1.
Russian Orthodox Church
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The Russian Orthodox Church, alternatively legally known as the Moscow Patriarchate, is one of the autocephalous Eastern Orthodox churches, in full communion with other Eastern Orthodox patriarchates. The Primate of the ROC is the Patriarch of Moscow and all Rus and it also exercises ecclesiastical jurisdiction over the autonomous Church of Japan and the Orthodox Christians resident in the Peoples Republic of China. The ROC branches in Belarus, Estonia, Latvia, Moldova and Ukraine since the 1990s enjoy various degrees of self-government, in Ukraine, ROC has tensions with schismatic groups supported by the current government, while it enjoys the position of numerically dominant religious organisation. The ROC should also not be confused with the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia, headquartered in New York, New York, the two Churches reconciled on May 17,2007, the ROCOR is now a self-governing part of the Russian Orthodox Church. According to one of the legends, Andrew reached the location of Kiev. The spot where he erected a cross is now marked by St. Andrews Cathedral. By the end of the first millennium AD, eastern Slavic lands started to come under the influence of the Eastern Roman Empire. There is evidence that the first Christian bishop was sent to Novgorod from Constantinople either by Patriarch Photius or Patriarch Ignatios, by the mid-10th century, there was already a Christian community among Kievan nobility, under the leadership of Byzantine Greek priests, although paganism remained the dominant religion. Princess Olga of Kiev was the first ruler of Kievan Rus′ to convert to Christianity and her grandson, Vladimir of Kiev, made Rus officially a Christian state. The Kievan church was a metropolitanate of the Patriarchate of Constantinople and the Ecumenical patriarch appointed the metropolitan, who usually was a Greek. The Metropolitans residence was located in Kiev itself, the capital of the medieval Rus state. Following the tribulations of the Mongol invasion, the Russian Church was pivotal in the survival, despite the politically motivated murders of Mikhail of Chernigov and Mikhail of Tver, the Mongols were generally tolerant and even granted tax exemption to the Church. Such holy figures as Sergius of Radonezh and Metropolitan Alexis helped the country to withstand years of Tatar oppression, the Trinity monastery founded by Sergius of Radonezh became the setting for the flourishing of spiritual art, exemplified by the work of Andrey Rublev, among others. The followers of Sergius founded four hundred monasteries, thus extending the geographical extent of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. However, the Moscow Prince Vasili II rejected the act of the Council of Florence brought to Moscow by Isidore in March 1441, Isidore was in the same year removed from his position as an apostate and expelled from Moscow. The Russian metropolitanate remained effectively vacant for the few years due largely to the dominance of Uniates in Constantinople then. In December 1448, Jonas, a Russian bishop, was installed by the Council of Russian bishops in Moscow as Metropolitan of Kiev and All Russia without the consent from Constantinople. Subsequently, there developed a theory in Moscow that saw Moscow as the Third Rome, the successor to Constantinople
2.
Yup'ik
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They are also known as Cupik by the Chevak Cupik dialect-speaking Eskimos of Chevak and Cupig for the Nunivak Cupig dialect-speaking Eskimo of Nunivak Island. Both Chevak Cupik and Nunivak Cupig Eskimos are also known as Cupik, the Yupik, Cupik, and Cupig speakers can converse without difficulty, and the regional population is often described using the larger term of Yupik. The Yupiit speak the Yupik language, of a total population of about 21,000 people, about 10,000 speak the language. The Yupik Eskimo combine a contemporary and a subsistence lifestyle in a blend unique to the Southwest Alaska. Today, the Yupik generally work and live in style but still hunt and fish in traditional subsistence ways. Most Yupik people still speak the language and bilingual education has been in force since the 1970s. The Yupiit are the most numerous of the various Alaska Native groups and speak the Central Alaskan Yupik language, a member of the Eskimo-Aleut family of languages. As of the 2000 U. S. Census, the Yupiit population in the United States numbered over 24,000, the vast majority of these live in the seventy or so communities in the traditional Yupik territory of western and southwestern Alaska. As of the 2010 U. S. Census, the Yupik at 34,000 people is the largest Alaska Native tribal grouping, either alone or in combination, the Yupik had the greatest number of people who identified with one tribal grouping and no other race. In that census, nearly half of American Indians and Alaska Natives identified as being of mixed race, the traditional Yupik Eskimo village of Toksook Bay is located on Nelson Island,6.5 miles southeast of Tununak, in the Yukon- Kuskokwim Delta. Families from Tununak and Newtok joined them, and the settlement grew, the city was incorporated in 1972. As of 2011, the Alaska Department of Labor estimated its population at 598, the federally recognized Nunakauyarmiut Tribe is located here. They use commercial fishing and subsistence activities to supplement income and provide food sources. Herring roe, salmon and halibut are favorite harvests, originally the form Yupik was used in the northern area while the form Yupiaq was used in the southern area. The form Yup’ik is now used as a common term, Yupik comes from the Yupik word yuk meaning person plus the postbase -pik or -piaq meaning real or genuine, thus, Yupik literally means real people. The ethnographic literature sometimes refers to the Yupik people or their language as Yuk or Yuit, in the Hooper Bay-Chevak and Nunivak dialects of Yupik, both the language and the people are given the name Cupik. The use of an apostrophe in the name Yupik, compared to Siberian Yupik, the apostrophe represents gemination of the p sound. Migrating east, they reached the Bering Sea area about 10,000 years ago and this causeway became exposed between 20,000 and 8,000 years ago during periods of glaciation. E
3.
