1.
Controlled flight into terrain
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A controlled flight into terrain is an accident in which an airworthy aircraft, under pilot control, is unintentionally flown into the ground, a mountain, a body of water or an obstacle. In a typical CFIT scenario, the crew is unaware of the disaster until too late. The term was coined by engineers at Boeing in the late 1970s, according to Boeing, CFIT is a leading cause of airplane accidents involving the loss of life, causing over 9,000 deaths since the beginning of the commercial jet age. CFIT was identified as a cause of 25% of USAF Class A mishaps between 1993 and 2002, while there are many reasons why a plane might crash into terrain, including bad weather and navigation equipment problems, pilot error is the most common factor found in CFIT accidents. Fatigue can cause even highly experienced professionals to make significant errors, CFIT accidents frequently involve a collision with terrain such as hills or mountains during conditions of reduced visibility, while conducting an approach to landing at the destination airport. While those factors undoubtedly reduced the number of CFIT accidents. To prevent the occurrence of CFIT accidents, manufacturers developed terrain awareness. The first generation of systems was known as a ground proximity warning system. That system was improved with the addition of a GPS terrain database and is now known as an enhanced ground proximity warning system. When combined with mandatory pilot simulator training, which emphasizes proper responses to any caution or warning event, smaller aircraft often use a GPS database of terrain to provide terrain warning. The GPS database contains a database of terrain and will present terrain that is near the aircraft in red or yellow depending on its distance from the aircraft. Statistics show that aircraft fitted with a second-generation EGPWS have not suffered a CFIT accident if TAWS or EGPWS are properly handled, as of 2007, 5% of the worlds commercial airlines still lack a TAWS, leading to a prediction of two CFIT accidents in 2009. In the case of Mount Salak Sukhoi Superjet 100 crash, the TAWS was working, many notable accidents have been ascribed to CFIT
2.
Pilot error
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Pilot error is a term used to describe a decision, action or inaction by a pilot or crew of an aircraft determined to be a cause or contributing factor in an accident or incident. The term includes mistakes, oversights, lapses in judgment, gaps in training, adverse habits, accounting for the way human factors influence the actions of pilots is now considered standard practice by accident investigators when examining the chain of events that led to an accident. Usually in an accident caused by error, it is assumed that the pilot in command makes an error unintentionally. However, a disregard for a standard operating procedure is still considered to be a pilot error. Pilot error is a decision or action mistake by pilots when there is an emergency, as the commander of the aircraft, the pilot is always regarded to be one of the most important factors. The decisions of the pilot determine everything on the craft, analyses of accident patterns can have value for the improvement of passengers safety. The pilot may be a factor even during adverse weather conditions if the investigating body deems that the pilot did not exercise due diligence. The responsibility for the accident in such a case would depend whether the pilot could reasonably know of the danger and whether he or she took reasonable steps to avoid the weather problem. Some weather phenomena are difficult to avoid, especially if the aircraft involved is the first aircraft to encounter the phenomenon in an area at a certain time. Placing pilot error as a cause of an accident has often been controversial. Attorneys for the co-pilot, who was killed in the crash, modern accident investigators avoid the words pilot error, as the scope of their work is to determine the cause of an accident, rather than apportion blame. Furthermore, any attempt to blame pilots does not consider that they are part of a broader system, ICAO and its member states therefore adopted the Reason Model in 1993 in an effort to better understanding the role of human factors in aviation accidents. Thus, pilot error is a cause of air accidents. During 2004, pilot error was pointed to be the reason of 78. 6% of disastrous GA accidents. Pilot errors are related to multiple causes, decision errors can be caused by several factors such as tendencies, biases as well as breakdowns when human proceeds the information coming in. For pilot in aviation, these errors are highly to produce not only errors, pilots work in complex environments and are routinely exposed to high amounts of situational stress in the workplace, inducing pilot error which may result in a threat to flight safety. While aircraft accidents are infrequent, they are visible and often involve massive loss of life. For this reason, research on causal factors and methodologies of mitigating risk associated with pilot error is exhaustive, pilot error results from physiological and psychological limitations inherent in humans
3.
Buga, Valle del Cauca
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Buga, formally Guadalajara de Buga, is a city and municipality in the Valle del Cauca Department of Colombia. It is famous for its Basilica del Señor de los Milagros, Buga is a town with a cattle industry. It is 46 miles from Cali and it was the home of many wealthy families coming from Spain and settling in the New World. King Philip II of Spain gave Guadalajara de Buga its city status officially at the end of the 16th century, during the years of Independence, Simón Bolívar, called el libertador, visited the city on two occasions, for which commemoration plates were placed. American Airlines Flight 965 crashed into a mountain near Buga on 20 December 1995, currently the city receives over 3 million pilgrims per year to visit the Basilica of The Lord of the Miracles. There is the centre that offers art and literary training. It is a house located on 6th Street 11-11, open since 1962. Buga is also famous for the The Holy Water Ale Brewing Company, one of the only hostel, run by Colombian/German staff the Hostel can provide service in 3 different languages. The city is also host to the NGO Instituto Mayor Campesino that assists in the development of farming communities, Guadalajara, Castile-La Mancha, Spain Guadalajara de Buga
4.
Colombia
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Colombia, officially the Republic of Colombia, is a transcontinental country largely situated in the northwest of South America, with territories in Central America. Colombia shares a border to the northwest with Panama, to the east with Venezuela and Brazil and to the south with Ecuador and it shares its maritime limits with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Jamaica, Haiti and the Dominican Republic. It is a unitary, constitutional republic comprising thirty-two departments, the territory of what is now Colombia was originally inhabited by indigenous peoples including the Muisca, the Quimbaya and the Tairona. The Spanish arrived in 1499 and initiated a period of conquest and colonization ultimately creating the Viceroyalty of New Granada, independence from Spain was won in 1819, but by 1830 the Gran Colombia Federation was dissolved. What is now Colombia and Panama emerged as the Republic of New Granada, the new nation experimented with federalism as the Granadine Confederation, and then the United States of Colombia, before the Republic of Colombia was finally declared in 1886. Since the 1960s the country has suffered from an asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict, Colombia is one of the most ethnically and linguistically diverse countries in the world, and thereby possesses a rich cultural heritage. Cultural diversity has also influenced by Colombias varied geography. The urban centres are located in the highlands of the Andes mountains. Colombian territory also encompasses Amazon rainforest, tropical grassland and both Caribbean and Pacific coastlines, ecologically, it is one of the worlds 17 megadiverse countries, and the most densely biodiverse of these per square kilometer. Colombia is a power and a regional actor with the fourth-largest economy in Latin America, is part of the CIVETS group of six leading emerging markets and is an accessing member to the OECD. Colombia has an economy with macroeconomic stability and favorable growth prospects in the long run. The name Colombia is derived from the last name of Christopher Columbus and it was conceived by the Venezuelan revolutionary Francisco de Miranda as a reference to all the New World, but especially to those portions under Spanish and Portuguese rule. The name was adopted by the Republic of Colombia of 1819. When Venezuela, Ecuador and Cundinamarca came to exist as independent states, New Granada officially changed its name in 1858 to the Granadine Confederation. In 1863 the name was changed, this time to United States of Colombia. To refer to country, the Colombian government uses the terms Colombia. Owing to its location, the present territory of Colombia was a corridor of early human migration from Mesoamerica, the oldest archaeological finds are from the Pubenza and El Totumo sites in the Magdalena Valley 100 km southwest of Bogotá. These sites date from the Paleoindian period, at Puerto Hormiga and other sites, traces from the Archaic Period have been found
5.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
6.
