1.
World Heritage Site
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A World Heritage Site is a landmark which has been officially recognized by the United Nations, specifically by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Sites are selected on the basis of having cultural, historical, scientific or some form of significance. UNESCO regards these sites as being important to the interests of humanity. The programme catalogues, names, and conserves sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common culture, under certain conditions, listed sites can obtain funds from the World Heritage Fund. The program was founded with the Convention Concerning the Protection of the Worlds Cultural and Natural Heritage, since then,192 state parties have ratified the convention, making it one of the most adhered to international instruments. As of July 2016,1052 sites are listed,814 cultural,203 natural, in 1959, the governments of Egypt and Sudan requested UNESCO to assist their countries to protect and rescue the endangered monuments and sites. In 1960, the Director-General of UNESCO launched an appeal to the Member States for an International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia, the campaign, which ended in 1980, was considered a success. The project cost $80 million, about $40 million of which was collected from 50 countries, the projects success led to other safeguarding campaigns, saving Venice and its lagoon in Italy, the ruins of Mohenjo-daro in Pakistan, and the Borobodur Temple Compounds in Indonesia. UNESCO then initiated, with the International Council on Monuments and Sites, the United States initiated the idea of cultural conservation with nature conservation. The International Union for Conservation of Nature developed similar proposals in 1968, the Convention came into force on 17 December 1975. As of June 2016, it has been ratified by 192 states, including 188 UN member states plus the Cook Islands, the Holy See, Niue, a country must first list its significant cultural and natural sites, the result is called the Tentative List. A country may not nominate sites that have not been first included on the Tentative List, next, it can place sites selected from that list into a Nomination File. The Nomination File is evaluated by the International Council on Monuments and Sites and these bodies then make their recommendations to the World Heritage Committee. There are ten selection criteria – a site must meet at least one of them to be included on the list, up to 2004, there were six criteria for cultural heritage and four criteria for natural heritage. In 2005, this was modified so there is now only one set of ten criteria. Nominated sites must be of outstanding value and meet at least one of the ten criteria. Thus, the Geneva Convention treaty promulgates, Article 53, PROTECTION OF CULTURAL OBJECTS AND OF PLACES OF WORSHIP. There are 1,052 World Heritage Sites located in 165 States Party, of these,814 are cultural,203 are natural and 35 are mixed properties
2.
Campania
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Campania is a region in Southern Italy. Located on the Italian Peninsula, with the Mediterranean Sea to the west, it includes the small Phlegraean Islands, Campania was colonised by Ancient Greeks and was part of Magna Græcia. During the Roman era, the area maintained a Greco-Roman culture, the capital city of Campania is Naples. Campania is rich in culture, especially in regard to gastronomy, music, architecture, archeological and ancient sites such as Pompeii, Herculaneum, Paestum and Velia. The name of Campania itself is derived from Latin, as the Romans knew the region as Campania felix, the rich natural sights of Campania make it highly important in the tourism industry, especially along the Amalfi Coast, Mount Vesuvius and the island of Capri. During the 8th century BC, people from Euboea in Greece, known as Cumaeans, another Oscan tribe, the Samnites, moved down from central Italy into Campania. The Roman consul Quintus Publilius Filo recaptured Neapolis by 326 BC, the Second Samnite War ended with the Romans controlling southern Campania and additional regions further to the south. Campania was a part of the Roman Republic by the end of the 4th century BC, valued for its pastures. Its Greek language and customs made it a centre of Hellenistic civilization, during the Pyrrhic War the battle took place in Campania at Maleventum in which the Romans, led by consul Curius Dentatus, were victorious. They renamed the city Beneventum, which grew in stature until it was only to Capua in southern Italy. During the Second Punic War in 216 BC, Capua, in a bid for equality with Rome, the rebellious Capuans were isolated from the rest of Campania, which remained allies of Rome. Naples resisted Hannibal due to the imposing walls, Capua was eventually starved into submission in the Roman retaking of 211 BC, and the Romans were victorious. The rest of Campania, with the exception of Naples, adopted the Latin language as official and was Romanised. As part of the Roman Empire, Campania, with Latium, Roman Emperors chose Campania as a holiday destination, among them Claudius and Tiberius, the latter of whom is infamously linked to the island of Capri. It was also during this period that Christianity came to Campania, Two of the apostles, St. Peter and St. Paul, are said to have preached in the city of Naples, and there were also several martyrs during this time. Unfortunately, the period of calm was violently interrupted by the epic eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 which buried the cities of Pompeii. The area had many duchies and principalities during the Middle Ages, in the hands of the Byzantine Empire, under the Normans, the smaller independent states were brought together as part of the Kingdom of Sicily, before the mainland broke away to form the Kingdom of Naples. It was during this period elements of Spanish, French
3.
Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
4.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
5.
Italian language
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By most measures, Italian, together with Sardinian, is the closest to Latin of the Romance languages. Italian is a language in Italy, Switzerland, San Marino, Vatican City. Italian is spoken by minorities in places such as France, Montenegro, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Crimea and Tunisia and by large expatriate communities in the Americas. Many speakers are native bilinguals of both standardized Italian and other regional languages, Italian is the fourth most studied language in the world. Italian is a major European language, being one of the languages of the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe. It is the third most widely spoken first language in the European Union with 65 million native speakers, including Italian speakers in non-EU European countries and on other continents, the total number of speakers is around 85 million. Italian is the working language of the Holy See, serving as the lingua franca in the Roman Catholic hierarchy as well as the official language of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta. Italian is known as the language of music because of its use in musical terminology and its influence is also widespread in the arts and in the luxury goods market. Italian has been reported as the fourth or fifth most frequently taught foreign language in the world, Italian was adopted by the state after the Unification of Italy, having previously been a literary language based on Tuscan as spoken mostly by the upper class of Florentine society. Its development was influenced by other Italian languages and to some minor extent. Its vowels are the second-closest to Latin after Sardinian, unlike most other Romance languages, Italian retains Latins contrast between short and long consonants. As in most Romance languages, stress is distinctive, however, Italian as a language used in Italy and some surrounding regions has a longer history. What would come to be thought of as Italian was first formalized in the early 14th century through the works of Tuscan writer Dante Alighieri, written in his native Florentine. Dante is still credited with standardizing the Italian language, and thus the dialect of Florence became the basis for what would become the language of Italy. Italian was also one of the recognised languages in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Italy has always had a dialect for each city, because the cities. Those dialects now have considerable variety, as Tuscan-derived Italian came to be used throughout Italy, features of local speech were naturally adopted, producing various versions of Regional Italian. Even in the case of Northern Italian languages, however, scholars are not to overstate the effects of outsiders on the natural indigenous developments of the languages
6.
Tyrrhenian Sea
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The Tyrrhenian Sea is part of the Mediterranean Sea off the western coast of Italy. It is named for the Tyrrhenian people, identified since the 6th century BCE with the Etruscans of Italy, the sea is bounded by the islands of Corsica and Sardinia, the Italian peninsula to the east, and the island of Sicily. The maximum depth of the sea is 3,785 metres, the Tyrrhenian Sea is situated near where the African and Eurasian Plates meet, therefore mountain chains and active volcanoes such as Mount Marsili are found in its depths. The eight Aeolian Islands and Ustica are located in the part of the sea. On the Southwest, A line running from Cape Lilibeo to the South extreme of Cape Teulada in Sardinia, in the Strait of Bonifacio, A line joining the West extreme of Cape Testa in Sardinia with the Southwest extreme of Cape Feno in Corsica. On the North, A line joining Cape Corse in Corsica, with Tinetto Island and thence through Tino, there are four exits from the Tyrrhenian Sea, The Tyrrhenian Basin is divided into two basins, the Vavilov plain and the Marsili plain. They are separated by the ridge known as the Issel Bridge. Its name derives from the Greek name for the Etruscans, who were said to be emigrants from Lydia, the Etruscans settled along the coast of modern Tuscany and referred to the water as the Sea of the Etruscans. The main ports of the Tyrrhenian Sea in Italy are, Naples, Palermo, Civitavecchia, Salerno, Trapani, in France the most important port is Bastia. Note that even though the port of Rome is frequently used. Instead, the port of Rome refers to the facilities at Civitavecchia, some 68 km to the northwest of Rome. Giglio Porto is an island port in this area. It rose to prominence, when the Costa Concordia ran aground a few metres off the coast of Giglio, the ship was recently removed and towed to Genoa. In Greek mythology, it is believed that the cliffs above the Tyrrhenian Sea housed the four winds kept by Aeolus, the winds are the Mistral from the Rhône valley, the Libeccio from the southwest, and the Sirocco and Ostro from the south
7.
Province of Salerno
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The Province of Salerno is a province in the Campania region of Italy. The largest towns in the province are, Salerno, the capital, the province has an area of 4,923 km2, and a total population of about 1.1 million. There are 158 comuni, the one with the largest area being Eboli, see Comuni of the Province of Salerno. One of the features of the rugged country-side is Gole del Calore di Felitto and this area is of great geological interest and is rich in flora and fauna. One of the historical buildings in the province is the chapter house belonging to the Certosa di Padula. The building has evolved over centuries, the earliest parts were constructed in the early 14th century, a mannerist cloister leads to the church, and a later 17th-century cloister has loggias supported by rusticated columns. These features add to the baroque character of the building. The chapter house has been adapted for the Museo Archeologico della Lucania Occidentale, the Monti Picentini area is home to the eponymous regional park, which is home to several natural preserves
8.