Aleut
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The Aleuts Russian, Алеу́ты, who are usually known in the Aleut language by the endonym Unangax Унаңан, are the indigenous people of the Aleutian Islands. Both the Unangax and the islands are divided between the US state of Alaska and the Russian administrative division of Kamchatka Krai, the Pribilof Islands boast the highest number of active speakers of Aleutian. Most of the Native elders speak Aleut, but it is rare for an everyday person to speak the language fluently. Aleut was written in the Cyrillic script beginning in 1829, from 1870, the language was written in the Latin script. An Aleut dictionary and grammar have been published, and portions of the Bible were translated into Aleut, the Aleut dialects and tribes, Attuan dialect and speaking tribes, Sasignan / Sasxinan / Sasxinas or Near Islanders, in the Near Islands. Kasakam Unangangis or Copper Island Aleut, in the Commander Islands of Russian Federation, qax̂un or Rat Islanders, in the Buldir Island and Rat Islands. Atkan dialect or Western Aleut or Aliguutax̂ and speaking tribes, Naahmiĝus or Delarof Islanders, in the Delarof Islands, niiĝuĝis or Andreanof Islanders, in the Andreanof Islands. Eastern Aleut dialect and speaking tribes, Akuuĝun or Uniiĝun or Islanders of the Four Mountains, qawalangin or Fox Islanders, in the Fox Islands. Qigiiĝun or Krenitzen Islanders, in the Krenitzin Islands, qagaan Tayaĝungin or Sanak Islanders, in the Sanak Islands. Qaĝiiĝun or Shumigan Islanders, in the Shumagin Islands, in the 1820s, the Russian-American Company administered a large portion of the North Pacific during a Russian-led expansion of the fur trade. They resettled many Aleut families to the Commander Islands and to the Pribilof Islands and these continue to have majority-Aleut communities. According to the 2000 Census,11,941 people reported Aleut ancestry, before major outside contact, there were approximately 25,000 Aleuts on the archipelago. In other words, this people suffered high fatalities in the 19th, in addition, the population suffered as traditional lifestyles were disrupted. According to the up-to-date Encyclopædia Britannica Online, Early 21st-century population estimates indicated more than 15,000 individuals of Aleut descent, Russian traders and later Europeans married Aleut women and had families with them. After the arrival of Russian Orthodox missionaries in the late 18th century, of the numerous Russian Orthodox congregations in Alaska, most are majority Alaska Native in ethnicity. One of the earliest Christian martyrs in North America was Saint Peter the Aleut, in the 18th century, Russia promyshlenniki traders established settlements on the islands and exploited the people. There was a revolt against Russian workers in Amchitka in 1784. It started when supplies ran out which the Russians had provided to people in trade for their furs
4.
Old Harbor, Alaska
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Old Harbor is a city in Kodiak Island Borough, Alaska, United States. At the 2010 census the population was 218. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 26.5 square miles, of which 20.5 square miles is land and 6.0 square miles. The community of Old Harbor has its origins in the era of Russian conquest, in Alutiiq, this sacred place is known as Awauq. As of the census of 2000, there were 237 people,79 households, the population density was 11.3 people per square mile. There were 111 housing units at a density of 5.3 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 13. 08% White,73. 00% Native American,26. 6% of all households were made up of individuals and 3. 8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.00 and the family size was 3.60. In the city, the age distribution of the population shows 39. 7% under the age of 18,7. 6% from 18 to 24,29. 5% from 25 to 44,19. 0% from 45 to 64, the median age was 27 years. For every 100 females there were 127.9 males, for every 100 females of age 18 and over, there are 142.4 males. The median income for a household in the city was $32,500, males had a median income of $33,750 versus $23,750 for females. The per capita income for the city was $14,265, about 30. 8% of families and 29. 5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 32. 5% of those under the age of eighteen and none of those sixty five or over. The Old Harbor School, a K-12 rural school, is operated by the Kodiak Island Borough School District, Kodiak. org – Information about Old Harbor
5.
Kodiak Island
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Kodiak Island is a large island on the south coast of the U. S. state of Alaska, separated from the Alaska mainland by the Shelikof Strait. It is 160 km long and in width ranges from 16 to 97 kilometres, Kodiak Island is the namesake for Kodiak Seamount, which lies off the coast at the Aleutian Trench. The largest community on the island is the city of Kodiak, Kodiak Island is mountainous and heavily forested in the north and east, but fairly treeless in the south. The island has many deep, ice-free bays that provide sheltered anchorages for boats, the southwestern two-thirds of the island, like much of the Kodiak Archipelago, is part of Kodiak National Wildlife Refuge. Kodiak Island is part of the Kodiak Island Borough and Kodiak Archipelago of Alaska, the town of Kodiak is one of seven communities on Kodiak Island and is the islands main city. All commercial transportation between the island and the world goes through this city either via ferryboat or airline. Other settlements include the villages of Akhiok, Old Harbor, Karluk, Larsen Bay, Port Lions, the village of Ouzinkie on nearby Spruce Island is also part of the island community. Kodiak is also home to the largest U. S. Coast Guard base, which includes Coast Guard Base Kodiak, Coast Guard Air Station Kodiak, Communications Station Kodiak, the Kodiak bear and the king crab are native to the island. The fishing industry is the most important economic activity on the island, fisheries include Pacific salmon, Pacific halibut, the Karluk River is famous for its salmon run. Logging, ranching, numerous canneries, and some mining are also prevalent. An antenna farm at the summit of Pillar Mountain above the city of Kodiak provides primary communications to, Kodiak is the ancestral land of the Sugpiaq, an Alutiiq nation of Alaska Natives. The original inhabitants subsisted by hunting, fishing, farming, Kodiak Island was explored in 1763 by Russian fur trader Stephan Glotov. In 1792 the settlement was moved to the site of present-day Kodiak, in Alutiiq, this sacred place is now known as Awauq, to become numb. Following the 1867 Alaska purchase by the United States, the became part of the United States. Gradually Americans settled there, also engaging in hunting and fishing, novarupta is a volcano 100 miles northwest of Kodiak Island that erupted from June 6 to June 8,1912, the largest eruption in the 20th century. Life on Kodiak Island was immobilized during the 60-hour eruption, darkness and suffocating conditions caused by the falling ash and sulfur dioxide gas rendered villagers helpless. Among Kodiaks 500 inhabitants, sore eyes and respiratory problems were widespread, radio communications were disrupted and visibility was nil. Roofs in the village collapsed under the weight of more than a foot of ash, buildings were destroyed as avalanches of ash rushed down from nearby hillsides
6.