Boeing 757
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The Boeing 757 is a mid-size, narrow-body twin-engine jet airliner that was designed and built by Boeing Commercial Airplanes. It is the manufacturers largest single-aisle passenger aircraft and was produced from 1981 to 2004. Intended to replace the smaller three-engine 727 on short and medium routes, the 757 was designed concurrently with a wide-body twinjet, the 767, and owing to shared features pilots can obtain a common type rating that allows them to operate both aircraft. The 757 was produced in two fuselage lengths, the original 757-200 entered service in 1983, the 757-200PF, a package freighter variant, and the 757-200M, a passenger-freighter combi model, debuted in the late 1980s. The stretched 757-300, the longest narrow-body twinjet ever produced, began service in 1999, passenger 757-200s have been modified to special freighter specification for cargo use, while military derivatives include the C-32 transport, VIP carriers, and other multi-purpose aircraft. Private and government operators have also customized the 757 for research, all 757s are powered by Rolls-Royce RB211 or Pratt & Whitney PW2000 series turbofans. Eastern Air Lines and British Airways placed the 757 in commercial service in 1983, the narrow-body twinjet succeeded earlier single-aisle airliners, and became commonly used for short and mid-range domestic routes, shuttle services, and transcontinental U. S. flights. After regulators granted approval for extended flights over water in 1986, major customers for the 757 included U. S. mainline carriers, European charter airlines, and cargo companies. The airliner has recorded eight hull-loss accidents, including seven fatal crashes, production of the 757 ended in October 2004, after 1,050 had been built for 54 customers. The 757-200 was by far the most popular model, with 913 built, diminished sales amid an airline industry trend toward smaller jetliners led Boeing to end production without a direct replacement, in favor of the 737 family. The last 757 was delivered to Shanghai Airlines in November 2005, in July 2015,738 of the narrow-body twinjets were in airline service, Delta Air Lines is the largest operator with 138 aircraft. In the early 1970s, following the launch of the wide-body 747, designed for short and medium length routes, the three-engined 727 was the best-selling commercial jetliner of the 1960s and a mainstay of the U. S. domestic airline market. Studies focused on improving the 189-seat 727-200, the most successful 727 variant, two approaches were considered, a stretched 727-300, and an all-new aircraft code-named 7N7. United Airlines provided input for the proposed 727-300, which Boeing was poised to launch in late 1975, although the 727-300 was offered to Braniff International Airways and other carriers, customer interest remained insufficient for further development. Instead, airlines were drawn to the high-bypass-ratio turbofan engines, new flight technologies, lower weight, improved aerodynamics. These features were included in a parallel development effort for a new mid-size wide-body airliner, code-named 7X7. Work on both proposals accelerated as a result of the airline industry upturn in the late 1970s, by 1978, development studies focused on two variants, a 7N7-100 with seating for 160, and a 7N7-200 with room for over 180 seats. New features included a wing, under-wing engines, and lighter materials, while the forward fuselage, cockpit layout
7.
American Airlines
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American Airlines, Inc. commonly referred to as American, is a major American airline headquartered in Fort Worth, Texas. It is the worlds largest airline measured by fleet size, revenue, scheduled passenger-kilometres flown. Regional service is operated by independent and subsidiary carriers under the name of American Eagle. American operates out of ten located in Dallas/Fort Worth, Charlotte, Chicago-OHare, Philadelphia, Miami, Phoenix, Washington, DC-National, Los Angeles, New York-JFK. American operates its primary base at Tulsa International Airport in addition to the maintenance locations located at its hubs. Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport is Americans largest passenger carrying hub handling 51.1 million passengers annually with an average of 140,000 passengers daily, the company as of 2015 employs over 113,300 people. Through the airlines parent company, American Airlines Group, it is traded under NASDAQ. American Airlines was started in 1930 via a union of more than eighty small airlines, the two organizations from which American Airlines was originated were Robertson Aircraft Corporation and Colonial Air Transport. The former was first formed in Missouri in 1921, with both being merged in 1929 into holding company The Aviation Corporation and this in turn, was made in 1930 into an operating company and rebranded as American Airways. In 1934, when new laws and attrition of mail contracts forced many airlines to reorganize, the corporation redid its routes into a connected system, between 1970 and 2000, the company grew into being an international carrier, purchasing Trans World Airlines in 2001. In 2011, due to a downturn in the airline industry, in 2013, US Airways and American Airlines merged. Eventually operations were merged under one operating certificate to create the largest United States airline which kept the American Airlines brand name, American Airlines is headquartered in Fort Worth, Texas, adjacent to the Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport. The headquarters is located in two buildings in the CentrePort office complex and these buildings together have about 1,400,000 square feet of space. As of 2014 over 4,300 employees work at this complex, before it was headquartered in Texas, American Airlines was headquartered at 633 Third Avenue in the Murray Hill area of Midtown Manhattan, New York City. In 1979 American moved its headquarters to a site at Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport, Mayor of New York City Ed Koch described the move as a betrayal of New York City. American moved to two leased office buildings in Grand Prairie, Texas, the airline began leasing the facility from the airport, which owns the facility. As of 2015 American Airlines is the corporation with the largest presence in Fort Worth, in 2015 the airline announced it will build a new headquarters in Fort Worth. Groundbreaking began in the spring of 2016 and occupancy is scheduled for summer 2019, the airline plans to house 5,000 new workers in the building
8.
Aircraft registration
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In accordance with the Convention on International Civil Aviation, all civil aircraft must be registered with a national aviation authority using procedures set by each country. Every country, even those not party to the Chicago Convention, has a NAA whose functions include the registration of civil aircraft, an aircraft can only be registered once, in the one jurisdiction. The registration identifier must be displayed prominently on the aircraft, most countries also require the registration identifier to be imprinted on a permanent fireproof plate mounted on the fuselage in case of a post-fire/post-crash aircraft accident investigation. Military aircraft typically use tail codes and serial numbers, although each aircraft registration identifier is unique, some countries allow it to be re-used when the aircraft has been sold, destroyed or retired. For example, N3794N is assigned to a Mooney M20F and it had been previously assigned to a Beechcraft Bonanza. Also note that an aircraft may be assigned different registrations during its existence. This can be because the aircraft ownership, jurisdiction of registration. The first use of aircraft registrations was based on the radio callsigns allocated at the London International Radiotelegraphic Conference in 1913, the format was a single letter prefix followed by four other letters. The major nations operating aircraft were allocated a letter prefix. Smaller countries had to share a single letter prefix, but were allocated exclusive use of the first letter of the suffix and this was modified by agreement by the International Bureau at Berne and published on April 23,1913. The agreement stipulated that the nationality marks were to be followed by a then a group of four letters that must include a vowel. This system operated until the adoption of the system in 1928. The International Radiotelegraph Convention at Washington in 1927 revised the list of markings and these were adopted from 1928 and are the basis of the currently used registrations. The markings have been amended and added to over the years, upon registration, the aircraft receives its unique registration, which must be displayed prominently on the aircraft. Annex 7 to the Chicago Convention describes the definitions, location, the aircraft registration is made up of a prefix selected from the countrys callsign prefix allocated by the International Telecommunication Union and the registration suffix. Depending on the country of registration, this suffix is a numeric or alphanumeric code, a supplement to Annex 7 provides an updated list of approved nationality and common marks used by various countries. When painted on the fuselage, the prefix and suffix are usually separated by a dash, when entered in a flight plan, the dash is omitted. In some countries use a number suffix rather than letters, like the United States, South Korea, and Japan
9.
Miami International Airport
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Miami International Airport, also known as MIA and historically Wilcox Field, is the primary airport serving the Miami area, United States. It is South Floridas main airport for international flights. Miami International is also one of only eight U. S. airports to accommodate the Airbus A380 jumbo jet and it is a focus airport for Avianca, Frontier Airlines, and LATAM, both for passengers and cargo operations. Miami International Airport has passenger and cargo flights to cities throughout the Americas, Europe and Western Asia, as well as cargo flights to East Asia. In the past, it has been a hub for Braniff International Airways, Eastern Air Lines, Air Florida, the original National Airlines, the original Pan Am, United Airlines, Iberia and Fine Air. In 2011 the airport ranked first in the United States by percentage of international flights and second by volume of international passengers, in 2016,44,901,753 passengers traveled through the airport, making the airport the 23rd-busiest airport in the world by passenger traffic. The airport also ranks as the 10th busiest airport in the United States by annual passenger count and is the busiest airport in the state of Florida, the airport also handled more international cargo than any other airport in the United States. For the World War II and United States Air Force Reserve use of the airport, Pan American World Airways opened an expanded facility adjacent to City Airport, Pan American Field, in 1928. Pan American Field was built on 116 acres of land on 36th Street and was the only airport in the eastern United States that had port of entry facilities. Its runways were located around the threshold of todays Runway 26R, Eastern Airlines began to serve Pan American Field in 1931, followed by National Airlines in 1936. National used a terminal on the side of LeJeune Road from the airport. In 1945 the City of Miami established a Port Authority and raised bond revenue to purchase Pan American Field and it merged with the Army airfield south of the railroad in 1949 and expanded further in 1951 when the railroad line was moved south to make room. The old terminal on 36th Street was closed in 1959 when the passenger terminal opened. Nonstop flights to Chicago and Newark started in late 1946, but nonstops didnt reach west beyond St. Louis, nonstop transatlantic flights began in 1970. In the late 1970s and early 1980s Air Florida had a hub at MIA, Air Florida ceased operations in 1982 after the crash of Air Florida Flight 90. British Airways flew a Concorde triweekly between Miami and London via Washington, D. C. from 1984 to 1991, in the midst of Easterns turmoil American Airlines CEO Bob Crandall sought a new hub in order to utilize new aircraft which AA had on order. AA studies indicated that Delta Air Lines would provide strong competition on most routes from Easterns hub at Atlanta, American announced that it would establish a base at MIA in August 1988. The effort quickly proved futile, and American purchased the routes in a liquidation of Eastern which was completed in 1990, later in the 1990s, American transferred more employees and equipment to MIA from its failed domestic hubs at Nashville and Raleigh–Durham
10.
