1.
Beirut
–
Beirut is the capital and largest city of Lebanon. No recent population census has been done but in 2007 estimates ranged from more than 1 million to slightly less than 2 million as part of Greater Beirut. Located on a peninsula at the midpoint of Lebanons Mediterranean coast, Beirut is the countrys largest and it is one of the oldest cities in the world, inhabited more than 5,000 years ago. The first historical mention of Beirut is found in the ancient Egyptian Tell el Amarna letters dating from the 15th century BC, the Beirut River runs south to north on the eastern edge of the city. Beirut is Lebanons seat of government and plays a role in the Lebanese economy, with most banks and corporations based in its Central District, Badaro, Rue Verdun, Hamra. Following the destructive Lebanese Civil War, Beiruts cultural landscape underwent major reconstruction, identified and graded for accountancy, advertising, banking/finance and law, Beirut is ranked as a Beta World City by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. In May 2015, Beirut was officially recognized as one of the New7Wonders Cities together with Vigan, Doha, Durban, Havana, Kuala Lumpur, and La Paz. Beirut I, or Minet el Hosn, was listed as Beyrouth ville by Louis Burkhalter and said to be on the beach near the Orent, the site was discovered by Lortet in 1894 and discussed by Godefroy Zumoffen in 1900. The flint industry from the site was described as Mousterian and is held by the Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon, Beirut II, or Umm el Khatib, was suggested by Burkhalter to have been south of Tarik el Jedideh, where P. E. Gigues discovered a Copper Age flint industry at around 100 metres above sea level, the site had been built on and destroyed by 1948. Beirut III, Furn esh Shebbak or Plateau Tabet, was suggested to have located on the left bank of the Beirut River. Burkhalter suggested that it was west of the Damascus road, although this determination has been criticized by Lorraine Copeland, P. E. Gigues discovered a series of Neolithic flint tools on the surface along with the remains of a structure suggested to be a hut circle. Auguste Bergy discussed polished axes that were found at this site. The area was covered in red sand that represented Quaternary river terraces, the site was found by Jesuit Father Dillenseger and published by fellow Jesuits Godefroy Zumoffen, Raoul Describes and Auguste Bergy. Collections from the site were made by Bergy, Describes and another Jesuit, a large number of Middle Paleolithic flint tools were found on the surface and in side gullies that drain into the river. They included around 50 varied bifaces accredited to the Acheulean period, some with a lustrous sheen, Henri Fleisch also found an Emireh point amongst material from the site, which has now disappeared beneath buildings. Levallois flints and bones and similar material were found amongst brecciated deposits. The area has now built on
Beirut
–
clockwise from top left: Mosque in Downtown Beirut, Beirut Souks, High rise construction near Manara, Place de l'etoile, Cafés in Downtown, Saifi Village
Beirut
–
Seal
Beirut
–
Canaanean Blade. Suggested to be part of a
javelin. Fresh grey
flint, both sides showing
pressure flaking. Somewhat narrower at the base, suggesting a
haft. Polished at the extreme point. Found on land of the Lebanese Evangelical School for Girls in the
Patriarchate area of Beirut.
Beirut
–
View of Beirut with snow-capped
Mount Sannine in the background – 19th century
2.
Lebanon
–
Lebanon, officially known as the Lebanese Republic, is a sovereign state in Western Asia. It is bordered by Syria to the north and east and Israel to the south, Lebanons location at the crossroads of the Mediterranean Basin and the Arabian hinterland facilitated its rich history and shaped a cultural identity of religious and ethnic diversity. At just 10,452 km2, it is the smallest recognized country on the entire mainland Asian continent, the earliest evidence of civilization in Lebanon dates back more than seven thousand years, predating recorded history. Lebanon was the home of the Canaanites/Phoenicians and their kingdoms, a culture that flourished for over a thousand years. In 64 BC, the region came under the rule of the Roman Empire, in the Mount Lebanon range a monastic tradition known as the Maronite Church was established. As the Arab Muslims conquered the region, the Maronites held onto their religion, however, a new religious group, the Druze, established themselves in Mount Lebanon as well, generating a religious divide that has lasted for centuries. During the Crusades, the Maronites re-established contact with the Roman Catholic Church, the ties they established with the Latins have influenced the region into the modern era. The region eventually was ruled by the Ottoman Empire from 1516 to 1918, following the collapse of the empire after World War I, the five provinces that constitute modern Lebanon came under the French Mandate of Lebanon. The French expanded the borders of the Mount Lebanon Governorate, which was populated by Maronites and Druze. Lebanon gained independence in 1943, establishing confessionalism, a unique, foreign troops withdrew completely from Lebanon on 31 December 1946. Lebanon has been a member of the Organisation internationale de la francophonie since 1973, despite its small size, the country has developed a well-known culture and has been highly influential in the Arab world. Before the Lebanese Civil War, the experienced a period of relative calm and renowned prosperity, driven by tourism, agriculture, commerce. At the end of the war, there were efforts to revive the economy. In spite of troubles, Lebanon has the highest Human Development Index and GDP per capita in the Arab world. The name of Mount Lebanon originates from the Phoenician root lbn meaning white, occurrences of the name have been found in different Middle Bronze Age texts from the library of Ebla, and three of the twelve tablets of the Epic of Gilgamesh. The name is recorded in Ancient Egyptian as Rmnn, where R stood for Canaanite L, the name occurs nearly 70 times in the Hebrew Bible, as לְבָנוֹן. The borders of contemporary Lebanon are a product of the Treaty of Sèvres of 1920 and its territory was the core of the Bronze Age Phoenician city-states. After the 7th-century Muslim conquest of the Levant, it was part of the Rashidun, Umyayad, Abbasid Seljuk, with the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, Greater Lebanon fell under French mandate in 1920, and gained independence under president Bechara El Khoury in 1943
Lebanon
–
The
Fall of Tripoli to the Egyptian
Mamluks and destruction of the Crusader state, the County of Tripoli, 1289
Lebanon
–
Flag
Lebanon
–
Fakhreddine II Palace, 17th century
Lebanon
–
1862 map drawn by the French expedition of
Beaufort d'Hautpoul, later used as a template for the 1920 borders of
Greater Lebanon.
3.
British nationality law
–
British nationality law is the law of the United Kingdom which concerns citizenship and other categories of British nationality. The law is due to the United Kingdoms historical status as an imperial power. Some thought the single Imperial status of British subject as increasingly inadequate to deal with a Commonwealth with independent member states. The British Nationality Act 1948 established the status of Citizen of the United Kingdom and Colonies, the national citizenship of the United Kingdom and colonies on 1 January 1949. Until the early 1960s there was little difference, if any, in UK law between the rights of CUKCs and other British subjects, all of whom had the right at any time to enter and live in the UK. Independence Acts, passed when the colonies were granted independence. In general, these provisions withdrew the status of CUKC from anyone who became citizens of the independent country. Exceptions were sometimes made in cases where the colonies did not become independent, the principal British nationality law now in force is the British Nationality Act 1981, which established the current system of multiple categories of British nationality, viz. British citizens, British Overseas Territories citizens, British Overseas citizens, British Nationals, British subjects, only British citizens and certain Commonwealth citizens have the automatic right of abode in the UK. The 1981 Act ceased to recognise Commonwealth citizens as British subjects, British subjects connected with former British India lose British nationality if they acquire any other. There are currently six classes of British national, British citizen British citizens usually hold this status through a connection with the United Kingdom, Channel Islands and Isle of Man. British citizenship is the most common type of British nationality, other rights can vary according to how the British citizenship was acquired. In particular there are restrictions for British citizens by descent transmitting British citizenship to children born outside the UK and these restrictions do not apply to British citizens otherwise than by descent. British Overseas Territories citizen BOTC is the form of British nationality held by connection with a British Overseas Territory and it is possible to hold BOTC and British citizenship simultaneously. Nearly all are now also British citizens as a result of the British Overseas Territories Act 2002, the four residual categories are expected to become extinct with the passage of time. They can be passed to only in exceptional circumstances, e. g. if the child would otherwise be stateless. There is consequently little provision for the acquisition of these classes of nationality by people who do not already have them, British Overseas citizen In general, most BOCs are CUKCs who did not qualify for British citizenship or British Dependent Territories citizenship. This is fairly uncommon, most CUKCs lost their CUKC status upon independence, in 1997, BDTCs with a connection to Hong Kong became BOCs after they did not register as British Nationals and would become stateless after the withdrawal of BDTC status from Hong Kong residents
British nationality law
–
A British citizenship ceremony in the
London Borough of Tower Hamlets
British nationality law
–
Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom
4.