Promyshlenniki
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Initially the Russians in Russian America were Siberian fur hunters, although many later worked as sailors, carpenters, artisans and craftsmen. Promyshlenniki formed the backbone of Russian trading operations in Alaska, after the Russian Conquest of Siberia, as a part of the regional fur trade, colonists began to exploit the vast populations of sables. The opportunities offered by this newly available luxury product drew many Russians eager to make a profit in the newly conquered Siberia, service-men that arrived, rarely able to receive a stable salary from the state, nonetheless had certain legal rights and duties while nominally a servant to Tsar. Merchants began to visit the Russian settlements, interested in selling the gathered furs at various markets, Promyshlenniki were free men who made their living any way they could. A minor group were sworn-men, agreeing to an oath in order to certain rights. In practice the groups blended into each other and the distinction was most important when dealing with the government, when petitioning the tsar, a service-man would call himself your slave and a promishlenik your orphan. These people were often called cossacks, but only in the sense of being neither land-owners nor peasants. As the Russian Empire expanded its network into Siberia, Russian colonists were able to be placed under Imperial regulations. The fierce competition between promyshlenniki led to the overexploitation of sable populations, continually forcing them to go further east, Promyshlenniki began to gather sable pelts located in the Amur basin during the early 17th century. Trappers based out of Nerchinsk regularly crossed the Qing border into Outer Manchuria by the 1730s to pursue sable populations residing there, Russian officials were aware of these operations, but tolerated any breach of the Russian-Chinese treaties which might occur. The Great Northern Expedition expanded Russian geographical knowledge to many of the Aleutian Islands, news of the many Sea otter populations along these lands quickly drew the attention of many Siberian based promyshlenniki. Few had naval experience, though began to travel the Bering Sea on kochs made from timber adjacent to the Sea of Okhotsk. The first Russian promyshlenniki to travel east was Emelian Basov, who sailed to Bering Island in 1743, Promyshlenniki based out of Okhotsk or Petropavlovsk, made provisions for their yearly operations in the Aleutians by killing sea cows of the Commander Islands to extinction. The Sea otters of the Aleutians were progressively exploited by Russians, as these early trappers had no knowledge of navigation, they consequently took no observations, made no surveys. And greatly limited geographical information for outsiders, the Lebedev-Lastochkin Company sent the first Russian promyshlenniki to investigate the resources of the lower Yukon River in 1790. The party, led by the hunter Ivanov, traveled from Iliamna Lake to the Kuskokwim, Ivanov reported on the extensive fish and game resources and the many people inhabiting the region. At first the traders returned to Kamchatka after every season but eventually trading posts were established in the territory and these posts began in the Aleutians and moved eastward toward the Alaska Peninsula rather than north to the Yukon delta and Bering Strait. Promyshlenniki were adept at hunting on land but they lacked the skills to hunt on water, the Promyshlenniki then turned to the native Aleut and Alutiiq men to do their hunting for them
7.
Russian language
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Russian is an East Slavic language and an official language in Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and many minor or unrecognised territories. Russian belongs to the family of Indo-European languages and is one of the four living members of the East Slavic languages, written examples of Old East Slavonic are attested from the 10th century and beyond. It is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia and the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages and it is also the largest native language in Europe, with 144 million native speakers in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. Russian is the eighth most spoken language in the world by number of native speakers, the language is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Russian is also the second most widespread language on the Internet after English, Russian distinguishes between consonant phonemes with palatal secondary articulation and those without, the so-called soft and hard sounds. This distinction is found between pairs of almost all consonants and is one of the most distinguishing features of the language, another important aspect is the reduction of unstressed vowels. Russian is a Slavic language of the Indo-European family and it is a lineal descendant of the language used in Kievan Rus. From the point of view of the language, its closest relatives are Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Rusyn. An East Slavic Old Novgorod dialect, although vanished during the 15th or 16th century, is considered to have played a significant role in the formation of modern Russian. In the 19th century, the language was often called Great Russian to distinguish it from Belarusian, then called White Russian and Ukrainian, however, the East Slavic forms have tended to be used exclusively in the various dialects that are experiencing a rapid decline. In some cases, both the East Slavic and the Church Slavonic forms are in use, with different meanings. For details, see Russian phonology and History of the Russian language and it is also regarded by the United States Intelligence Community as a hard target language, due to both its difficulty to master for English speakers and its critical role in American world policy. The standard form of Russian is generally regarded as the modern Russian literary language, mikhail Lomonosov first compiled a normalizing grammar book in 1755, in 1783 the Russian Academys first explanatory Russian dictionary appeared. By the mid-20th century, such dialects were forced out with the introduction of the education system that was established by the Soviet government. Despite the formalization of Standard Russian, some nonstandard dialectal features are observed in colloquial speech. Thus, the Russian language is the 6th largest in the world by number of speakers, after English, Mandarin, Hindi/Urdu, Spanish, Russian is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Education in Russian is still a choice for both Russian as a second language and native speakers in Russia as well as many of the former Soviet republics. Russian is still seen as an important language for children to learn in most of the former Soviet republics, samuel P. Huntington wrote in the Clash of Civilizations, During the heyday of the Soviet Union, Russian was the lingua franca from Prague to Hanoi
8.
