1.
Ambiguous (film)
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Ambiguous aka Waisetsu Netto Shūdan Ikasete. and Group Suicide, The Last Supper is a 2003 Japanese Pink film directed by Toshiya Ueno. It was chosen as Best Film of the year at the Pink Grand Prix ceremony, a diverse group of people, all with troubles in their daily lives, meet online and decide to commit suicide together. Isolated from society at large, they form a bond as the appointed time approaches. As with many of Kokueis pink films, Ambiguous did not prove very marketable for the traditional softcore porn audience, the readers of P*G magazine showed their approval of the film by awarding it Best Film and giving Hidekazu Takahara the Silver Prize for screenplay. Like many pink films, Ambiguous has gone more than one title. Originally released in theatres as Obscene Internet Group, Make Me Come, the film was shown at the Pink Grand Prix under the title Ambiguous, the title under which it was also released on DVD in Japan and internationally. The film has also released on DVD in Japan as Group Suicide. Sacrament released the film as Ambiguous on English-subtitled Region 2 DVD on 22 February 2006, behind the Pink Curtain, The Complete History of Japanese Sex Cinema. Midnight Eye Round-Up, Pink Films special, Obscene Internet Group, archived from the original on 10 May 2009. Ambiguous at the Internet Movie Database
2.
John Tenniel
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Sir John Tenniel was an English illustrator, graphic humourist, and political cartoonist prominent in the second half of the 19th century. He was knighted for his achievements in 1893. Tenniel was born in Bayswater, West London, to John Baptist Tenniel, Tenniel had five siblings, two brothers and three sisters. One sister, Mary, was later to marry Thomas Goodwin Green, Tenniel was a quiet and introverted person, both as a boy and as an adult. He was content to remain out of the limelight and seemed unaffected by competition or change. His biographer Rodney Engen wrote that Tenniels life and career was that of the supreme gentlemanly outside, in 1840 Tenniel, while practising fencing with his father, received a serious eye wound from his fathers foil, which had accidentally lost its protective tip. Over the years Tenniel gradually lost sight in his eye, he never told his father of the severity of the wound. Tenniel became a student of the Royal Academy of Arts in 1842 by probation—he was admitted because he made copies of classical sculptures to provide the necessary admission portfolio. So, it was here that Tenniel returned to his earlier independent education, Tenniel studied classical sculptures through painting, however, Tenniel was frustrated that he was never taught how to draw. It was in these studies that Tenniel learned to love detail, however, Tenniel was blessed with a photographic memory, undermining his early training and seriously restricting his artistic ambitions. Another formal means of training was Tenniels participation in an artists group, in the mid-1840s Tenniel joined the Artists Society or Clipstone Street Life Academy, and it could be said here that Tenniel first emerged as a satirical draftsman. Tenniels first book illustration was for Samuel Carter Halls The Book of British Ballads, Tenniel planned to enter the 1845 House of Lords competition amongst artists to win the opportunity to design the mural decoration of the new Palace of Westminster. Despite missing the deadline, he submitted a 16-foot cartoon, An Allegory of Justice, for this he received a £200 premium and a commission to paint a fresco in the Upper Waiting Hall in the House of Lords. At Christmas 1850 he was invited by Mark Lemon to fill the position of joint cartoonist on Punch and he had been selected on the strength of his recent illustrations to Aesops Fables. He contributed his first drawing in the initial letter appearing on p.224 and his first cartoon was Lord Jack the Giant Killer, which showed Lord John Russell assailing Cardinal Wiseman. Tenniels cartoons published in the 1860s made popular the portrait of the Irishman as a subhuman being, wanton in his appetites and most resembling an orangutan in both facial features and posture. In his career Tenniel contributed around 2,300 cartoons, innumerable minor drawings, many cartoons for Punchs Almanac and other special numbers. By 1866 he was able to command ten to fifteen guineas for the reworking of a single Punch cartoon as a pencil sketch, according to the Bank of England inflation calculator, £800 in 1866 would buy goods and services worth over £85,000 in 2015
3.
Caterpillar (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland)
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The Caterpillar is a fictional character appearing in Lewis Carrolls book Alices Adventures in Wonderland. Introduced in Chapter Four and the center of interest of Chapter V. Alice does not like the Caterpillar when they first meet, because he does not immediately talk to her, the original illustration by John Tenniel is something of a visual paradox, wherein the caterpillars human face appears to be formed from the head and legs of a naturalistic caterpillar. In another allusion, the flowers on the right of the illustration appear to be a form of tobacco, in the SyFy TV miniseries Alice, the Caterpillar is the leader of the underground resistance to the Queen of Hearts. The Caterpillar also makes an appearance in Curiouser and Curiouser, an episode of the television show Forever Knight, in several Marvel Comics stories featuring Doctor Strange, the magical entity Agamotto has appeared in a form resembling the Caterpillar. In popular music, the Caterpillar is mentioned in Jefferson Airplanes White Rabbit, in one episode of Ouran High School Host Club called Haruhi in Wonderland, Kyoya Otori is dressed as the Caterpillar. The Caterpillar appears in the Mad T Party at Disneys California Adventure park, the Caterpillar is also referenced in Melanie Martinezs song Mad Hatter. The Caterpillar turned moth is also a male character in The Splintered Series by A. G. Howard. In the Disney animated film, this line is visualised as exhalations of smoke in the shapes O, R and U. Alice remarks in the story that the Caterpillar will one day turn into a butterfly. He is voiced by Richard Haydn, the Caterpillar in the Disney film is a blue creature who, as in the original Carroll story, smokes a hookah. He is seen as a violent character as he yells at Alice quite often during the scenes in which they both appear. He blows smoke in Alices face and when she needs assistance he ignores her and he is a quite mean character providing little to no assistance to Alice and ends up confusing her more while she is trapped in Wonderland. He then ignores her and turns into a butterfly and flutters away not caring whether or not Alice makes it out alive and he also instructs her to eat a mushroom but does not say what it does thus putting her into possible danger. He reappears one final time during the chase, still in butterfly form but once again smoking on his hookah. Alan Rickman voices the Caterpillar, who in this adaptation is named Absolem, Rickman was filmed while recording his voice in a studio, but his face was not composited onto the characters face as originally planned. He appears five times in the movie, the first time is outside Wonderland, when a young man named Hamish Ascot is about to propose to Alice and she notices a blue caterpillar on his shoulder. The second time is when Nivens McTwisp the White Rabbit, Tweedledum and Tweedledee, Mallymkun the Dormouse, and the Uilleam the Dodo consider Alices identity, Absolem appears in a thick cloud of hookah smoke, which he blows at Alice
4.