Lebanese nationality law
–
Lebanese nationality law is the law governing the acquisition, transmission and loss of Lebanese citizenship. Lebanese citizenship is the status of being a citizen of the Republic of Lebanon, the Lebanese nationality is transmitted by paternity. Therefore, a Lebanese man who holds Lebanese citizenship can automatically confer citizenship to his children, under the current law, descendants of Lebanese emigrants can only receive citizenship from their father and women cannot pass on citizenship neither to their children nor foreign spouses. The code covering the Lebanese nationality was issued in 1926, according to the Lebanese Ministry for Migration, there has been no restriction on multiple citizenship in The Republic of Lebanon since 1 January 1926. Thus, foreigners who acquire Lebanese citizenship and Lebanese citizens who acquire another citizenship keep their previous citizenship. Since many nationality laws now allow both parents to transmit their nationality to their child, many children automatically acquire multiple citizenship at birth. However, the Lebanese Ministry for Migration specially notes that this has not resulted in any practical problems worth mentioning, military service, the most likely problem to arise, is usually done in the country where the applicant resides at the time of conscription. For instance, a dual Lebanese-Armenian national must do his service in Armenia. All male dual citizens regardless where they live are required to serve in the military as if they were Armenian resident citizen with certain exceptions, most male Armenian citizens living outside of Armenia do not return to serve in the military. Lebanon previously had mandatory military service for men only, all men were required to do 1 year of military service through age 18+. Training was only done whenever they had time or time off school including summer vacations. There were also training done alongside high school, on May 4,2005, a new conscription system was adopted, making for a six-month service, and pledging to end conscription within two years. As of February 10,2007 mandatory military service no longer exists in Lebanon thus making it a conscription-free all-volunteer force, therefore, Jus soli does not apply. A child whose Lebanese citizenship depends on paternal links loses citizenship when those are cut, a Lebanese child adopted by foreign parents is considered to have lost Lebanese citizenship. Where a former Lebanese citizen lost citizenship due to adoption by foreign parents and that adoption is later annulled, there is a public demand for giving the opportunity for Lebanese women to transmit their Lebanese nationality to their children and also to their husbands. Moreover, the Lebanese citizenship to be given to the 8-14 million diaspora of Lebanese living all over the world, on 12 November 2015, the Lebanese Parliament approved a raft of draft laws Thursday, including a law allowing foreigners of Lebanese origin to get citizenship. On 5 May 2016, the Gebran Bassil, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, however, the law would allow only grandchildren of Lebanese paternal grandfathers but not grandchildren of Lebanese maternal grandmothers to apply for citizenship. Article I Every natural person who meets one of the two eligibility requirements has the right to reclaim his/her Lebanese nationality
Lebanese nationality law
–
Contents
5.
New York University School of Law
–
The New York University School of Law is the law school of New York University. Established in 1835, it is the oldest law school in New York City, the school offers J. D. LL. M. and J. S. D. degrees in law, and is located in Greenwich Village, in downtown Manhattan. NYU Law is regarded as one of the most prestigious and selective law schools in the world and is ranked in the top 5 by the QS World University Rankings. U. S. News & World Report currently ranks NYU Law 6th in the nation and has ranked the law school as high as 4th in recent years. Especially renowned for its strength in public interest law, NYU is also ranked 1st in the country by U. S. News & World Report in both law and tax law. The latest edition of Chicago Professor Brian Leiters ranking of the top law schools by student quality places NYU Law 4th out of the 144 accredited schools in the United States. According to New York University School of Laws 2013 ABA-required disclosures,93. 7% of the Class of 2013 obtained full-time, long-term, NYU Law publishes ten student-edited law journals, including the New York University Law Review. NYU Law offers several fellowships to students admitted to the LLM Program, the Hauser Global Scholarship admits eight to ten top LLM students from all over the world. The scholarship includes full tuition waiver and reasonable accommodation costs, in addition, it offers the Hugo Grotius as well as Vanderbilt scholarships for International law studies and other branches of law respectively. The Law school has a law and business program in eight of the nations student-leaders in law. In addition, the NYU Center for Law, Economics and Organization administers the Lawrence Lederman Fellowship to facilitate the study of Law & Economics, NYU Law also hosts the original chapter of the Unemployment Action Center. Blank is currently the faculty director of the program, students are permitted to enroll in a general course of study or specialize in specific areas such as business taxation or estate planning. Many of the professors are practitioners in their respective fields. LL. M is an abbreviation for Master of Laws, an academic degree. In general, there are two types of LL. M, the majority are programs designed to expose foreign legal graduates to the American Common Law. The other programs involve post doctoral study of an area of the law such as Admiralty, Tax Law, Banking and Financial Law, Elder Law. NYU has implemented a jointly granted NYU/Osgoode LLB/LLM program in which graduates are granted the LLB as well as an LLM from NYU in only 3 and a half years instead of the normally required four. More recently, the NYU School of Law has entered into similar dual degree agreements with the National University of Singapore Faculty of Law and the University of Melbourne Law School
New York University School of Law
–
Not to be confused with
New York Law School.
New York University School of Law
–
New York University School of Law
New York University School of Law
–
Vanderbilt Hall
New York University School of Law
–
Mercer Street Residence
6.
George Clooney
–
George Timothy Clooney is an American actor, filmmaker, and activist. He has received three Golden Globe Awards for his work as an actor and two Academy Awards, one for acting in Syriana and the other for co-producing Argo, in 1999, he took the lead role in Three Kings, a well-received war satire set during the Gulf War. In 2001, Clooneys fame widened with the release of his biggest commercial success, the heist comedy remake Oceans Eleven, in 2013, he received the Academy Award for Best Picture for producing the political thriller Argo. He is the person who has been nominated for Academy Awards in six different categories. In 2009, Clooney was included in Times annual Time 100 as one of the Most Influential People in the World and he is also noted for his political activism, and has served as one of the United Nations Messengers of Peace since January 31,2008. He is also a member of the Council on Foreign Relations, Clooney was born in Lexington, Kentucky. His mother, Nina Bruce, was a beauty queen and city councilwoman and his father, Nick Clooney, is a former anchorman and game show host who hosted AMC for five years in the late 1990s. Clooney has Irish, German, and English ancestry and his maternal great-great-great-great-grandmother, Mary Ann Sparrow, was the half-sister of Nancy Lincoln, mother of President Abraham Lincoln. Clooney has a sister named Adelia. His aunt was the cabaret singer and actress Rosemary Clooney. Through Rosemary, his cousins include actors Miguel Ferrer, Rafael Ferrer, and Gabriel Ferrer, Clooney was raised a strict Roman Catholic, but said in 2006 that he does not know if he believes in Heaven, or even God. He has said, Yes, we were Catholic, big time, whole family and he began his education at the Blessed Sacrament School in Fort Mitchell, Kentucky. He attended St. Michaels School in Columbus, Ohio, then Western Row Elementary School in Mason, Ohio, from 1968 to 1974, and St. Susanna School in Mason, the Clooneys moved back to Kentucky when George was midway through the seventh grade. In middle school, Clooney developed Bells palsy, a condition that partially paralyzes the face, the malady went away within a year. In an interview with Larry King, he stated that yes and it takes about nine months to go away. It was the first year of school, which was a bad time for having half your face paralyzed. After his parents moved to Augusta, Kentucky, Clooney attended Augusta High School and he has stated that he earned all As and a B in school, and was an enthusiastic baseball and basketball player. He tried out to professional baseball with the Cincinnati Reds in 1977
George Clooney
–
Clooney at a ceremony for
John Wells in January 2012
George Clooney
–
George Clooney cast his hands and shoes in the
Grauman's Chinese Theatre in 2007.
George Clooney
–
George Clooney at the premiere of
The Men Who Stare at Goats in the
2009 Toronto International Film Festival
George Clooney
–
Clooney in
Abéché, Chad, in January 2008 with the UN
7.
Arabic language
–
Arabic is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is also the language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six languages of the United Nations. The modern written language is derived from the language of the Quran and it is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic, which is the language of 26 states. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the standards of Quranic Arabic. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-Quranic era, Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics. As a result, many European languages have borrowed many words from it. Many words of Arabic origin are found in ancient languages like Latin. Balkan languages, including Greek, have acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has also borrowed words from languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times. Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages, the Ancient South Arabian languages, the Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include, The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation into a past tense, the conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms, the development of an internal passive. These features are evidence of descent from a hypothetical ancestor. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family were spoken and it is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages, in Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested
Arabic language
–
The Galland Manuscript of
One Thousand and One Nights, 14th century
Arabic language
–
al-ʿArabiyyah in written Arabic (
Naskh script)
Arabic language
–
Bilingual traffic sign in
Qatar.
Arabic language
–
Examples of how the Arabic root and form system works.
8.
Barrister
–
A barrister is a type of lawyer in common law jurisdictions. Barristers mostly specialise in courtroom advocacy and litigation and their tasks include taking cases in superior courts and tribunals, drafting legal pleadings, researching the philosophy, hypothesis and history of law, and giving expert legal opinions. Often, barristers are also recognised as legal scholars, Barristers are distinguished from solicitors, who have more direct access to clients, and may do transactional-type legal work. It is mainly barristers who are appointed as judges, and they are hired by clients directly. In England and Wales, barristers may seek authorisation from the Bar Standards Board to conduct litigation and this allows a barrister to practise in a dual capacity, fulfilling the role of both barrister and solicitor. A barrister, who can be considered as a jurist, is a lawyer who represents a litigant as advocate before a court of appropriate jurisdiction, a barrister speaks in court and presents the case before a judge or jury. In some jurisdictions, a barrister receives additional training in law, ethics. In contrast, a solicitor generally meets with clients, does preparatory and administrative work, in this role, he or she may draft and review legal documents, interact with the client as necessary, prepare evidence, and generally manage the day-to-day administration of a lawsuit. Barristers usually have particular knowledge of law, precedent. When a solicitor in general practice is confronted with a point of law. In most countries, barristers operate as sole practitioners, and are prohibited from forming partnerships or from working as a barrister as part of a corporation, however, barristers normally band together into chambers to share clerks and operating expenses. Some chambers grow to be large and sophisticated, and have a corporate feel. In some jurisdictions, they may be employed by firms of solicitors, banks, in contrast, solicitors and attorneys work directly with the clients and are responsible for engaging a barrister with the appropriate expertise for the case. Barristers generally have little or no contact with their lay clients. All correspondence, inquiries, invoices, and so on, will be addressed to the solicitor, in court, barristers are often visibly distinguished from solicitors by their apparel. For example, in Ireland, England, and Wales, a barrister usually wears a wig, stiff collar, bands. Since January 2008, solicitor advocates have also been entitled to wear wigs, in many countries the traditional divisions between barristers and solicitors are breaking down. Barristers once enjoyed a monopoly on appearances before the courts, but in Great Britain this has now been abolished
Barrister
–
A barrister's wigs, Parliament Hall, Edinburgh
Barrister
–
Illustration of an early 20th-century English barrister
Barrister
–
Margaret Battye, 1930s Australian court dress
Barrister
–
Gray's Inn,
London
9.