Southern Italy
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It generally coincides with the administrative regions of Abruzzo, Apulia, Basilicata, Campania, Calabria, Molise, Sicily, and Sardinia. Some also include the most southern and eastern parts of Lazio within the Mezzogiorno, Southern Italy carries a unique legacy of culture. It features many major tourist attractions, such as the Palace of Caserta, there are also many ancient Greek cities in Southern Italy, such as Sybaris, which were founded several centuries before the start of the Roman Republic. These same subdivisions are at the bottom of the Italian First level NUTS of the European Union, the term Mezzogiorno first came into use in the 18th century and is an Italian rendition of meridies. The term was popularised by Giuseppe Garibaldi and it eventually came into vogue after the Italian unification. In a similar manner, Southern France is colloquially known as le Midi, Southern Italy forms the lower part of the Italian boot, containing the ankle, the toe, the arch, and the heel, along with the island of Sicily. Separating the heel and the boot is the Gulf of Taranto, named after the city of Taranto and it is an arm of the Ionian Sea. The island of Sardinia, right below the French island of Corsica, on the eastern coast is the Adriatic Sea, leading into the rest of the Mediterranean through the Strait of Otranto. Along the northern coast of the Salernitan Gulf and on the south of the Sorrentine Peninsula runs the Amalfi Coast, off the tip of the peninsula is the isle of Capri. The climate is mainly Mediterranean, except at the highest elevations and the eastern stretches in Apulia, along the Ionian Sea in Calabria. The largest city of Southern Italy is Naples, a name from the Greek that it has maintained for millennia. Bari, Taranto, Reggio Calabria, Foggia, and Salerno are the next largest cities in the area. The region is very active and highly seismic, the 1980 Irpinia earthquake killed 2,914 people, injured more than 10,000. Also during this period, Greek colonies were established in places as widely separated as the eastern coast of the Black Sea, Eastern Libya and they included settlements in Sicily and the southern part of the Italian Peninsula. The Romans called the area of Sicily and the foot of Italy, Magna Graecia, the ancient geographers differed on whether the term included Sicily or merely Apulia and Calabria—Strabo being the most prominent advocate of the wider definitions. With this colonisation, Greek culture was exported to Italy, in its dialects of the Ancient Greek language, its religious rites, an original Hellenic civilization soon developed, later interacting with the native Italic and Latin civilisations. Many of the new Hellenic cities became very rich and powerful, like Neapolis, Syracuse, Acragas, other cities in Magna Graecia included Tarentum, Epizephyrian Locri, Rhegium, Croton, Thurii, Elea, Nola, Syessa, Bari, and others. After Pyrrhus of Epirus failed in his attempt to stop the spread of Roman hegemony in 282 BCE, from then to the Norman conquest of the 11th century, the south of the peninsula was constantly plunged into wars between Greece, Lombardy, and the Islamic Caliphate
9.
UNESCO
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The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations based in Paris. It is the heir of the League of Nations International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation, UNESCO has 195 member states and nine associate members. Most of its offices are cluster offices covering three or more countries, national and regional offices also exist. UNESCO pursues its objectives through five major programs, education, natural sciences, social/human sciences, culture and it is also a member of the United Nations Development Group. UNESCO and its mandate for international cooperation can be traced back to a League of Nations resolution on 21 September 1921, on 18 December 1925, the International Bureau of Education began work as a non-governmental organization in the service of international educational development. However, the work of predecessor organizations was largely interrupted by the onset of World War II. On 30 October 1943, the necessity for an organization was expressed in the Moscow Declaration, agreed upon by China, the United Kingdom, the United States. This was followed by the Dumbarton Oaks Conference proposals of 9 October 1944, a prominent figure in the initiative for UNESCO was Rab Butler, the Minister of Education for the United Kingdom. At the ECO/CONF, the Constitution of UNESCO was introduced and signed by 37 countries, the Preparatory Commission operated between 16 November 1945, and 4 November 1946—the date when UNESCOs Constitution came into force with the deposit of the twentieth ratification by a member state. The first General Conference took place between 19 November to 10 December 1946, and elected Dr. Julian Huxley to Director-General and this change in governance distinguished UNESCO from its predecessor, the CICI, in how member states would work together in the organizations fields of competence. In 1956, the Republic of South Africa withdrew from UNESCO claiming that some of the organizations publications amounted to interference in the racial problems. South Africa rejoined the organization in 1994 under the leadership of Nelson Mandela, UNESCOs early work in the field of education included the pilot project on fundamental education in the Marbial Valley, Haiti, started in 1947. This project was followed by missions to other countries, including, for example. In 1948, UNESCO recommended that Member States should make free primary education compulsory, in 1990, the World Conference on Education for All, in Jomtien, Thailand, launched a global movement to provide basic education for all children, youths and adults. Ten years later, the 2000 World Education Forum held in Dakar, Senegal, UNESCOs early activities in culture included, for example, the Nubia Campaign, launched in 1960. The purpose of the campaign was to move the Great Temple of Abu Simbel to keep it from being swamped by the Nile after construction of the Aswan Dam, during the 20-year campaign,22 monuments and architectural complexes were relocated. This was the first and largest in a series of campaigns including Mohenjo-daro, Fes, Kathmandu, Borobudur, the organizations work on heritage led to the adoption, in 1972, of the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. The World Heritage Committee was established in 1976 and the first sites inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1978, since then important legal instruments on cultural heritage and diversity have been adopted by UNESCO member states in 2003 and 2005
10.
Duchy of Amalfi
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The Duchy of Amalfi or the Republic of Amalfi was a de facto independent state centred on the Southern Italian city of Amalfi during the 10th and 11th centuries. The city and its territory were part of the larger ducatus Neapolitanus, governed by a patrician. In 1073, Amalfi lost its independence and fell to the Normans, the city of Amalfi was founded as a trading post in 339. Its first bishop was appointed in 596, in 838, the city was captured by Sicard of Benevento with help from traitors within the city, who led him in through the waterward defences. Many of the Amalfitans in Salerno sacked that city and left, in 839, Amalfi freed itself from Lombard domination and elected a prefect. Nearby Atrani participated in these early prefectural elections, subsequently, Amalfi helped to free Siconulf to oppose the ruling Prince of Benevento. In 897, the republic, still nominally tied to the Byzantine Empire, was defeated in a war with Sorrento, supported by Naples, in which her prefect was captured. In 914, the prefect Mastalus I was appointed first judge, in 958, Mastalus II was assassinated and Sergius I was elected first duke. From 981 to 983, Amalfi ruled the Principality of Salerno, in 987, the Amalfitan bishopric was raised to archiepiscopal status. From 1034, Amalfi came under the control of the Principality of Capua and, in 1039, in 1073, Robert Guiscard conquered the city and took the title dux Amalfitanorum, duke of the Amalfitans. In 1096, Amalfi revolted, but this was put down in 1101 and it revolted again in 1130 and was finally subdued in 1131, when the Emir John marched on Amalfi by land and George of Antioch blockaded the town by sea and set up a base on Capri. In 1135 and 1137, Pisa sacked the city and the glory of Amalfi was past, dukes of Amalfi Amalfi Coast Maritime republics
11.
Amalfi
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Amalfi is a town and comune in the province of Salerno, in the region of Campania, Italy, on the Gulf of Salerno. It lies at the mouth of a ravine, at the foot of Monte Cerreto, surrounded by dramatic cliffs. The town of Amalfi was the capital of the maritime republic known as the Duchy of Amalfi, in the 1920s and 1930s, Amalfi was a popular holiday destination for the British upper class and aristocracy. Amalfi is included in the UNESCO World Heritage Sites, a patron saint of Amalfi is Saint Andrew, the Apostle, whose relics are kept here at Amalfi Cathedral. Grain-bearing Amalfi traders enjoyed privileged positions in the Islamic ports, Fernand Braudel notes, the Amalfi tables provided a maritime code that was widely used by the Christian port cities. Merchants of Amalfi were using gold coins to purchase land in the 9th century, in spite of some devastating setbacks it had a population of some 70,000 to 80,000 reaching a peak about the turn of the millennium, during the reign of Duke Manso. Under his line of dukes, Amalfi remained independent, except for a period of Salernitan dependency under Guaimar IV. In 1073 the republic fell to the Norman countship of Apulia, a prey to the Normans who encamped in the south of Italy, it became one of their principal posts. However, in 1131, it was reduced by King Roger II of Sicily, the Holy Roman Emperor Lothair, fighting in favour of Pope Innocent II against Roger, who sided with the Antipope Anacletus, took him prisoner in 1133, assisted by forty-six Pisan ships. The Pisans, commercial rivals of the Amalfitani, sacked the city, in 1135 and 1137, it was taken by the Pisans and rapidly declined in importance, though its maritime code, known as the Tavole amalfitane, was recognized in the Mediterranean until 1570. A tsunami in 1343 destroyed the port and lower town, in medieval culture Amalfi was famous for its flourishing schools of law and mathematics. Flavio Gioia, traditionally considered the first to introduce the mariners compass to Europe, is said to have been a native of Amalfi, celebrated visitors to Amalfi included the composer Richard Wagner and the playwright Henrik Ibsen, both of whom completed works whilst staying in Amalfi. Author Gore Vidal was a long time resident, at the top of a staircase, Saint Andrews Cathedral overlooks the Piazza Duomo, the heart of Amalfi. The cathedral dates back to the 11th century, its interior is adorned in the late Baroque style with a nave, the façade of the cathedral is Byzantine in style and is adorned with various paintings of saints, including a large fresco of Saint Andrew. The gold caisson ceiling has four paintings by Andrea dellAsta. They depict the flagellation of Saint Andrew, the miracle of Manna, the crucifixion of Saint Andrew, from the left hand nave there is a flight of stairs which leads to the crypt. These stairs were built in 1203 for Cardinal Pietro Capuano, who, on 18 May 1208, brought Saint Andrews remains to the cathedral from Constantinople. The bronze statue of Saint Andrew in the cathedral was sculpted by Michelangelo Naccherino, in 1206, Saint Andrews relics were brought to Amalfi from Constantinople by the Pietro Capuano following the Sack of Constantinople after the completion of the towns cathedral
12.