Lewis Carroll
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Charles Lutwidge Dodgson, better known by his pen name Lewis Carroll, was an English writer, mathematician, logician, Anglican deacon, and photographer. He is noted for his facility at word play, logic, There are societies in many parts of the world dedicated to the enjoyment and promotion of his works and the investigation of his life. Dodgsons family was predominantly northern English, with Irish connections, conservative, most of Dodgsons male ancestors were army officers or Church of England clergy. His great-grandfather, also named Charles Dodgson, had risen through the ranks of the church to become the Bishop of Elphin. His paternal grandfather, another Charles, had been an army captain, the older of these sons – yet another Charles Dodgson – was Carrolls father. He went to Westminster School and then to Christ Church, Oxford and he reverted to the other family tradition and took holy orders. He was mathematically gifted and won a double first degree, which could have been the prelude to a brilliant academic career, instead, he married his first cousin Frances Jane Lutwidge in 1830 and became a country parson. Dodgson was born in the parsonage at Daresbury in Cheshire near the towns of Warrington and Runcorn. When Charles was 11, his father was given the living of Croft-on-Tees in North Yorkshire, and this remained their home for the next 25 years. He was High Church, inclining to Anglo-Catholicism, an admirer of John Henry Newman and the Tractarian movement, Young Charles was to develop an ambiguous relationship with his fathers values and with the Church of England as a whole. During his early youth, Dodgson was educated at home and his reading lists preserved in the family archives testify to a precocious intellect, at the age of seven, he was reading books such as The Pilgrims Progress. He also suffered from a stammer – a condition shared by most of his siblings – that often influenced his life throughout his years. At the age of twelve, he was sent to Richmond Grammar School at nearby Richmond, in 1846, Dodgson entered Rugby School where he was evidently unhappy, as he wrote some years after leaving, I cannot say. That any earthly considerations would induce me to go through my three years again, I can honestly say that if I could have been. Secure from annoyance at night, the hardships of the daily life would have been comparative trifles to bear, scholastically, though, he excelled with apparent ease. I have not had a promising boy at his age since I came to Rugby. He left Rugby at the end of 1849 and matriculated at Oxford in May 1850 as a member of his fathers old college, after waiting for rooms in college to become available, he went into residence in January 1851. He had been at Oxford only two days when he received a summons home and his mother had died of inflammation of the brain – perhaps meningitis or a stroke – at the age of 47
5.
Alice's Adventures in Wonderland
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Alices Adventures in Wonderland is an 1865 novel written by English mathematician Charles Lutwidge Dodgson under the pseudonym Lewis Carroll. It tells of a girl named Alice falling through a hole into a fantasy world populated by peculiar. The tale plays with logic, giving the story lasting popularity with adults as well as with children and it is considered to be one of the best examples of the literary nonsense genre. Its narrative course and structure, characters and imagery have been influential in both popular culture and literature, especially in the fantasy genre. The journey began at Folly Bridge in Oxford and ended 3 miles north-west in the village of Godstow, during the trip, Dodgson told the girls a story that featured a bored little girl named Alice who goes looking for an adventure. The girls loved it, and Alice Liddell asked Dodgson to write it down for her and he began writing the manuscript of the story the next day, although that earliest version no longer exists. The girls and Dodgson took another boat trip a month later when he elaborated the plot to the story of Alice, and in November he began working on the manuscript in earnest. To add the finishing touches, he researched natural history for the animals presented in the book and he added his own illustrations but approached John Tenniel to illustrate the book for publication, telling him that the story had been well liked by children. Some, including Martin Gardner, speculate that there was a version that was destroyed later by Dodgson when he wrote a more elaborate copy by hand. Chapter One – Down the Rabbit Hole, Alice is feeling bored and drowsy while sitting on the riverbank with her older sister and she then notices a White Rabbit wearing a waistcoat and pocket watch, talking to itself as it runs past. She follows it down a hole, but suddenly falls a long way to a curious hall with many locked doors of all sizes. She finds a key to a door too small for her to fit through. She then discovers a bottle on a table labelled DRINK ME, the contents of which cause her to shrink too small to reach the key and she eats a cake with EAT ME written on it in currants as the chapter closes. Chapter Two – The Pool of Tears, Chapter Two opens with Alice growing to such a size that her head hits the ceiling. Alice is unhappy and, as she cries, her tears flood the hallway, after shrinking down again due to a fan she had picked up, Alice swims through her own tears and meets a Mouse, who is swimming as well. She tries to make small talk with him in elementary French, offends the mouse and he tries to escape her. Chapter Three – The Caucus Race and a Long Tale, The sea of tears becomes crowded with other animals, Alice and the other animals convene on the bank and the question among them is how to get dry again. The Mouse gives them a very dry lecture on William the Conqueror, a Dodo decides that the best thing to dry them off would be a Caucus-Race, which consists of everyone running in a circle with no clear winner
6.
Caterpillar
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Caterpillars /ˈkætərˌpɪlər/ are the larval stage of members of the order Lepidoptera. As with most common names, the application of the word is arbitrary, caterpillars of most species are herbivorous, but not all, some are insectivorous, even cannibalistic. Some feed on other products, for example clothes moths feed on wool. Caterpillars as a rule are voracious feeders and many of them are among the most serious of agricultural pests. In fact many moth species are best known in their caterpillar stages because of the damage cause to fruits and other agricultural produce, whereas the moths are obscure. Conversely, various species of caterpillar are valued as sources of silk, as human or animal food, the origins of the word caterpillar date from the early 16th century. They derive from Middle English catirpel, catirpeller, probably an alteration of Old North French catepelose, cate, cat + pelose, caterpillars have soft bodies that can grow rapidly between moults. Only the head capsule is hardened, the mandibles are tough and sharp for chewing leaves. Behind the mandibles of the caterpillar are the spinnerets, for manipulating silk, antennae are present on either side of the labrum, but small and relatively inconspicuous. Some larvae of the Hymenoptera order can appear like the caterpillars of the Lepidoptera, such larvae are mainly seen in the sawfly family. Caterpillars can be confused with the larvae of sawflies, lepidopteran larvae can be differentiated by, the numbers of pairs of pro-legs, sawfly larvae have 6 while caterpillars have up to 5 pairs. The number of stemmata, the larvae have only two, while a caterpillar has six. The presence of crochets on the prolegs, these are absent in the Symphyta, sawfly larvae have an invariably smooth head capsule with no cleavage lines, while lepidopterous caterpillars bear an inverted Y or V. Many animals feed on caterpillars as they are rich in protein, as a result, caterpillars have evolved various means of defense. The appearance of a caterpillar can often repel a predator, its markings and certain body parts can make it seem poisonous, or bigger in size and thus threatening, some types of caterpillars are indeed poisonous. Caterpillars have evolved defenses against physical conditions such as cold, hot or dry environmental conditions, some Arctic species like Gynaephora groenlandica have special basking and aggregation behaviours apart from physiological adaptations to remain in a dormant state. Many caterpillars are cryptically colored and resemble the plants on which they feed and they may even have parts that mimic plant parts such as thorns. Their size varies from as little as 1 mm to about 75 millimetres, some look like objects in the environment such as bird droppings
7.
Uncertainty
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Uncertainty is a situation which involves imperfect and/or unknown information. However, uncertainty is an expression without a straightforward description. It applies to predictions of events, to physical measurements that are already made. Uncertainty arises in partially observable and/or stochastic environments, as well as due to ignorance and/or indolence, a state of having limited knowledge where it is impossible to exactly describe the existing state, a future outcome, or more than one possible outcome. Risk A state of uncertainty where some possible outcomes have an effect or significant loss. Measurement of risk A set of measured uncertainties where some possible outcomes are losses, and the magnitudes of those losses – this also includes loss functions over continuous variables. It will appear that a measurable uncertainty, or risk proper, if probabilities are applied to the possible outcomes using weather forecasts or even just a calibrated probability assessment, the uncertainty has been quantified. Suppose it is quantified as a 90% chance of sunshine, if there is a major, costly, outdoor event planned for tomorrow then there is a risk since there is a 10% chance of rain, and rain would be undesirable. Furthermore, if this is an event and $100,000 would be lost if it rains. These situations can be even more realistic by quantifying light rain vs. heavy rain. Some may represent the risk in this example as the expected opportunity loss or the chance of the loss multiplied by the amount of the loss and that is useful if the organizer of the event is risk neutral, which most people are not. Most would be willing to pay a premium to avoid the loss, an insurance company, for example, would compute an EOL as a minimum for any insurance coverage, then add onto that other operating costs and profit. Since many people are willing to buy insurance for many reasons, quantitative uses of the terms uncertainty and risk are fairly consistent from fields such as probability theory, actuarial science, and information theory. Some also create new terms without substantially changing the definitions of uncertainty or risk, for example, surprisal is a variation on uncertainty sometimes used in information theory. But outside of the more mathematical uses of the term, usage may vary widely, in cognitive psychology, uncertainty can be real, or just a matter of perception, such as expectations, threats, etc. Vagueness or ambiguity are sometimes described as second order uncertainty, where there is uncertainty even about the definitions of uncertain states or outcomes, the difference here is that this uncertainty is about the human definitions and concepts, not an objective fact of nature. It is usually modelled by some variation on Zadehs fuzzy logic and it has been argued that ambiguity, however, is always avoidable while uncertainty is not necessarily avoidable. Uncertainty may be purely a consequence of a lack of knowledge of obtainable facts and that is, there may be uncertainty about whether a new rocket design will work, but this uncertainty can be removed with further analysis and experimentation
8.