Julian Assange
–
Julian Paul Assange is an Australian computer programmer, publisher and journalist. He is editor-in-chief of the organisation WikiLeaks, which he founded in 2006 and he has won numerous accolades for journalism, including the Sam Adams Award and Martha Gellhorn Prize for Journalism. Assange founded WikiLeaks in 2006 but came to prominence in 2010 when WikiLeaks published a series of leaks. These leaks included the Collateral Murder video, the Afghanistan war logs, the Iraq war logs, following the 2010 leaks, the United States government launched a criminal investigation into WikiLeaks and asked allied nations for assistance. In November 2010, a request was made for Assanges extradition to Sweden, Assange continued to deny the allegations, and expressed concern that he would be extradited from Sweden to the United States due to his perceived role in publishing secret American documents. Assange surrendered himself to UK police on 7 December 2010 and was held for ten days in confinement before being released on bail. He sought and was granted asylum by Ecuador in August 2012 and he has since remained in the Embassy of Ecuador in London, and is unable to leave without being arrested for breaching his bail conditions. In 2016, WikiLeaks published the DNC leaks and the Podesta emails during the 2016 United States presidential election, Assange was born in the north Queensland city of Townsville, to Christine Ann Hawkins, a visual artist, and John Shipton, an anti-war activist and builder. The couple had separated before Assange was born, when he was a year old, his mother married Richard Brett Assange, an actor, with whom she ran a small theatre company. Christine Assange then became involved with Leif Meynell, also known as Leif Hamilton, Assange had a nomadic childhood, and had lived in over thirty different Australian towns by the time he reached his mid-teens, when he settled with his mother and half-brother in Melbourne, Victoria. He attended many schools, including Goolmangar Primary School in New South Wales and Townsville State High School and he studied programming, mathematics, and physics at Central Queensland University and the University of Melbourne, but did not complete a degree. In 1987 Assange began hacking under the name Mendax and he and two others—known as Trax and Prime Suspect—formed a hacking group they called the International Subversives. He is thought to have involved in the WANK hack at NASA in 1989. In September 1991, Assange was discovered hacking into the Melbourne master terminal of Nortel, the Australian Federal Police tapped Assanges phone line, raided his home at the end of October, and eventually charged him in 1994 with thirty-one counts of hacking and related crimes. In 1993 Assange gave technical advice to the Victoria Police Child Exploitation Unit, in the same year he was involved in starting one of the first public Internet service providers in Australia, Suburbia Public Access Network. He began programming in 1994, authoring or co-authoring the Transmission Control Protocol port scanner strobe, in 1998, he co-founded the company Earthmen Technology. In 1999 Assange registered the domain leaks. org, but, as he put it and he did, however, publicise a patent granted to the National Security Agency in August 1999 for voice-data harvesting technology, This patent should worry people. Everyones overseas phone calls are or may soon be tapped, transcribed and archived in the bowels of a foreign spy agency
Julian Assange
–
Assange in the Ecuadorian Embassy, London (August 2014)
Julian Assange
–
Assange was born in Townsville, northern Queensland
Julian Assange
–
Assange, c. 2006
Julian Assange
–
Demonstration in support of Assange in front of Sydney Town Hall, 10 December 2010
10.
WikiLeaks
–
WikiLeaks /ˈwɪkiliːks/ is an international non-profit organisation that publishes secret information, news leaks, and classified media from anonymous sources. Its website, initiated in 2006 in Iceland by the organisation Sunshine Press, Julian Assange, an Australian Internet activist, is generally described as its founder, editor-in-chief, and director. The group has released a number of significant documents that have become front-page news items, early releases included documentation of equipment expenditures and holdings in the Afghanistan war and a report informing a corruption investigation in Kenya. In July of the year, WikiLeaks released Afghan War Diary. In October 2010, the released a set of almost 400,000 documents called the Iraq War Logs in coordination with major commercial media organisations. In April 2011, WikiLeaks began publishing 779 secret files relating to prisoners detained in the Guantanamo Bay detention camp, in November 2010, WikiLeaks collaborated with major global media organisations to release U. S. State Department diplomatic cables in redacted format. During the 2016 U. S. presidential election campaign, WikiLeaks released emails and other documents from the Democratic National Committee and from Hillary Clintons campaign manager and these releases caused significant damage to the Clinton campaign and may have contributed to the Democratic Partys loss. The U. S. intelligence community expressed high confidence that the emails had been hacked by Russia and supplied to WikiLeaks. During the campaign, WikiLeaks promoted conspiracy theories about Clinton and the Democratic Party, WikiLeaks has also been criticised for inadequately curating its content and violating the personal privacy of individuals. WikiLeaks has, for instance, revealed Social Security numbers, medical information, credit card numbers, the wikileaks. org domain name was registered on 4 October 2006. The website was established and published its first document in December 2006, sarah Harrison, Kristinn Hrafnsson and Joseph Farrell are the only other publicly known and acknowledged associates of Assange. Harrison is also a member of Sunshine Press Productions along with Assange, WikiLeaks was originally established with a wiki communal publication method, which was terminated by May 2010. As of June 2009, the website had more than 1,200 registered volunteers, despite some popular confusion, WikiLeaks and Wikipedia are not affiliated. Wikia, a for-profit corporation affiliated loosely with the Wikimedia Foundation, according to the WikiLeaks website, its goal is to bring important news and information to the public. One of our most important activities is to publish original source material alongside our news stories so readers, another of the organisations goals is to ensure that journalists and whistleblowers are not prosecuted for emailing sensitive or classified documents. The online drop box is described by the WikiLeaks website as an innovative, secure and that is why in the US Constitution the Bill of Rights says that Congress is to make no such law abridging the freedom of the press. It is to take the rights of the press outside the rights of the law because those rights are superior to the law because in fact create the law. Every constitution, every bit of legislation is derived from the flow of information, similarly every government is elected as a result of people understanding things
WikiLeaks
–
Julian Assange was one of the early members of the WikiLeaks staff and is credited as the website's founder.
WikiLeaks
–
A truck bearing a slogan and WikiLeaks logo as a prop at the
Occupy Wall Street protest in New York on 25 September 2011
WikiLeaks
–
Julian Assange (left) with Daniel Domscheit-Berg. Domscheit-Berg was ejected from WikiLeaks and started a rival "
whistleblower " organisation named OpenLeaks.
WikiLeaks
–
Graffiti in
Bilbao "We want to know."
11.
Yulia Tymoshenko
–
Yulia Volodymyrivna Tymoshenko is a Ukrainian politician. She co-led the Orange Revolution and was the first woman appointed Prime Minister of Ukraine, serving from 24 January to 8 September 2005, Tymoshenko is the leader of the All-Ukrainian Union Fatherland political party that has 19 seats in parliament and has Tymoshenko as its parliamentary faction leader. In the 2012 Ukrainian parliamentary election the party had received the second most votes, in the 2014 Ukrainian presidential election Tymoshenko received 12. 81% of the vote, coming in second place after Petro Poroshenko who won the election with 54. 7%. Tymoshenko finished second in the Ukrainian presidential election of 2010 runoff, losing by 3.5 percentage points to the winner, in the first round she had also finished second. After the 2010 presidential election, a number of cases were brought against her. On 11 October 2011 she was convicted of embezzlement and abuse of power, the decision was supported by 322 votes. She was officially rehabilitated on 28 February 2014, just after the Euromaidan revolution, the Ukrainian Supreme Court and European Court of Human Rights closed the case and found that no crime was committed. In 2005 Tymoshenko placed third in Forbes magazines list of the worlds most powerful women, Tymoshenko strives for Ukraines integration into the European Union and strongly opposes the membership of Ukraine in the Eurasian Customs Union. Yulia Tymoshenko supports NATO membership for Ukraine, Tymoshenko was born Yulia Hrihyan 27 November 1960, in Dnipropetrovsk, Soviet Ukraine, Soviet Union. Her mother, Lyudmila Telehina, was born on 11 August 1937, yulias father, Volodymyr Hrihyan, who according to his Soviet passport was Latvian, was born on 3 December 1937, also in Dnipropetrovsk. He abandoned his wife and young daughter when Yulia was between one and three old, Yulia used her mothers surname. Yulias paternal grandfather, Abram Kapitelman, was born in 1914, Kapitelman was mobilized into the army in the autumn of 1940 and subsequently was killed while taking part in the Great Patriotic War on 8 November 1944, with the rank of lieutenant in Signal corps. In 1977, Tymoshenko graduated from school in Dnipropetrovsk. In 1978 Tymoshenko was enrolled in the Automatization and Telemechanics Department of the Dnipropetrovsk Mining Institute, in 1999 she defended her PhD dissertation, titled State Regulation of the tax system, at the Kyiv National Economic University. Tymoshenko has worked as a practicing economist and academic, prior to her political career, she became a successful but controversial businesswoman in the gas industry, becoming by some estimates one of the richest people in the country. Before becoming Ukraines first female minister in 2005, Tymoshenko co-led the Orange Revolution. She was placed third in Forbes magazines List of The Worlds 100 Most Powerful Women 2005, after graduating from the Dnipropetrovsk State University in 1984, Tymoshenko worked as an engineer-economist in the Dnipro Machine-Building Plant in Dnipropetrovsk until 1988. Tymoshenko worked as a general director, in 1995 this company was reorganized into United Energy Systems of Ukraine
Yulia Tymoshenko
–
Tymoshenko in March 2011
Yulia Tymoshenko
–
Yulia Tymoshenko in
Parliament, 4 February 2005
Yulia Tymoshenko
–
Yulia Timoshenko and
Vladimir Putin (19 March 2005); in November 2009 Putin stated he found it comfortable to work with Tymoshenko and also praised her political choices.
Yulia Tymoshenko
–
President
George W. Bush and Prime Minister of Ukraine Yulia Tymoshenko, Kiev, 1 April 2008
12.