Miami
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Miami is a seaport city at the southeastern corner of the U. S. state of Florida and its Atlantic coast. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, Miamis metro area is the eighth-most populous, Miami is a major center, and a leader in finance, commerce, culture, media, entertainment, the arts, and international trade. In 2012, Miami was classified as an Alpha−World City in the World Cities Study Groups inventory, in 2010, Miami ranked seventh in the United States in terms of finance, commerce, culture, entertainment, fashion, education, and other sectors. It ranked 33rd among global cities, in 2008, Forbes magazine ranked Miami Americas Cleanest City, for its year-round good air quality, vast green spaces, clean drinking water, clean streets, and citywide recycling programs. According to a 2009 UBS study of 73 world cities, Miami was ranked as the richest city in the United States, Miami is nicknamed the Capital of Latin America and is the largest city with a Cuban-American plurality. Miami has the third tallest skyline in the U. S. with over 300 high-rises, Downtown Miami is home to the largest concentration of international banks in the United States, and many large national and international companies. The Civic Center is a center for hospitals, research institutes, medical centers. For more than two decades, the Port of Miami, known as the Cruise Capital of the World, has been the number one cruise port in the world. It accommodates some of the worlds largest cruise ships and operations, Metropolitan Miami is the major tourism hub in the American South, number two in the U. S. after New York City and number 13 in the world, including the popular destination of Miami Beach. The Miami area was inhabited for thousands of years by indigenous Native American tribes, the Tequestas occupied the area for a thousand years before encountering Europeans. An Indian village of hundreds of people dating to 500–600 B. C. was located at the mouth of the Miami River, in 1566 the explorer, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, claimed it for Spain. A Spanish mission was constructed one year later in 1567, Spain and Great Britain successively controlled Florida, and Spain ceded it to the United States in 1821. In 1836, the US built Fort Dallas as part of its development of the Florida Territory and attempt to suppress, the Miami area subsequently became a site of fighting during the Second Seminole War. Miami is noted as the major city in the United States conceived by a woman, Julia Tuttle, a local citrus grower. The Miami area was known as Biscayne Bay Country in the early years of its growth. In the late 19th century, reports described the area as a promising wilderness, the area was also characterized as one of the finest building sites in Florida. The Great Freeze of 1894–95 hastened Miamis growth, as the crops of the Miami area were the ones in Florida that survived. Julia Tuttle subsequently convinced Henry Flagler, a tycoon, to expand his Florida East Coast Railway to the region
11.
Florida
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Florida /ˈflɒrᵻdə/ is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, Florida is the 22nd-most extensive, the 3rd-most populous, and the 8th-most densely populated of the U. S. states. Jacksonville is the most populous municipality in the state and is the largest city by area in the contiguous United States, the Miami metropolitan area is Floridas most populous urban area. The city of Tallahassee is the state capital, much of the state is at or near sea level and is characterized by sedimentary soil. The climate varies from subtropical in the north to tropical in the south, the American alligator, American crocodile, Florida panther, and manatee can be found in the Everglades National Park. It was a location of the Seminole Wars against the Native Americans. Today, Florida is distinctive for its large Cuban expatriate community and high population growth, the states economy relies mainly on tourism, agriculture, and transportation, which developed in the late 19th century. Florida is also renowned for amusement parks, orange crops, the Kennedy Space Center, Florida has attracted many writers such as Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings, Ernest Hemingway and Tennessee Williams, and continues to attract celebrities and athletes. It is internationally known for golf, tennis, auto racing, by the 16th century, the earliest time for which there is a historical record, major Native American groups included the Apalachee, the Timucua, the Ais, the Tocobaga, the Calusa and the Tequesta. Florida was the first part of the continental United States to be visited and settled by Europeans, the earliest known European explorers came with the Spanish conquistador Juan Ponce de León. Ponce de León spotted and landed on the peninsula on April 2,1513 and he named the region La Florida. The story that he was searching for the Fountain of Youth is a myth, in May 1539, Conquistador Hernando de Soto skirted the coast of Florida, searching for a deep harbor to land. He described seeing a wall of red mangroves spread mile after mile, some reaching as high as 70 feet. Very soon, many smokes appeared along the whole coast, billowing against the sky, the Spanish introduced Christianity, cattle, horses, sheep, the Spanish language, and more to Florida. Both the Spanish and French established settlements in Florida, with varying degrees of success, in 1559, Don Tristán de Luna y Arellano established a settlement at present-day Pensacola, making it the first attempted settlement in Florida, but it was abandoned by 1561. Spain maintained tenuous control over the region by converting the tribes to Christianity. The area of Spanish Florida diminished with the establishment of English settlements to the north, the English attacked St. Augustine, burning the city and its cathedral to the ground several times. Florida attracted numerous Africans and African-Americans from adjacent British colonies who sought freedom from slavery, in 1738, Governor Manuel de Montiano established Fort Gracia Real de Santa Teresa de Mose near St
12.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
13.
Cali
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The city spans 560.3 km2 with 120.9 km2 of urban area, making Cali the third-largest city proper and metropolitan area in population and the second-largest city by area in the country. As the only major Colombian city with access to the Pacific Coast, Cali is the urban and economic centre in southwest Colombia. The city was founded on 25 July 1536 by the Spanish conquistador Sebastián de Belalcázar, Cali is also a centre for sports in Colombia, and is the only Colombian city to have hosted the Pan American Games. Cali is the form of the official name of the city. Santiago honours Saint James whose feast day is celebrated on 25 July, the origin of the word Cali comes from the local Amerindians the Calima or Calimas. Before the arrival of the Spaniards, the region was inhabited by indigenous tribes, in the region between the Cauca River and the Western Cordillera, the Gorrones established themselves between the present day Roldanillo and Santiago de Cali. The biggest town of the Morrones was sited on the River Pescador near the towns of Zarzal. The Morrones traded with the Quimbayas who inhabited the north of the Valle del Cauca, on his way to Cali, Sebastián de Belalcázar first met the Timbas who ran away before the arrival of the men, leaving behind gold. After the Timbas, towards the north, the Spaniards entered the territory of the chief Jamundí and his tribe and this tribe offered a strong resistance to the invaders, fighting with poisonous darts and arrows against the arquebuses and swords of the Spaniards. Eventually, the Spanish prevailed in the struggle over the central valley, before taking control over the region, the Spaniards had to defeat the chief Petecuy, whose tribe inhabited the area between the river Lilí and the Western Cordillera. Petecuy formed a big army with many tribes and fought the Spaniards on Holy Tuesday of 1536, the natives lost to the Spaniards and the region was divided in encomiendas. Santiago de Cali was important for Belalcázar because it was outside the Inca empire, after his death, his descendants maintained possession of much of the land until the war of independence against Spain. The founder of Cali, Sebastián de Belalcázar, came to the American continent in the voyage made by Columbus in 1498. In 1532, after serving in Darién and Nicaragua, he joined Francisco Pizarro in the conquest of Perú, on 25 July 1536 Belalcázar founded Santiago de Cali, first established a few kilometres north of the present location, near what are now the towns of Vijes and Riofrío. During the Colonia, Santiago de Cali was part of the gobernación of Popayán, although initially Cali was the capital of Popayáns Gobernación, in 1540 Belalcázar moved this function to Popayán due to better weather. Until the 18th century most of the territory of what is now Santiago de Cali was occupied by haciendas, in 1793, Santiago de Cali had 6,548 inhabitants,1,106 of whom were slaves. The haciendas were the property of the dominant noble class with many slaves dedicated mostly to stockbreeding and raising sugar cane crops, many of these haciendas became zone of the present city like Cañaveralejo, Chipichape, Pasoancho, Arroyohondo, Cañasgordas, Limonar and Meléndez. Santiago de Cali was strategically positioned for trade, centrally located in relation to the regions of Antioquia, Chocó
14.