2 (number)
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2 is a number, numeral, and glyph. It is the number following 1 and preceding 3. The number two has many properties in mathematics, an integer is called even if it is divisible by 2. For integers written in a system based on an even number, such as decimal and hexadecimal. If it is even, then the number is even. In particular, when written in the system, all multiples of 2 will end in 0,2,4,6. In numeral systems based on an odd number, divisibility by 2 can be tested by having a root that is even. Two is the smallest and first prime number, and the only prime number. Two and three are the two consecutive prime numbers. 2 is the first Sophie Germain prime, the first factorial prime, the first Lucas prime, the first Ramanujan prime, and it is an Eisenstein prime with no imaginary part and real part of the form 3n −1. It is also a Stern prime, a Pell number, the first Fibonacci prime, and it is the third Fibonacci number, and the second and fourth Perrin numbers. Despite being prime, two is also a highly composite number, because it is a natural number which has more divisors than any other number scaled relative to the number itself. The next superior highly composite number is six, vulgar fractions with only 2 or 5 in the denominator do not yield infinite decimal expansions, as is the case with all other primes, because 2 and 5 are factors of ten, the decimal base. Two is the number x such that the sum of the reciprocals of the powers of x equals itself. In symbols ∑ k =0 ∞12 k =1 +12 +14 +18 +116 + ⋯ =2. This comes from the fact that, ∑ k =0 ∞1 n k =1 +1 n −1 for all n ∈ R >1, powers of two are central to the concept of Mersenne primes, and important to computer science. Two is the first Mersenne prime exponent, the square root of 2 was the first known irrational number. The smallest field has two elements, in the set-theoretical construction of the natural numbers,2 is identified with the set
9.
Bank
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BANK was an artists group active in London during the 1990s. In 1993, Russell and Bedwell were joined by Milly Thompson, David Burrows, Burrows left BANK in 1995, Williamson in 1998, Russell in 2000. BANKs contribution to UK contemporary art was a series of curated group shows, often with comical, as a group they adopted an aggressive stance towards the mainstream contemporary art scene of the time. The approximately twenty shows curated by BANK included the work of the BANK artists alongside the work of several future Turner Prize nominees, although the BANK exhibitions were mostly held in warehouse spaces on Curtain Road, then Underwood Street the name of the gallery changed. Initially it was BANKSPACE, then DOG, and finally Gallerie Poo-Poo, BANK also published a satirical magazine delivering tabloid-style critiques of the art world. Headlines included, AD MAN YOU’RE A BAD MAN, and and they had, according to Matthew Collings, a surly, self-destructive, self-conscious, introspective attitude - combined. with critical intelligence and a flair for spotting weaknesses in the art system. BANK SHOWS1991 -20032003 SIMON BEDWELL & MILLY THOMPSON Store, London ART IS HELL The Suburban, Chicago 2002 BANK Anthony Wilkinson Gallery, DOG, London GOD DOG, London 1996 DOG-U-MENTAL VIII. DOG, London Viper/BANK TV DOG, London/Dukes Bar, Manchester F**K OFF, HE WENT TO A BED AND DREAMED THAT HE WAS ONE. WOKE UP AND FOUND THAT HE HAD BECOME ONE, stephen Friedman gallery got BANK’d, ADP magazine,4 November 2009
10.
Bank (geography)
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In geography, the word bank generally refers to the land alongside a body of water. Different structures are referred to as banks in different fields of geography, in limnology, a stream bank or river bank is the terrain alongside the bed of a river, creek, or stream. The bank consists of the sides of the channel, between which the flow is confined, stream banks are of particular interest in fluvial geography, which studies the processes associated with rivers and streams and the deposits and landforms created by them. The shoreline of ponds, swamps, estuaries, reservoirs, or lakes are also of interest in limnology, the grade of all these banks or shorelines can vary from vertical to a shallow slope. In freshwater ecology, banks are of interest as the location of riparian habitats, riparian zones occur along upland and lowland river and stream beds. The ecology around and depending on a marsh, swamp, slough, or estuary, banks are also of interest in navigation, where the term can refer either to a barrier island or a submerged plateau, such as an ocean bank. A barrier island is a narrow island composed of sand. A submerged plateau is a flat topped elevation of the sea floor at shallow depth
11.
Apothecary
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Apothecary /əˈpɒθᵻkəri/ is one term for a medical professional who formulates and dispenses materia medica to physicians, surgeons and patients. The modern pharmacist has taken over this role and in some languages, the apothecaries investigation of herbal and chemical ingredients was a precursor to the modern sciences of chemistry and pharmacology. Apothecary shops sold ingredients and the medicines they prepared wholesale to other medical practitioners, in 1600s England, they also controlled the trade of tobacco which was imported as a medicine. Apothecary derives from the Ancient Greek word ἀποθήκη via Latin apotheca, Medieval Latin apothecarius, in some languages the word apothecary is still used for designating a pharmacist/chemist, such as German and Dutch and Luxembourgish. Likewise, pharmacy translates as apotek in the Scandinavian and some Slavic languages such as Bosnian apoteka, Serbian апотека, use of the term apothecary in the names of businesses varies with time and location. Apothecary, as a profession, could date back to 2600 BC to ancient Babylon, clay tablets were found with medical texts recording symptoms, the prescriptions, and the directions for compounding it. The Papyrus Ebers from ancient Egypt, written around 1500 B. C. contain a collection of more than 800 prescriptions and it mentions over 700 different drugs. According to Sharif Kaf al-Ghazal, and S. Hadzovic, apothecary shops existed during the Middle Ages in Baghdad by Islamic pharmacists in 754 during the Abbasid Caliphate, Apothecaries were also active in Islamic Spain by the 11th century. In modern English, this can be transliterated as, and you should not linger, Though in this town there is no apothecary, I shall teach you about herbs myself, That will be for your health and for your pride. In Renaissance Italy, Italian Nuns became a prominent source for medicinal needs, at first they used their knowledge in non-curative uses in the convents to solidify the sanctity of religion among their sisters. As they progressed in skill they started to expand their field to create profit and this profit they used towards their charitable goals. Because of their spread to urban society, these religious women gained roles of public significance beyond the spiritual realm. Later apothecaries led by nuns were spread across the Italian peninsula, from the 15th century to the 16th century, the apothecary gained the status of a skilled practitioner. In England, the apothecaries merited their own company, the Worshipful Society of Apothecaries. Its roots, however, go back much earlier to the Guild of Pepperers formed in London in 1180, however, there were ongoing tensions between apothecaries and other medical professions, as is illustrated by the experiences of Susan Reeve Lyon and other women apothecaries in 17th century London. In 1865 Elizabeth Garrett Anderson became the first woman to be licensed to practise medicine in Britain by passing the examination of the Society of Apothecaries. In German speaking countries, such as Germany, Austria and Switzerland, thus a Pharmazeut is not always an Apotheker. Apothecaries used their own measurement system, the system, to provide precise weighing of small quantities
12.