Mohamed Fahmy
–
Mohamed Fadel Fahmy is an Egyptian-born Canadian award-winning journalist, war correspondent and author. Fahmy has worked extensively in the Middle East, North Africa, for CNN, BBC and he covered the Iraq War in 2003 for the Los Angeles Times and entered Iraq on the first day of the war from Kuwait. Upon completion of his mission, he authored his first book. Most recently, he covered the Arab Spring, in September 2013, he accepted a new post as the Al Jazeera English International Bureau Chief based in Egypt. On 29 December 2013, he and two colleagues Al Jazeera English journalists, Peter Greste and Baher Mohamed, were arrested by Egyptian authorities. On 23 June 2014, Fahmy was found guilty by a Cairo Criminal Court and sentenced to seven years of incarceration at the Tora Prison, on 1 January 2015 the Egyptian Court of Appeals announced a retrial for Fahmy, Mohamed and Greste. Release on bail was not allowed and he renounced his Egyptian citizenship on 3 February 2015. to benefit from a presidential executive order allowing the deportation of foreign prisoners. His colleague Peter Greste was deported to Australia, on 12 February 2015 both Fahmy and Baher Mohamed were released on bail and referred to a six-month long retrial. On 29 August 2015, Fahmy, Mohamed and Greste each received three year sentences from the retrial judge, on 23 September 2015, it was reported that Fahmy was pardoned by the Egyptian President Abdel Fattah al-Sisi. In a BBC HARDtalk interview shortly after his release, he criticized Al Jazeera Englishs decision to take the Egyptian government to court for cancelling its network license and he also confirmed that he is suing Al Jazeera English for 100 million dollars for damages. The Egyptian President Abdel Fattah El Sisi restored his Egyptian citizenship on June 10,2016, Fahmy started his new job as an adjunct professor at the University of British Columbia upon winning his freedom and returning to Vancouver, Canada. He authored a book about his imprisonment in Egypt titled The Marriott Cell, the book was adapted into a screenplay written by Michael Bronner. Born in Egypt on April 27,1974 and he has reported extensively in the Middle East, North Africa and North-America for BBC, CNN, and Al Jazeera English. He covered the Iraq War in 2003 for the Los Angeles Times, upon completion of his one-year mission he authored his first book, Baghdad Bound. In 2007 he completed a mission as a protection delegate for the International Committee of the Red Cross in Lebanon protecting the rights of political prisoners, refugees. In 2011 he was honored with a Peabody Award along with the CNN team for the coverage of the Arab Spring. The following year he won the Tom Renner Investigative Reporting award for producing the CNN Freedom Project documentary series “Death in the Desert”. For the first time, the series exposed the organized crime rings operating the illegal trafficking of Sub-Saharan Africans to Israel through its Sinai border with Egypt
Mohamed Fahmy
13.
Lebanese Civil War
–
The Lebanese Civil War was a multifaceted civil war in Lebanon, lasting from 1975 to 1990 and resulting in an estimated 120,000 fatalities. As of 2012, approximately 76,000 people remain displaced within Lebanon, there was also an exodus of almost one million people from Lebanon as a result of the war. The government of Lebanon had been run under a significant influence of the elites among the Maronite Christians, however, the country had a large Muslim population and many pan-Arabist and left-wing groups opposed the pro-western government. Fighting between Maronite and Palestinian forces began in 1975, then Leftist, pan-Arabist and Muslim Lebanese groups formed an alliance with the Palestinians, during the course of the fighting, alliances shifted rapidly and unpredictably. Furthermore, foreign powers, such as Israel and Syria, became involved in the war, Peace keeping forces, such as the Multinational Force in Lebanon & UNIFIL, were also stationed in Lebanon. The 1989 Taif Agreement marked the beginning of the end of the fighting, in January 1989, a committee appointed by the Arab League began to formulate solutions to the conflict. In March 1991, parliament passed an amnesty law that all political crimes prior to its enactment. In May 1991, the militias were dissolved, with the exception of Hezbollah, religious tensions between Sunnis and Shias remained after the war. An 1860 civil war between Druze and Maronites erupted in the Ottoman Mutasarrifate of Mount Lebanon, which had been divided between them in 1842 and it resulted in the massacre of about 10,000 Christians and at least 6,000 Druzes. The 1860 war was considered by the Druze as a military victory, World War I was hard for the Lebanese. While the rest of the world was occupied with the World War, with the defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, Turkish rule ended. France took control of the area under the French Mandate for Syria, the French created the state of Greater Lebanon as a safe haven for the Maronites, but included a large Muslim population within the borders. In 1926, Lebanon was declared a republic, and a constitution was adopted, however, the constitution was suspended in 1932. Various factions sought unity with Syria, or independence from the French, in 1934, the countrys first census was conducted. In 1936, the Maronite Phalange party was founded by Pierre Gemayel, World War II and the 1940s brought great change to Lebanon and the Middle East. Lebanon was promised independence and on 22 November 1943, during World War II, Free French troops, who had invaded Lebanon in 1941 to rid Beirut of the Vichy French forces, left the country in 1946. The Maronites assumed power over the country and economy, a parliament was created, in which both Muslims and Christians each had a set quota of seats. Accordingly, the President was to be a Maronite, the Prime Minister a Sunni Muslim, the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine in late 1947 led to civil war in Palestine, the end of Mandatory Palestine, and the Israeli Declaration of Independence on 14 May 1948
Lebanese Civil War
–
The
Martyr's Square statue in Beirut, 1982, during the civil war
Lebanese Civil War
–
Soldiers in
Mount Lebanon during the
mutasarrif period
Lebanese Civil War
–
U.S. Marine sits in a foxhole outside Beirut, 1958
14.
Gerrards Cross
–
Gerrards Cross is a town and civil parish in the South Bucks district of Buckinghamshire, England. It is in the south of the county, separated from the London Borough of Hillingdon at Harefield by Denham, London is centred 19 miles east. Geographically large and suburban, Gerrards Cross is south of Chalfont St Peter and north of Fulmer, the town name is new compared with the great bulk of English towns. It is named after the Gerrard family who in the early 17th century owned a manor here, at that time homes which were not farms were smallholdings clustered in a hamlet in the south of an elongated parish of Chalfont St Peter. The large and distinctive parish church is dedicated to St. James, in 1969 the singer Lulu married Maurice Gibb of the Bee Gees in the church. The actress Margaret Rutherford is buried with her husband Stringer Davis in the St James Church graveyard, the town has its own library, various restaurants and its own cinema, the Everyman Gerrards Cross. Independent schools include Maltmans Green School, St Marys, Gayhurst, on the south side of the town is the Gerrards Cross Memorial Building, on the site of the former vicarage. The building was designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens and unveiled in 1922 to commemorate the losses during the First World War. It is the example of a Lutyens war memorial designed with a functional purpose. Just outside Gerrards Cross, on the A40 to Beaconsfield, is Wapseys Wood landfill site, one of the largest landfill sites in the UK and it accepts up to 900,000 tonnes of non hazardous waste each year from south Buckinghamshire, London and other areas. The landfill gas produced from the waste yields over 10 megawatts of electricity which is fed into the power grid, the town has a railway station on the Chiltern Main Line which opened on 2 April 1906. This provides services to London and Birmingham with a time of about 25 minutes to London Marylebone. A new arch over the section of deep railway cutting to allow Tesco to build a supermarket collapsed on 30 June 2005 at 19,30, nobody was injured but the line was closed for over six weeks. Compensation by Tesco to Chiltern was reported as £8. 5m, construction of a correctly constructed arch began in January 2009. This train now terminates at West Ruislip, in 2011 National Rail was lobbied to phase the service out. The town is 14 miles from Londons Heathrow Airport, stanley Kubrick filmed some of the exteriors in his feature 1962 film Lolita, notably Charlotte Hazes house, in Gerrards Cross. Jethro Tulls song Journeyman on their 1978 album Heavy Horses includes the line Too late to stop for tea at Gerrards Cross, indie band the Hit Parade released their 3rd single The Sun Shines In Gerrards Cross in 1986. Joan G. Robinson, author and illustrator, lived in Gerrards Cross and her most well-known book is When Marnie Was There, which was adapted into an animated film by Studio Ghibli
Gerrards Cross
–
Gerrards Cross village centre.
Gerrards Cross
–
St James's Church, Gerrards Cross, built in 1861.
Gerrards Cross
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Gerrards Cross station, in 1994. The view NW from the footbridge, towards Princes Risborough
15.
Buckinghamshire
–
Development in this region is restricted by the Metropolitan Green Belt. Other large settlements include the county town of Aylesbury, Marlow in the south near the Thames and Princes Risborough in the west near Oxford. Some areas without rail links to London, such as around the old county town of Buckingham. The largest town is Milton Keynes in the northeast, which with the area is administered as a unitary authority separately to the rest of Buckinghamshire. The remainder of the county is administered by Buckinghamshire County Council as a non-metropolitan county, in national elections, Buckinghamshire is considered a reliable supporter of the Conservative Party. A large part of the Chiltern Hills, an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty, runs through the south of the county and attracts many walkers, in this area older buildings are often made from local flint and red brick. Chequers, an estate owned by the government, is the country retreat of the incumbent Prime Minister. To the north of the county lies rolling countryside in the Vale of Aylesbury, the Thames forms part of the county’s southwestern boundary. Notable service amenities in the county are Pinewood Film Studios, Dorney rowing lake, many national companies have offices in Milton Keynes. Heavy industry and quarrying is limited, with agriculture predominating after service industries, the name Buckinghamshire is Anglo-Saxon in origin and means The district of Buccas home. Buccas home refers to Buckingham in the north of the county, the county has been so named since about the 12th century, however, the county has existed since it was a subdivision of the kingdom of Mercia. Historically, the biggest change to the county came in the 19th century, Buckinghamshire is a popular home for London commuters, leading to greater local affluence, however, some pockets of relative deprivation remain. As a result, most county institutions are now based in the south of the county or Milton Keynes, the county can be split into two sections geographically. The county includes parts of two of the four longest rivers in England, the River Thames forms the southern boundary with Berkshire, which has crept over the border at Eton and Slough so that the river is no longer the sole boundary between the two counties. The River Great Ouse rises just outside the county in Northamptonshire and flows east through Buckingham, Milton Keynes, the main branch of the Grand Union Canal passes through the county as do its arms to Slough, Aylesbury, Wendover and Buckingham. The canal has been incorporated into the landscaping of Milton Keynes, the southern part of the county is dominated by the Chiltern Hills. The two highest points in Buckinghamshire are Haddington Hill in Wendover Woods at 267 metres above sea level, quarrying has taken place for chalk, clay for brickmaking and gravel and sand in the river valleys. Flint, also extracted from quarries, was used to build older local buildings
Buckinghamshire
Buckinghamshire
–
Buckinghamshire shown within England
Buckinghamshire
–
Map of Bucks (1904)
Buckinghamshire
–
The River Thames at Medmenham
16.