Principality of Salerno
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The Lombard Principality of Salerno was a South Italian state, formed in 851 out of the Principality of Benevento after a decade-long civil war. The port city of Salerno owed allegiance to the Western Emperor, in 841, the prince of Benevento, Sicard, died. Immediately, his army officer, Radelchis, seized power in Benevento and imprisoned Sicards heir and brother, Siconulf. Amalfitan merchants rescued Siconulf from prison, and he was proclaimed prince in Salerno, a civil war erupted in the Italian Mezzogiorno. In 847, the Emperor Lothair I had Guy I of Spoleto, Salerno consisted of Taranto, Cassano, Cosenza, Paestum, Conza, Potenza, Sarno, Cimitile, Capua, Teano, and Sora. It was a power with numerous seaports, including Salerno itself. The principality did not enjoy stability in its early years, in 851, Siconulf died and his son Sico was still a child. He was deposed and replaced by his regent, Peter, in 853, adhemars stormy princeship ended violently, a revolt deposed him, and Guaifer, the scion of a local family of note, the Dauferidi, had him blinded and imprisoned. Guaifer succeeded him in the office with the support of the people. Guaifer stabilised the principality during his reign of nineteen years. His successors reigned for similarly lengthy periods, and in a short time Salerno surpassed Benevento in greatness, during his reign, Capua made itself independent. Salerno was still technically a vassal of the Western emperor, the prince even allied himself with the Saracens. In 880, Guaifer was removed in an act by his son, Guaimar I forced him into a monastery. The chronicles of his reign describe him in terms. He did reverse the alliance with the Saracens in favour of ties to the emperor. In 887, however, he broke with the West and paid homage to the Byzantine Emperor, in 900 or 901, his son, Guaimar II, forced him into his own monastic foundation of San Massimo and began his reign. Guaimar II raised Salerno to greatness and he was a more religious prince than his father, who had been pious by the standards of the time. He introduced the Cluniac reforms to Salerno and he was also more inclined to war with the Moslems and took part in the famous Battle of the Garigliano in 915
13.
Republic of Pisa
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The Republic of Pisa was a de facto independent state centered on the Tuscan city of Pisa during the late 10th and 11th centuries. It rose to become a powerhouse, a commercial center whose merchants dominated Mediterranean and Italian trade for a century before being surpassed and superseded by the Republic of Genoa. The power of Pisa as a mighty maritime nation began to grow, during the High Middle Ages the city grew into a very important commercial and naval center and controlled a significant Mediterranean merchant fleet and navy. It expanded its influence through the sack of Reggio di Calabria in the south of Italy in 1005, Pisa was in continuous conflict with the Saracens, whose bases were in the Italian astersa, for control of the Mediterranean. In alliance with Genoa, Sardinia was captured in 1016 with the defeat of the Saracen leader Mujāhid al-‘Āmirī and this victory gave Pisa supremacy in the Tyrrhenian Sea. When the Pisans subsequently ousted the Genoese from Sardinia, a new conflict, between 1030 and 1035 Pisa went on to successfully defeat several rival towns in the Emirate of Sicily and conquer Carthage in North Africa. In 1051-1052 Admiral Jacopo Ciurini conquered Corsica, provoking more resentment from the Genoese. In 1063, the Pisans approached the Norman Roger I of Sicily, Roger declined due to other commitments. With no land support, the Pisan attack against Palermo failed, in 1060 Pisa engaged in its first battle against Genoa and the Pisan victory helped to consolidate its position in the Mediterranean. This was simply a confirmation of the present situation, because at the time the marquis of Tuscany had already excluded from power. Pisa sacked the Zirid city of Mahdia in 1088, four years later, Pisan and Genoese ships helped Alfonso VI of Castile force El Cid out of Valencia. In 1092 Pope Urban II awarded Pisa supremacy over Corsica and Sardinia, a Pisan fleet of 120 ships participated in the First Crusade and the Pisans were instrumental in the siege of Jerusalem in 1099. On their way to the Holy Land the Pisan ships did not miss the opportunity to sack several Byzantine islands, the Pisan crusaders were led by their archbishop, Dagobert, the future Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem. Pisa and the maritime republics took advantage of the crusade to establish trading posts and colonies in the eastern coastal regions of Syria, Lebanon. In particular the Pisans founded colonies in Antioch, Acre, Jaffa, Tripoli, Tyre, in all these cities the Pisans were granted privileges and immunity from taxation, but had to contribute to their defence in case of attack. In the 12th century the Pisan quarter in the part of Constantinople had grown to 1,000 people. For some years of that century Pisa was the most prominent merchant and military ally of the Byzantine Empire, Pisa, as an international power, was destroyed forever by the crushing defeat of its navy in the Battle of Meloria against Genoa in 1284. In this battle, most of the Pisan galleys were destroyed, in 1290, an assault by Genoese ships against the Porto Pisano sealed the fate of the independent Pisan state
14.
Mediterranean climate
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A Mediterranean climate /ˌmɛdɪtəˈreɪniən/ or dry summer climate, is the climate typical of the lands in the Mediterranean Basin. The Mediterranean climate is characterised by dry summers and mild, moist winters, Mediterranean climate zones are associated with the four large subtropical high pressure cells of the oceans, the Azores High, South Atlantic High, North Pacific High, and South Pacific High. These climatological high pressure cells migrate by latitude according to the angle of the Sun, shifting north-eastward in the summer. These semi-permanent high pressure systems play a role in the formation of the worlds subtropical and tropical deserts as well as the Mediterranean Basins climate. The Azores High is associated with the Mediterranean climate found in the Mediterranean Basin, the Sahara Desert, the South Atlantic High is similarly associated with the Namib Desert and Kalahari Desert, and the Mediterranean climate of the western part of South Africa. Under the Köppen climate classification, hot climates and cool dry-summer climates are often referred to as mediterranean. Under the Köppen climate system, the first letter indicates the climate group, temperate climates or C zones have an average temperature above 0 °C, but below 18 °C, in their coolest months. The second letter indicates the precipitation pattern, Köppen has defined a dry summer month as a month with less than 30 mm of precipitation and with less than one-third that of the wettest winter month. Some, however, use a 40 mm level, the third letter indicates the degree of summer heat, a represents an average temperature in the warmest month above 22 °C, while b indicates the average temperature in the warmest month below 22 °C. Under the Köppen classification, dry-summer climates usually occur on the sides of continents. Under Trewarthas system, at least eight months must have average temperatures of 10 °C or higher, during summer, regions of mediterranean climate are dominated by subtropical high pressure cells, with dry sinking air capping a surface marine layer of varying humidity and making rainfall unlikely. In many Mediterranean climates there is a strong character to daily temperatures in the warm months. The majority of the regions with mediterranean climates have relatively mild winters, however winter and summer temperatures can vary greatly between different regions with a mediterranean climate. Or to consider summer, Athens experiences rather high temperatures in that season, in contrast, San Francisco has cool summers with daily highs around. In North America, areas with Csc climate can be found in the Olympic, Cascade, Klamath and these locations are found at high altitude nearby lower altitude regions characterized by a warm-summer mediterranean climate or hot-summer mediterranean climate. A rare instance of this occurs in the tropics, on Haleakalā Summit in Hawaii. In South America, Csc regions can be found along the Andes in Chile, the town of Balmaceda is one of the few towns confirmed to have this climate. Small areas with a Csc climate can also be found at elevations in Corsica
15.
Sorrento Peninsula
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The Sorrento Peninsula or Sorrentine Peninsula is a peninsula located in southern Italy that separates the Gulf of Naples to the north from the Gulf of Salerno to the south. The peninsula is named after its town, Sorrento, which is located on the north coast. The Amalfi Coast is located on the southern side, the Lattari Mountains form the geographical backbone of the peninsula. The island of Capri lies off the tip of the peninsula in the Tyrrhenian Sea. The whole area is an important tourist destination, the peninsula lies on the territory of the province of Naples with 9 comunes and the province of Salerno with 12 comunes. The nearest airports are, Naples International Salerno Costa dAmalfi Media related to Sorrento Peninsula at Wikimedia Commons
16.
Vietri sul Mare
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Vietri sul Mare is a town and comune in the province of Salerno, in the Campania region of southern Italy. It is situated just west of Salerno, separated from the Port of Salerno by only a harbour wall, the town is known for its polychrome ceramics, a tradition since at least the 15th century, and is considered to be the gateway to the Amalfi Coast. The main landmark is the Church of St. John the Baptist, there are numerous buildings displaying ceramics, including the Museo Provinciale della Ceramica in the nearby village of Raito. The town is bordered by Cava de Tirreni, Cetara, Maiori, the quarter by the sea, named Marina di Vietri is located to the south of the town. The other frazioni are Albori, Benincasa, Dragonea and Molina, the principal church in Vietri sul Mare is the Church of St. John the Baptist, a late Neapolitan Renaissance style building with a high bell tower. A previous church dated from the 10th century and it contains a coffered gold ceiling, a 17th century marble altar, an albaster statue of the Saint, and an 11th century wooden crucifix. The Confraternity of the Annunciation and the Rosary dates to the 17th century and is noted for its facade decorated with pottery. Other notable churches include the 16th century Church of the Madonna delle Grazie in Raito, the Church of Santa Margherita in Albori, the Palazzo Solimene was built after World War II by Paolo Soleri, and houses ceramic collections. The Palazzo Taiani is noted for its tower, which was once used to watch out for Saracens during raids. The nearby village of Raito contains the Museo Provinciale della Ceramica. it
17.