Pharmacist
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Pharmacists, also known as chemists or druggists, are healthcare professionals who practice in pharmacy, the field of health sciences focusing on safe and effective medication use. A pharmacist is a member of the care team directly involved with patient care. This is mated to anatomy, physiology, and pathophysiology, Pharmacists interpret and communicate this specialized knowledge to patients, physicians, and other health care providers. Among other licensing requirements, different countries require pharmacists to hold either a Bachelor of Pharmacy, Master of Pharmacy, in most countries, the profession is subject to professional regulation. Depending on the scope of practice, pharmacists may contribute to prescribing and administering certain medications in some jurisdictions. Pharmacists may also practice in a variety of settings, including industry, wholesaling, research, academia, military. Historically, the role of pharmacists as a healthcare practitioner was to check. Pharmacists monitor the health and progress of patients to ensure the safe, Pharmacists may practice compounding, however, many medicines are now produced by pharmaceutical companies in a standard dosage and drug delivery form. One of the most important roles that pharmacists are currently taking on is one of pharmaceutical care, Pharmaceutical care involves taking direct responsibility for patients and their disease states, medications, and management of each to improve outcomes. Pharmacists are often the first point-of-contact for patients with health inquiries, thus pharmacists have a significant role in assessing medication management in patients, and in referring patients to physicians. In most countries, pharmacists must obtain a university degree at a school or related institution. In many contexts, students must first complete pre-professional coursework, followed by four years of professional academic studies to obtain a degree in pharmacy. Additional curriculum may cover diagnosis with emphasis on tests, disease state management, therapeutics. On graduation, pharmacists are licensed, either nationally or regionally, some may undergo further specialized training, such as in cardiology or oncology. Specialties include, The Australian Pharmacy Council is the independent accreditation agency for Australian pharmacists and it conducts examinations on behalf of the Pharmacy Board of Australia towards eligibility for registration. The Australian College of Pharmacy provides continuing education programs for pharmacists, wages for pharmacists in Australia appear to have stagnated. The award wages for a pharmacist is $812 a week, Pharmacist graduates are the lowest paid university graduates most years. Most pharmacists do earn above the wage, the average male pharmacist earns $65,000
13.
Pharmacy
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Pharmacy is the science and technique of preparing and dispensing drugs. It is a profession that links health sciences with chemical sciences and aims to ensure the safe. Pharmacists, therefore, are the experts on drug therapy and are the health professionals who optimize use of medication for the benefit of the patients. An establishment in which pharmacy is practiced is called a pharmacy or a chemists, often, collaborative teams from various disciplines work together toward the introduction of new therapeutics and methods for patient care. However, pharmacy is not a basic or biomedical science in its typical form, medicinal chemistry is also a distinct branch of synthetic chemistry combining pharmacology, organic chemistry, and chemical biology. Pharmacology is sometimes considered as the 4th discipline of pharmacy, although pharmacology is essential to the study of pharmacy, it is not specific to pharmacy. Both disciplines are distinct. Those who wish to practice both pharmacy and pharmacology receive separate training and degrees unique to either discipline, pharmacoinformatics is considered another new discipline, for systematic drug discovery and development with efficiency and safety. The World Health Organization estimates that there are at least 2.6 million pharmacists, pharmacists are healthcare professionals with specialised education and training who perform various roles to ensure optimal health outcomes for their patients through the quality use of medicines. Pharmacists may also be small-business proprietors, owning the pharmacy in which they practice, pharmacists are represented internationally by the International Pharmaceutical Federation. In some cases, the body is also the registering body. The Commission for Certification in Geriatric Pharmacy certifies pharmacists in geriatric pharmacy practice, the American Board of Applied Toxicology certifies pharmacists and other medical professionals in applied toxicology. A Pharmacy Technician in the UK has recently referred to by some as a professional. Legislation requires the supervision of certain pharmacy technicians activities by a pharmacist, the majority of pharmacy technicians work in community pharmacies. In hospital pharmacies, pharmacy technicians may be managed by other senior pharmacy technicians, Pharmacy technicians are registered with the General Pharmaceutical Council. The GPhC is the regulator of pharmacists, pharmacy technicians and pharmacy premises, in the US, pharmacy technicians perform their duties under supervision of pharmacists. The earliest known compilation of medicinal substances was the Sushruta Samhita, however, the earliest text as preserved dates to the 3rd or 4th century AD. Many Sumerian cuneiform clay tablets record prescriptions for medicine, Ancient Egyptian pharmacological knowledge was recorded in various papyri such as the Ebers Papyrus of 1550 BC, and the Edwin Smith Papyrus of the 16th century BC. In Ancient Greece, Diocles of Carystus was one of several men studying the properties of plants
14.
Weasel word
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This can enable the speaker to later deny the specific meaning if the statement is challenged. Where this is the intention, use of words is a form of tergiversation. Weasel words can be used in advertising and in political statements, the expression weasel word may derive from the egg-eating habits of weasels. An article published by the Buffalo News attributes the origin of the term to William Shakespeares plays Henry V and As You Like It, the article also claims that this is a misnomer, because weasels do not have a mandible suitable for sucking eggs or blood. Ovids Metamorphoses provides a source for the same etymology. Ovid describes how Juno orders the goddess of childbirth, Lucina, alcmenes servant Galanthis, realizing that Lucina is outside the labor room and is preventing the birth by magical means, emerges to announce that the birth has been a success. Lucina, in her amazement, drops the spells of binding, Galanthis then mocks Lucina, who responds by transforming her into a weasel. Ovid writes And because her lying mouth helped in childbirth, she gives birth through her mouth, Theodore Roosevelt attributed the term to Dave Sewall, claiming that Sewall used the term in a private conversation in 1879. Winston Churchill wrote, The reserve of modern assertions is sometimes pushed to extremes, in which the fear of being contradicted leads the writer to strip himself of almost all sense and meaning. In another early usage, Theodore Roosevelt argued in 1916 that one of our defects as a nation is a tendency to use. weasel words, after another there is nothing left. An example is the endorsement of products by celebrities, regardless of whether they have any expertise relating to the product, in non sequitur fashion, it does not follow that the endorsement provides any guarantee of quality or suitability. False authority is defined as the use of the voice without specifying an actor or agent. For example, saying it has been decided without stating by whom and it can be used in combination with the reverse approach of discrediting a contrary viewpoint by glossing it as claimed or alleged. This embraces what is termed a semantic cop-out, represented by the term allegedly and this implies an absence of ownership of opinion, which casts a limited doubt on the opinion being articulated. The construction mistakes were made enables the speaker to acknowledge error without identifying those responsible, however, the passive voice is legitimately used when the identity of the actor or agent is irrelevant. The scientific journal article is another example of the use of the passive voice. For an experimental result to be useful, anyone who runs the experiment should get the same result and that is, the identity of the experimenter should be of low importance. Use of the passive voice focuses attention upon the actions, to achieve conciseness and clarity, however, most scientific journals encourage authors to use the active voice where appropriate, identifying themselves as we or even I
15.