Druze in Lebanon
–
Druze in Lebanon refers to adherents of the Druze faith, an ethnoreligious esoteric group originating from the Near East who self identify as unitarians. The Lebanese Druze people are believed to constitute about 5% of the population of Lebanon. The Druze, who refer to themselves as al-Muwahhideen, or believers in one God, are concentrated in the rural, mountainous areas east, under the Lebanese political division the Druze community is designated as one of the five Lebanese Muslim communities. Lebanons constitution was intended to guarantee representation for each of the nations ethno-religious groups. Under the terms of an agreement known as the National Pact between the various political and religious leaders of Lebanon, the Chief of the General Staff must be a Druze. The Druze faith is a monotheistic Abrahamic religion that follows the Five Pillars of Islam, however, certain Muslim groups regard them as Rawafid or Deserters of true Islamic faith. However, other sources claim that the Druze faith does not follow the Five Pillars of Islam, fasting during the month of Ramadan, thus, they are not regarded by Muslims as Islamic and are seen as Rawafid or Deserters of true Islamic faith. The Druze beliefs incorporate elements of Ismailism, Gnosticism, Neoplatonism, the Druze call themselves Ahl al-Tawhid People of Unitarianism or Monotheism or al-Muwaḥḥidūn. The Druze follow a style of isolation where no conversion is allowed, neither out of, or into. When Druze live among people of religions, they try to blend in, in order to protect their religion. They can pray as Muslims, or as Christians, depending on where they are and this system is apparently changing in modern times, where more security has allowed Druze to be more open about their religious belonging. Before and during the Lebanese Civil War, the Druze were in favor of Pan-Arabism, jumblatts post-2005 position diverged sharply from the tradition of his family. He also accused Damascus of being behind the 1977 assassination of his father, Kamal Jumblatt, the BBC describes Jumblatt as the smartest leader of Lebanons most powerful Druze clan and heir to a leftist political dynasty. The second largest political party supported by Druze is the Lebanese Democratic Party led by Prince Talal Arslan, in May 10,2008 as part of the 2008 Conflict, clashes occurred between Hezbollah forces and Druze militias in their mountain resulting is casualties on both sides. The clashes started in Aytat, near Kayfoun and soon expanded to many spots in Mount Lebanon including Baysur, Shuweifat. Most of the fighting was concentrated on Hill 888, after negotiations a ceasefire was called in from outside the country before Hezbollah could call in artillery support. Releases from Hezbollah leaders in 2016 stated that bombing the mountain with close-range artillery from the South, Hill 888 remains under Hezbollahs banner today with reports of heavy artillery pieces being moved in that can strike any point within the mountain. The Druze, who refer to themselves as al-Muwahhideen, or believers in one God, are concentrated in the rural, mountainous areas east and south of Beirut
Druze in Lebanon
Druze in Lebanon
–
An estimate of the distribution of Lebanon's main religious groups, 1991, based on a map by GlobalSecurity.org
Druze in Lebanon
Druze in Lebanon
–
Lebanon religious groups distribution
17.
American University of Beirut
–
The American University of Beirut, Arabic, الجامعة الأميركية في بيروت) is a private, secular and independent university in Beirut, Lebanon. Degrees awarded at the American University of Beirut are officially registered with the New York Board of Regents, the university is ranked as the number one university in Lebanon and among the top 250 universities in the world by the QS World University Rankings. The American University of Beirut is governed by a private, autonomous Board of Trustees and offers programs leading to Bachelors, Master’s, MD, the current president is Fadlo R. Khuri, M. D. The American University of Beirut boasts an operating budget of $300 million with an endowment of approximately $500 million, the campus is composed of 64 buildings, including the American University of Beirut Medical Center,5 libraries,3 museums and 7 dormitories. Almost one-fifth of AUBs students attended school or university outside of Lebanon before coming to AUB. AUB Graduates reside in approximately 100 countries worldwide, the language of instruction is English. On April 24,1863, while Dr. Daniel Bliss was raising money for the new college in the United States and England, the college, which was renamed the American University of Beirut in 1920, opened with a class of 16 students on December 3,1866. Dr. Bliss served as its first president, from 1866 until 1902, AUB alumni have had a broad and significant impact on the region and the world for many years. For example,19 AUB alumni were delegates to the signing of the United Nations Charter in 1945—more than any university in the world. They work in governments, the sector, and in nongovernmental organizations. During the Lebanese Civil War AUB pursued various means to preserve the continuity of studies, on 18 January 1984, AUB President Malcolm H. On March 21,2008, the Board of Trustees selected Peter Dorman to be AUBs 15th president and he succeeded John Waterbury who was president of AUB from 1998 to 2008. Dorman is a scholar in the field of Egyptology and formerly chaired the University of Chicagos Department of Near Eastern Languages. On March 19,2015, the Board of Trustees formally approved the nomination of Fadlo R. Khuri, MD and he was officially appointed as AUBs 16th president after holding an inauguration ceremony on Monday February 25,2016. As of June 2011, the number of degrees and diplomas awarded totaled 82,032. The 61-acre American University of Beirut campus is on a hill overlooking the Mediterranean Sea on one side, based in one of Lebanon’s few geographic locations, AUB’s campus in Ras Beirut consists of 64 buildings, seven dormitories and several libraries. In addition, the university houses the Charles W. Hostler Student Center. By the academic year 2015-2016, the number of students studying in AUB surpassed 10,000 students
American University of Beirut
–
Daniel L. Bliss, who helped found Syrian Protestant College (American University of Beirut) and was its first president
American University of Beirut
–
American University of Beirut
American University of Beirut
–
At the Main Gate
American University of Beirut
–
College Hall
18.
Sunni Islam in Lebanon
–
Sunni Islam in Lebanon has a history of more than a millennium. According to CIA study, Lebanese Sunni Muslims have followers who constitutes 27% of Lebanons population of approximately 4.3 million, the Lebanese Sunni Muslims are concentrated in west Beirut, Tripoli, Sidon and in the countryside of the Akkar. There is no distinct pattern that shows that one community carries significantly more Phoenician than another, genealogical DNA testing has shown that 24. 8% of Lebanese Muslims belong to the Y-DNA haplogroup J1. Although there is common ancestral roots, these studies show some difference was found between Muslims and non-Muslims in Lebanon, of whom only 17. 1% have this haplotype. On the other hand, only 4. 7% of all Lebanese Muslims belong to haplogroup R1b, haplogroup J2 is also a significant marker in throughout Lebanon. This marker found in inhabitants of Lebanon, regardless of religion, signals pre-Arab descendants. These genetic studies show us there is no significant differences between the Muslims and non-Muslims of Lebanon, the Sunnis of Lebanon have close ties with Saudi Arabia, which supports them financially. Moreover, Tripoli, the stronghold of the Lebanese Sunnis, is also the birthplace of Lebanons Salafi Movement, Sunni Muslims and Alawites have been in conflict with each other for centuries. The Alawites of the Levant were oppressed by the Sunni Ottoman Empire, after independence from France, their co-religionists the Assad family came to power in Syria in 1970. The deadliest exchange took place last June, when seven people were killed and more than 60 wounded, after Sunni Muslims staged a protest against the Assad regime. At the best of times, the Alawites are regarded by Sunnis as heretics, at times of tension, the last census in Lebanon in 1932 put the numbers of Sunnis at 22% of the population. A study done by the Central Intelligence Agency in 1985 put the numbers of Sunnis at 27% of the population, Lebanese Sunni Muslims constitutes 27% of Lebanons population of approximately 4.3 million, which means they amount to 1,160,00 as of 2012. Emir Khaled Chehab, former Prime Minister of Lebanon and Speaker of the Parliament of Lebanon
Sunni Islam in Lebanon
–
An estimate of the distribution of Lebanon's main religious groups, 1991, based on a map by GlobalSecurity.org
Sunni Islam in Lebanon
–
Lebanon religious groups distribution
Sunni Islam in Lebanon
–
An estimate of the area distribution of Lebanon's main religious groups
19.