Yupik
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The Yupik are a group of indigenous or aboriginal peoples of western, southwestern, and southcentral Alaska and the Russian Far East. They are Eskimo and are related to the Inuit and Iñupiat peoples, US census data for Yupik include 2,355 Sugpiaq, there are also 1,700 Yupik living in Russia. Yupik comes from the Yupik word yuk meaning person plus the post-base -pik meaning real or genuine, thus, it means literally real people. The ethnographic literature sometimes refers to the Yupik people or their language as Yuk or Yuit, in the Hooper Bay-Chevak and Nunivak dialects of Yupik, both the language and the people are known as Cupik. The use of an apostrophe in the name Yup’ik, compared to Siberian Yupik, exemplifies the Central Yup’ik’s orthography, where the apostrophe represents gemination of the ‘p’ sound. Research on blood types, confirmed by later linguistic and DNA findings, suggests that the ancestors of American Indians reached North America before the ancestors of the Eskimo, the Siberian Yupik may represent a back-migration of the Eskimo people to Siberia from Alaska. Traditionally, families spent the spring and summer at fish camp, many families still harvest the traditional subsistence resources, especially Pacific salmon and seal. The mens communal house, the qasgiq, was the community center for ceremonies and festivals which included singing, dancing, the qasgiq was used mainly in the winter months, because people would travel in family groups following food sources throughout the spring, summer, and fall months. Aside from ceremonies and festivals, it was also where the men taught the young boys survival and hunting skills, the young boys were also taught how to make tools and qayaqs during the winter months in the qasgiq. The womens house, the ena, was right next door. In some areas they were connected by a tunnel, women taught the young girls how to tan hides and sew, process and cook game and fish, and weave. Boys would live with their mothers until they were five years old. The limited motion by no means limits the expressiveness of the dances, the Yupik are unique among native peoples of the Americas in that they name children after the last person in the community to have died. The kuspuk is a traditional Yupik garment, worn in casual and formal settings in Alaska. The seal-oil lamp was an important piece of furniture, the five Yupik languages are still very widely spoken, more than 75% of the Yupik/Yupik population are fluent in the language. The Alaskan and Siberian Yupik, like the Alaskan Inupiat, adopted the system of writing developed by Moravian Church missionaries during the 1760s in Greenland. The Alaskan Yupik and Inupiat are the only Northern indigenous peoples to have developed their own system of hieroglyphics, late nineteenth-century Moravian missionaries to the Yupik in southwestern Alaska used Yupik in church services, and translated the scriptures into the peoples language. Russian explorers in the 1800s erroneously called the Yupik people bordering the territory of the somewhat unrelated Aleut as also Aleut, or Alutiiq, in Yupik
9.
Alaska Natives
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Alaska Natives are indigenous peoples of Alaska, United States, Iñupiat, Yupik, Aleut, Eyak, Tlingit, Haida, Tsimshian, and a number of Northern Athabaskan cultures. They are often defined by their language groups, alaskan Natives are enrolled in federally recognized Alaska Native tribal entities, who in turn belong to 13 Alaska Native Regional Corporations, who administer land and financial claims. Ancestors of the Alaska Natives are known to have migrated into the thousands of years ago. Some are descendants of a wave of migration in which people settled across the northern part of North America. They never migrated to southern areas, for this reason, genetic studies show they are not closely related to Native Americans in South America. Throughout the Arctic and northern areas, the ancestors of the Alaska Natives established varying indigenous and they developed sophisticated ways to deal with the challenging climate and environment, and cultures rooted in the place. Historic groups have been defined by their languages, which belong to several language families. Arriving from Siberia by ship in the century, Russians began to trade with Alaska Natives. New settlements around trading posts were started by Russians, including Russian Orthodox missionaries and these were the first to translate Scripture into Native languages. British and American traders generally did not reach the area until the nineteenth century, in the 21st century, the numerous congregations of Russian Orthodox Christians in Alaska are generally composed mostly of Alaska Natives. Rather than hunting the marine life, the Russians forced the Aleuts to do the work for them, as word spread of the riches in furs to be had, competition among Russian companies increased and they forced the Aleuts into slavery. Catherine the Great, who became Empress in 1763, proclaimed good will toward the Aleut, on some islands and parts of the Alaska Peninsula, groups of traders had been capable of relatively peaceful coexistence with the local inhabitants. Other groups could not manage the tensions, Russians took hostages, families were split up, and individuals were forced to leave their villages and settle elsewhere. The growing competition between the companies, merging into fewer, larger and more powerful corporations, created conflicts that aggravated the relations with the indigenous populations. Over the years, the situation became catastrophic for the natives, as the Shelikhov-Golikov Company and later Russian-American Company developed as a monopoly, it used skirmishes and systematic violence as a tool of colonial exploitation of the indigenous people. When the Aleut revolted and won victories, the Russians retaliated, killing many and destroying their boats and hunting gear. The most devastating effects were from disease, during the first two generations of Russian contact,80 percent of the Aleut population died from Eurasian infectious diseases and these were then endemic among the Europeans, but the Aleut had no immunity against the new diseases. In 1971 the United States Congress passed the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act and it provided for the establishment of 13 Alaska Native Regional Corporations to administer those claims
10.