Electoral district
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An electoral district is a territorial subdivision for electing members to a legislative body. Generally, only voters who reside within the district are permitted to vote in an election held there, from a single district, a single member or multiple members might be chosen. Members might be chosen by a first-past-the-post system or a representative system. Members might be chosen through an election under universal suffrage. The names for electoral districts vary across countries and, occasionally, the term constituency is commonly used to refer to an electoral district, it can also refer to the body of eligible voters within the represented area. Similarly, in Australia and New Zealand, electoral districts are called electorates, the term Chûnāô-Kshetra is used while referring to an electoral district in general irrespective of the legislature. When referring to a particular constituency, it is simply referred to as Kshetra along with the name of the legislature. Electoral districts for municipal or other bodies are called wards. In Canada, districts are colloquially called ridings, in French, circonscription or comté, local electoral districts are sometimes called wards, a term which also designates administrative subdivisions of a municipality. In local government in the Republic of Ireland voting districts are called electoral areas, district magnitude is the number of representatives elected from a given district to the same legislative body. A single-member district has one representative, while a district has more than one. Under proportional representation systems, district magnitude is an important determinant of the makeup of the elected body, the geographic distribution of minorities also affects their representation - an unpopular nationwide minority can still secure a seat if they are concentrated in a particular district. District magnitude can vary within the same system during an election. In the Republic of Ireland, for instance, national elections to Dáil Éireann are held using a combination of 3,4, main articles, Apportionment and Redistricting Apportionment is the process of allocating a number of representatives to different regions, such as states or provinces. Apportionment changes are accompanied by redistricting, the redrawing of electoral district boundaries to accommodate the new number of representatives. This redrawing is necessary under single-member district systems, as each new representative requires their own district, multi-member systems, however, vary depending on other rules. Apportionment is generally done on the basis of population, the United States Senate, by contrast, is apportioned without regard to population, every state gets exactly two senators. Malapportionment occurs when voters are under- or over-represented due to variation in district population, given the complexity of this process, software is increasingly used to simplify the task, while better supporting reproducible and more justifiable results
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Formal languages
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In mathematics, computer science, and linguistics, a formal language is a set of strings of symbols together with a set of rules that are specific to it. The alphabet of a language is the set of symbols, letters. The strings formed from this alphabet are called words, and the words belong to a particular formal language are sometimes called well-formed words or well-formed formulas. A formal language is defined by means of a formal grammar such as a regular grammar or context-free grammar. The field of language theory studies primarily the purely syntactical aspects of such languages—that is. Formal language theory sprang out of linguistics, as a way of understanding the syntactic regularities of natural languages. The first formal language is thought to be the one used by Gottlob Frege in his Begriffsschrift, literally meaning concept writing, axel Thues early semi-Thue system, which can be used for rewriting strings, was influential on formal grammars. The elements of an alphabet are called its letters, alphabets may be infinite, however, most definitions in formal language theory specify finite alphabets, and most results only apply to them. A word over an alphabet can be any sequence of letters. The set of all words over an alphabet Σ is usually denoted by Σ*, the length of a word is the number of letters it is composed of. For any alphabet there is one word of length 0, the empty word. By concatenation one can combine two words to form a new word, whose length is the sum of the lengths of the original words, the result of concatenating a word with the empty word is the original word. A formal language L over an alphabet Σ is a subset of Σ*, that is, sometimes the sets of words are grouped into expressions, whereas rules and constraints may be formulated for the creation of well-formed expressions. In computer science and mathematics, which do not usually deal with natural languages, in practice, there are many languages that can be described by rules, such as regular languages or context-free languages. The notion of a formal grammar may be closer to the concept of a language. By an abuse of the definition, a formal language is often thought of as being equipped with a formal grammar that describes it. The following rules describe a formal language L over the alphabet Σ =, Every nonempty string that does not contain + or =, a string containing = is in L if and only if there is exactly one =, and it separates two valid strings of L. A string containing + but not = is in L if, no string is in L other than those implied by the previous rules
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Programming language
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A programming language is a formal computer language designed to communicate instructions to a machine, particularly a computer. Programming languages can be used to programs to control the behavior of a machine or to express algorithms. From the early 1800s, programs were used to direct the behavior of such as Jacquard looms. Thousands of different programming languages have created, mainly in the computer field. Many programming languages require computation to be specified in an imperative form while other languages use forms of program specification such as the declarative form. The description of a language is usually split into the two components of syntax and semantics. Some languages are defined by a document while other languages have a dominant implementation that is treated as a reference. Some languages have both, with the language defined by a standard and extensions taken from the dominant implementation being common. A programming language is a notation for writing programs, which are specifications of a computation or algorithm, some, but not all, authors restrict the term programming language to those languages that can express all possible algorithms. For example, PostScript programs are created by another program to control a computer printer or display. More generally, a language may describe computation on some, possibly abstract. It is generally accepted that a specification for a programming language includes a description, possibly idealized. In most practical contexts, a programming language involves a computer, consequently, abstractions Programming languages usually contain abstractions for defining and manipulating data structures or controlling the flow of execution. Expressive power The theory of computation classifies languages by the computations they are capable of expressing, all Turing complete languages can implement the same set of algorithms. ANSI/ISO SQL-92 and Charity are examples of languages that are not Turing complete, markup languages like XML, HTML, or troff, which define structured data, are not usually considered programming languages. Programming languages may, however, share the syntax with markup languages if a computational semantics is defined, XSLT, for example, is a Turing complete XML dialect. Moreover, LaTeX, which is used for structuring documents. The term computer language is used interchangeably with programming language
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Ambiguous grammar
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Many languages admit both ambiguous and unambiguous grammars, while some languages admit only ambiguous grammars. Any non-empty language admits an ambiguous grammar by taking an unambiguous grammar, a language that only admits ambiguous grammars is called an inherently ambiguous language, and there are inherently ambiguous context-free languages. Deterministic context-free grammars are always unambiguous, and are an important subclass of unambiguous grammars, there are non-deterministic unambiguous grammars, for computer programming languages, the reference grammar is often ambiguous, due to issues such as the dangling else problem. If present, these ambiguities are resolved by adding precedence rules or other context-sensitive parsing rules. Thus the empty string has leftmost derivations of length 1,2,3, in the same way, any grammar for a non-empty language can be made ambiguous by adding duplicates. In many languages, the else in an If–then statement is optional, some ambiguous phrase structures can appear. This is resolved in ways in different languages. Sometimes the grammar is modified so that it is unambiguous, such as by requiring an endif statement or making else mandatory. In other cases the grammar is ambiguous, but the ambiguity is resolved by making the overall phrase grammar context-sensitive. In this latter case the grammar is unambiguous, but the grammar is ambiguous. The simple grammar S → A + A A →0 |1 is a grammar for the language. The decision problem of whether an arbitrary grammar is ambiguous is undecidable because it can be shown that it is equivalent to the Post correspondence problem, at least, there are tools implementing some semi-decision procedure for detecting ambiguity of context-free grammars. The efficiency of context-free grammar parsing is determined by the automaton that accepts it, deterministic context-free grammars are accepted by deterministic pushdown automata and can be parsed in linear time, for example by the LR parser. This is a subset of the context-free grammars which are accepted by the automaton and can be parsed in polynomial time. Unambiguous context-free grammars can be nondeterministic, for example, the language of even-length palindromes on the alphabet of 0 and 1 has the unambiguous context-free grammar S → 0S0 | 1S1 | ε. Nevertheless, removing grammar ambiguity may produce a deterministic context-free grammar, compiler generators such as YACC include features for resolving some kinds of ambiguity, such as by using the precedence and associativity constraints. The existence of inherently ambiguous languages was proven with Parikhs theorem in 1961 by Rohit Parikh in an MIT research report, while some context-free languages have both ambiguous and unambiguous grammars, there exist context-free languages for which no unambiguous context-free grammar can exist. An example of an ambiguous language is the union of with
19.