Tripoli, Lebanon
–
Tripoli is the largest city in northern Lebanon and the second-largest city in the country. Situated 85 kilometers north of the capital Beirut, it is the capital of the North Governorate, Tripoli overlooks the eastern Mediterranean Sea, and it is the northernmost seaport in Lebanon. It holds a string of four small islands offshore, and they are also the islands in Lebanon. The Palm Islands were declared an area because of their status of haven for endangered loggerhead turtles, rare monk seals. Tripoli borders the city of El Mina, the port of the Tripoli District, Tripoli had a number of different names as far back as the Phoenician age. In the Amarna letters the name Derbly, possibly a Semitic cognate of the citys modern Arabic name Ṭarābulus, was mentioned, in an engraving concerning the invasion of Tripoli by the Assyrian King Ashurnasirpal II, it is called Mahallata or Mahlata, Mayza, and Kayza. Under the Phoenicians, the name Athar was used to refer to Tripoli, when the Ancient Greeks settled in the city they called it Τρίπολις, meaning three cities, influenced by the earlier phonetically similar but etymologically unrelated name Derbly. The Arabs called it Ṭarābulus and Ṭarābulus al-Šām, today, Tripoli is also known as al-fayḥā′, which is a term derived from the Arabic verb faha which is used to indicate the diffusion of a scent or smell. Tripoli was once known for its vast orange orchards, during the season of blooming, the pollen of orange flowers was said to be carried on the air, creating a splendid perfume which filled the city and suburbs. Tripoli has a Mediterranean Climate with mild winters and moderately hot summers, temperatures are moderated throughout the year due to the warm Mediterranean Current coming from Western Europe. Therefore, temperatures are warmer in the winter by around 10 °C, although snow is an extremely rare event that only occurs around once every 5 years, hail and sleet are very common and occur fairly regularly in the winter. Rainfall is concentrated in the months, with the summer typically being very dry. There is evidence of settlement in Tripoli that dates back as early as 1400 BCE, under Hellenistic rule, Tripoli was used as a naval shipyard and the city enjoyed a period of autonomy. It came under Roman rule around 64 BCE, the 551 Beirut earthquake and tsunami destroyed the Byzantine city of Tripoli along with other Mediterranean coastal cities. During Umayyad rule, Tripoli became a commercial and shipbuilding center and it achieved semi-independence under Fatimid rule, when it developed into a center of learning. The Crusaders laid siege to the city at the beginning of the 12th century and were finally to enter it in 1109. This caused extensive destruction, including the burning of Tripolis famous library, Dar al-Ilm, during the Crusaders rule the city became the capital of the County of Tripoli. In 1289, it fell to the Mamluks and the old part of the city was destroyed
Tripoli, Lebanon
–
Clockwise from top left:
Citadel of Raymond de Saint-Gilles,
Mansouri Great Mosque minaret,
Mamluk architecture, bay view, and Catholic Syriac church
Tripoli, Lebanon
–
A
panoramic view of modern Tripoli with its distinctive skyline
Tripoli, Lebanon
–
Overview of historical districts in Tripoli.
Tripoli, Lebanon
–
Ruins in Tripoli.
20.
Pan-Arab
–
Pan-Arabism or Arabism is an ideology espousing the unification of the countries of North Africa and West Asia from the Atlantic Ocean to the Arabian Sea, referred to as the Arab world. It is closely connected to Arab nationalism, which asserts that the Arabs constitute a single nation and its popularity was at its height during the 1950s and 1960s. Advocates of pan-Arabism have often espoused socialist principles and strongly opposed Western political involvement in the Arab world and it also sought to empower Arab states from outside forces by forming alliances and – to a lesser extent – economic co-operation. The origins of pan-Arabism are often attributed to Jurji Zaydan and his Nahda movement and he also popularized through his historical novels certain heroes from Arab history. A more formalized pan-Arab ideology than that of Hussein was first espoused in the 1930s, notably by Syrian thinkers such as Constantin Zureiq, Sati al-Husri, Zaki al-Arsuzi and it has been said that Arsuzi was fascinated with the Nazi ideology of racial purity and impacted Aflaq. Abdullah I of Jordan dreamed of uniting Syria, Palestine, and he unsuccessfully proposed a plan to this effect to the United Kingdom, which controlled Palestine at that time. The plan was not popular among the majority of Arabs and fostered distrust among the leaders of the other Middle Eastern countries against Abdallah, the distrust of Abdallahs expansionist aspirations was one of the principal reasons for the founding of the Arab League in 1945. Once Abdallah was assassinated by a Palestinian nationalist in 1951, the vision of Greater Syria was dropped from the Jordanian agenda, the pan-Arabist ideology has been accused of inciting prejudice against or downplaying the role of ethnic minorities such as the Berbers. Although pan-Arabism began at the time of World War I, Egypt was not interested in pan-Arabism prior to the 1950s, thus, in the 1930s and 1940s, Egyptian nationalism – not pan-Arabism – was the dominant mode of expression of Egyptian political activists. James Jankowski wrote about Egypt at the time, What is most significant is the absence of an Arab component in early Egyptian nationalism, the thrust of Egyptian political, economic, and cultural development throughout the nineteenth century worked against, rather than for, an Arab orientation. This situation—that of divergent political trajectories for Egyptians and Arabs—if anything increased after 1900, there have been several attempts to bring about a pan-Arab state by many well-known Arab leaders, all of which ultimately resulted in failure. It lasted until 1961, when Syrian army officers carried out a coup détat, by 1961, Egypt had become the only remaining member but continued to call itself the UAR, but it eventually renamed itself the Arab Republic of Egypt in 1973. Also in 1958, a Hashemite-led rival, the Arab Federation, was founded between Jordan and Iraq, tensions with the UAR and the 14 July Revolution made the Arab Federation collapse after only six months. Another attempt, the United Arab States, existed as a confederation between the United Arab Republic, Arab Federation and the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen, but it dissolved in 1961. Two later attempts represented the enthusiasm of Libyas Muammar Gaddafi, the Federation of Arab Republics, which lasted five years, and the Arab Islamic Republic, which never emerged in practice. The current Syrian government is and the government of Iraq was led by rival factions of the Baath Party. The Arab defeat by Israel in the 1967 Six-Day War and the inability of pan-Arabist governments to generate economic growth severely damaged the credibility of pan-Arabism as a relevant ideology, Egyptians attachment to pan-Arabism was particularly questioned after the Six-Day War. Nasser had overplayed his hand in trying to form a pan-Arab hegemony under himself, thousands of Egyptians had lost their lives, and the country became disillusioned with Arab politics
Pan-Arab
–
Under Egyptian
President Gamal Abdel Nasser, pan-Arabism dominated politics in the 1950s and 1960s
Pan-Arab
–
States and Territories of the Arab League
21.
Al-Hayat
–
Al-Hayat is one of the leading daily pan-Arab newspapers, with a circulation estimated over 200,000. It is the newspaper of record for the Arab diaspora and the venue for liberal intellectuals who wish to express themselves to a large public. Though rather pro-West and pro-Saudi with respect to articles concerning the Arabian peninsula, Al-Hayat prints in London, New York, Frankfurt, Dubai, Riyadh, Jeddah, Dammam, Beirut and Cairo. The newspaper has offices in London, Paris, Washington, New York, Moscow, Riyadh, Jeddah, Beirut, Cairo, Baghdad, Dubai, Amman, and Damascus, among others. The newspaper is regarded as by far and away the best and most intensely read Arab newspaper, a 2005 article in the same paper described Al-Hayat as a decidedly Arab nationalist paper. The newspaper is distributed in most Arab countries, and most of its editors are from Lebanon and it is more critical of the Saudi government than its main rival, Asharq Al-Awsat. The newspapers motto is, a line taken from a poem by Ahmed Shawki, the original Al-Hayat was founded by Kamel Mrowa, a Lebanese Shia Muslim, in Beirut on 28 January 1946. In 1966, as Mrowa checked final proofs for the days edition. Although the assassins motive was never determined, investigators linked the shooting to the newspapers criticism of the Arab nationalist movement. The publication survived 13 bombing attempts before the Lebanese Civil War finally forced it to shut down in 1976, Al-Hayat was refounded in 1988 by Jamil Mrowa and Adel Bishtawi. In fact, it was bought in 1988 by the Saudi Prince Khalid bin Sultan, in May 1993, the newspaper scooped every other news organization by breaking the news about the secret Oslo talks between Palestinians and Israelis. Al-Hayat also initiated a joint news-gathering operation in the mid-1990s with the Saudi-connected Lebanese Broadcasting Corporation, by 1997, Al-Hayat shocked its Arab readership by establishing a bureau in Jerusalem. Edward Said of Columbia University was a frequent contributor, in January 1997, at least 14 letter bombs were mailed to the newspapers headquarters in London and its bureaus in New York, Washington and Riyadh. Two security guards were wounded by one of the bombs as it exploded at the headquarters, the publication was part of an exchange between American intellectuals—including Samuel P. S. invasion of Afghanistan. Other reports attributed the ban to the disclosure that a Saudi extremist had played a key role in an Iraqi al-Qaida front group. On 30 April 2011, Al-Hayat reported that Hamas had taken the decision to leave Syria, anonymous Hamas officials cited pressure from the government to take a clear stance against the protests. Currently, Al-Hayat is organized under the umbrella of Dar al-Hayat. Additionally, Hassan Haidar serve as managing editors in Britain, Zouheir Qoseibati in Lebanon, the three offices in Saudi Arabia reflect the papers focus on the country as well as the regional division into central, west, and eastern editions
Al-Hayat
–
Al Hayat الحياة
Al-Hayat
–
Al-Hayat on display in Tripoli, Lebanon, 2012
22.