Aleutian Islands
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The Aleutian Islands are a chain of 14 large volcanic islands and 55 smaller ones belonging to both the United States and Russia. Crossing longitude 180°, at which point east and west longitude end, the westernmost U. S. island in real terms, however, is Attu Island, west of which runs the International Date Line. The islands, with their 57 volcanoes, are in the part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. Physiographically, they are a section of the larger Pacific Border province. These Islands are most known for the battles and skirmishes occurred there during the Aleutian Islands Campaign of World War II. It was one of two attacks on the United States during that war. The largest islands in the Aleutians are Attu, and Unalaska, Umnak, and Unimak in the Fox Islands. The largest of those is Unimak Island, with an area of 1,571.41 mi², followed by Unalaska Island, the axis of the archipelago near the mainland of Alaska has a southwest trend, but near 179° its direction changes to the northwest. This change of direction corresponds to a curve in the line of fissures that have contributed their products to the building of the islands. Such curved chains are repeated about the Pacific Ocean in the Kuril Islands, the Japanese chain, and in the Philippines. All these island arcs are at the edge of the Pacific Plate and experience much seismic activity, but are still habitable, the general elevation is greatest in the eastern islands and least in the western. The island chain is a continuation of the Aleutian Range on the mainland. The coasts are rocky and surf-worn, and the approaches are exceedingly dangerous and these volcanic islands reach heights of 6,200 feet. Makushin Volcano located on Unalaska Island, is not quite visible from within the town of Unalaska, though the steam rising from its cone is visible on a clear day. Residents of Unalaska need only to one of the smaller hills in the area, such as Pyramid Peak or Mt. Newhall. The volcanic Bogoslof and Fire Islands, which rose from the sea in 1796 and 1883 respectively, in 1906 a new volcanic cone rose between the islets of Bogoslof and Grewingk, near Unalaska, followed by another in 1907. These cones were demolished by an explosive eruption on September 1,1907. Newly found information in 2017, the volcanic cone erupted sending ash, the Aleutians seen from space The climate of the islands is oceanic, with moderate and fairly uniform temperatures and heavy rainfall
11.
Prince William Sound
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Prince William Sound is a sound of the Gulf of Alaska on the south coast of the U. S. state of Alaska. It is located on the east side of the Kenai Peninsula and its largest port is Valdez, at the southern terminus of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System. Other settlements on the sound, which numerous small islands, include Cordova and Whittier plus the Alaska native villages of Chenega. James Cook entered Prince William Sound in 1778 and named it Sandwich Sound, the Sound was named in 1778 to honour George IIIs third son Prince William Henry, then aged 13 and serving as a midshipman in the Royal Navy. In 1793, Alexander Andreyevich Baranov founded port Voskresensk in the sound, the first three-masted ship, Phoenix, was the first ship built by the Russians in America. Most of the land surrounding Prince William Sound is part of the Chugach National Forest, Prince William Sound is ringed by the steep and glaciated Chugach Mountains. The coastline is convoluted, with islands and fjords, several of which contain tidewater glaciers. The principal barrier islands forming the sound are Montague Island, Hinchinbrook Island, a 1964 tsunami, a result of the Good Friday earthquake, killed a number of Chugach villagers in the coastal village of Chenega and destroyed the town of Valdez. Media related to Prince William Sound at Wikimedia Commons
12.
Kenai Peninsula
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The Kenai Peninsula is a large peninsula jutting from the southern coast of Alaska. The name Kenai is derived from the word Kenaitze, the name of the Native Alaskan tribe that inhabited the area. The peninsula extends approximately 150 miles southwest from the Chugach Mountains and it is separated from the mainland on the west by Cook Inlet and on the east by Prince William Sound. Most of the peninsula is part of the Kenai Peninsula Borough, gerasim Izmailov was the first European man to explore and map the peninsula in 1789, though Athabaskan and Alutiiq Native groups have lived on the peninsula for thousands of years. The glacier-covered Kenai Mountains run along the southeast spine of the peninsula along the coast of the Gulf of Alaska, much of the range is within Kenai Fjords National Park. The northwest coast along the Cook Inlet is flatter and marshy, several larger lakes extend through the interior of the peninsula, including Skilak Lake and Tustumena Lake. Rivers include the Kenai River, famous for its population, as well as its tributary, the Russian River, the Kasilof River. Kachemak Bay, an inlet off the larger Cook Inlet, extends into the peninsulas southwest end. The Kenai Peninsula has many glaciers in its eastern and southern areas and it is home to both the Sargent Icefield and Harding Icefields and numerous glaciers that spawn off them. Homer famously marks the terminus of the highway system of North America and is a popular destination for travelers who have driven to Alaska from the lower 48 states. Seward is the terminus of the Alaska Railroad. There are airports with scheduled flights in Kenai and Homer as well as smaller general aviation airports in Soldotna. The Seward Highway connects Seward to Anchorage, and the Sterling Highway is the backbone of Kenai Peninsula connecting the towns to Anchorage. The peninsula has a climate that is relatively mild, with abundant rainfall. It is one of the few areas in Alaska that allows for agriculture, with a growing season adequate for producing hay, the peninsula also has natural gas, petroleum, and coal deposits, as well as abundant commercial and personal-use fisheries. Tourism is an industry, along with outfitting and guiding services for hunters and fishers. The Kenai Peninsula is known as Alaskas Playground
13.
Chugach
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Chugach /ˈtʃuːɡætʃ/, Chugach Sugpiaq or Chugachigmiut is the name of an Alaska Native people in the region of the Kenai Peninsula and Prince William Sound on the southern coast of Alaska. The Chugach people are an Alutiiq people who speak the Chugach dialect of the Alutiiq language and their autonym Sugpiaq derives from suk, meaning person and -piaq, meaning real. The term Alutiiq derives from the Russian term for the Aleut people, according to Ethnologue, earlier terms for the Chugach such as Chugach Eskimo, South Alaska Eskimo, Sugpiak Eskimo, and Sugpiaq Eskimo, are pejorative. Chugach villages include Chenega Bay, Eyak, Nanwalek, Port Graham, Chugach people speak one of two dialects of the Pacific Gulf Yupik language, the other being Koniag. These Central Yupik languages belong to the Alaskan Yupik language family, once written in Cyrillic script, the language is now written in the Latin script. The Chugach people have lived in the region around Prince William Sound for millennia and they were the first indigenous Alaskans to encounter the Russian explorer Vitus Bering in 1741. The Russians were followed by Spanish, English, and American explorers, the Chugach have at times traded with or fought against neighboring groups, the Eyak, Ahtna, and the Tlingit. In 1964, a tsunami generated by the Good Friday earthquake destroyed the Chugach village of Chenega, the fishing-based Chugach economy was badly affected by the environmental damage caused by the Exxon Valdez oil spill in 1989. Alutiiq Museum Chugach Alaska Corporation Chugach National Forest
14.