Positano
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Positano is a village and comune on the Amalfi Coast, in Campania, Italy, mainly in an enclave in the hills leading down to the coast. Positano was a port of the Amalfi Republic in medieval times, by the mid-nineteenth century, however, the town had fallen on hard times. More than half the population emigrated, mostly to America, Positano was a relatively poor fishing village during the first half of the twentieth century. It began to attract large numbers of tourists in the 1950s, especially after John Steinbeck published his essay about Positano in Harpers Bazaar in May,1953, Positano bites deep, Steinbeck wrote. It is a place that isn’t quite real when you are there. The church of Santa Maria Assunta features a dome made of tiles as well as a thirteenth-century Byzantine icon of a black Madonna. According to local legend, the icon had been stolen from Byzantium and was being transported by pirates across the Mediterranean, a terrible storm had blown up in the waters opposite Positano and the frightened sailors heard a voice on board saying Posa, posa. The precious icon was unloaded and carried to the fishing village and it also hosts the annual Cartoons on the Bay Festival, at which Pulcinella Awards for excellence in animation are presented. From July 1967 and through most of the 1970s, Positano was home to singer-songwriter Shawn Phillips, mick Jagger and Keith Richards from The Rolling Stones wrote the song Midnight Rambler in the cafes of Positano while on vacation. He hired his friend, Renzo Mongiardino, who collaborated on many of his theater and opera projects, to design the exquisite interiors which reflect the local design sensibilities, the Villa Treville has since been converted into a five-star boutique hotel. German pianist Wilhelm Kempff made Positano his summer retreat and there he taught a course on the Beethoven piano sonatas. Since his death in 1991, the Beethoven Kurse has continued under the organization of the Wilhelm Kempff Kulturstiftung, having had as teachers Gerhard Oppitz, today tourism is by far the major industry. Positano is also popular for Limoncello and LAlbertissimo, an alcoholic tipple that can only be found at a small stall at the main harbour. Positano can be reached by the SS163 Amalfitana national road, or by the SP425 provincial road, the nearest airports are the Napoli-Capodichino and the Salerno-Pontecagnano Airport
18.
Raito (village)
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Raito is an Italian village and hamlet of the municipality of Vietri sul Mare in the Province of Salerno, Campania. It is part of the Amalfi Coast and its population is 996, Raito is located on a hillside under the Lattari Mountains and upon the Tyrrhenian Coast and the Amalfi Drive. It is located on a road linking Albori to Vietri sul Mare and its inhabited area counts some scattered houses upon the coast and is close to the beach of Marina dAlbori. Antonio Savastano, tenor, died in Raito in which he lived from 1980s Sorrentine Peninsula Media related to Raito at Wikimedia Commons / Raito website
19.
Cetara, Campania
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Cetara is a town and comune in the province of Salerno in the Campania region of south-western Italy. It is located in the territory of the Amalfi Coast, the village was originally a settlement for a group of armed Muslims in 880. Characterized to be a village of fishermen, its name take origins probably from the Latin word Cetaria, meaning almadraba, or cetari, meaning fishmongers of big fishes. Cetara is located by the Tyrrhenian Sea, on the Amalfi Drive road between the Marina of Albori and Erchie, bordering with the municipalities of Vietri sul Mare and Maiori. Its municipalities is extended from the coast to the Mount Falerio and counts only one civil parish, Amalfi Coast Sorrentine Peninsula Media related to Cetara at Wikimedia Commons Official site of Cetara Practical Guide Cetara
20.
Maiori
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Maiori is a town and comune on the Amalfi coast in the province of Salerno. It has been a popular tourist resort since Roman times, with the longest unbroken stretch of beach on the Amalfi coastline. The origins of the town are unclear but the name of the town was Reghinna Maior, in contrast to the neighbouring town, Minori. All places along the coast were formed by alternating conquerors - such as the Etruscans or the Romans, between 830 and 840, the places of the coast united to form a confederation of Amalfi States. In this Amalfi Sea Republic, the places between Lettere and Tramonti and between Cetara and Positano, along with the island of Capri, were united, and their inhabitants were all called Amalfitaner. At that time, each city retained its own name and administrative autonomy, later it became part of the Principality of Salerno, and then of the Kingdom of Naples, of which it followed the history until the 19th century. Collegiate Church of Santa Maria a Mare, the colourful maiolica tiled dome looks like Maioris crown, whose jewels are treasured inside the Sacred Art Museum just next to the Church. Santa Maria de Olearia in Maiori, the ruins of the XI Benedictine Abbey just above Maiori, is a great way to enjoy the most ancient part of town. The highest peak of the Amalfi Coast and the Sanctuary on the plain above Mount Mirteto, Airport The nearest airport is Salerno-Pontecagnano Airport. In the mid-20th century, Roberto Rossellini filmed some of his films here, Paisà, Il Miracolo, the episode of the movie LAmore, La macchina ammazzacattivi. A film festival is held every November at which the Premio Internazionale Roberto Rossellini is awarded
21.
Erchie (Maiori)
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Thumb Erchie is an Italian village and hamlet of the municipality of Maiori in the Province of Salerno, Campania. It is part of the Amalfi Coast and its population is 83, the village is located on the Tyrrhenian coast between Cetara and Maiori. It is 12 km far from Salerno and 14 from Amalfi, the inhabited area lies around a beach and is surrounded by the Lattari Mountains. Erchie is set, as a gem, in a secluded valley that opens onto the beach. The heart of the village is the beach surrounded by rocky slopes covered with luxuriant vegetation dispersed with little houses. Many exclusive beaches and coves where to bathe, dive or take the sun, are hidden along the coast, with a few hundred inhabitants, mostly fishermen, Erchie is the ideal place for a romantic stay in an exclusive village with a very special charm. Erchie is a place where you feel you have stepped back 100 years in time, be prepared to embrace il dolce far niente, the sweetness of doing nothing. Erchie is just a few kilometers from places and is well positioned in the middle between touristic and historical sites. The list of places that you should consider visiting while you are staying in Erchie includes Pompeii, Paestum, sorrentine Peninsula Media related to Erchie at Wikimedia Commons
22.
Tramonti, Campania
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Tramonti is a town and comune in the province of Salerno in the Campania region of south-western Italy. It is located in the territory of the Amalfi Coast, Tramonti, directly translated as in the mountains is located along Via Chuinzi which leads to Maiori and the Amalfi Coast. The town is bordered by Cava de Tirreni, Corbara, Lettere, Maiori, Nocera Inferiore, Nocera Superiore, Pagani, Ravello and SantEgidio del Monte Albino. Tramonti was an important town of the Maritime Republic of Amalfi, a 13th century church in a slight hollow of the rock, housing tombs cut into the rocky side. Church of the Ascension Church of SantElia, in the village of SantElia, Church of San Giovanni, in the village of Polvica. Church of Pietro Apostolo, in the village of Figlino, Church of SantErasmo Castle of Montalto and Hermitage of St. Catherine, at Paterno santElia. It was built by the Republic of Amalfi on a cliff of the Monti Lattari to protect its territories from the northern side and it was stormed by the Normans in 1127 when the latter conquered the Republic. Castle of Santa Maria La Nova and it was built around 1457 by Raimondo Orsini, Prince of Salerno and overlord of the Duchy of Amalfi. A rectangular base was fortified by ten square towers and seven ramparts. Convent of Saint Francis, founded in 1474, monastery of St. Joseph and St. Teresa, built in 1662 Vineyards, lemon orchards and chestnut woodlands are in abundance in this town. Amalfi Coast Sorrentine Peninsula Official website Practical Guide Tramonti
23.