Music
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Music is an art form and cultural activity whose medium is sound organized in time. The common elements of music are pitch, rhythm, dynamics, different styles or types of music may emphasize, de-emphasize or omit some of these elements. The word derives from Greek μουσική, Ancient Greek and Indian philosophers defined music as tones ordered horizontally as melodies and vertically as harmonies. Common sayings such as the harmony of the spheres and it is music to my ears point to the notion that music is often ordered and pleasant to listen to. However, 20th-century composer John Cage thought that any sound can be music, saying, for example, There is no noise, the creation, performance, significance, and even the definition of music vary according to culture and social context. There are many types of music, including music, traditional music, art music, music written for religious ceremonies. For example, it can be hard to draw the line between some early 1980s hard rock and heavy metal, within the arts, music may be classified as a performing art, a fine art or as an auditory art. People may make music as a hobby, like a teen playing cello in a youth orchestra, the word derives from Greek μουσική. According to the Online Etymological Dictionary, the music is derived from mid-13c. Musike, from Old French musique and directly from Latin musica the art of music and this is derived from the. Greek mousike of the Muses, from fem. of mousikos pertaining to the Muses, from Mousa Muse. In classical Greece, any art in which the Muses presided, Music is composed and performed for many purposes, ranging from aesthetic pleasure, religious or ceremonial purposes, or as an entertainment product for the marketplace. With the advent of recording, records of popular songs. Some music lovers create mix tapes of their songs, which serve as a self-portrait. An environment consisting solely of what is most ardently loved, amateur musicians can compose or perform music for their own pleasure, and derive their income elsewhere. Professional musicians sometimes work as freelancers or session musicians, seeking contracts and engagements in a variety of settings, There are often many links between amateur and professional musicians. Beginning amateur musicians take lessons with professional musicians, in community settings, advanced amateur musicians perform with professional musicians in a variety of ensembles such as community concert bands and community orchestras. However, there are many cases where a live performance in front of an audience is also recorded and distributed. Live concert recordings are popular in classical music and in popular music forms such as rock, where illegally taped live concerts are prized by music lovers
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Polytonality
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Polytonality is the musical use of more than one key simultaneously. Bitonality is the use of two different keys at the same time. Polyvalence is the use of more than one function, from the same key. Some examples of bitonality superimpose fully harmonized sections of music in different keys, Lithuanian traditional singing style sutartines is based on polytonality. This six-bar melody is performed as a canon, and repetition starts from the fourth bar, as a result, parts are constantly singing in different tonality simultaneously. As a traditional style, sutartines disappeared in Lithuanian villages by the first decades of the 20th century, tribes throughout India—including the Kuravan of Kerala, the Jaunsari of Uttar Pradesh, the Gond, the Santal, and the Munda—also use bitonality, in responsorial song. In other words, Bach is trying to make the best of both worlds—the homotonal one of his own day and the one of a couple of centuries later. However, it was not featured prominently in non-programmatic contexts until the twentieth century, particularly in the work of Charles Ives, Béla Bartók, and Stravinsky. Ives claimed that he learned the technique of polytonality from his father, bartóks Playsong demonstrates easily perceivable bitonality through the harmonic motion of each key. Polytonality requires the presentation of simultaneous key-centers, the term polychord describes chords that can be constructed by superimposing multiple familiar tonal sonorities. The Petrushka chord is an example of a polychord and this is the norm in jazz, for example, which makes frequent use of extended and polychordal harmonies without any intended suggestion of multiple keys. The following passage, taken from Beethovens Piano Sonata in E♭, Op. 81a, passages of music, such as Poulencs Mouvements Perpetuels, I. may be misinterpreted as polytonal rather than polymodal. In this case, two scales are recognizable but are assimilated through the common tonic, polyscalarity is defined as the simultaneous use of musical objects which clearly suggest different source-collections. Specifically in reference to Stravinskys music, Tymoczko uses the term polyscalarity out of deference to terminological sensibilities, in other words, the term is meant to avoid any implication that the listener can perceive two keys at once. Though Tymoczko believes that polytonality is perceivable, he believes polyscalarity is better suited to describe Stravinskys music and this term is also used as a response to Van den Toorns analysis against polytonality. Van den Toorn, in an attempt to dismiss polytonal analysis used an approach to analyze the music with the octatonic scale. However, Tymoczko states that this was problematic in that it does not resolve all instances of multiple interactions between scales and chords, moreover, Tymoczko quotes Stravinskys claim that the music of Petrouchkas second tableau was conceived in two keys. Polyscalarity is then a term encompassing multiscalar superimpositions and cases which give a different explanation than the octatonic scale, Some music theorists, including Milton Babbitt and Paul Hindemith have questioned whether polytonality is a useful or meaningful notion or viable auditory possibility
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Polymeter
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The metre of music is its rhythmic structure, the patterns of accents heard in regularly recurring measures of stressed and unstressed beats at the frequency of the musics pulse. A variety of systems exist throughout the world for organising and playing music, such as the Indian system of tala. Later music for such as the pavane and galliard consisted of musical phrases to accompany a fixed sequence of basic steps with a defined tempo. The term is not very precisely defined, macPherson preferred to speak of time and rhythmic shape, Imogen Holst of measured rhythm. This perception and abstraction of rhythmic measure is the foundation of human instinctive musical participation, rhythms of recurrence arise from the interaction of two levels of motion, the faster providing the pulse and the slower organizing the beats into repetitive groups. Once a metric hierarchy has been established, we, as listeners, a definition of musical metre requires the possibility of identifying a repeating pattern of accented pulses — a pulse-group — which corresponds to the foot in poetry. Frequently a pulse-group can be identified by taking the accented beat as the first pulse in the group, frequently metres can be broken down into a pattern of duples and triples. The level of musical organisation implied by musical metre includes the most elementary levels of musical form, metrical rhythm, measured rhythm, and free rhythm are general classes of rhythm and may be distinguished in all aspects of temporality. Measured rhythm is where each time value is a multiple or fraction of a time unit. Free rhythm is where there is neither, some music, including chant, has freer rhythm, like the rhythm of prose compared to that of verse. Some music, such as some graphically scored works since the 1950s and non-European music such as Honkyoku repertoire for shakuhachi, may be considered ametric. Senza misura is an Italian musical term for without metre, meaning to play without a beat, Metric levels may be distinguished, the beat level is the metric level at which pulses are heard as the basic time unit of the piece. Faster levels are division levels, and slower levels are multiple levels, a rhythmic unit is a durational pattern which occupies a period of time equivalent to a pulse or pulses on an underlying metric level. In duple metre, each measure is divided into two beats, or a multiple thereof, for example, in the time signature 24, each measure contains two quarter-note beats, and with the time signature 68, each measure contains two dotted-quarter-note beats. Corresponding quadruple metres are 44, with 2 ×2 =4 quarter-note beats per measure, triple metre is a metre in which each measure is divided into three beats, or a multiple thereof. For example, in the time signature 34, each contains three quarter-note beats, and with a time signature of 98, each measure contains three dotted-quarter beats. Simple metre and compound metre are distinguished by the way the beats are subdivided, Simple metre or simple time is a metre in which each beat of the measure divides naturally into two equal parts. The top number in the signature will be 2,3,4,5
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Metre
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The metre or meter, is the base unit of length in the International System of Units. The metre is defined as the length of the path travelled by light in a vacuum in 1/299792458 seconds, the metre was originally defined in 1793 as one ten-millionth of the distance from the equator to the North Pole. In 1799, it was redefined in terms of a metre bar. In 1960, the metre was redefined in terms of a number of wavelengths of a certain emission line of krypton-86. In 1983, the current definition was adopted, the imperial inch is defined as 0.0254 metres. One metre is about 3 3⁄8 inches longer than a yard, Metre is the standard spelling of the metric unit for length in nearly all English-speaking nations except the United States and the Philippines, which use meter. Measuring devices are spelled -meter in all variants of English, the suffix -meter has the same Greek origin as the unit of length. This range of uses is found in Latin, French, English. Thus calls for measurement and moderation. In 1668 the English cleric and philosopher John Wilkins proposed in an essay a decimal-based unit of length, as a result of the French Revolution, the French Academy of Sciences charged a commission with determining a single scale for all measures. In 1668, Wilkins proposed using Christopher Wrens suggestion of defining the metre using a pendulum with a length which produced a half-period of one second, christiaan Huygens had observed that length to be 38 Rijnland inches or 39.26 English inches. This is the equivalent of what is now known to be 997 mm, no official action was taken regarding this suggestion. In the 18th century, there were two approaches to the definition of the unit of length. One favoured Wilkins approach, to define the metre in terms of the length of a pendulum which produced a half-period of one second. The other approach was to define the metre as one ten-millionth of the length of a quadrant along the Earths meridian, that is, the distance from the Equator to the North Pole. This means that the quadrant would have defined as exactly 10000000 metres at that time. To establish a universally accepted foundation for the definition of the metre, more measurements of this meridian were needed. This portion of the meridian, assumed to be the length as the Paris meridian, was to serve as the basis for the length of the half meridian connecting the North Pole with the Equator