Kodiak Archipelago
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The Kodiak Archipelago is an archipelago, or group of islands, south of the main land mass of the state of Alaska, about 405 km by air south of Anchorage in the Gulf of Alaska. The largest island in the archipelago is Kodiak Island, the second largest island in the United States, the archipelago is about 285 km long and 108 km across, from the Barren Islands on the north to Chirikof Island and the Semidi Islands group on the south. The Archipelago contains 13,890 km2 of land, the Kodiak Archipelago contains about 40 small glaciers, numerous streams and many species of land and marine animals. Much of its land is forested, the Kodiak Island Borough contains all of the Kodiak Archipelago and some lands on the mainland. The Kodiak National Wildlife Refuge encompasses a large percentage of the land in the archipelago, the Late Holocene contains four cultural periods, the Early Kachemak, the Late Kachemak, the Koniag, and the Alutiiq. Each period will be broken down by time period, also including the significance of each, Early Kachemak = The period is marked by the shift in mobility patterns, residential foragers to logistical collectors. Technology and subsistence activities were more efficient. More efficient ways of processing food were introduced, material remains include toggling harpoons, netweights, ground slate points, nets, ulus. The Ocean Bay people were the first to inhabit the area and they were considered to be a maritime people, but exploited both marine and terrestrial resources, including mammals and fish. Their only hunting kit included hooks, lines, harpoons, by the Middle Holocene, more specialized tool kits were introduced. Originally living in small, dispersed settlements, the small 2-3m tents were replaced by small pit houses around 2000 BC, Late Kachemak = The period is marked by large populations. Logistical patterns of mobility kept increasing, and community sizes increased, mortuary practices are considered to be elaborate, and the finding of labrets suggest that social differentiation increased. Koniag = The population reached its peak, houses and settlement sizes continued to increase, suggesting the development of social ranking. Architecture started to more elaborate and storage features kept increasing in size. Shift in location toward the coast suggests better access to marine resources, there is also evidence of intensified salmon fishing, food production and processing specializations, exchange, and investment in carpentry. Alutiiq = These islands are the original or traditional homes of the Alutiiqu peoples, the coastal environment provided excellent productivity for these people, as the terrestrial environment seemed somewhat low or lacked natural resources
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Alaska Peninsula
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The Alaska Peninsula is a peninsula extending about 800 km to the southwest from the mainland of Alaska and ending in the Aleutian Islands. The peninsula separates the Pacific Ocean from Bristol Bay, an arm of the Bering Sea, the Lake and Peninsula borough, the Alaskan equivalent of a county, is named after the peninsula. The Aleutian Range is an active volcanic mountain range which runs along the entire length of the Peninsula. The northern and southern shores are likewise quite different, the northern Bristol Bay coastal side is generally turbid and muddy, experiences tidal extremes, and is relatively shallow, the Pacific side has relatively small tidal activity and is deep and clear. All of the Peninsula is organized as a part of four adjacent boroughs, the Aleutians East Borough, Bristol Bay Borough, Kodiak Island Borough, the Lake and Peninsula Borough includes most of the peninsulas territory. Average annual precipitation ranges from 24 to 65 in, coastal areas are subject to intense storms, wind, and rain. Winter temperatures average between −11°C and 1°C, and in summer between 6°C and 15°, frosts can occur any day of the year at higher elevations. The climate can be compared to that of the Aleutian Islands, Iceland, the Alaska Peninsula is home to some of the largest populations of native and undisturbed wildlife in the United States. Besides the famous McNeil River and Katmai Alaskan brown bear populations, large herds of caribou, moose, wolves and these salmon, after returning from their short life at sea, swim into the lakes and their contributing streams to spawn. Their offspring, or fry, overwinter in the deep and food-abundant depths of these lakes until their migration to the sea in one or two years, exceptionally large seabird colonies exist along the coast. Besides the communities on the coast, the Alaska Peninsula also is home to several villages, Cold Bay, King Cove, Perryville, Chignik, Chignik Lake, Chignik Lagoon. Each is primarily inhabited by Alaska Natives and each, likewise, is dependent on the fishing industry for sustenance. The village of Sand Point should be included here, despite its location on Popof Island, ugashik Area website Lake & Peninsula Borough Lake and Peninsula School District Alaska Peninsula Trek Trawl survey of shrimp and forage fish in Alaskas Westward region,2006 / by David R. Jackson. Hosted by Alaska State Publications Program
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Sitkalidak Island
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Sitkalidak Island is an island in the western Gulf of Alaska in the Kodiak Island Borough of the state of Alaska, United States. It lies just off the southeast shore of Kodiak Island, across the Sitkalidak Strait from the city of Old Harbor, the island has a land area of 300 square kilometers and no resident population. The Awauq Massacre or Refuge Rock Massacre, Wounded Knee of Alaska was an 1784 massacre of native Alutiiq people on Refuge Rock by Russian fur trader Grigory Shelikhov, the Russians slaughtered 500 men, women and children on Refuge Rock. This massacre was an incident, and the Alutiiq were completely subjugated by Russian traders thereafter
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Salmon