Boeing 757-200
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The Boeing 757 is a mid-size, narrow-body twin-engine jet airliner that was designed and built by Boeing Commercial Airplanes. It is the manufacturers largest single-aisle passenger aircraft and was produced from 1981 to 2004. Intended to replace the smaller three-engine 727 on short and medium routes, the 757 was designed concurrently with a wide-body twinjet, the 767, and owing to shared features pilots can obtain a common type rating that allows them to operate both aircraft. The 757 was produced in two fuselage lengths, the original 757-200 entered service in 1983, the 757-200PF, a package freighter variant, and the 757-200M, a passenger-freighter combi model, debuted in the late 1980s. The stretched 757-300, the longest narrow-body twinjet ever produced, began service in 1999, passenger 757-200s have been modified to special freighter specification for cargo use, while military derivatives include the C-32 transport, VIP carriers, and other multi-purpose aircraft. Private and government operators have also customized the 757 for research, all 757s are powered by Rolls-Royce RB211 or Pratt & Whitney PW2000 series turbofans. Eastern Air Lines and British Airways placed the 757 in commercial service in 1983, the narrow-body twinjet succeeded earlier single-aisle airliners, and became commonly used for short and mid-range domestic routes, shuttle services, and transcontinental U. S. flights. After regulators granted approval for extended flights over water in 1986, major customers for the 757 included U. S. mainline carriers, European charter airlines, and cargo companies. The airliner has recorded eight hull-loss accidents, including seven fatal crashes, production of the 757 ended in October 2004, after 1,050 had been built for 54 customers. The 757-200 was by far the most popular model, with 913 built, diminished sales amid an airline industry trend toward smaller jetliners led Boeing to end production without a direct replacement, in favor of the 737 family. The last 757 was delivered to Shanghai Airlines in November 2005, in July 2015,738 of the narrow-body twinjets were in airline service, Delta Air Lines is the largest operator with 138 aircraft. In the early 1970s, following the launch of the wide-body 747, designed for short and medium length routes, the three-engined 727 was the best-selling commercial jetliner of the 1960s and a mainstay of the U. S. domestic airline market. Studies focused on improving the 189-seat 727-200, the most successful 727 variant, two approaches were considered, a stretched 727-300, and an all-new aircraft code-named 7N7. United Airlines provided input for the proposed 727-300, which Boeing was poised to launch in late 1975, although the 727-300 was offered to Braniff International Airways and other carriers, customer interest remained insufficient for further development. Instead, airlines were drawn to the high-bypass-ratio turbofan engines, new flight technologies, lower weight, improved aerodynamics. These features were included in a parallel development effort for a new mid-size wide-body airliner, code-named 7X7. Work on both proposals accelerated as a result of the airline industry upturn in the late 1970s, by 1978, development studies focused on two variants, a 7N7-100 with seating for 160, and a 7N7-200 with room for over 180 seats. New features included a wing, under-wing engines, and lighter materials, while the forward fuselage, cockpit layout
15.
Birgenair Flight 301
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On 6 February 1996, the Boeing 757–225 operating the route crashed shortly after take-off from Puerto Platas Gregorio Luperón International Airport. The cause was a tube that investigators believe was blocked by a wasp nest that was built inside it. The aircraft had sat unused for twenty five days without the required pitot tube covers in place, the crew consisted of 11 Turks and 2 Dominicans. The captain was Ahmet Erdem, one of Birgenairs most senior pilots, the first officer was Aykut Gergin. He had 3,500 hours of flying experience, the relief pilot was Muhlis Evrenesoğlu. He had 15,000 flight hours to his credit, the passengers consisted mainly of Germans, along with a few Poles including two Members of Parliament, Zbigniew Gorzelańczyk, and Marek Wielgus. Most passengers had booked Caribbean package holidays with Öger Tours, Birgenair held 10% of Öger Tours, in terms of passenger deaths, Flight 301 has the highest death toll of any aviation accident involving a Boeing 757. During takeoff roll at 11,42 p. m, the found that his air speed indicator was not working properly. While the plane was climbing through 4,700 feet, the airspeed indicator read 350 knots. The autopilot reached the limits of its programming and disengaged, after checking their circuit breakers for the source of the warnings, the crew then reduced thrust to lower the speed. This immediately triggered the 757s stick-shaker stall alert, warning the confused pilots that the aircraft was flying dangerously slow, the left engine flamed out, which caused the right engine, still at full power, to throw the aircraft into a spin. At 11,47 p. m. the Ground Proximity Warning System sounded an audio warning, all 13 crew members and 176 passengers were killed. Investigations later showed that the plane was travelling at 220 knots at the time. The investigation concluded that one of three tubes, used to measure airspeed, was blocked. No tubes were recovered so investigators were unable to determine for certain what caused the blockage, according to the final report, section 2. Later, Birgenair refuted section 2.3 of the final report, according to Birgenair, the aircraft was not on the ground for 20 days, but only for 12 days prior to the ill-fated flight. The pitot-tubes were covered prior to an engine test run took place 2 days prior to the ill-fated flight. It was known by the BIRGENAIR mechanics that the airplane should be returned to Turkey in a flight within the next 3 days
16.
Pan Am Flight 103
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Pan Am Flight 103 was a regularly scheduled Pan Am transatlantic flight from Frankfurt to Detroit via London and New York. On 21 December 1988, N739PA, the operating the transatlantic leg of the route, was destroyed by a bomb, killing all 243 passengers and 16 crew. Large sections of the aircraft crashed onto residential areas of Lockerbie, Scotland, following a three-year joint investigation by Dumfries and Galloway Constabulary and the US Federal Bureau of Investigation, arrest warrants were issued for two Libyan nationals in November 1991. In 1999, Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi handed over the two men for trial at Camp Zeist, Netherlands after protracted negotiations and UN sanctions. In 2001, Libyan intelligence officer Abdelbaset al-Megrahi was jailed for life after being found guilty of 270 counts of murder in connection with the bombing, in August 2009, he was released by the Scottish government on compassionate grounds after being diagnosed with prostate cancer. He died in May 2012, the person to be convicted for the attack. In 2003, Gaddafi accepted responsibility for the Lockerbie bombing and paid compensation to the families of the victims, during the Libyan Civil War in 2011, a former government official claimed that the Libyan leader had personally ordered the bombing, though this was later denied. The aircraft operating Pan Am Flight 103 was a Boeing 747–121, registered N739PA and named Clipper Maid of the Seas and it was the 15th 747 built and was delivered in February 1970, one month after the first 747 entered service with Pan Am. At the time of its destruction, Clipper Maid of the Seas was 18 years of age and had accumulated over 75,000 flying hours. The Clipper Maid of the Seas operated the transatlantic leg of Flight 103, both Pan Am and TWA routinely changed the type of aircraft operating different legs of a flight. PA103 was bookable as a single Frankfurt-New York itinerary, though a change of aircraft took place in London. At London Heathrow Airport, passengers and their luggage on the flight transferred directly onto the Boeing 747. The aircraft pushed back from the terminal at 18,04 and took off from runway 27R at 18,25, en route for New York JFK Airport and on to Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport. Contrary to many accounts of the disaster, the flight. After the bombing, the number was changed, in accordance with standard practice among airlines after disasters. Within days, the Frankfurt-London-New York-Detroit route was being served by Pan Am Flight 3, at 18,58, the aircraft established two-way radio contact with Shanwick Oceanic Area Control in Prestwick on frequency 123.95 MHz. The Clipper Maid of the Seas approached the corner of the Solway Firth at 19,01, on scope, the aircraft showed transponder code, or squawk,0357 and flight level 310. At this point, the Clipper Maid of the Seas was flying at 31,000 feet on a heading of 316 degrees magnetic, subsequent analysis of the radar returns by RSRE concluded that the aircraft was tracking 321° and travelling at a ground speed of 803 km/h
17.