Grammar school
–
The original purpose of medieval grammar schools was the teaching of Latin. Over time the curriculum was broadened, first to include Ancient Greek, and later English and other European languages, natural sciences, mathematics, history, geography, and other subjects. In the late Victorian era grammar schools were reorganised to provide secondary education throughout England and Wales, Grammar schools of these types were also established in British territories overseas, where they have evolved in different ways. With the move to comprehensive schools in the 1960s and 1970s, some grammar schools became fully independent and charged fees. In both cases, many of these schools kept grammar school in their names, more recently, a number of state grammar schools still retaining their selective intake gained academy status, meaning that they are independent of the Local Education Authority. Some parts of England retain forms of the Tripartite System, some of the remaining grammar schools can trace their histories to before the 16th century. The schools were attached to cathedrals and monasteries, teaching Latin – the language of the church – to future priests, other subjects required for religious work were occasionally added, including music and verse, astronomy and mathematics and law. With the foundation of the ancient universities from the late 12th century, grammar schools became the point to a liberal arts education. Pupils were usually educated in schools up to the age of 14, after which they would look to universities. An example of a grammar school founded by a medieval borough corporation unconnected with church or university is Bridgnorth Grammar School. During the English Reformation in the 16th century, most cathedral schools were closed and replaced by new foundations funded from the dissolution of the monasteries. For example, the oldest extant schools in Wales – Christ College, Brecon, with the increased emphasis on studying the scriptures after the Reformation, many schools added Greek and, in a few cases, Hebrew. The teaching of languages was hampered by a shortage of non-Latin type. Many of these are commemorated in annual Founders Day services and ceremonies at surviving schools. The usual pattern was to create an endowment to pay the wages of a master to instruct boys in Latin. The school day ran from 6 a. m. to 5 p. m. with a two-hour break for lunch, in winter, school started at 7 a. m. Most of the day was spent in the learning of Latin. To encourage fluency, some schoolmasters recommended punishing any pupil who spoke in English, by the end of their studies at age 14, they would be quite familiar with the great Latin authors, and with Latin drama and rhetoric
Grammar school
–
Sutton Grammar School in
Sutton, London, one of five remaining grammar schools in the
London Borough of Sutton
Grammar school
–
Winchester College Chapel
Grammar school
–
Frances Buss, a pioneer of women's education and founding head of
North London Collegiate School
Grammar school
–
Manchester Grammar School, the largest and most famous of the direct grant grammar schools
23.
Amersham
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Amersham is a market town and civil parish within Chiltern district in Buckinghamshire, England,27 miles north west of London, in the Chiltern Hills. It is part of the London commuter belt, Amersham is 15 miles from Aylesbury and 13 miles from High Wycombe. Records date back to times, when it was known as Agmodesham. The Domesday entry is as follows, Geoffrey de Mandeville holds Amersham and it answers for 7 1⁄2 hides. Land for 16 ploughs, in lordship 2 hides,3 ploughs there,14 villagers with 4 smallholders have 9 ploughs, a further 4 possible. 7 slaves, meadow for 16 ploughs, woodland 400 pigs, the total value is and was £9, before 1066 £16. Queen Edith was the wife of Edward the Confessor and sister of king Harold, in 1200 Geoffrey, Earl of Essex obtained a charter for Amersham allowing him to hold a Friday market and a fair on 7 and 8 September. In 1613, another charter was granted to Edward, Earl of Bedford, changing the market day to Tuesday, in 1521, seven Lollard dissenters were burned at the stake in Amersham. They died for the principles of liberty, for the right to read and interpret the Holy Scriptures. The Universal Magazine of September 1749 quotes that William Tylesworth was in fact burnt in 1506, Amersham Golf Club was founded in 1897. The club continued until the onset of the First World War, the area of the town now known as Amersham on the Hill was referred to as Amersham Common until after the arrival of the Metropolitan Railway in 1892. After this date growth of the new area of the town gradually accelerated and it is now known locally as Amersham-on-the-Hill, Amersham town or the New Town. In 1931, the architect Amyas Connell completed the Grade II listed art deco house, High and it has been used as a film location. Amersham sent two MPs to the unreformed House of Commons from 1625, and was considered a borough until the Reform Act 1832 stripped it of its representation. The town was part of the county constituency of Buckinghamshire. From 1885 it was in the Aylesbury constituency, in 1950 it formed part of the South Buckinghamshire seat, since then Ian Gilmour and then Cheryl Gillan have represented the constituency on behalf of the Conservative party. In the 2005 General Election Ms Gillan was returned with 54. 4% of the vote, at local level, Amersham is represented by its own town council. It is a parish within Chiltern district
Amersham
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King's Arms Hotel, Amersham Old Town
Amersham
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High Street, Old Amersham, 1955
Amersham
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The 1682 Market Hall in Old Amersham
Amersham
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St Mary's Church, Old Amersham
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Bachelor of Arts
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A Bachelor of Arts is a bachelors degree awarded for an undergraduate course or program in either the liberal arts, the sciences, or both. Bachelor of Arts degree programs take three to four years depending on the country, academic institution, and specific specializations, majors or minors. The word baccalaureus or baccalarium should not be confused with baccalaureatus, degree diplomas generally are printed on high-quality paper or parchment, individual institutions set the preferred abbreviation for their degrees. In Pakistan, the Bachelor of Arts degree can also be attained within two years as an external degree, in colleges and universities in Australia, New Zealand, Nepal and South Africa, the BA degree can be taken over three years of full-time study. Unlike in other countries, students do not receive a grade for their Bachelor of Arts degree with varying levels of honours. Qualified students may be admitted, after they have achieved their Bachelors program with an overall grade point average. Thus, to achieve a Bachelor Honours degree, a postgraduate year. A student who holds a Honours degree is eligible for entry to either a Doctorate or a very high research Master´s degree program. Education in Canada is controlled by the Provinces and can be different depending on the province in Canada. Canadian universities typically offer a 3-year Bachelor of Arts degrees, in many universities and colleges, Bachelor of Arts degrees are differentiated either as Bachelors of Arts or as honours Bachelor of Arts degree. The honours degrees are designated with the abbreviation in brackets of. It should not be confused with the consecutive Bachelor of Arts degree with Honours, Latin Baccalaureatus in Artibus Cum Honore, BA hon. de jure without brackets and with a dot. It is a degree, which is considered to be the equivalent of a corresponding maîtrise degree under the French influenced system. Going back in history, a three-year Bachelor of Arts degree was called a pass degree or general degree. Students may be required to undertake a long high-quality research empirical thesis combined with a selection of courses from the relevant field of studies. The consecutive B. cum Honore degree is essential if students ultimate goal is to study towards a two- or three-year very high research masters´ degree qualification. A student holding a Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree also may choose to complete a Doctor of Philosophy program without the requirement to first complete a masters degree, over the years, in some universities certain Baccalaureatus cum Honore programs have been changed to corresponding master´s degrees. In general, in all four countries, the B. A. degree is the standard required for entry into a masters programme, in science, a BA hons degree is generally a prerequisite for entrance to a Ph. D program or a very-high-research-activity master´s programme
Bachelor of Arts
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A certificate or diploma evidencing the granting of a bachelor's degree
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Jurisprudence
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Jurisprudence is the study and theory of law. It includes principles behind law that make the law, scholars of jurisprudence, also known as jurists or legal theorists, hope to obtain a deeper understanding of the nature of law, of legal reasoning, legal systems, and of legal institutions. Modern jurisprudence began in the 18th century and was focused on the first principles of the law, civil law. Contemporary philosophy of law, which deals with general jurisprudence, addresses problems in two groups, Problems internal to law and legal systems. Problems of law as a social institution as law relates to the larger political and social situation in which it exists. Answers to these questions come from four schools of thought in general jurisprudence. The foundations of law are accessible through reason and it is from these laws of nature that human-created laws gain whatever force they have. Legal positivism, by contrast to natural law, holds that there is no connection between law and morality and that the force of law comes from some basic social facts. Legal positivists differ on what facts are. Critical legal studies are a younger theory of jurisprudence that has developed since the 1970s and it holds that the law is largely contradictory, and can be best analyzed as an expression of the policy goals of a dominant social group. A further relatively new field is known as jurisprudence, concerned with the impact of legal processes on wellbeing. The English word is based on the Latin maxim jurisprudentia, juris is the form of jus meaning law. The word is first attested in English in 1628, at a time when the word prudence had the meaning of knowledge of or skill in a matter, the word may have come via the French jurisprudence, which is attested earlier. Ancient Indian jurisprudence is available in various Dharmaśāstra texts starting from the Dharmasutra of Bhodhayana. Jurisprudence already had this meaning in Ancient Rome even if at its origins the discipline was a in the jus of mos maiorum, an iudex then would judge a remedy according to the facts of the case. The law was implemented with new evolutive Institutiones, while remaining in the traditional scheme. Praetors were replaced in the 3rd century BC by a body of prudentes. Admission to this body was conditional upon proof of competence or experience, under the Roman Empire, schools of law were created, and the activity constantly became more academic
Jurisprudence
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Philosophers of law ask "what is law, and what should it be?"