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Salmon /ˈsæmən/ is the common name for several species of ray-finned fish in the family Salmonidae. Other fish in the family include trout, char, grayling. Salmon are native to tributaries of the North Atlantic and Pacific Ocean, many species of salmon have been introduced into non-native environments such as the Great Lakes of North America and Patagonia in South America. Salmon are intensively farmed in parts of the world. Typically, salmon are anadromous, they are born in water, migrate to the ocean. However, populations of species are restricted to fresh water through their lives. Various species of salmon display anadromous life strategies while others display freshwater resident life strategies, folklore has it that the fish return to the exact spot where they were born to spawn, tracking studies have shown this to be mostly true. A portion of a salmon run may stray and spawn in different freshwater systems. The percent of straying depends on the species of salmon, homing behavior has been shown to depend on olfactory memory. The term salmon comes from the Latin salmo, which in turn may have originated from salire, the nine commercially important species of salmon occur in two genera. The genus Salmo contains the Atlantic salmon, found in the north Atlantic, the genus Oncorhynchus contains eight species which occur naturally only in the North Pacific. As a group, these are known as Pacific salmon, Chinook salmon have been introduced in New Zealand and Patagonia. Coho, freshwater sockeye, and Atlantic salmon have established in Patagonia. † Both the Salmo and Oncorhynchus genera also contain a number of species referred to as trout, within Salmo, additional minor taxa have been called salmon in English, i. e. the Adriatic salmon and Black Sea salmon. The steelhead anadromous form of the rainbow trout migrates to sea, also a number of other species have common names which refer to them as being salmon. The British Columbia salmon fossil provides evidence that the divergence between Pacific and Atlantic salmon had not yet occurred 40 million years ago, Both the fossil record and analysis of mitochondrial DNA suggest the divergence occurred by 10 to 20 million years ago. This independent evidence from DNA analysis and the fossil record rejects the theory of salmon divergence. Atlantic salmon reproduce in northern rivers on both coasts of the Atlantic Ocean, landlocked salmon live in a number of lakes in eastern North America and in Northern Europe, for instance in lakes Sebago, Onega, Ladoga, Saimaa, Vänern, and Winnipesaukee
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Halibut
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Halibut is a common name principally applied to the two flatfish in the genus Hippoglossus from the family of right-eye flounders. Less commonly, and in some regions only, other species of flatfish are also referred to as being halibuts, the word is derived from haly and butte, for its popularity on Catholic holy days. Halibut are demersal fish and are regarded as a food fish. The IGFA record was broken off the waters of Norway in July 2013 by a 515-pound 8.6 foot fish. This is awaiting certification as of 2013, in July 2014, 76-year-old Jack McGuire caught a 482-pound Pacific halibut in Glacier Bay, Alaska. Halibut are dark brown on the top side with an off-white underbelly and have small scales invisible to the naked eye embedded in their skin. At birth, they have an eye on each side of the head, after six months, one eye migrates to the other side, making them look more like flounder. At the same time, the stationary-eyed side darkens to match the top side and this color scheme disguises halibut from above and from below and is known as countershading. Halibut feed on almost any fish or animal they can fit into their mouths, juvenile halibut feed on small crustaceans and other bottom-dwelling organisms. Animals found in their stomachs include sand lance, octopus, crab, salmon, hermit crabs, lamprey, sculpin, cod, pollock, herring, and flounder, as well as other halibut. Halibut live at depths ranging from a few meters to hundreds, in most ecosystems, the halibut is near the top of the marine food chain. In the North Pacific, their predators are the sea lion, the killer whale. The North Pacific commercial halibut fishery dates to the late 19th century, the fishing vessel retrieves the line after several hours to a day. The effects of long-line gear on habitats are poorly understood, but could include disturbance of sediments, benthic structures, International management is thought to be necessary, because the species occupies waters of the United States, Canada, Russia, and possibly Japan, and matures slowly. Halibut do not reproduce until age eight, when about 30 in long, so commercial capture below this length prevents breeding and is against US, Pacific halibut fishing is managed by the International Pacific Halibut Commission. For most of the era, halibut fishery operated as a derby. Regulators declared time slots when fishing was open and fisherman raced to catch as many pounds as they could within that interval and this approach accommodated unlimited participation in the fishery while allowing regulators to control the quantity of fish caught annually by controlling the number and timing of openings. The approach led to unsafe fishing, as openings were necessarily set before the weather was known, the approach limited fresh halibut to the markets to several weeks per year, when the gluts would push down the price received by fishermen
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Whale
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Whales are a widely distributed and diverse group of fully aquatic placental marine mammals. They are a grouping within the infraorder Cetacea, usually excluding dolphins. Whales, dolphins and porpoises belong to the order Cetartiodactyla with even-toed ungulates and their closest living relatives are the hippopotamuses, the two parvorders of whales, baleen whales and toothed whales, are thought to have split apart around 34 million years ago. The whales comprise eight extant families, Balaenopteridae, Balaenidae, Cetotheriidae, Eschrichtiidae, Monodontidae, Physeteridae, Kogiidae, Whales are creatures of the open ocean, they feed, mate, give birth, suckle and raise their young at sea. So extreme is their adaptation to life underwater that they are unable to survive on land. Whales range in size from the 2.6 metres and 135 kilograms dwarf sperm whale to the 29.9 metres and 190 metric tons blue whale, the sperm whale is the largest toothed predator on earth. Several species exhibit sexual dimorphism, in that the females are larger than males, baleen whales have no teeth, instead they have plates of baleen, a fringe-like structure used to expel water while retaining the krill and plankton which they feed on. They use their throat pleats to expand the mouth to take in huge gulps of water, balaenids have heads that can make up 40% of their body mass to take in water. Toothed whales, on the hand, have conical teeth designed for catching fish or squid. Some species, such as whales, are well adapted for diving to great depths to catch squid. Whales have evolved from land-living mammals, as such they must breathe air regularly, though they can remain submerged for long periods. They have blowholes located on top of their heads, through air is taken in. They are warm-blooded, and have a layer of