Special Administrative Unit of Civil Aeronautics
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The Special Administrative Unit of Civil Aeronautics is a government agency of the Colombian Ministry of Transport. It is the agency in charge of regulating civil aviation, the aviation industry, Aerocivil is also in charge of managing and controlling all of Colombias public airports. It is headquartered in the new Aerocivil building on the property of El Dorado International Airport, previously it was located on the fourth floor of the main terminal building of the airport. The Special Administrative Unit of Civil Aeronautics is an independent agency of the Colombian Ministry of Transport. Aerocivil deals not only civil aviation, but with general aviation as a whole. The administration of the use of Colombian airspace by means of aviation, the airport and aeronautic infrastructure. The lending of airport services and support to aviation, the exercise of control and observance of operational safety in the air-space sector. To guarantee the availability and effectiveness of the interactions of customers and the community, to determine the policies of development and regulation pertaining to the aeronautic sector. To guarantee the availability of infrastructure for the development of commercial activity. To select, adopt and maintain the technology applicable to the offering of services associated with the Agency, to guarantee the effective Administration of Human Talent, the development of competitiveness and the strengthening of the processes of formation, training, and investigation. During the early 1990s the growth of aviation and commercial airlines created the need for their regulation. In 1919 with the creation of the first Colombian airline, SCADTA, on 2 November 1933 during the administration of President Enrique Olaya Herrera, Decree 1080 of 1933 was passed. The Ministry of War now controlled all aspects of aviation in the country, military by the Air Force, and civil by the Department of Civil Aviation. As aviation became popular, and new international and national routes were created. Was then that Congress passed Law 80 of 1938, which created the Directorate General of Civil Aeronautics, in 1992 the DAAC merged with the National Aeronautic Fund, broadening its services and responsibilities. On 30 December 1993, the Colombian Congress passed Law 105 of 1993 and it replaced the DAAC and was placed under the administration of the Ministry of Transportation. The agency officially went into operation on 1 February 1994, with officials being sworn in again, and 450 employees laid off
18.
Rolls-Royce RB211
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The Rolls-Royce RB211 is a British family of high-bypass turbofan engines made by Rolls-Royce plc and capable of generating 37,400 to 60,600 pounds-force thrust. Originally developed for the Lockheed L-1011 TriStar, it entered service in 1972 and was the engine to power this type of aircraft. Its RB211 engine was the first three-spool engine, and it was to turn Rolls-Royce from a significant player in the industry into a global leader. Already in the early 1970s the engine was reckoned by the company to be capable of at least 50 years of continuous development, the RB211 was officially superseded in the 1990s by the Rolls-Royce Trent family of engines, the conceptual offspring of the RB211. In 1966 American Airlines announced a requirement for a new short-medium range airliner with a focus on low-cost per-seat operations, while it was looking for a twin-engined plane, the aircraft manufacturers needed more than one customer to justify developing a new airliner. Eastern Airlines was also interested, but required greater range and needed to operate long routes over water, at the time, other airlines also favored three engines. Lockheed and Douglas responded with designs, the L-1011 TriStar and DC-10 respectively, both had three engines, transcontinental range and seated around 300 passengers in a widebody layout with two aisles. Both planes also required new engines, Rolls-Royce had been working on an engine of the required 45,000 lbf thrust class for an abortive attempt to introduce an updated Hawker Siddeley Trident as the RB178. This work was developed for the 47,500 lbf thrust RB207 to be used on the Airbus A300. Meanwhile, Rolls-Royce was also working on a series of designs as replacements for the Conway. In this configuration, three groups of turbines spin three separate concentric shafts to power three sections of the area running at different speeds. In addition to allowing each stage of the compressor to run at its optimal speed, several designs were being worked on at the time, including a 10,000 lbf thrust design known as the RB203 intended to replace the Rolls-Royce Spey. Work started on the Conway replacement engine in July 1961 and a demonstrator engine to prove the HP compressor, combustor. Rolls-Royce chose the system in 1965 as the simplest, lowest cost solution to the problem of obtaining lower fuel consumption. On 23 June 1967, Rolls-Royce offered Lockheed the RB211-06 for the L-1011, to this was added one new piece of technology, a fan stage built of a new carbon fibre material called Hyfil developed at the RAE Farnborough. The weight saving was considerable over a fan made of titanium. Despite knowing that the timetable was challenging for an engine incorporating these new features, Lockheed felt that the new engine enabled the L-1011 to offer a distinct advantage over the otherwise similar DC-10 product. However, Douglas had requested proposals from Rolls-Royce for an engine to power its DC-10, there followed a period of intense negotiation between airframe manufacturers Lockheed and Douglas, engine suppliers Rolls-Royce, General Electric and Pratt & Whitney, and the major U. S. airlines
19.
Northeastern United States
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The Northeast is one of the four regions defined by the Census Bureau for the collection and analysis of statistics. The Census Bureau-defined region has an area of 181,324 sq mi with 162,257 square miles of that being land mass. Though lacking a unified identity, the Northeastern region is the nations most economically developed, densely populated. Of the nations four census regions, the Northeast is the second most urban, with 85 percent of its residing in urban areas. The region is subdivided into New England and the Mid-Atlantic States and this definition has been essentially unchanged since 1880 and is widely used as a standard for data tabulation. C. Similarly, the Geological Society of America defines the Northeast as these same states but with the addition of Maryland, the narrowest definitions include only the states of New England. Other more restrictive definitions include New England and New York as part of the Northeast United States, States beyond the Census Bureau definition that other entities include in the Northeast United States are, Delaware, Maryland, and Washington, D. C. Delaware, Maryland, Washington, D. C. and West Virginia Delaware, Maryland, Washington, most did not settle in North America until the 17th century. Among the many tribes that inhabited this area were those made up the Iroquois nations. In the United States of the 21st century,18 federally recognized tribes reside in the Northeast, the two cultural and geographic regions that form parts of the Northeastern region have distinct histories. The first Europeans to settle New England were Pilgrims from England, the Pilgrims arrived by the Mayflower ship and founded Plymouth Colony so they could practice religion freely. Ten years later, a group of Puritans settled north of Plymouth Colony in Boston to form Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1636, colonists established Connecticut Colony and Providence Plantations, Providence was founded by Roger Williams, who was banished by Massachusetts for his beliefs in freedom of religion, and it was the first colony to guarantee all citizens freedom of worship. Anne Hutchinson, who was banished by Massachusetts, formed the town of Portsmouth. Providence, Portsmouth, and two towns consolidated to form the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. Although the first settlers of New England were motivated by religion, in recent history. In a 2009 Gallup survey, less than half of residents in Vermont, New Hampshire, Maine, and Massachusetts reported religion as an important part of their daily life. In a 2010 Gallup survey, less than 30% of residents in Vermont, New Hampshire, Maine, New England played a prominent role in early American education
20.
Braniff International Airways
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Its routes were primarily in the midwestern and southwestern United States, Mexico, Central America, and South America. In the late 1970s it expanded to Asia and Europe, the airline ceased operations in May 1982 because high fuel prices and the Airline Deregulation Act of December 1978 rendered it uncompetitive. Two later airlines used the Braniff name, the Hyatt Hotels-backed Braniff, Inc. in 1984–89 and these companies included Braniff Air Lines, Inc. Paul R. Braniff, Inc. Braniff Airways, Inc. and Braniff International Corporation, on April 26,1926, Paul Braniff incorporated Braniff Air Lines, Inc. with the Oklahoma Secretary of State but was not used for airline operations and was eventually dissolved. On June 20,1928, service began from Oklahoma City to Tulsa using a single-engine 5 passenger Stinson Detroiter on June 20,1928, Paul Braniff acted as pilot of the first flight with one passenger on board the inaugural flight from Oklahoma City to Tulsa. The Braniff brothers remained a part of the company as the ownership was transferred to Universal Aviation Corporation in April 1929, with the purchase of the company by Universal, the entity began operating as Braniff Air Lines, Inc. Universal was a conglomerate of smaller airlines and railways that planned a southern coast-to-coast air, in early 1930, the company was purchased by the Aviation Corporation holding company, whose other holdings included the predecessors of American Airlines. The Braniff brothers started a new airline in November,1930 named Braniff Airways, Braniff Airways began service between Oklahoma City, Tulsa, and Wichita Falls, Texas, with Lockheed Vega single-engine prop aircraft. Braniffs survival was assured when Paul Braniff, then manager, flew to Washington. The United States Post Office granted Braniff its first airmail route in the wake of the 1934 Air Mail scandal, in 1935 Braniff became the first airline to fly from Chicago to the U. S. –Mexico border. Beard became President and CEO of Braniff in 1954, and Fred Jones of Oklahoma City remained as Chairman of the Board, Braniff acquired Long and Harmon Airlines in January,1935, extending its network in Texas. Braniff soon bought Douglas DC-2s from TWA for the extended network, Braniff Airways acquired Bowen Airlines, which was headquartered at Fort Worths Meacham Field, in late 1935. Bowen flew from Chicago to Houston via St. Louis, Springfield, Tulsa and Dallas, Worth and Austin, and from Ft. Bowen did not have any of the coveted Air Mail Contracts, Bowens slogan was From the Great Lakes to the Gulf, which became the Braniff moniker after the merger. Bowen had a fleet of Vultee V-1As, Lockheed Vegas, thomas Elmer Braniff created a Mexican airline, Aerovias Braniff, in 1943. Service began in March 1945, after the carrier got operating permits from the Mexican government, Aerovias Braniff operated from Laredo, Texas, to Monterrey and Mexico City. The new company, owned by Mr. Braniff, had three 21 passenger Douglas DC-3s that had been allocated to the carrier from the United States War Surplus Administration in February,1945. Mr. Braniff had applied to the federal Civil Aeronautics Board for authority to merge Aerovias Braniff with Braniff Airways, during World War II the airline leased aircraft to the United States military, and its facilities at Dallas Love Field became a training site for pilots and mechanics
21.
