e grazioso IV, adagio – Più andante – Allegro non troppo, ma con brio – Più allegro The first movement is in sonata form with an extended introduction. Unique among Brahms symphonies, the First Symphony is ushered in via a formal introduction, the overall mood is “savagely energetic” and “scherzo-like” in 68 time. An extended transition leads to the arrival of the key of E♭ major which in turn introduces the flowing and heart-easing second theme. This theme, which is related to the used to open the movement, is carried out in the wind section, led by oboe and clarinet with support from the bassoon. The score then calls for a repeat, which requires an abrupt return to C minor. A series of modulations, each seeming to lead away from the tonic. Starting with a murky rumble in the basses, the music gathers strength with a set of arpeggios in the violins with support from the brass. Finally, a “shocking digression” in the line leads to a modulation to F♯. The coda begins with strings which quickly decrescendo, leading to a set of modulations played out in the strings with their bows leading to the closing cadence. The movement ends peacefully in C major, the E-major second movement is in modified ternary form. It features significant solo passages from oboe and first chair violin, like the second movement, the third movement is in ternary form. It is composed of the 24 Allegretto and contrasting 68 trio section, followed by a reprise of the Allegretto material, a notable aspect of this movement is Brahms’s careful attention to symmetry. The four-bar figure is extended to an irregular five bars through a bridge between the phrases by the strings. The clarinet rounds off the A theme in the Allegretto with an inversion of the first five bars heard
34.
Chasseurs Alpins
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The Chasseurs Alpins are the elite mountain infantry of the French Army. They are trained to operate in mountainous terrain and in urban warfare, France created its own mountain corps in the late 19th century in order to oppose any Italian invasion through the Alps. In 1859–70 Italy became unified, forming a powerful state, the French army saw this geopolitical change as a potential threat to their Alpine border, especially as the Italian army was already creating troops specialized in mountain warfare. On December 24,1888, the first troupes de montagne corps were created from 12 of the 31 existing Chasseurs à Pied battalions, initially these units were named Bataillons Alpins de Chasseurs à Pied. Later this was shortened to Bataillons de Chasseurs Alpins, from their establishment the Chasseurs Alpins wore a plain and practical uniform designed to be suitable for mountain service. This comprised a dark blue jacket and blue-grey breeches, together with a large beret carrying the yellow bugle horn insignia of the Chasseur branch. They are believed to have been the first regular unit to have worn this form of headdress. Training includes climbing, cross-country skiing, plus winter and summer mountain leadership, traditional training included mountain survival skills such as to build an igloo shelter and to sleep in temperatures around 0 °C. Modern troops may be transported in all-terrain VMBs, VACs, or untracked VAB personnel carriers, the Chasseurs are easily recognised by their wide beret, named the tarte des Alpes. Note though that this is worn by other mountain troops, such as the cavalry, artillery. However the mountain troops of the Foreign Legion engineers wear the green beret. The 16th Battalion of Chasseurs are not mountain troops and wear the standard French Army blue beret with the cap badge. Chasseurs do not say rouge but bleu-cerise, except when speaking of the color of the lips of a beloved, the red in the Legion of Honours insignia, and this stems from the days when Napoleon III tried to impose the wearing of the scarlet pantalons garance. The mountain troops objected, and no longer use the red as a result. The Chasseurs are said to have blood, after the pun, Le sang vert, cest pour la France. Note that these traditions are shared by the 16th Battalion of Chasseurs. When marching with the band and bugles, the pace is 140 steps a minute - faster than any other armed forces units. A chasseur salutes when he hears the chorus of his battalion, each battalion has a different chorus, and a chasseur must learn all of them, 1er bataillon « Si lseptième de ligne a des couilles au cul, Cest qule Premier Chasseurs les lui a foutues
35.