Minori, Campania
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Minori is a town and a comune in the province of Salerno in the Campania region of southwestern Italy, situated on the Amalfi Coast. It is the site of the ruins of a Roman villa. The origin of the name, Minori, comes from its association in the past with the river courses through it. The ancient Latin name for the town was, Rheggina Minor and this name coincided with the ancient name of the neighboring village, Maiori, then known as Rheggina Maior, because of the same association. In time, the names of both of the towns have become abbreviated, Rheggina Minor now is known simply as, Minori. Chef Gennaro Contaldo was born in Minori, basilica di Santa Trofimena - Saint Trofimena was a young Sicilian martyr. She is known by names, and possibly may be related to a myth about the siren Parthenope. Legend says that her body was placed in an urn and thrown into the sea, the urn was carried by currents until it washed onto the beach at Minori. The people who found it used a team of small white heifers to carry it to the location where locals built temple to honour the martyr, Roman Maritime Archeological Villa - It was most probably built in the first century BC at sea level. One of the best preserved elements of the villa is the hall with tunnel vaults, stucco. Saint Nicola Convent - The church most probably dates back to the end of the century or the beginning of the twelfth century. The nearest airport is Salerno-Pontecagnano Airport, Amalfi Coast Roman Catholic Diocese of Minori Sorrentine Peninsula Media related to Minori at Wikimedia Commons
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Roman Empire
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Civil wars and executions continued, culminating in the victory of Octavian, Caesars adopted son, over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC and the annexation of Egypt. Octavians power was then unassailable and in 27 BC the Roman Senate formally granted him overarching power, the imperial period of Rome lasted approximately 1,500 years compared to the 500 years of the Republican era. The first two centuries of the empires existence were a period of unprecedented political stability and prosperity known as the Pax Romana, following Octavians victory, the size of the empire was dramatically increased. After the assassination of Caligula in 41, the senate briefly considered restoring the republic, under Claudius, the empire invaded Britannia, its first major expansion since Augustus. Vespasian emerged triumphant in 69, establishing the Flavian dynasty, before being succeeded by his son Titus and his short reign was followed by the long reign of his brother Domitian, who was eventually assassinated. The senate then appointed the first of the Five Good Emperors, the empire reached its greatest extent under Trajan, the second in this line. A period of increasing trouble and decline began with the reign of Commodus, Commodus assassination in 192 triggered the Year of the Five Emperors, of which Septimius Severus emerged victorious. The assassination of Alexander Severus in 235 led to the Crisis of the Third Century in which 26 men were declared emperor by the Roman Senate over a time span. It was not until the reign of Diocletian that the empire was fully stabilized with the introduction of the Tetrarchy, which saw four emperors rule the empire at once. This arrangement was unsuccessful, leading to a civil war that was finally ended by Constantine I. Constantine subsequently shifted the capital to Byzantium, which was renamed Constantinople in his honour and it remained the capital of the east until its demise. Constantine also adopted Christianity which later became the state religion of the empire. However, Augustulus was never recognized by his Eastern colleague, and separate rule in the Western part of the empire ceased to exist upon the death of Julius Nepos. The Eastern Roman Empire endured for another millennium, eventually falling to the Ottoman Turks in 1453, the Roman Empire was among the most powerful economic, cultural, political and military forces in the world of its time. It was one of the largest empires in world history, at its height under Trajan, it covered 5 million square kilometres. It held sway over an estimated 70 million people, at that time 21% of the entire population. Throughout the European medieval period, attempts were made to establish successors to the Roman Empire, including the Empire of Romania, a Crusader state. Rome had begun expanding shortly after the founding of the republic in the 6th century BC, then, it was an empire long before it had an emperor
25.
Ravello
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Ravello is a town and comune situated above the Amalfi Coast in the province of Salerno, Campania, southern Italy, with approximately 2,500 inhabitants. Its scenic location makes it a popular tourist destination, and earned it a listing as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1996, Ravello was founded in the 5th century as a shelter place against the barbarian invasions which marked the end of the Western Roman Empire. Early on, the bishops of Ravello all came from families of the city. In the 12th century, Ravello had some 25,000 inhabitants, and it retains a number of palazzi of the mercantile nobility. In 1137, after a first failed attack two years before, it was destroyed by the Republic of Pisa, after this, a demographic and economic decline set in, and much of its population moved to Naples and its surroundings. The Duomo di Ravello of Ravello, the nave contains the Pulpit of the Gospels, on the right of the central nave. Villa Rufolo, built by Nicola Rufolo, one of the richest Patricians of Ravello, on a ledge, the villa was mentioned by Giovanni Boccaccio in his Decameron and it is the place where Richard Wagner in 1880 was inspired for the stage design of his opera Parsifal. Villa Cimbrone, known for its Terrace of the Infinite, the church of San Giovanni del Toro dating to before the year 1000. The church contains the Bove pulpit, dateable to 1200–1230, incorporated as mosaic fragments Raqqa bacini, the small church of Santa Maria a Gradillo. It has a plan, with an apse and two isles. Cosmas and Damian The town has served historically as a destination for artists, musicians, escher, Virginia Woolf, Greta Garbo, Gore Vidal, André Gide, Joan Mirò, Truman Capote, Tennessee Williams, Graham Greene, Jacqueline Kennedy, Leonard Bernstein and Sara Teasdale. Every year in the months, the Ravello Festival takes place. It began in 1953 in honour of Richard Wagner, the 1953 film Beat the Devil, directed by John Huston and starring Humphrey Bogart, Jennifer Jones, and Gina Lollobrigida in her English language debut, was shot in Ravello. Ravello can be reached from the 163 Amalfitata State Road, Amalfi Coast Sorrentine Peninsula Villa Cimbrone Villa Rufolo Official website Ravello Tourism Board Ravello Travel Guide o Ravello Concert Society Official website of the Chamber Music Festival
26.
Villa Cimbrone
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Villa Cimbrone is a historic building in Ravello, on the Amalfi coast of southern Italy. Dating from at least the 11th century AD, it is famous for its scenic belvedere, the gardens were redeveloped by Beckett at the same time. The villa is now a hotel, its gardens open to the public, villa Cimbrone stands on a rocky outcrop known as Cimbronium, and it is from this landscape feature that the villa takes its name. The earliest references to the date back to the eleventh century AD, when the villa belonged to the Accongiogioco. It later passed to the ownership of a wealthy and influential family, the Fusco, from the seventeenth century the villas history is uncertain, but by the second half of the nineteenth century the villa had passed to the Amici family of Atrani. It was visited by the historian Ferdinand Gregorovius, who described it thus in his Siciliana, Wanderings in Naples and Sicily, where the most beautiful flowers you can imagine flourished, coming from numerous plants of the South. Ornamental features, small temples, pavilions, bronze and stone statues, right at the edge of the crag there was a terrace commanding an enchanting view, it was surrounded by horrible marble statues which, however, from afar, had a sort of appeal. Beckett had visited the villa during his travels in Italy and had fallen in love with it and he embarked on an ambitious programme of works, including the construction of battlements, terraces and cloisters in a mixture of mock-Gothic, Moorish and Venetian architectural styles. The gardens, strung out along the face, were similarly redeveloped. Oh what is more blest than when the mind, Cares dispelled, puts down its burden And we return, tired from our travelling, after Becketts death, the villa passed to his son. Becketts daughter Lucy also lived at the villa, where she was a gardener and breeder of roses. Many famous visitors came to the villa during the Beckett familys ownership and it was a favourite haunt of the Bloomsbury Group, including Virginia Woolf, Leonard Woolf, E. M. Forster, John Maynard Keynes, and Lytton Strachey. Other visitors included D. H. Lawrence, Vita Sackville-West, Edward James, Diana Mosley, Henry Moore, T. S. Eliot, Jean Piaget, Winston Churchill and the Duke and Duchess of Kent. The actress Greta Garbo and her then-lover, the conductor Leopold Stokowski, stayed at the several times in the late 1930s. The villa was sold in 1960 to the Vuilleumier family, who used it first as a family home
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Villa Rufolo
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Villa Rufolo is a building within the historic center of Ravello, a town in the province of Salerno, Italy, and which overlooks the front of the cathedral square. The initial layout dates from the century, with extensive remodeling in the nineteenth century. Originally belonging to the powerful and wealthy Rufolo family who excelled in commerce, it passed by inheritance to other owners such as the Confalone, Muscettola. Around the middle of the century it was sold to the Scotsman Francis Neville Reid who took care of a general restoration. Of particular interest among the rooms of the villa is a courtyard elevated like a cloister. The German opera composer Richard Wagner visited the villa in 1880 and he was so overcome by the beauty of the location that he imagined the setting as the garden of Klingsor in the second act of Parsifal. In commemoration, every year the garden of Villa Rufolo hosts a Wagnerian concert. Amalfi Coast Ravello Villa Cimbrone Villa Rufolo website Villa Rufolo - History, description, photos of Villa Rufolo at Ravello. com
28.
San Giovanni del Toro
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The Chiesa di San Giovanni del Toro is a church in Ravello, southern Italy. Consecrated in the 11th century, the church was restored in 1715 after damage caused by an earthquake, the church is named for John the Apostle and for Il Toro, the former name of the old aristocratic quarter in which it was built. It is especially noted for its pulpit, dating from around the 13th century, early 20th-century English writers describe the church as in dilapidated condition, stating it would have gone to ruins had it not been for government intervention in the 1880s. According to these authors, who derived their knowledge from an old history, the consecration took place in 1069. The pulpit is notable for its mosaics, the patterns of which inspired the interlocking patterns used by M. C. Escher, who spent time in Ravello in the 1920s and studied the church, one mosaic is of Jonah emerging from the whale. An eagle supports the reading desk, and it holds a book opened to the first sentence of the Gospel of John, there is a side chapel with a stucco figure of Saint Catherine and her wheel. Il Pulpito di San Giovanni del Toro a Ravello, la scultura normanno-sveva in Campania, botteghe e modelli
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Duomo
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Duomo is a term for an Italian cathedral church. The formal Italian word for a church that is now a cathedral is cattedrale, some, like the Duomo of Monza, have never been cathedrals, although old and important. Many people refer to particular churches simply as Il Duomo or the duomo, similar words exist in other languages, Dom, dom, dóm, domkirke, dómkirkja, domo domkyrka, domkirke, doms, toomkirik, and tuomiokirkko. In German the term Dom became the synecdoche, used — pars pro toto — for most existing or former collegiate churches, therefore, the uniform translation of these terms into English as cathedrals may not always be appropriate and should be used on a contextual basis. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, and to Lo Zingarelli, the Garzanti online dictionary also gives the etymology as deriving from house, but house of the bishop instead of the house of God. Italian cathedrals are often decorated and contain notable artworks, in many cases the buildings themselves are true artworks. Perhaps the best known Duomo is Milan Cathedral, but other well-known cathedrals include San Giovanni in Laterano in Rome and those of Alba, Ancona, Mantua, Parma and Florences Santa Maria del Fiore. Other notable examples are in Cefalù, Cremona, Enna, LAquila, Modena, Monreale, Naples, Genoa, Orvieto, Padua, Piazza Armerina, Pisa, Prato, San Gimignano, Siena, Spoleto, Turin and Viterbo
30.