Eastern Air Lines
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Eastern Air Lines was a major American airline from 1926 to 1991. Before its dissolution it was headquartered at Miami International Airport in an area of Miami-Dade County. Eastern was one of the Big Four domestic airlines created by the Spoils Conferences of 1930 and it had a near monopoly in air travel between New York and Florida from the 1930s and 1940s and dominated this market for decades afterward. Labor disputes and high debt loads strained the company in the late 1970s, Frank Lorenzo acquired Eastern in 1985 and moved many of its assets to his other airlines, including Continental Airlines and Texas Air. After continued labor disputes and a strike in 1989, Eastern ran out of money and was liquidated in 1991. USAir acquired 11 of Easterns 25 Boeing 757-225s, Eastern pioneered hourly air shuttle service between New York City, Washington, DC and Boston in 1961 as the Eastern Air Lines Shuttle. It took over the South American route network of Braniff International in 1982 and also served London, Eastern Air Lines was a composite of assorted air travel corporations, including Florida Airways and Pitcairn Aviation. In the late 1920s, Pitcairn Aviation won a contract to fly mail between New York City and Atlanta, Georgia on Mailwing single-engine aircraft, in 1929, Clement Keys, the owner of North American Aviation, purchased Pitcairn. In 1930, Keys changed the name to Eastern Air Transport. After being purchased by General Motors and experiencing a change in leadership after the Airmail Act of 1934, in 1938 World War I flying ace Eddie Rickenbacker bought Eastern from General Motors. The complex deal was concluded when Rickenbacker presented Alfred P. Sloan with a check for $3.5 million. In March 1939 Eastern had 15 weekday departures from Newark, two from Chicago to Miami, one from Tampa to Atlanta and one from Tallahassee to Memphis and those flights and their returns were Easterns whole scheduled operation. It fit on one page in the Airways Guide, then as later, Eastern was the fourth largest airline in the country by passenger-miles. Rickenbacker pushed Eastern into a period of growth and innovation, for a time, Eastern was the most profitable airline in the post-war era, never needing state subsidy. In the late 1950s, Easterns position was eroded by subsidies to rival airlines, on October 1,1959, Rickenbackers position as CEO was taken over by Malcolm A. MacIntyre, a brilliant lawyer but inexperienced in airline operations. Rickenbackers ouster was due to his reluctance to acquire jets. Like many others, he underestimated their appeal to the public, a new management team headed by Floyd D. Hall took over on 16 December 1963, and Rickenbacker left his position as Director and Chairman of the Board on December 31,1963, aged 73. In 1956 Eastern bought Colonial Airlines, giving the airline its first routes to Canada, in November 1959, Eastern Air Lines opened its Chester L. Churchill-designed Terminal 1 at New York Citys Idlewild International Airport
22.
Radar
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Radar is an object-detection system that uses radio waves to determine the range, angle, or velocity of objects. It can be used to detect aircraft, ships, spacecraft, guided missiles, motor vehicles, weather formations, Radio waves from the transmitter reflect off the object and return to the receiver, giving information about the objects location and speed. Radar was developed secretly for military use by several nations in the period before, the term RADAR was coined in 1940 by the United States Navy as an acronym for RAdio Detection And Ranging or RAdio Direction And Ranging. The term radar has since entered English and other languages as a common noun, high tech radar systems are associated with digital signal processing, machine learning and are capable of extracting useful information from very high noise levels. Other systems similar to make use of other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. One example is lidar, which uses ultraviolet, visible, or near infrared light from lasers rather than radio waves, as early as 1886, German physicist Heinrich Hertz showed that radio waves could be reflected from solid objects. In 1895, Alexander Popov, an instructor at the Imperial Russian Navy school in Kronstadt. The next year, he added a spark-gap transmitter, in 1897, while testing this equipment for communicating between two ships in the Baltic Sea, he took note of an interference beat caused by the passage of a third vessel. In his report, Popov wrote that this phenomenon might be used for detecting objects, the German inventor Christian Hülsmeyer was the first to use radio waves to detect the presence of distant metallic objects. In 1904, he demonstrated the feasibility of detecting a ship in dense fog and he obtained a patent for his detection device in April 1904 and later a patent for a related amendment for estimating the distance to the ship. He also got a British patent on September 23,1904 for a radar system. It operated on a 50 cm wavelength and the radar signal was created via a spark-gap. In 1915, Robert Watson-Watt used radio technology to advance warning to airmen. Watson-Watt became an expert on the use of direction finding as part of his lightning experiments. As part of ongoing experiments, he asked the new boy, Arnold Frederic Wilkins, Wilkins made an extensive study of available units before selecting a receiver model from the General Post Office. Its instruction manual noted that there was fading when aircraft flew by, in 1922, A. Hoyt Taylor and Leo C. Taylor submitted a report, suggesting that this might be used to detect the presence of ships in low visibility, eight years later, Lawrence A. Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and South Africa followed prewar Great Britain, and Hungary had similar developments during the war. Hugon, began developing a radio apparatus, a part of which was installed on the liner Normandie in 1935
23.
Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia
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The Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia—Peoples Army was a guerrilla movement involved in the continuing Colombian armed conflict since 1964. It was known to employ a variety of tactics in addition to more unconventional methods. The FARC-EP, which formed during the Cold War period as a Marxist–Leninist peasant force, in 2013 it was reported that 26,648 FARC and ELN members had decided to demobilize since 2002. However, the FARC and the ELN lost control of much of the territory, especially in areas, forcing them to relocate to remote areas in the jungle. In 1964, the FARC–EP was established as the wing of the Colombian Communist Party. The FARC were a violent non-state actor whose recognition as legitimate belligerent forces is disputed by some organizations. In 2008, Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez recognized the FARC–EP as a proper army, in February 2008, millions of Colombians demonstrated against the FARC. In 2012, the FARC made 239 attacks on the energy infrastructure, however, the FARC have shown signs of fatigue. As of 2014, the FARC are not seeking to engage in combat with the army. Meanwhile, from 2008 to 2017, the FARC opted to attack police patrols with home-made mortars, sniper rifles and this followed the trend of the 1990s during the strengthening of Colombian government forces. In June 2016, the FARC signed an accord with the President of Colombia. This accord was seen as a step to ending the war that has gone on for fifty years. The referendum failed with 50. 24% voting against, the Colombian government and the FARC on November 24 signed a revised peace deal, which the Colombian Congress approved on November 30. On February 18,2017, FARC rebels moved into transition zones, in Colombian history and culture, the killings are known as La Violencia, most of the people killed were peasants and laborers in rural Colombia. In 1957–1958, the leadership of the Liberal Party and the Conservative Party agreed to establish a bipartisan political system known as the National Front. The pact was ratified as an amendment by a national plebiscite on 1 December 1957 and was supported by the Roman Catholic Church as well as Colombias business leaders. The initial power-sharing agreement was effective until 1974, nonetheless, with modifications, the AED policy came at the expense of the small-scale family farms that only yielded food supplies for local consumption. In 1961, the dispossession of farmland had produced 40,000 landless families, by 1970, the latifundio type of industrial farm occupied more than 77 per cent of arable land in the country
24.