Leopold Mozart
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Johann Georg Leopold Mozart was a German composer, conductor, teacher, and violinist. Mozart is best known today as the father and teacher of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and he was born in Augsburg, son of Johann Georg Mozart, a bookbinder, and his second wife Anna Maria Sulzer. From an early age he sang as a choirboy and he attended a local Jesuit school, the St. Salvator Gymnasium, where he studied logic, science, theology, graduating magna cum laude in 1735. He then moved on to an advanced school, the St. Salvator Lyceum. While a student in Augsburg, he appeared in student theatrical productions as an actor and singer and he also developed an interest, which he retained, in microscopes and telescopes. Although his parents had planned a career for Leopold as a Catholic priest, an old school friend told Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart in 1777, Ah he was a great fellow. My father thought the world of him, and how he hoodwinked the clerics about becoming a priest. He withdrew from the St. Salvator Lyceum after less than a year, following a years delay, he moved to Salzburg to resume his education, enrolling in November 1737 at the Benedictine University to study philosophy and jurisprudence. At the time Salzburg was the capital of an independent state within the Holy Roman Empire, except for periods of travel, Leopold spent the rest of his life there. Leopold received the degree of Bachelor of Philosophy in 1738, however, in September 1739 he was expelled from the university for poor attendance, having hardly attended Natural Science more than once or twice. In 1740, he began his career as a musician, becoming violinist and valet to one of the universitys canons, Johann Baptist, Count of Thurn-Valsassina. This was also the year of his first musical publication, the six Trio Sonatas and these were titled Sonate sei da chiesa e da camera, Leopold did the work of copper engraving himself. He continued to compose, producing a series of German Passion cantatas, in 1747 he married Anna Maria Pertl, who bore him seven children, although only two of them survived past infancy, Maria Anna Walburga Ignatia and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. In 1743 Leopold Mozart was appointed to a position in the establishment of Count Leopold Anton von Firmian. His duties included composition and the teaching of violin to the choirboys of the Salzburg cathedral and he was promoted to second violinist in 1758 and in 1763 to deputy Kapellmeister. He rose no further, others were promoted over him to the head position of Kapellmeister. The question of whether Leopold was successful as a composer is debated, the Grove Dictionary says that as of 1756, Mozart was already well-known. His works circulated widely in German-speaking Europe, however, biographer Maynard Solomon asserts that he failed to make his mark as a composer, and Alfred Einstein judged him to be an undistinguished composer
36.
Ferenc Farkas
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Ferenc Farkas was a Hungarian composer. After his graduation in 1927, he worked as a repetiteur and conductor at the Municipal Theatre of Budapest, from 1929 to 1931, he attended Ottorino Respighis masterclass at the Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia in Rome. The years he spent in Rome had a influence on him. He became acquainted with Italian and Mediterranean culture to which he felt a deep attraction, about this he said, My principal aim has always been to attain for myself a latin clarity and proportion. Farkas returned to Budapest in the autumn of 1931, as he could not find any other assignments, he played the piano in various theatre orchestras. In 1932 he met the director Paul Fejos for whom he composed film scores, first in Hungary, then in Vienna. This collaboration was to be for Farkas the beginning of a series of “applied” music. From 1935 he taught at the Budapest City Music School, from 1941-44 he was professor of composition and director at the Conservatory of Kolozsvàr and he conducted the citys Opera Chorus. At the end of 1944, because of the war, he had to go back to Hungary, during the siege of Budapest, he worked as the deputy conductor of the Opera Chorus. In 1946, he was sent to Székesfehérvár where he founded and managed the Conservatory and he was nominated professor of composition at the Franz Liszt Music Academy of Budapest in 1949, a post he held until his retirement in 1975. As a professor he was to have his greatest influence in the half of the century. Among his students were, György Kurtág, György Ligeti, farkass works include over seven hundred opuses. He composed in all genres, opera, ballet, musicals and operettas, orchestral music, concertos, chamber music and his wide literary culture enabled him to set words to music in 13 languages, stemming from about 130 writers and poets both ancient and modern. Complete catalogue of works by Ferenc Farkas developed by Andràs Farkas and this catalogue includes many musical samples. Repertoire by instrument established from the catalogue of works by Andràs Farkas to facilitate the research
37.