Scala, Campania
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Scala is a town and comune in the province of Salerno in the Campania region of south-western Italy. It is located on a hill c.400 m over the sea level and is part of the Amalfi Coast It has a main Square which has a café, restaurant, chemist, deli. There is also a very beautiful Church and a swimming pool not so far away, there are then sets of roads which go up the mountain and lead to the chestnut trees. According to an ancient and unproven tradition, it was founded by Roman shipwrecks travelling to Constantinople, in the Middle Ages Scala was, together with Ravello, the most important fortification of the Duchy of Amalfi. Its two castles were sacked by Robert Guiscard in 1073 and destroyed by the Pisane sixty years later, in 1210 the fate repeated with the troops of Otto IV and, in the late century, during the Sicilian Vespers. Scala is the place of the Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer. Scala is divided into six different hamlets with precise identities, from north to south, Santa Caterina, Campoleone, Campidoglio, Scala, Minuta and Pontone. Attractions include, Santa Caterina, Porta Urbana, church of Santa Caterina, chapels of St. Paul and Santa Maria della Porta Campoleone, church of San Pietro, Campidoglio, church of San Giovanni Battista, with a Moresque bell tower. The Duomo of Scala, modified in Baroque times and it has maintained the medieval crypt, the Angevine sepulchre of Marinella Rufolo, and an episcopal mitre and a Crucifix from the 13th century. Also notable is the Bishops Palace, Minuta, Romanesque church of Annunziata Pontone, church of San Giovanni Battista and the remains of the basilica of SantEustachio. Hotel ZiNtonio, charming hotel with balconies in every room directly overlooking the Amalfi coast, the experience feels like a scene from the movie A Room With a View. The town is famous for its cultivation of chestnuts, every year, at the end of November, for two consecutive weekends, a Sagra delle Castagne is held in the main square. Amalfi Coast Sorrentine Peninsula Media related to Scala at Wikimedia Commons
31.
Atrani
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Atrani is a city and comune on the Amalfi Coast in the province of Salerno in the Campania region of south-western Italy. It is located to the east of Amalfi, several minutes drive down the coast, Atrani has a surface area 0.12 km2 making it the smallest community in all of Italy. In 2010, the population of Atrani was 913, making it the most densely populated city in the Salerno province. The town is located between the Civita Hill and Aureo Hill, Atrani is along the valley of the river Dragone, named for a legend saying there once was a terrible dragon that would breathe fire and would hide himself there. Because of the beauty of its alley, gardens, squares, buildings, characteristic “scalinatelle” and for its overall atmosphere, in 2012 it was used as the backdrop for a Fiat commercial. Though it is part of the Amalfi Coast, it is the town along the coast to preserve intact its antique. The initial houses face the beach directly, Atrani is isolated from automobile traffic because it is protected by its antique houses with flowered balconies. The central square of Atrani leads directly to the beach and the sea by crossing an antique passageway created to save boats from sea storms, Atrani boasts a Mediterranean climate, with mild and rainy winters and summers that are moderately hot, very sunny and almost never foggy. For the 30-year period from 1961 to 1990 the average temperature of the coldest month, January, was 10.7 degrees Celsius, the origins of Atrani are still unknown. Archeological research discovered ruins remaining from the 1st century AD. Roman villas existed along the Almafi Coast and were covered in debris from the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD, the debris was deposited on the mountains encircling Atrani and from there it was dumped into the valley. In the 5th century AD, barbarians attacked and numerous Romans escaped from the cities and they fled onto Monti Lattari and created stable settlements. The first documented proof of the existence of Atrani is represented by a letter by the Pope Gregory I to Bishop Pimenio of Amalfi dated 596 AD. The Duchy of Amalfi extended from Positano to Cetara and also included Agerola, Pimonte, Lettere, Capri, within this territory Atrani was a village that boasted the title of city, the twin city of Amalfi was seat of the aristocracy. The Pantaleoni, the richest and most powerful family of Amalfi, the Alagno, the Mauro Comite, the Comite Iane, the Augustariccio, and its inhabitants preserved their identity as Atranese, unlike all the other inhabitants of the duchy, who were merely called Amalfitani. Only Amalfi and Atrani had the right to elect or depose the leaders of the towns, Amalfi was first ruled by counts, then by prefects, judges, and then finally by the Dukes. The Duke concentrated in his person both civil and military power, the symbol of his power was a hat, the birecto, which the dukes were awarded in a coronation in the palatine chapel of S. Salvatore de Birecto of Atrani. The village of Atrani was more extensive than its current borders and it extended as far as Castiglione, and was so named from the castellio, which was a large castle situated on the promontory where the collegiate church of St. Mary Magdalene stands today. In the Civita area there was the Castle of Supramonte, which was destroyed by attacks by the Republic of Pisa between 1135 and 1137, Atrani contributed to the economic and social development of the duchy
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Mary Magdalene de' Pazzi
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Mary Magdalene de Pazzi, O. Carm. was an Italian Carmelite nun and mystic. She has been declared a saint by the Roman Catholic Church and she was christened Caterina, but in the family was called Lucrezia, out of respect for her paternal grandmother, Lucrezia Mannucci. Even as a girl Caterina was attracted to prayer, solitude, at the age of nine Pazzi was taught how to meditate by the family chaplain, using a recently published work explaining how one should meditate on the Passion of Christ. Years later, this book was one of the items she brought with her to the monastery and she made her First Communion at the then-early age of 10 and made a vow of virginity one month later. She experienced her first ecstasy when she was twelve, in her mothers presence. From then on, she continued to many varied mystical experiences. In 1580, at age fourteen, Pazzi was sent by her father to be educated at a monastery of nuns of the Order of Malta, Caterina advised her father of her vow, and he eventually relented and allowed her to enter monastic life. She chose the Carmelite Monastery of St. Mary of the Angels in Florence because the rule there allowed her to receive Holy Communion daily, in 1583 she was accepted as a novice by that community, and given the religious name of Sister Mary Magdalene. Pazzi had been a novice for a year when she became critically ill, upon receiving the religious habit, her heart was filled with an ardent desire to suffer for Jesus. One of the sisters asked her how she could bear so much pain without a murmur. Mary pointed to the crucifix and said, Death seemed near, so her superiors let her make her profession of vows in a private ceremony. Immediately after, she fell into an ecstasy that lasted two hours. This was repeated on the following 40 mornings, each time after Communion, as a safeguard against deception and to preserve the revelations, Pazzi confessor asked her to dictate her experiences to her fellow nuns. Over the next six years, five volumes were filled. The first three record ecstasies from May 1584 through Pentecost week of the following year and that particular week was a preparation for a severe five-year trial. The fourth book records that trial and the fifth is a collection of letters concerning reform, another book, Admonitions, is a collection of her sayings arising from her experiences in the formation of women in religious orders. A famous incident was her ringing the bells of the one night to announce to the puzzled nuns that Love was Itself not loved. While her mystical experiences sometimes caused dramatic, even eccentric, behavior she was never narcissistic or self-preoccupied and she even rejoiced if her prayers were not granted because it meant that Gods will was being done, not hers
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Amalfi Cathedral
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Amalfi Cathedral is a 9th-century Roman Catholic cathedral in the Piazza del Duomo, Amalfi, Italy. It is dedicated to the Apostle Saint Andrew whose relics are kept here, formerly the episcopal seat of the Diocese of Amalfi, it has been since 1986 that of the Diocese of Amalfi-Cava de Tirreni. Predominantly of Arab-Norman Romanesque architectural style, it has been remodeled several times, adding Romanesque, Byzantine, Gothic, the cathedral includes the adjoining 9th-century Basilica of the Crucifix. Leading from the basilica are steps into the Crypt of St. Andrew, the newer cathedral was built next to the older basilica that was built on the ruins of a previous temple. The remains of St. Andrew were reportedly brought to Amalfi from Constantinople in 1206 during the Fourth Crusade by Cardinal Peter of Capua, in 1208, the crypt was completed and the relics were turned over to the church. It said that later on Manna issued from the saints bones, a wooden 13th century Crucifix hangs in the liturgical area. Another crucifix, made of mother-of-pearl, was brought from the Holy Land and is located to the right of the back door, the High Altar in the central nave is formed from the sarcophagus of the Archbishop Pietro Capuano. Above the altar is a painting by Andrea dellAsta of The Martyrdom of St. Andrew, the boxed ceiling dates to 1702 and its artwork includes the Flagellation, the Crucifixion of the Apostle, and the DellAstas 1710 Miracle of the Manna. The triumphal arch is held up by two Egyptian granite columns, there are two additional twisted columns and two pulpits that were part of the 12th century ambo. One of the pillars boasts a hidden column as an example of the ancient Romanesque structure, the front facade was rebuilt in 1891 after the original one collapsed. It is of striped marble and stone with open arches that have lace detailing not commonly found in Italian sacred architecture while the cupola is quite common amongst churches of the area. The tympanums mosaics portray “The triumph of Christ” in a created by Domenico Morelli. Sixty-two steps, wide and steep, lead up to the doors, cast in Constantinople before 1066, and signed by Simeon of Syria, the cathedrals bronze doors are the earliest in Italy of post-Roman manufacture. Begun in 1180, and completed over 100 years later, the Romanesque style bell tower is off-center, the structure includes four small towers of Arab architectural type that are adorned with arches and are covered with majolica tiles. During times of war, the tower was purposed for defense. The garden contains colonnades, arches, and sculptures