Jurisprudence
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Aristotle, by
Francesco Hayez
Jurisprudence
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Thomas Aquinas was the most important Western medieval legal
scholar
Jurisprudence
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Bentham's utilitarian theories remained dominant in law until the twentieth century
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Bachelor of Laws
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The Bachelor of Laws is an undergraduate degree in law originating in England and offered in most common law jurisdictions. The LL. of the abbreviation for the degree is from the genitive plural legum, creating an abbreviation for a plural, especially from Latin, is often done by doubling the first letter, thus LL. B. Stands for Legum Baccalaureus in Latin, today in Canada the predominant first degree in common law is the Juris Doctor degree having replaced the LL. B. Bachelor of Laws is also the name of the first degree in Scots law and South African law awarded by a number of universities in Scotland and South Africa, the first academic degrees were all law degrees in medieval universities, and the first law degrees were doctorates. The foundations of the first universities were the glossators of the 11th century, the first university, that of Bologna, was founded as a school of law by four famous legal scholars in the 12th century who were students of the glossator school in that city. The University of Bologna served as the model for law schools of the medieval age. The bachelors degree originated at the University of Paris, whose system was implemented at Oxford, the arts designation of the degree traditionally signifies that the student has undertaken a certain amount of study of the classics. On continental Europe the bachelors degree was phased out in the 18th or early 19th century but it continued at Oxford, the teaching of law at Oxford University was for philosophical or scholarly purposes and not meant to prepare one to practise law. The original method of education at the Inns of Court was a mix of moot court-like practice and lecture, as well as court proceedings observation. By the seventeenth century, the Inns obtained a status as a kind of university akin to the University of Oxford, with the frequent absence of parties to suits during the Crusades, the importance of the lawyer role grew tremendously, and the demand for lawyers grew. The apprenticeship programme for solicitors thus emerged, structured and governed by the rules as the apprenticeship programmes for the trades. The training of solicitors by apprenticeship was formally established by an act of parliament in 1729, therefore, formal schools of law were called for, but not finally established until later in the century, and even then the bar did not consider a university degree in admission decisions. When law degrees were required by the English bar and bar associations in other common law countries, historically, law students studied both canon law and civil law. Today, this is less common. In most common law countries, the Bachelor of Laws programme is generally entered directly after completion of secondary school, Masters courses are also offered to university graduates, those who graduate from such courses are entitled to use the initials LL. M. Additionally, of the thirty-six Law Schools thirteen of those universities have started offering the Juris Doctor as a Graduate entry degree. Bangladesh is a common law country, like other Common Law countries, Bachelor of Laws degree is a condition precedent to practise as an Advocate in the Courts of Law of Bangladesh. Both LL. B. and LL. B. degrees are offered in different Public, only seven Public Universities offer LL. B. degree
Bachelor of Laws
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Sir William Blackstone
Bachelor of Laws
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University of Pretoria Faculty of Law
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Master of Laws
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The Master of Laws is a postgraduate academic degree, pursued by those either holding an undergraduate academic law degree, a professional law degree, or an undergraduate degree in a related subject. In some jurisdictions the Master of Laws is the professional degree for admission into legal practice. To become a lawyer and practice law in most states and countries, while in most common law countries a Bachelor of Laws is required, the U. S. and Canada generally require a professional doctorate, or Juris Doctor, to practice law. The Juris Doctor is a doctorate and first professional graduate degree in law. The degree is earned by completing law school in the United States, Canada, Australia, the majority of individuals holding a J. D. must pass an examination in order to be licensed to practice law within their respective jurisdictions. If a person wishes to gain specialized knowledge through research in a area of law. The word legum is the plural form of the Latin word lex. When used in the plural, it signifies a body of laws, as opposed to the general collective concept embodied in the word jus, from which the words juris. The highest research degree in law is the S. J. D. and it is equivalent to the Doctor of Philosophy in Law, Doctorat en Droit, or the Doktor der Rechtswissenschaften in Germany. There are also variant doctoral degrees, such as the D. C. L. degree bestowed by McGill University in Canada, most schools require an LL. M. before admission to a SJD or a PhD in law degree program. Like the PhD, the SJD degree generally requires a dissertation that is graded, orally defended, the Doctor of Laws degree in the United States of America is usually an honorary degree. Historically, the LL. M. degree is an element particular to the system of English speaking countries. Over the past years, however, specialized LL. M, Programs have been introduced in many European countries, even where the Bologna process has not yet been fully implemented. Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Cyprus, Italy and Switzerland require a Masters with a two to five years to become a lawyer. As of 2014, Spain requires a degree in addition to a 4 years degree to become a lawyer. In Finland, an LL. M. is the graduate degree required to practice law. To be allowed to practice law in the Netherlands, one needs an LL. M. degree with a course in litigation law. The Dutch Order of Lawyers require these courses for every potential candidate lawyer who wants to be written in the district court for three years
Master of Laws
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University of Pretoria Faculty of Law
28.
Sonia Sotomayor
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Sonia Maria Sotomayor is an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, serving since August 2009. She has the distinction of being its first justice of Hispanic heritage, the first Latina, its third female justice, Sotomayor, along with John Roberts and Elena Kagan, is one of the youngest justices on the Supreme Court. Sotomayor was born in The Bronx, New York City, to Puerto Rican-born parents and her father died when she was nine, and she was subsequently raised by her mother. Sotomayor graduated summa cum laude from Princeton University in 1976 and received her J. D. from Yale Law School in 1979 and she was an advocate for the hiring of Latino faculty at both schools. She worked as an assistant district attorney in New York for four and she played an active role on the boards of directors for the Puerto Rican Legal Defense and Education Fund, the State of New York Mortgage Agency, and the New York City Campaign Finance Board. Sotomayor was nominated to the U. S. District Court for the Southern District of New York by President George H. W. Bush in 1991, confirmation followed in 1992. In 1997, she was nominated by President Bill Clinton to the U. S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit and her nomination was slowed by the Republican majority in the United States Senate, but she was eventually confirmed in 1998. On the Second Circuit, Sotomayor heard appeals in more than 3,000 cases, Sotomayor has taught at the New York University School of Law and Columbia Law School. In May 2009, President Barack Obama nominated Sotomayor to the Supreme Court following the retirement of Justice David Souter and her nomination was confirmed by the Senate in August 2009 by a vote of 68–31. Sotomayor has supported, while on the court, the liberal bloc of justices when they divide along the commonly perceived ideological lines. Sonia Maria Sotomayor was born in the New York City borough of The Bronx, the two left Puerto Rico separately, met, and married during World War II after Celina served in the Womens Army Corps. Juan Sotomayor had an education, did not speak English. Sonias younger brother, Juan Sotomayor, later became a physician and university professor in the Syracuse, New York, Sotomayor was raised a Catholic and grew up in Puerto Rican communities in the South Bronx and East Bronx, she self-identifies as a Nuyorican. The family lived in a South Bronx tenement before moving in 1957 to the well-maintained, racially and ethnically mixed and her relative proximity to Yankee Stadium led to her becoming a lifelong fan of the New York Yankees. The extended family got together frequently and regularly visited Puerto Rico during summers, Sonia grew up with an alcoholic father and a mother who was emotionally distant, she felt closest to her grandmother, who she later said gave her a source of protection and purpose. Sonia was diagnosed with type 1 diabetes at age seven, and her father died of heart problems at age 42, when she was nine years old. After this, she became fluent in English and she reflected in 1998, I was going to college and I was going to become an attorney, and I knew that when I was ten. Celina Sotomayor put great stress on the value of education, she bought the Encyclopædia Britannica for her children, for grammar school, Sotomayor attended Blessed Sacrament School in Soundview, where she was valedictorian and had a near-perfect attendance record
Sonia Sotomayor
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The Honorable Sonia Sotomayor
Sonia Sotomayor
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Sotomayor and her parents
Sonia Sotomayor
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Sotomayor as a young girl
Sonia Sotomayor
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Sotomayor's 1976 Princeton yearbook photo
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United States Court of Appeals
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The United States courts of appeals are the intermediate appellate courts of the United States federal court system. A court of appeals decides appeals from the courts within its federal judicial circuit. The United States courts of appeals are considered among the most powerful, because of their ability to set legal precedent in regions that cover millions of Americans, the United States courts of appeals have strong policy influence on U. S. law. The Ninth Circuit in particular is influential, covering 20% of the American population. There are currently 179 judges on the U. S. courts of appeals authorized by Congress in 28 U. S. C. §43 pursuant to Article III of the U. S. Constitution. These judges are nominated by the President of the United States and they have lifetime tenure, earning an annual salary of $215,400. The eleven numbered circuits and the D. C. Circuit are geographically defined, the thirteenth court of appeals is the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, which has nationwide jurisdiction over certain appeals based on their subject matter. All of the courts of appeals also hear appeals from some administrative decisions and rulemaking. Decisions of the U. S. courts of appeals have been published by the private company West Publishing in the Federal Reporter series since the courts were established, only decisions that the courts designate for publication are included. The unpublished opinions are published separately in Wests Federal Appendix, more recently, court decisions have also been made available electronically on official court websites. However, there are also a few federal court decisions that are classified for security reasons. The number of judges that the U. S. Congress has authorized for each circuit is set forth by law in 28 U. S. C. §44, while the places where those judges must regularly sit to hear appeals are prescribed in 28 U. S. C, the current courts of appeals system was established in the Judiciary Act of 1891, also known as the Evarts Act. Because the courts of appeals possess only appellate jurisdiction, they do not hold trials, instead, appeals courts review decisions of trial courts for errors of law. Accordingly, a court considers only the record from the trial court. These arguments, which are presented in form and can range in length from dozens to hundreds of pages, are known as briefs. Sometimes lawyers are permitted to add to their written briefs with oral arguments before the appeals judges, at such hearings, only the parties lawyers speak to the court. The rules that govern the procedure in the courts of appeals are the Federal Rules of Appellate Procedure, in a court of appeals, an appeal is almost always heard by a panel of three judges who are randomly selected from the available judges
United States Court of Appeals
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Map of the geographic boundaries of the various United States Courts of Appeals and United States District Courts
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Second Circuit
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The United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit is one of the thirteen United States Courts of Appeals. With 11 active and 11 senior judges, the Second Circuit is midsized among the thirteen United States courts of appeals, unlike the Supreme Court, where one justice is specifically nominated to be chief, the office of chief judge rotates among the circuit judges. To be chief, a judge must have been in service on the court for at least one year, be under the age of 65. A vacancy is filled by the judge highest in seniority among the group of qualified judges, the chief judge serves for a term of seven years or until age 70, whichever occurs first. The age restrictions are waived if no members of the court would otherwise be qualified for the position, after August 6,1959, judges could not become chief after turning 70 years old. The current rules have been in operation since October 1,1982, the court has thirteen seats for active judges, numbered in the order in which they were filled. Judges who retire into senior status remain on the bench but leave their seat vacant and that seat is filled by the next circuit judge appointed by the president. Judge Learned Hand served on the Second Circuit from 1924 to 1961, as did his cousin, Augustus Noble Hand, judge Henry Friendly served on the court from 1959 to 1986, and wrote a large number of notable and enduring opinions. Three U. S. Supreme Court Justices previously served on the Second Circuit, John Marshall Harlan II, Thurgood Marshall, federal judicial appointment history#Second Circuit United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit Recent opinions from FindLaw
Second Circuit
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Thurgood Marshall United States Courthouse at 40 Centre Street.
Second Circuit
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United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit (2d Cir.)
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