Flight management system
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A flight management system is a fundamental component of a modern airliners avionics. A primary function is in-flight management of the flight plan, using various sensors to determine the aircrafts position, the FMS can guide the aircraft along the flight plan. From the cockpit, the FMS is normally controlled through a Control Display Unit which incorporates a small screen, the FMS sends the flight plan for display to the Electronic Flight Instrument System, Navigation Display, or Multifunction Display. The modern FMS was introduced on the Boeing 767, though earlier navigation computers did exist, now, systems similar to FMS exist on aircraft as small as the Cessna 182. In its evolution an FMS has had different sizes, capabilities. However certain characteristics are common to all FMS, all FMS contain a navigation database. The navigation database contains the elements from which the plan is constructed. These are defined via the ARINC424 standard, the navigation database is normally updated every 28 days, in order to ensure that its contents are current. Each FMS contains only a subset of the ARINC data, relevant to the capabilities of the FMS and it is entered into the FMS either by typing it in, selecting it from a saved library of common routes or via an ACARS datalink with the airline dispatch center. During preflight, other information relevant to managing the flight plan is entered and this can include performance information such as gross weight, fuel weight and center of gravity. It will include altitudes including the initial cruise altitude, for aircraft that do not have a GPS, the initial position is also required. The pilot uses the FMS to modify the plan in flight for a variety of reasons. Significant engineering design minimizes the keystrokes in order to pilot workload in flight. The FMS also sends the flight information for display on the Navigation Display of the flight deck instruments Electronic Flight Instrument System. The flight plan generally appears as a line, with other airports, radio aids. Once in flight, a task of the FMS is to determine the aircrafts position. Simple FMS use a sensor, generally GPS in order to determine position. But modern FMS use as many sensors as they can, such as VORs, in order to determine, some FMS use a Kalman filter to integrate the positions from the various sensors into a single position
25.
Air brake (aeronautics)
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In aeronautics, air brakes or speedbrakes are a type of flight control surfaces used on an aircraft to increase drag or increase the angle of approach during landing. The earliest known air brake was developed in 1931 and deployed on the support struts. Not long after, air brakes located on the bottom of the trailing edge were developed. More modern gliders use airbrakes which may spoil lift as well as increase drag, often, characteristics of both spoilers and air brakes are desirable and are combined - most modern airliner jets feature combined spoiler and air brake controls. In addition, the drag created by the spoilers directly assists the braking effect. Reverse thrust is used to help slow the aircraft after landing. Virtually all jet powered aircraft have an air brake or, in the case of most airliners, many early jets used parachutes as air brakes on approach or after landing. The Blackburn Buccaneer naval strike aircraft designed in the 1950s had a cone that was split. It also helped to reduce the length of the aircraft in the space on an aircraft carrier. The F-15 Eagle, Sukhoi Su-27 and other fighters have an air brake just behind the cockpit, the deceleron is an aileron that functions normally in flight but can split in half such that the top half goes up as the bottom half goes down to brake. This technique was first used on the F-89 Scorpion and has since used by Northrop on several aircraft. The space shuttle used a similar system, the vertically-split rudder opened in clamshell fashion on landing to act as a speed brake, as shown in the accompanying photo. Dive brake Drogue parachute Spoiler Thrust reversal
26.
Non-directional beacon
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A non-directional beacon is a radio transmitter at a known location, used as an aviation or marine navigational aid. NDB signals follow the curvature of the Earth, so they can be received at greater distances at lower altitudes. However, NDB signals are affected more by atmospheric conditions, mountainous terrain, coastal refraction and electrical storms. Each NDB is identified by a one, two, or three-letter Morse code callsign, in Canada, privately owned NDB identifiers consist of one letter and one number. The ADF can also locate transmitters in the standard AM medium wave broadcast band and this bearing may be displayed on a relative bearing indicator. This display looks like a card with a needle superimposed. In order to track toward an NDB the aircraft is flown so that the points to the 0 degree position. Similarly, the aircraft will track directly away from the NDB if the needle is maintained on the 180 degree mark. With a crosswind, the needle must be maintained to the left or right of the 0 or 180 position by an amount corresponding to the due to the crosswind. This gives the bearing that must be flown, mod 360 = MB. When tracking to or from an NDB, it is usual that the aircraft track on a specific bearing. To do this it is necessary to correlate the RBI reading with the compass heading. Having determined the drift, the aircraft must be flown so that the heading is the required bearing adjusted for drift at the same time as the RBI reading is 0 or 180 adjusted for drift. An NDB may also be used to locate a position along the current track. When the needle reaches an RBI reading corresponding to the required bearing then the aircraft is at the position, however, using a separate RBI and compass, this requires considerable mental calculation to determine the appropriate relative bearing. To simplify this task, a compass card driven by the magnetic compass is added to the RBI to form a Radio Magnetic Indicator. The ADF needle is then referenced immediately to the magnetic heading. The principles of ADFs are not limited to NDB usage, such systems are used to detect the locations of broadcast signals for many other purposes
27.
Ground proximity warning system
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A ground proximity warning system is a system designed to alert pilots if their aircraft is in immediate danger of flying into the ground or an obstacle. The United States Federal Aviation Administration defines GPWS as a type of terrain awareness warning system, more advanced systems, introduced in 1996, are known as enhanced ground proximity warning systems, although sometimes called terrain awareness warning systems. In the late 1960s, a series of controlled flight into terrain accidents took the lives of hundreds of people, beginning in the early 1970s, a number of studies examined the occurrence of CFIT accidents. Findings from these studies indicated that such accidents could have been avoided if a warning device called a ground proximity warning system had been used. The ICAO recommended the installation of GPWS in 1979, C. Donald Bateman, a Canadian-born engineer, developed and is credited with the invention of GPWS. In March 2000, the U. S. FAA amended operating rules to require that all U. S. registered turbine-powered airplanes with six or more passenger seats be equipped with an FAA-approved TAWS, the mandate affects aircraft manufactured after March 29,2002. Prior to the development of GPWS, large aircraft were involved in 3.5 fatal CFIT accidents per year. After 1974, there were still some CFIT accidents that GPWS was unable to help prevent, older TAWS, or deactivation of the EGPWS, or ignoring its warnings when airport is not in its database still leave aircraft vulnerable to possible CFIT incidents. In April 2010, a Polish Air Force Tupolev Tu-154M aircraft crashed near Smolensk, Russia, in a possible CFIT accident killing all passengers and crew, the aircraft was equipped with TAWS made by Universal Avionics Systems of Tucson. According to the Russian Interstate Aviation Committee TAWS was turned on, however, the airport where the aircraft was going to land is not in the TAWS database. The system monitors an aircrafts height above ground as determined by a radar altimeter, a computer then keeps track of these readings, calculates trends, and will warn the captain with visual and audio messages if the aircraft is in certain defined flying configurations. Since it can gather data from directly below the aircraft. If there is a change in terrain, such as a steep slope. In the late 1990s improvements were made and the system was renamed Enhanced Ground Proximity Warning System, the system was now combined with a worldwide digital terrain database and relies on Global Positioning System technology. On-board computers compared its current location with a database of the Earths terrain, the Terrain Display now gave pilots a visual orientation to high and low points nearby the aircraft. EGPWS software improvements were focused on solving two problems, no warning at all, and late or improper response. The primary cause of CFIT occurrences with no GPWS warning is landing short, when the landing gear is down and landing flaps are deployed, the GPWS expects the airplane to land and therefore, issues no warning. EGPWS introduces the Terrain Clearance Floor function, which provides GPWS protection even in the landing configuration, the occurrence of a GPWS alert typically happens at a time of high workload and nearly always surprises the flight crew
28.
Sea level
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Mean sea level is an average level of the surface of one or more of Earths oceans from which heights such as elevations may be measured. A common and relatively straightforward mean sea-level standard is the midpoint between a low and mean high tide at a particular location. Sea levels can be affected by factors and are known to have varied greatly over geological time scales. The careful measurement of variations in MSL can offer insights into ongoing climate change, the term above sea level generally refers to above mean sea level. Precise determination of a sea level is a difficult problem because of the many factors that affect sea level. Sea level varies quite a lot on several scales of time and this is because the sea is in constant motion, affected by the tides, wind, atmospheric pressure, local gravitational differences, temperature, salinity and so forth. The easiest way this may be calculated is by selecting a location and calculating the mean sea level at that point, for example, a period of 19 years of hourly level observations may be averaged and used to determine the mean sea level at some measurement point. One measures the values of MSL in respect to the land, hence a change in MSL can result from a real change in sea level, or from a change in the height of the land on which the tide gauge operates. In the UK, the Ordnance Datum is the sea level measured at Newlyn in Cornwall between 1915 and 1921. Prior to 1921, the datum was MSL at the Victoria Dock, in Hong Kong, mPD is a surveying term meaning metres above Principal Datum and refers to height of 1. 230m below the average sea level. In France, the Marégraphe in Marseilles measures continuously the sea level since 1883 and it is used for a part of continental Europe and main part of Africa as official sea level. Elsewhere in Europe vertical elevation references are made to the Amsterdam Peil elevation, satellite altimeters have been making precise measurements of sea level since the launch of TOPEX/Poseidon in 1992. A joint mission of NASA and CNES, TOPEX/Poseidon was followed by Jason-1 in 2001, height above mean sea level is the elevation or altitude of an object, relative to the average sea level datum. It is also used in aviation, where some heights are recorded and reported with respect to sea level, and in the atmospheric sciences. An alternative is to base height measurements on an ellipsoid of the entire Earth, in aviation, the ellipsoid known as World Geodetic System 84 is increasingly used to define heights, however, differences up to 100 metres exist between this ellipsoid height and mean tidal height. The alternative is to use a vertical datum such as NAVD88. When referring to geographic features such as mountains on a topographic map, the elevation of a mountain denotes the highest point or summit and is typically illustrated as a small circle on a topographic map with the AMSL height shown in metres, feet or both. In the rare case that a location is below sea level, for one such case, see Amsterdam Airport Schiphol
29.