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Conca dei Marini
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Conca dei Marini is a town and comune in the province of Salerno in the Campania region of south-western Italy. It is situated on a close to the coast and between Amalfi and Furore. It was perhaps founded by the Tyrrhenians with the name of Cossa, in the Middle Ages, it was a trading base of the Republic of Amalfi. In 1543 it was sacked by Turkish pirates, the port maintained a certain degree of trades until the 19th century, and was also the seat of a tonnara until 1956
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Grotta dello Smeraldo
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The Grotta dello Smeraldo is a cave, partly inundated by the sea and located in Conca dei Marini, Italy, on the Amalfi Coast. It is one of several caves worldwide, that is flooded with a brilliant blue or emerald light, the quality and nature of the color in each cave is determined by the unique lighting conditions in that particular cave. The grotto, which is located at the Amalfi Coast, is filled with sea water. The surface area of the water measures roughly 45 x 32 metres, formation of cave was caused by bradyseism - tectonic upheaval of cliffs, where cliffs fractured and cave was formed along the fissures. Now the cave has descended and sea water had entered it, unlike the Blue Grotto located a few kilometres to the west on Capri, the Grotta dello Smeraldo has no natural outlet above the waterline. The only opening to the world is just below the water level. Refracted sunlight entering the cavern through the opening gives the water its characteristic emerald glow during daylight hours, the absence of a natural opening above the waterline meant that the grotto’s existence remained unknown for many years. It was discovered by a fisherman named Luigi Buoncore in 1932, the grotto is accessible from Strada Statale 163, the main road along the Amalfi Coast. There is a parking lot beside an elevator which takes visitors down to cave level. Amalfi Coast Fiordo di Furore List of caves in Italy Grotta dello Smeraldo at showcaves. com Emerald Caves page on Conca dei Marini website
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Furore
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Furore is a town and comune in the province of Salerno in the Campania region of south-western Italy. Furore is located in the Coast of Amalfi, the municipality of Furore expands from the sea level, where there is the hamlet of the Fiordo di Furore, and a little civil parish partly belonging to Praiano named Marina di Praia, up to Agerola. The village is subdivided into 3 districts, Cicala, Ciuccio, the so-called fiordo di Furore, in fact a ria created by the Schiato torrent which flows here from Agerola. Church of SantElia Saint Giacomo Church, with a collection of religious iconography of female Saints, Saint Michele Church, with an overlapping of Gothic elements, such as the sharp arch, with Romanesque figurative decorations. The open-air museum of Murals, along the road, painted on the walls of the houses of Furore, Amalfi Coast Sorrentine Peninsula Emerald Cave Media related to Furore at Wikimedia Commons Official website The nicest villages in Italy Furores Fjord
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Praiano
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Praiano is a town and comune of the province of Salerno in the Campania region of southwest Italy. It is situated on the Amalfi Coast, a prime tourist location for the region and Italy alike, in 1997, the Amalfi Coast, including Praianos Vettica Maggiore frazione was inscribed as UNESCO World Heritage Site. As of December 1,2009, the towns population constitutes 2,069 inhabitants, the towns name derives from the praia, or beach, from the Latin word pelagium, meaning open sea. During the 10th-11th centuries, Praiano was once the residence of the doges of the Duchy of Amalfi. During the Angevin period, a tower, the Assiola, was constructed to defend the town. Praiano had an important local industry, however, it disappeared during the 19th century. With the discovery of corals in the vicinity around the 1800s, Praianos economy was revitalized, mainly focusing on the fishing, attractions include the Church of San Luca Evangelista, dating back to 1123. On the inside, there are paintings by Renaissance painter Giovanni Bernardo Lama dating to the 16th century, another attraction is the Church of San Giovanni Battista, featuring a well-preserved maiolica tiled floor, dating back to the 12th-13th centuries. Amalfi Coast Sorrentine Peninsula Praiano travel guide from Wikivoyage
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Limoncello
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It is also produced in Abruzzo, Basilicata, Apulia, Sicily, Sardinia, Menton in France, and the Maltese island of Gozo. In northern Italy, the liqueur is often referred to instead as limoncino and it is also a popular homemade liqueur, with various recipes available online and in print. Although there is debate about the origin of the drink. Traditionally, limoncello is made from the zest of Femminello St. Teresa lemons, lemon zest, or peels without the pith, is steeped in rectified spirit until the oil is released. The resulting yellow liquid is mixed with simple syrup. Varying the sugar-to-water ratio and the temperature affects the clarity, viscosity, opaque limoncellos are the result of spontaneous emulsification of the sugar syrup and extracted lemon oils. Limoncello is the second most popular liqueur in Italy and it has become popular in other parts of the world. Restaurants in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia, the United States has seen a rise in commercial producers using California lemons which are grown year round, with 90% of the United States lemon crops coming from California. A popular ingredient in cocktails, limoncello imparts a strong lemon flavor without the sourness or bitterness of pure lemon juice, in the UK, Limoncello can also be described as Lemoncello. Limoncello is traditionally served chilled as an after-dinner digestivo, along the Amalfi Coast, it is usually served in small ceramic glasses that are also chilled. This tradition has carried into other parts of Italy. Alcohol content can vary widely however, the alcohol content is 26% especially among homemade variants. Many variations of limoncello are also available and these include pistachiocello, meloncello, and fragoncello
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Lemon
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The lemon, Citrus limon Osbeck, is a species of small evergreen tree in the flowering plant family Rutaceae, native to Asia. The trees ellipsoidal yellow fruit is used for culinary and non-culinary purposes throughout the world, primarily for its juice, the pulp and rind are also used in cooking and baking. The juice of the lemon is about 5% to 6% citric acid, the distinctive sour taste of lemon juice makes it a key ingredient in drinks and foods such as lemonade and lemon meringue pie. The origin of the lemon is unknown, though lemons are thought to have first grown in Assam, a study of the genetic origin of the lemon reported it to be hybrid between bitter orange and citron. Lemons entered Europe near southern Italy no later than the second century AD, however, they were not widely cultivated. They were later introduced to Persia and then to Iraq and Egypt around 700 AD, the lemon was first recorded in literature in a 10th-century Arabic treatise on farming, and was also used as an ornamental plant in early Islamic gardens. It was distributed throughout the Arab world and the Mediterranean region between 1000 and 1150. The first substantial cultivation of lemons in Europe began in Genoa in the middle of the 15th century, the lemon was later introduced to the Americas in 1493 when Christopher Columbus brought lemon seeds to Hispaniola on his voyages. Spanish conquest throughout the New World helped spread lemon seeds and it was mainly used as an ornamental plant and for medicine. In the 19th century, lemons were increasingly planted in Florida, in 1747, James Linds experiments on seamen suffering from scurvy involved adding lemon juice to their diets, though vitamin C was not yet known. The origin of the lemon may be Middle Eastern. The word draws from the Old French limon, then Italian limone, from the Arabic laymūn or līmūn, and from the Persian līmūn, a term for citrus fruit. The Bonnie Brae is oblong, smooth, thin-skinned, and seedless, the Eureka grows year-round and abundantly. This is the common supermarket lemon, also known as Four Seasons because of its ability to produce fruit and this variety is also available as a plant to domestic customers. There is also a pink-fleshed Eureka lemon, with a green, the Femminello St. Teresa, or Sorrento is native to Italy. This fruits zest is high in lemon oils and it is the variety traditionally used in the making of limoncello. The Meyer is a cross between a lemon and possibly an orange or a mandarin, and was named after Frank N. Meyer, who first introduced it to the USA in 1908. Thin-skinned and slightly less acidic than the Lisbon and Eureka lemons, Meyer lemons often mature to a yellow-orange color
40.