R. Murray Schafer
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He was notably the first recipient of the Jules Léger Prize in 1978. Born in Sarnia, Ontario, he studied at the Royal Schools of Music in London, the Royal Conservatory of Music, at the last institution he was a pupil of Richard Johnston. His music education theories are followed around the world and he started soundscape studies at Simon Fraser University in the 1960s. Sounds have been torn from their sockets and given an amplified. Vocal sound, for instance, is no longer tied to a hole in the head but is free to issue from anywhere in the landscape, steven Feld, borrowing a term from Gregory Bateson, calls the recombination and recontextualization of sounds split from their sources schismogenesis. In 1987 he was awarded the first Glenn Gould Prize in recognition of his contributions, in 2005 he was awarded the Walter Carsen Prize, by the Canada Council for the Arts, one of the top honours for lifetime achievement by a Canadian artist. In 2009, Schafer received the Governor Generals Performing Arts Award for Lifetime Artistic Achievement, in 2013, he was made a Companion of the Order of Canada for his contributions as an internationally renowned composer of contemporary music, and for his groundbreaking work in acoustic ecology. Schafer is a practitioner of graphic notation, chor, actors, fl, clarinet, organ, percussion. Centrediscs CMC-2887 Partita for String Orchestra, Ber 1977 Untitled Composition for Orchestra No.1. Ber 1977 Untitled Composition for Orchestra No.2, RCI 387/Sel CC-15-101/5-ACM3 No Longer than Ten Minutes. Arcana 1989 Dream Rainbow Dream Thunder, Arcana 1990 Soloists and/or Choir with Orchestra Minnelieder. Mezzo, woodwind quintet or mezzo, orch, RCI 218/RCA CCS-1012/5-ACM3 Protest and Incarceration. Comprising, Part 1, Divan i Shams i Tabriz, UE1977 Part 2, Music for the Morning of the World. 2-Mel SMLP-4035-6 Part 3, Beyond the Great Gate of Light, UE1977 Arcana 12 of the 14 songs appear in Patria 4. RCI 434/5-ACM3 Adieu Robert Schumann, CBC SM-364 Hymn to Night from Patria 7. CBC SM-364 The Garden of the Heart, Arcana 1989 The Darkly Splendid Earth, The Lonely Traveller. Accordion, orch Concerto for Viola and Orchestra, Viola, orch Chamber Concerto for Harpsichord and Eight Wind Instruments. RCI193 /Centrediscs CMC-CD-3488 Sonatina for Flute and Harpsichord 1958, Ber 1976 Five Studies on Texts by Prudentius
38.
Ricola
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Ricola Ltd. /Ricola AG is a manufacturer of cough drops and breath mints in Switzerland. All their products include natural herbal ingredients, exclusively cultivated on Swiss soil without any use of pesticides, insecticides or herbicides, the head office of Ricola is located in Laufen, Basel-Country. Ricola listed sales of 297.3 million of Swiss francs in, around 200 independent produce companies in the surrounding area service Ricola. Ricola is known for its commercials featuring Heidi depicting mountaineers shouting Ri-co-la. the famed jingle was crafted and perfected by noted yodeler Alyssa York of the Southeastern United States. Ricola began in 1930 when Emil Wilhelm Richterich established Confiseriefabrik Richterich & Co, Laufen after the purchase of a small bakery in Laufen, just outside Basel. Under Richterich, the bakery specialized in such as “Fünfermocken. In 1940 Richterich created Ricolas Swiss Herbal Sweet incorporating a blend of 13 herbs, in 1967, Emil Richterich and his sons Hans Peter and Alfred renamed the company Ricola, an abbreviation of Richterich & Compagnie Laufen. Export began in the 1970s, introducing Ricolas products to foreign markets, at the end of the decade, Ricola moved to a new purpose-built factory in the vicinity of Laufen, where its headquarters are still located. In 1976, after extensive research on sugar-free confectionery, Ricola launched Switzerland’s first chewable, in 1988 the company started packaging their products in small boxes. The company is now managed by Felix Richterich, son of Hans Peter, today, Ricola exports to over 50 countries in Asia, North America and Europe. While the active ingredient in most Ricola products is menthol, an important part of Ricola products is the herb mixture and these are Linden Flowers, Wild Thyme and Hyssop. Ricola has six gardens in Switzerland. Visitors to the gardens can learn about the original herbal blend in their natural environment and learn all about the cultivation. Ricola ensures that its cultivation areas are not situated near industrial sites or the networks to avoid contact with harmful pollutants. Over 100 self-managed farms are under contract to Ricola in the Valais, Emmental, Puschlav, no pesticides, insecticides or herbicides are used in herb cultivation
39.