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Rhythm
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Rhythm generally means a movement marked by the regulated succession of strong and weak elements, or of opposite or different conditions. In the performance arts, rhythm is the timing of events on a scale, of musical sounds and silences that occur over time, of the steps of a dance, or the meter of spoken language. In some performing arts, such as hip hop music, the delivery of the lyrics is one of the most important elements of the style. Rhythm may also refer to visual presentation, as timed movement through space, in recent years, rhythm and meter have become an important area of research among music scholars. Recent work in these areas includes books by Maury Yeston, Fred Lerdahl and Ray Jackendoff, Jonathan Kramer, Christopher Hasty, Godfried Toussaint, William Rothstein, and Joel Lester. In Thinking and Destiny, Harold W. Percival defined rhythm as the character and meaning of thought expressed through the measure or movement in sound or form, or by written signs or words. In his television series How Music Works, Howard Goodall presents theories that human rhythm recalls the regularity with which we walk, other research suggests that it does not relate to the heartbeat directly, but rather the speed of emotional affect, which also influences heartbeat. Yet other researchers suggest that certain features of human music are widespread. The perception and abstraction of rhythmic measure is the foundation of human instinctive musical participation, Joseph Jordania recently suggested that the sense of rhythm was developed in the early stages of hominid evolution by the forces of natural selection. Plenty of animals walk rhythmically and hear the sounds of the heartbeat in the womb, some types of parrots can know rhythm. There is not a report of an animal being trained to tap, peck. For this reason, the fast-transient sounds of percussion instruments lend themselves to the definition of rhythm, Musical cultures that rely upon such instruments may develop multi-layered polyrhythm and simultaneous rhythms in more than one time signature, called polymeter. Such are the cross-rhythms of Sub-Saharan Africa and the interlocking kotekan rhythms of the gamelan, for information on rhythm in Indian music see Tala. For other Asian approaches to rhythm see Rhythm in Persian music, Rhythm in Arabian music and Usul—Rhythm in Turkish music and this consists of a series of identical yet distinct periodic short-duration stimuli perceived as points in time. It is currently most often designated as a crotchet or quarter note in western notation, faster levels are division levels, and slower levels are multiple levels. Rhythms of recurrence arise from the interaction of two levels of motion, the faster providing the pulse and the slower organizing the beats into repetitive groups. Once a metric hierarchy has been established, we, as listeners, a durational pattern that synchronises with a pulse or pulses on the underlying metric level may be called a rhythmic unit. A rhythmic gesture is any pattern that, in contrast to the rhythmic unit
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Phrase (music)
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In music theory, a phrase is a unit of musical meter that has a complete musical sense of its own, built from figures, motifs, and cells, and combining to form melodies, periods and larger sections. Terms such as sentence and verse have been adopted into the vocabulary of music from linguistic syntax, john D. White defines a phrase as, the smallest musical unit that conveys a more or less complete musical thought. Phrases vary in length and are terminated at a point of full or partial repose, edward Cone analyses the typical musical phrase as consisting of an initial downbeat, a period of motion, and a point of arrival marked by a cadential downbeat. Charles Burkhart defines a phrase as Any group of measures that has degree of structural completeness. What counts is the sense of completeness we hear in the not the notation on the page. To be complete such a group must have an ending of some kind …, phrases are delineated by the tonal functions of pitch. They are not created by slur or by legato performance …, a phrase is not pitches only but also has a rhythmic dimension, and further, each phrase in a work contributes to that works large rhythmic organization. In common practice phrases are often four bars or measures long culminating in a more or less definite cadence. A phrase will end with a weaker or stronger cadence, depending on whether it is an antecedent phrase or a consequent phrase, however, the absolute span of the phrase is as contestable as its pendant in language, where there can be even one-word-phrases. Thus no strict line can be drawn between the terms of the phrase, the motiv or even the separate tone, discovering a works phrase rhythm is a gateway to its understanding and to effective performance. The term was popularized by William Rothsteins Phrase Rhythm in Tonal Music, techniques include overlap, lead-in, extension, expansion, reinterpretation and elision. A phrase member is one of the parts in a phrase separated into two by a pause or long note value, the second of which may repeat, sequence, or contrast with the first
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Aspect of music
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Music can be analysed by considering a variety of its elements, or parts, individually or together. A commonly used list of the main elements includes pitch, timbre, texture, volume, duration, the elements of music may be compared to the elements of art or design. According to Howard Gardner, there is dispute about the principal constituent elements of music. Harold Owen bases his list on the qualities of sound, pitch, timbre, intensity, most definitions of music include a reference to sound and sound perception can be divided into six cognitive processes. They are, pitch, duration, loudness, timbre, sonic texture, a parameter is any element that can be manipulated separately from other elements or focused on separately in an educational context. Leonard B. Meyer compares distinguishing parameters within a culture by their different constraints to distinguishing independent parameters within music, such as melody, harmony, timbre, etc. The first person to apply the term parameter to music may have been Joseph Schillinger, gradation is gradual change within one parameter, or an overlapping of two blocks of sound. Meyer gives melody, rhythm, timbre, harmony, and the like, while Narmour lists, melody, harmony, rhythm, dynamics, tessitura, timbre, tempo, meter, texture, and perhaps others. According to McClellan, two things should be considered, the quality or state of a element and its change over time, alan P. Merriam proposed a theoretical research model that assumes three aspects are always present in musical activity, concept, behaviour, and sound. Virgil Thomson lists the raw materials of music in order of their discovery, rhythm, melody. Near the end of the twentieth century music scholarship began to more attention to social and physical elements of music. For example, performance, social, gender, dance, does the definition of music determine its aspects, or does the combination of certain aspects determine the definition of music. For example, intensional definitions list aspects or elements that make up their subject. Some definitions refer to music as a score, or a composition, music can be read as well as heard, and a piece of music written but never played is a piece of music notwithstanding. The process of reading music, at least for trained musicians, involves a process, called inner hearing or audiation by Gordon and this suggests that while sound is often considered a required aspect of music, it may not be. Jean Molino points out that any element belonging to the musical fact can be isolated. Nattiez gives as examples Mauricio Kagels Con Voce, where a masked trio silently mimes playing instruments, in this example sound, a common element, is excluded, while gesture, a less common element, is given primacy. However Nattiez goes on to say that despite special cases where sound is not immediately obvious, there is disagreement about whether some aspects of music are universal, as well as whether the concept of music is universal
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Music of Africa
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The traditional music of Africa, given the vastness of the continent, is historically ancient, rich and diverse, with different regions and nations of Africa having many distinct musical traditions. Traditional music in most of the continent is passed down orally and is not written, the music and dance of the African diaspora, formed to varying degrees on African musical traditions, include American music and many Caribbean genres, such as soca, calypso and zouk. Latin American music genres such as the rumba, conga, bomba, cumbia and samba were also founded on the music of enslaved Africans, and have in turn influenced African popular music. North Africa is the seat of ancient Egypt and Carthage, civilizations with strong ties to the ancient Near East, eventually, Egypt fell under Persian rule followed by Greek and Roman rule, while Carthage was later ruled by Romans and Vandals. North Africa was later conquered by the Arabs, who established the region as the Maghreb of the Arab world, like the musical genres of the Nile Valley and the Horn of Africa, its music has close ties with Middle Eastern music and utilizes similar melodic modes. North African music has a range, from the music of ancient Egypt to the Berber. The regions art music has for centuries followed the outline of Arabic and Andalusian classical music, with these may be grouped the music of Sudan and of the Horn of Africa, including the music of Eritrea, Ethiopia, Djibouti and Somalia. Somali music is pentatonic, using five pitches per octave in contrast to a heptatonic scale such as the major scale. The music of the Ethiopian highlands uses a fundamental modal system called qenet, of which there are four modes, tezeta, bati, ambassel. Three additional modes are variations on the above, tezeta minor, bati major, some songs take the name of their qenet, such as tizita, a song of reminiscence. The ethnomusicological pioneer Arthur Morris Jones observed that the shared rhythmic principles of Sub-Saharan African music traditions constitute one main system, similarly, master drummer and scholar C. K. Ladzekpo affirms the profound homogeneity of sub-Saharan African rhythmic principles. African traditional music is frequently functional in nature, performances may be long and often involve the participation of the audience. None of this is performed outside its intended context and much of it is associated with a particular dance. Some of it, performed by musicians, is sacral music or ceremonial. The southern region includes the music of South Africa, Lesotho, Swaziland, Botswana, Namibia, the central region includes the music of Chad, the Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Zambia, including Pygmy music. Southern, Central and West Africa are similarly in the broad Sub-Saharan musical tradition, besides vocalisation, which uses various techniques such as complex hard melisma and yodel, a wide array of musical instruments are used. Additionally, string instruments are used, with the lute-like oud. Other percussion instruments include many rattles and shakers, such as the kosika, rain stick, bells, also, Africa has lots of other types of drums, and lots of flutes, and lots of stringed and wind instruments
27.