Salerno Costa d'Amalfi Airport
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It is also commonly known as Salerno-Pontecagnano Airport. The airport was founded in 1926 by Aeronautica Militare, Italys military air force, a flight training facility was established between 1933 and 1943. The first hangar was designed by the famous architect Pier Luigi Nervi, in 1946, a meteorological service was established, and in 1952, the Salerno Air Club was founded. The airport has hosted the Carabinieri helipad since 1975, and the Firefighter helipad, a new control tower was built in 1987. The airport was used by the Carabinieri, Firefighters, flight and parachuting school. The airport was developed to accommodate civil traffic on a large scale, with four check-in desks. The runway has a VOR system, a direction finder VDF. The runway was extended for a length of 1654 m. In 2011 was presented the project for the extension of the runway up to 2020 m and for the creation of new buildings, as of 2015, the charter airline, Air Vallée, was running charter flights between Salerno and Corfu. During Summer 2016, Denim Air operated charter flights to Corfu, Ibiza, Tabres/Lourdes, Malta, Milan-Malpensa, Mostar, Olbia, flights were operated with a Fokker 100 with 100 seats. Car, Motorway A3 SA-RC, Montecorvino Pugliano - Pontecagnano Sud - Airport exit, Salerno Bypass, SP417 Aversana- Airport exit, parking,150 free parking spaces in front of the terminal. Taxi, fixed fee from/to Salerno 30 Euro, from/to Battipaglia 15 Euro, train, Salerno and Pontecagnano Faiano stations. Subway, an extension of Metropolitana di Salerno to the airport is planned
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Naples International Airport
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Naples International Airport is the international airport serving Naples, Italy. It is located 3.2 NM north-northeast of the city in the Capodichino district of Naples, the airport has two terminal buildings, Terminal 1 is for scheduled flights and Terminal 2, located away from the airfield, is used for charter operations. Naples, with a population of nearly three million is the largest metropolitan area of Europe which does not serve as a hub nor secondary hub of any airline. The district of Capodichino – in the known as Campo di Marte – hosted the first flight exhibitions in Naples in 1910. During the First World War, Campo di Marte became an airport in order to defend the town against Austro-Hungarian and German air attacks. Dedicated to Ugo Niutta, an Italian aviator, Capodichino Airport was an air base during the Fascist Era. During World War II the airport was used by the United States Army Air Forces extensively during the Italian Campaign. It was used by the Twelfth Air Force as a combat airfield, when the combat units moved out, Air Transport Command used the airport as a major transshipment hub for cargo, transiting aircraft and personnel for the remainder of the war. In 1980 GE. S. A. C. was established to administer the airport, in 1982 it became Gestione Servizi Aeroporti Campani) and participated in by the City Council, the province of Naples and Alitalia. Drew up – with BAA assistance – a new master plan, after two years GE. S. A. C. was the first airport management company in Italy to be privatised, BAA acquires 70% of the share package from the City Council and Province of Naples. In 1998 the Galleria Napoli opened, an arcade open 365 days a year inside Terminal 1. Prince Charles inaugurated the new departure lounge, the airport has a single runway in bituminous conglomerate and concrete, with one taxiway. There is one apron with 29 stands,9 of which self-maneuvering, the airport is class 4D ICAO and has the classification of military airport opened to commercial air traffic 24 hours/day. The airport management company is responsible for managing the airport and coordinating. Capodichino hosts some aeronautical industrial activities, like Atitech, Alenia Aeronautica, Aeronavali, fixed taxi rates are in use for the main destinations within the city limits of Naples from Airport to, Naples Centre, Molo Beverello, Mergellina. Bus line 3S and Alibus, operated by ANM, connect the airport to Piazza Garibaldi, distance airport/centre city is about 7 km. The airport is connected to Avellino, Benevento, Caserta, Sorrento, Salerno. Dense fog over the Ionian Sea and mountainous southern Italy on 17 February greatly impeded search efforts for the missing aircraft, U. S. authorities did not exclude the possibility the plane might have been forced down in Communist Albania
42.
John Webster
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John Webster was an English Jacobean dramatist best known for his tragedies The White Devil and The Duchess of Malfi, which are often regarded as masterpieces of the early 17th-century English stage. His life and career overlapped William Shakespeares, Websters life is obscure, and the dates of his birth and death are not known. The family lived in St. Sepulchres parish, father John, and Uncle, Edward Webster, were Freemen of the Merchant Taylors Company and Webster attended Merchant Taylors School in Suffolk Lane, London. Webster married the 17-year-old Sara Peniall on 18 March 1606 at St Marys Church, a special licence had to be obtained to permit a wedding in Lent, which was necessary as at the date of their marriage, Sara was seven months pregnant. Their first child, John, was baptised at the parish of St Dunstan-in-the-West on 8 March 1605 or 1606, bequests in the will of a neighbour who died in 1617, indicate that other children were born to him. Most of what is known of him relates to his theatrical activities. Webster was still writing plays as late as the mid-1620s, but Thomas Heywoods Hierarchie of the Blessed Angels speaks of him in the past tense, by 1602, Webster was working with teams of playwrights on history plays, most of which were never printed. These included a tragedy Caesars Fall, and a collaboration with Thomas Dekker Christmas Comes, with Dekker he also wrote Sir Thomas Wyatt, which was printed in 1607, and probably first performed in 1602. He worked with Thomas Dekker again on two city comedies, Westward Ho in 1604 and Northward Ho in 1605, also in 1604, he adapted John Marstons The Malcontent for staging by the Kings Men. Despite his ability to write comedy, Webster is best known for his two brooding English tragedies based on Italian sources, the Duchess of Malfi, first performed by the Kings Men about 1614 and published nine years later, was more successful. He also wrote a play called Guise, based on French history, the two plays would thus have been very different in their original performances. The White Devil would have performed, probably in one continuous action, by adult actors. Webster wrote one play on his own, The Devils Law Case. His later plays were collaborative city comedies, Anything for a Quiet Life, co-written with Thomas Middleton, in 1624, he also co-wrote a topical play about a recent scandal, Keep the Widow Waking. The play itself is lost, although its plot is known from a court case and he is believed to have contributed to the tragicomedy The Fair Maid of the Inn with John Fletcher, Ford, and Phillip Massinger. His Appius and Virginia, probably written with Thomas Heywood, is of uncertain date, Websters major plays, The White Devil and The Duchess of Malfi, are macabre, disturbing works that seem to prefigure the Gothic literature of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Intricate, complex, subtle and learned, they are difficult but rewarding, Webster has received a reputation for being the Elizabethan and Jacobean dramatist with the most unsparingly dark vision of human nature. Even more than John Ford, whose Tis Pity Shes a Whore is also very bleak, in his poem Whispers of Immortality, T. S. Eliot memorably says that Webster always saw the skull beneath the skin
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The Duchess of Malfi
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The Duchess of Malfi is a macabre, tragic play written by the English dramatist John Webster in 1612–13. It was first performed privately at the Blackfriars Theatre, then later to an audience at The Globe. Published in 1623, the play is based on events that occurred between about 1508 and 1513. The Duchess was Giovanna dAragona, Duchess of Amalfi, whose father, Enrico dAragona, as in the play, she secretly married Antonio Beccadelli di Bologna after the death of her first husband Alfonso I Piccolomini, Duke of Amalfi. The play begins as a story, with a Duchess who marries beneath her class. Jacobean drama continued the trend of violence and horror set by Elizabethan tragedy. Antonio returned from France, full of scorn for the Italian courtiers whom he sees as more corrupt than the French, Antonio is the steward of the Duchess of Malfis palace. His honesty and good judgment of character are traits well known to the other characters and he accepts the Duchess proposal of marriage because of her disposition rather than her beauty. Her marrying beneath her status is a problem, however, and their marriage has to remain a secret, a courtier, who tries to woo Julia. Based on Matteo Bandellos self-depiction under this name, his purpose is to be the sounding board for his friend Antonio. Because he asks so many pertinent questions, he serves as a source of important information to the audience, a former servant of the Cardinal, now returned from a sentence in the galleys for murder. Publicly rejected by his previous employer the Cardinal, he is sent by Ferdinand to spy on the Duchess as her Provisor of Horse, Bosola is involved in the murder of the Duchess, her children, Cariola, Antonio, the Cardinal, Ferdinand, and a servant. Witnessing the nobility of the Duchess and Antonio facing their deaths, he feels guilty. This change of heart makes him the plays most complex character, a malcontent and cynic, he makes numerous critical comments on the nature of Renaissance society. The brother to the Duchess and Ferdinand, a corrupt, icy official in the Roman Catholic Church who keeps a mistress. He has arranged a spy to spy upon his sister – all this on the quiet, however, of remorse, love, loyalty, or even greed, he knows nothing, and his reasons for hating his sister are a mystery. The Duke of Calabria and twin brother of the Duchess, unlike his rational brother the Cardinal, Ferdinand has rages and violent outbursts disproportionate to the perceived offense. As a result of his regret for hiring Bosola to kill the Duchess, he loses his sanity—he believes he is a wolf
44.
Entourage (U.S. TV series)
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Entourage is an American comedy-drama television series that premiered on HBO on July 18,2004 and concluded on September 11,2011, after eight seasons. Mark Wahlberg and Stephen Levinson served as the executive producers. The series deals with themes of friendship and real-life situations in modern-day Hollywood. The show is known for its array of guests, having featured several actors, athletes. According to Mark Wahlberg, Entourage was initially conceived when his assistant asked if he could film Wahlberg and his friends, other reports credit Eric Weinstein, a long-time friend of Wahlberg, with the idea of filming the actors group of friends. However, according to Donnie Carroll, who was the inspiration for the Turtle character and it had originated as a book idea, centered on Carrolls own life and his experiences with Wahlberg, titled From the Hood to Hollywood, A Soldiers Story. Vincent Chase was envisioned to be similar to Wahlberg. A lighter approach was subsequently decided upon and his best friend and manager is Eric Murphy. E, as his friends call him, is based on Mark Wahlbergs friend, hes also been reported to be inspired by Stephen Levinson, Mark Wahlbergs manager. Vincents older half-brother, Johnny Drama Chase, is Vinces personal chef, trainer, Johnny is a C-list actor who was in the fictional show Viking Quest during his younger days. His role in the new hit show Five Towns had begun to resurrect his fame and career. As the show went on, Drama got offers for more and more roles, the show ended with Drama having his own animated TV show called Johnnys Bananas and him landing a new TV movie with the help of Vince. Dramas character is based on Johnny Drama Alves, whom Donnie Wahlberg had hired to keep his brother out of trouble. Rounding out the entourage of friends is Salvatore Turtle Assante, who is another of Vinces old friends from childhood, Turtles official role is as Vinces driver and assistant, though his value as such is often brought into question. This character is based on Wahlbergs former gofer Donnie Carroll aka Donkey, Carroll auditioned for the role, but the Boston native was turned down when it was decided the actors would have to be New Yorkers. Carroll died on December 18,2005, after an asthma attack, Ari Gold is Vinces abrasive but lovable agent. The role has led to several nominations and Emmy Awards for Piven, Ari is based on Wahlbergs real-life agent Ari Emanuel. Connolly, Grenier, Dillon, Ferrara, and Piven are credited in episode in the opening credits of the entire series
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