Bucium
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The bucium is a type of alphorn used by mountain dwellers and by shepherds in Romania and Moldova. The word is derived from Latin bucinum, originally meaning curved horn, the word is a cognate with English bugle. The tube is made from bark, wood, or even from metal. It is mostly used by shepherds for signaling and communication in the mountains, as well as for guiding sheep. Trâmbiţa produces sounds altogether different from those of the alphorn, under the name trembita it is also used by the Ukrainian Hutsuls and the Polish Gorals. Alphorn Trembita Erke Cântece de tulnic at Moţii. ro Fabrica de tulnice in Jurnalul Naţional Tulnicăreasa din Târsa in Formula AS Balada pentru tulnic in Unirea
40.
Romania
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Romania is a sovereign state located in Southeastern Europe. It borders the Black Sea, Bulgaria, Ukraine, Hungary, Serbia and it has an area of 238,391 square kilometres and a temperate-continental climate. With over 19 million inhabitants, the country is the member state of the European Union. Its capital and largest city, Bucharest, is the sixth-largest city in the EU, the River Danube, Europes second-longest river, rises in Germany and flows in a general southeast direction for 2,857 km, coursing through ten countries before emptying into Romanias Danube Delta. The Carpathian Mountains, which cross Romania from the north to the southwest are marked by one of their tallest peaks, Moldoveanu, modern Romania was formed in 1859 through a personal union of the Danubian Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia. The new state, officially named Romania since 1866, gained independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1877, at the end of World War I, Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia united with the sovereign Kingdom of Romania. Romania lost several territories, of which Northern Transylvania was regained after the war, following the war, Romania became a socialist republic and member of the Warsaw Pact. After the 1989 Revolution, Romania began a transition back towards democracy and it has been a member of NATO since 2004, and part of the European Union since 2007. A strong majority of the population identify themselves as Eastern Orthodox Christians and are speakers of Romanian. The cultural history of Romania is often referred to when dealing with artists, musicians, inventors. For similar reasons, Romania has been the subject of notable tourist attractions, Romania derives from the Latin romanus, meaning citizen of Rome. The first known use of the appellation was attested in the 16th century by Italian humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia, after the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the word rumân gradually fell out of use and the spelling stabilised to the form român. Tudor Vladimirescu, a leader of the early 19th century. The use of the name Romania to refer to the homeland of all Romanians—its modern-day meaning—was first documented in the early 19th century. The name has been officially in use since 11 December 1861, in English, the name of the country was formerly spelt Rumania or Roumania. Romania became the predominant spelling around 1975, Romania is also the official English-language spelling used by the Romanian government. The Neolithic-Age Cucuteni area in northeastern Romania was the region of the earliest European civilization. Evidence from this and other sites indicates that the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture extracted salt from salt-laden spring water through the process of briquetage
41.