Necker cube
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The Necker cube is an optical illusion first published as a rhomboid in 1832 by Swiss crystallographer Louis Albert Necker. It is a simple drawing of a cube with no visual cues as to its orientation. Necker cube is used in studies of visual perception. The Necker cube is a line drawing. The effect is interesting because each part of the picture is ambiguous by itself, the Necker cube is sometimes used to test computer models of the human visual system to see whether they can arrive at consistent interpretations of the image the same way humans do. Humans do not usually see an inconsistent interpretation of the cube, a cube whose edges cross in an inconsistent way is an example of an impossible object, specifically an impossible cube. With the cube on the left, most people see the face as being in front most of the time. Another reason behind this may be due to the natural preference of viewing things from left to right. There is evidence that by focusing on different parts of the one can force a more stable perception of the cube. The intersection of the two faces that are parallel to the forms a rectangle, and the lines that converge on the square form a y-junction at the two diagonally opposite sides. If an observer focuses on the upper y-junction the lower left face will appear to be in front, the upper right face will appear to be in front if the eyes focus on the lower junction. Blinking while being on the second perception will probably cause you to switch to the first one, the Necker cube has shed light on the human visual system. The phenomenon has served as evidence of the brain being a neural network with two distinct equally possible interchangeable stable states. The orientation of the Necker cube can also be altered by shifting the point of view. When seen from apparent above, one tends to be seen closer, and in contrast, when seen from a subjective viewpoint that is below. The Necker cube is used to illustrate how vampires in the science fiction novels Blindsight, one of the pieces of evidence is that vampires can see both interpretations of the Necker Cube simultaneously which sets them apart from baseline humanity. Optical illusion Penrose triangle Spinning Dancer Blivet Impossible cube Rhombille tiling Ward, Emily J. Scholl, seemingly Random Perceptual Switching in Bistable Events Triggered by Transient Unconscious Cues. Journal of Experimental Psychology, Human Perception and Performance, the viewing-from-above bias and the silhouette illusion
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Constructed language
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A planned or constructed language is a language whose phonology, grammar, and vocabulary have been consciously devised for human or human-like communication, instead of having developed naturally. It is also referred to as an artificial or invented language, the expression planned language is sometimes used to mean international auxiliary languages and other languages designed for actual use in human communication. Some prefer it to the artificial, for the latter may be perceived as pejorative. Outside Esperanto culture, the term language planning means the prescriptions given to a language to standardize it, in this regard. The term glossopoeia is also used to mean language construction, particularly construction of artistic languages, the Russian census of 2010 found 992 speakers of Esperanto,9 of Ido,1 of Edo and no speakers of Slovio or Interlingua. The terms planned, constructed, and artificial are used differently in some traditions, similarly, Latino sine flexione is a simplification of Latin from which the inflections have been removed. As with Interlingua, some prefer to describe its development as planning rather than constructing, some speakers of Esperanto and Esperantidos also avoid the term artificial language because they deny that there is anything unnatural about the use of their language in human communication. By contrast, some philosophers have argued that all languages are conventional or artificial. François Rabelais, for instance, stated, Cest abus de dire que nous avons une langue naturelle, an artificial language can also refer to a language that emerges naturally out of experimental studies within the framework of artificial language evolution. Thus, a fictional language tends to be more difficult. The boundaries between these categories are by no means clear, a constructed language could easily fall into more than one of the above categories. There are no rules, either inherent in the process of construction or externally imposed. A constructed language can have native speakers if young children learn it from parents who speak it fluently, according to Ethnologue, there are 200–2000 who speak Esperanto as a first language. A member of the Klingon Language Institute, dArmond Speers, attempted to raise his son as a native Klingon speaker. As soon as a language has a community of fluent speakers, especially if it has numerous native speakers, it begins to evolve. Zuckermann therefore endorses the translation of the Hebrew Bible into what he calls Israeli, proponents of constructed languages often have many reasons for using them. The famous but disputed Sapir–Whorf hypothesis is cited, this claims that the language one speaks influences the way one thinks. A constructed language could also be used to restrict thought, as in George Orwells Newspeak, or to simplify thought, in contrast, linguists such as Steven Pinker argue that ideas exist independently of language
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Lojban
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Lojban is a constructed, syntactically unambiguous human language, succeeding the Loglan project. The Logical Language Group began developing Lojban in 1987, the LLG sought to realize Loglans purposes, and further improve the language by making it more usable and freely available. After a long period of debating and testing, the baseline was completed in 1997. The name Lojban is a formed from loj and ban. Lojban has a predecessor, Loglan, a language invented by James Cooke Brown in 1955, Loglan was originally conceived as a means to examine the influence of language on the speakers thought. As Brown started to claim his copyright on the languages components, in effect they established in 1987 The Logical Language Group, based in Washington DC. They also won a trial over whether they could call their version of the language Loglan, the list of source languages used for the algorithm was limited to the six most widely spoken languages as of 1987—Mandarin, English, Hindi, Spanish, Russian, and Arabic. This resulted in root words being in their form a relatively equal mixture of English and Mandarin. Lojban has also taken the set of evidential indicators from Láadan constructed language, as scheduled, this period, which has officially been called the freeze, expired in 2002. The speakers of Lojban are now free to new words and idioms. Apart from the practice of the language, some members of the community. The Complete Lojban Language, the word on all aspects of Lojban, is one of them. Like most languages with few speakers, Lojban lacks much of an body of literature. Also such collective or encyclopedic sources of knowledge like the Lojban Wikipedia, presently accessible Lojbanic writings are principally concentrated on the Lojban. org, though there exist independent Lojbanic blog/journal sites as well. The Lojban IRC has a gathering of Lojbanic expressions too, for example, the videogame Minecraft has been partially translated into Lojban. Lojban is seen by some as a device for creative writing or as having many potential aspects yet to be discovered or explored. There have been proposals to use Lojban as a language in machine translation. Constructs in programming languages have shown to be translated to Lojban
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