fat, or blubber, under the skin, with streamlined fusiform bodies and two limbs that are modified into flippers, whales can travel at up to 20 knots, though they are not as flexible or agile as seals. Whales produce a variety of vocalizations, notably the extended songs of the humpback whale. Although whales are widespread, most species prefer the waters of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. Species such as humpbacks and blue whales are capable of travelling thousands of miles without feeding, males typically mate with multiple females every year, but females only mate every two to three years. Calves are typically born in the spring and summer months and females bear all the responsibility for raising them, mothers of some species fast and nurse their young for one to two years. Once relentlessly hunted for their products, whales are now protected by international law, the North Atlantic right whales nearly became extinct in the twentieth century, with a population low of 450, and the North Pacific gray whale population is ranked Critically Endangered by the IUCN
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Kodiak, Alaska
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Kodiak is one of seven communities and the main city on Kodiak Island, Kodiak Island Borough, in the U. S. state of Alaska. All commercial transportation between the island and the outside world goes through this city either via ferryboat or airline. The population was 6,130 as of the 2010 census,2014 estimates put the population at 6,304. Originally inhabited by Alutiiq natives for over 7,000 years, harvesting of the areas sea otter pelts led to the near extinction of the animal in the following century and led to wars with and enslavement of the natives for over 150 years. After the Alaska Purchase by the United States in 1867, Kodiak became a fishing center which continues to be the mainstay of its economy. A lesser economic influence includes tourism, mainly by those seeking outdoor adventure trips, salmon, halibut, the unique Kodiak bear, elk, Sitka deer, and mountain goats attract hunting tourists as well as fishermen to the Kodiak Archipelago. The Alaska Department of Fish and Game maintains an office in the city, the city has four public elementary schools, a middle and high school, as well as a branch of the University of Alaska. An antenna farm at the summit of Pillar Mountain above the city historically provided communication with the world before fiber optic cable was run. Transportation to and from the island is provided by service on the Alaska Marine Highway as well as local commercial airlines. The Kodiak Archipelago has been home to the Alutiiq for over 7,000 years, in their language, kadiak means island. In 1763, the Russian explorer Stephan Glotov discovered the island and he was followed by the British captain James Cook fifteen years later, who first recorded Kodiak in his journals in 1778. In 1792, the Russian Shelikhov-Golikov Company chief manager Alexander Baranov moved the post at Three Saints Bay to a new site in Pauls Harbor and this developed as the nucleus of modern Kodiak. Baranov considered Three Saints Bay a poor location because it was too indefensible, the relocated settlement was first named Pavlovskaya Gavan. The warehouse still stands as the Baranov Museum, because the First Native cultures revered this animal and would never harm it, the Russians had wars with and enslaved the Aleuts occurred during this era. Eastern Orthodox missionaries settled on the island by the end of the 18th century and they held the liturgy in native Tlingit from 1800. The capital of Russian America was moved to Novoarkhangelsk in 1804, by the mid-19th century, the sea otter was almost extinct and 85% of the First Native population had disappeared from exposure to European diseases and violence. New processing centers emerged and the continues to evolve. As Kodiak was incorporated in 1941, the U. S. feared attack from Japanese during World War II, roads, the airport, Fort Abercrombie, and gun fortifications improved the islands infrastructure
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Eskimo languages
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Eskimo–Aleut or Eskaleut is a language family native to Alaska, the Canadian Arctic, Nunavik, Nunatsiavut, Greenland, and the Chukchi Peninsula on the eastern tip of Siberia. It is also known as Eskaleutian, Eskaleutic, or Inuit–Yupik-Unangan, the Eskimo–Aleut language family is divided into two branches, the Eskimo languages and the Aleut language. The Aleut language family consists of a language, Aleut, spoken in the Aleutian Islands. Aleut is divided into several dialects, Inuit, which covers a huge range of territory, is divided into several varieties. Neighbouring varieties are similar, although those at the farthest distances from the centre in the Diomede Islands. The proper place of one language, Sirenik, within the Eskimo family has not been settled, while some linguists list it as a branch of Yupik, others list it as a separate branch of the Eskimo family, alongside Yupik and Inuit. The Alaska Native Language Center believes that the ancestral language of the Eskimo languages and of Aleut divided into the Eskimo. The Eskimo language family divided into the Yupik and Inuit branches around 1000 years ago, the Eskimo–Aleut languages are among the native languages of the Americas. This is a category, not a genealogical one. There is general agreement that it is not closely related to the language families of North America. The more credible proposals on the relations of Eskimo–Aleut all concern one or more of the language families of northern Eurasia. One of the first such proposals was made by the pioneering Danish linguist Rasmus Rask in 1818, perhaps the most fully developed such proposal to date is Michael Fortescues Uralo-Siberian hypothesis, published in 1998. More recently Joseph Greenberg suggested grouping Eskimo–Aleut with all of the families of northern Eurasia, with the exception of Yeniseian. Such proposals are not generally accepted, criticisms have been made stating that Greenbergs hypothesis is ahistorical, meaning that it lacks and sacrifices known historical elements of language in favour of external similarities. Greenberg explicitly states that his developments were based on the previous work done by Vladislav Illich-Svitych and Bombard. By providing evidence of lexical comparison, Greenberg hoped that it would strengthen his hypothesis, despite all these efforts, the Eurasiatic language theory was overruled on the basis that mass comparison is not accurate enough an approach. In the 1960s Swadesh suggested a connection with the Wakashan languages and this was picked up and expanded by Holst. The Eskimo–Aleut languages are polysynthetic and exclusively suffixing