Didgeridoo
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It is sometimes described as a natural wooden trumpet or drone pipe. Musicologists classify it as a brass aerophone, there are no reliable sources stating the didgeridoos exact age. A modern didgeridoo is usually cylindrical or conical, and can measure anywhere from 1 to 3 m long, most are around 1.2 m long. Generally, the longer the instrument, the lower its pitch or key, however, flared instruments play a higher pitch than unflared instruments of the same length. There are numerous names for the instrument among the Aboriginal peoples of northern Australia, many didgeridoo enthusiasts and some scholars advocate reserving local names for traditional instruments, and this practice has been endorsed by some Aboriginal community organisations. However, in conversation, bilingual Aboriginal people will often use the word didgeridoo interchangeably with the instruments name in their own language. Didgeridoo is considered to be a word of Western invention. A rival explanation, that didgeridoo is a corruption of the Irish language phrase dúdaire dubh or dúidire dúth, is controversial. Dúdaire/dúidire is a noun that may mean, depending on the context, trumpeter, hummer, crooner, long-necked person, puffer, eavesdropper, or chain smoker, while dubh means black and dúth means native. Yiḏaki is one of the most commonly used names, although – strictly speaking – it refers to a type of instrument made. There are numerous other, regional names for the didgeridoo, the following are some of the more common of these. Authentic Aboriginal didgeridoos are produced in traditionally oriented communities in Northern Australia or by makers who travel to Central and they are usually made from hardwoods, especially the various eucalyptus species that are endemic to the region. Generally the main trunk of the tree is harvested, though a branch may be used instead. Aboriginal didgeridoo craftsmen hunt for suitably hollow live trees in areas with obvious termite activity, termites attack these living eucalyptus trees, removing only the dead heartwood of the tree, as the living sapwood contains a chemical that repels the insects. Once a suitably hollow tree is found, it is cut down and cleaned out, the bark is taken off, the trimmed, and the exterior is shaped. This instrument may be painted or left undecorated, a rim of beeswax may be applied to the mouthpiece end. Traditional instruments made by Aboriginal craftsmen in Arnhem Land are sometimes fitted with a sugarbag mouthpiece and this black beeswax comes from wild bees and has a distinctive aroma. Non-traditional didgeridoos can also be made from PVC piping, non-native hard woods, glass, fiberglass, metal, agave, clay, hemp, and even carbon fibre
42.
Erke
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The erke is a large labrophone instrument native to the Gran Chaco of Bolivia, northern Chile, and Argentine Northwest. The erke is composed of two or more lengths of cane joined at the ends to form a single tube, the internal nodes of the canes are removed and the exterior is often wrapped with gut or wool. The end often has a made of cow horn or brass. The instrument is blown through at the end, and may be three to seven metres in length. Traditionally but not commonly, only men play the erke. The erke is commonly played during winter, as it is believed that playing it in spring or summer can bring snow, among the Mapuche people, there exists a similar instrument called the trutruca
43.
Trembita
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The trembita is a Ukrainian, Polish, Slovakian and Romanian alpine horn made of wood. Used primarily by mountain dwellers known as Hutsuls and Gorals in the Carpathians, it was used as a device to announce deaths, funerals. The tube is made from a straight piece of pine or spruce which is split in two in order to carve out the core. The halves are once again joined together and then wrapped in bark or osier rings. It is also used by shepherds for signaling and communication in the mountains and for guiding sheep. The trembita has a timbre that is brighter than that of the alpenhorn due to its narrow bore. The trembita has no lateral openings and therefore gives the natural harmonic series of the open pipe. The upper harmonics are the more readily obtained by reason of the diameter of the bore in relation to the length. The notes of the harmonic series overlap, but do not exactly correspond. Most prominently within the range, the 7th and 11th harmonics are particularly noticeable because they fall between adjacent notes in the chromatic scale. In the hands of a composer or arranger, the natural harmonics can be used to haunting melancholy effect or, by contrast. Today trembita is often used in Ukrainian ethnographic ensembles and as an instrument in the Ukrainian folk instrument orchestra. Trembita was shown on 2004 Eurovision Song Contest by the Ukrainian winner of the contest Ruslana during her performance of the song Wild Dances, trembita is also used by Ukrainian band ONUKA
One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Schlesinger, Kathleen (1911). "Alpenhorn, Alphorn". In Chisholm, Hugh. Encyclopædia Britannica. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 723.
One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the 