Backdrive
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A backdrive is a component used in reverse to obtain its input from its output. This extends to many concepts and systems from thought based to practical mechanical applications, not every system can be backdriven. A DC electrical generator can be implemented by backdriving a DC electric motor, example, A CNC vertical mill has a vertical lead screw on the Z-axis. A low lead screw pitch means when the motor power is removed such as by turning the machine off. Obviously this is a bad thing, the solution to prevent back-driving is to use a finer lead screw pitch or have a locking mechanism
30.
Flight recorder
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The flight data recorder is a device that preserves the recent history of the flight through the recording of dozens of parameters collected several times per second. The cockpit voice recorder preserves the recent history of the sounds in the including the conversation of the pilots. The two recorders give a testimony, narrating the aircrafts flight history, to assist in any later investigation. The FDR and CVR may be combined in a single unit, for this reason, they are typically specified to withstand an impact of 3400 g and temperatures of over 1,000 °C as required by EUROCAE ED-112. They have been required in commercial aircraft in the US since 1967, the latent image was made by a thin ray of light deviated by a mirror tilted according to the magnitude of the data to record. A pre-production run of 25 HB recorders was ordered in 1941, in 1947, Hussenot founded the Société Française des Instruments de Mesure with Beaudouin and another associate, so as to market his invention, which was also known as the hussenograph. This company went on to become a supplier of data recorders, used not only aboard aircraft but also trains. SFIM is today part of the Safran group and is present on the flight recorder market. The advantage of the technology was that it could be easily developed afterwards and provides a durable. On the other hand, unlike magnetic bands or later flash memory-based technology, a photographic film cannot be erased and recycled, and so it must be changed periodically. As such, this technology was reserved for one-shot uses, mostly during planned test flights, also, the cockpit conversation was not recorded. Another form of data recorder was developed in the UK during World War II. Len Harrison and Vic Husband developed a unit that could withstand a crash and this unit used copper foil as the recording medium with various styli indicating various instruments / aircraft controls which indented the copper foil. The copper foil was periodically advanced at set periods of time giving a history of the instruments / control settings of the aircraft. This unit was developed at Farnborough for the Ministry of Aircraft Production, at the wars end the Ministry got Harrison and Husband to sign over their invention to them and the Ministry patented it under British patent 19330/45. This unit was the forerunner of todays black boxes being able to withstand conditions that aircrew could not, the first modern flight recorder, called Mata Hari, was created in 1942 by Finnish aviation engineer Veijo Hietala. The Mata Hari black box is displayed in the Vapriikki Museum in Tampere, in 1953, Australian engineer David Warren conceived a device that would record not only the instruments reading, but also the cockpit voices, when working with the Australian Research Laboratories. He built the first prototype in 1958, the first coupled FDR / CVR prototype designed with civilian aircraft in mind, for explicit post-crash examination purposes, was produced in 1958
31.
Miami metropolitan area
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The Miami metropolitan area, also known as the Greater Miami Area or South Florida, is the 67th largest metropolitan area in the world and the eighth-largest metropolitan area in the United States. It is entirely located in the portion of the U. S. State of Florida. Its land area is 6,137 sq. mi, the three counties together have principal cities including Miami, Fort Lauderdale, Pompano Beach, West Palm Beach, and Boca Raton. Besides its association with the South Florida region, is also synonymous with an area known collectively as the Gold Coast. This includes the four counties of Martin, St. Lucie, Indian River. The Miami metropolitan statistical area is longer than any other urbanized area in the United States except for the New York metropolitan area and it was the eighth most densely populated urbanized area in the United States in the 2000 census. As of the 2000 census, the area had a land area of 1,116 square miles, with a population of 4,919,036. Miami and Hialeah had population densities of more than 10,000 per square mile, the Miami Urbanized Area was the fourth largest urbanized area in the United States in the 2010 census. The Miami metropolitan area includes several urban clusters as of the 2000 Census which are not part of the Miami Urbanized Area. The following is a list of the twenty largest cities in the Miami metropolitan area as ranked by population, the Miami area is a very diverse community with a large proportion of foreign-born residents, in large part due to its proximity to Latin America and the Caribbean. Another large factor are residents who were former snowbirds from the Northeast and, to a lesser extent, politically speaking, the region is heavily Democratic. Broward County is the second most reliably Democratic county in the state, as of the 2005 American Community Survey,5,334,685 people lived in the metropolis. The Miami area has a very large Jewish community,10. 2% of the population was Jewish in the 2000 Census, There is also a sizable Muslim community numbering at 70,000. Population, As of the 2010 U. S. Census,2.8 million were females and 2.6 million were males. The median age was 38.6 years, 24% of the population were under 18 years and 15% were 65 years and older. There were 2,097,626 households, and 1,378,108 families residing in the Miami metropolitan area, among people at least five years old living in the region in 2005, 52% spoke English at home while 48% spoke some other language at home. Of those speaking a language other than English at home, 78% spoke Spanish, households and families, There were 2,338,450 households, The average household size was 2.6 people. Families made up 65% of the households in the Miami area and this figure includes both married-couple families and other families
32.
Jeppesen
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Airlines and private pilots, airline operations centers, military teams, ship operators and boaters, as well as railway companies use Jeppesen charts, data, and operations management tools. The company is a subsidiary of Boeing, Jeppesen also publishes related software, some of which is used on its electronic flight bag and in others offered by avionics manufacturers and other third parties. Jeppesen is headquartered in Inverness, Colorado, a designated place in Arapahoe County. The postal designation of Englewood is used in the mailing address. Jeppesen has offices in locations around the world, including Neu-Isenburg, Massa, Crawley, Gothenburg, Canberra, the company employs approximately 3,200 people. In the navigation space, which is where Jeppesen started, Jeppesens charts are often called Jepp charts or simply Jepps by pilots, due to the charts de facto popularity. The company was founded in 1934, by Elrey Borge Jeppesen, a pilot working for Varney Air Lines, other pilots started to collect data on their own routes and handing this to Jeppesen for him to include in his navigation book. After a while the business started taking up so much of Jeppesens time that he quit his job as a Captain. The terminal at then-under-construction Denver International Airport was named in honor of Jeppesen founder Elrey Borge Jeppesen in February 1991, 1940s In 1941, Jeppesen moved the company from Salt Lake City, Utah, to Denver, Colorado. In 1947, Jeppesen and the CAA collaborated to introduce standard instrument approach procedures,1957, Jeppesen expanded to Europe by opening an office in Frankfurt, Germany to provide services to customers in Europe and beyond. 1961, The company was purchased by the Times-Mirror Company, 1970s In 1973, Jeppesen NavData® was first used commercially in flight management computer guidance systems. In 1974, Jeppesen entered the training business when Times-Mirror merged it with Sanderson Films. In 1989, Jeppesen purchased Lockheed DataPlan, a flight planning, Jeppesens current chief executive officer, Mark Van Tine, formerly worked for this company. 2000s In 2000, Jeppesen purchased Nobeltec, Inc. a Portland, Oregon-based company that provides marine navigation software and charts, In 2000, the company was headquartered in Gothenburg, Sweden, and had some 300 employees. C-MAP became part of Jeppesens marine division, in 2012, Jeppesen-designed arrival procedures are rolled out for Denver International Airport. In 2013, Jeppesen introduces Mobile FlightDeck VFR for general aviation pilots, in 2013, Jeppesen concludes sale of journey planning business to SilverRail Technologies. In 2014, Jeppesen rolls out FlightDeck Pro for Windows 8, in 2016, Jeppesen sold its Marine Division to Digital Marine Solutions. This includes the C-Map brand name and all products and services and this effectively ends Jeppesens investment in the Marine Industry
33.
Honeywell
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The company operates three business units, known as Strategic Business Units – Honeywell Aerospace, Honeywell Automation and Control Solutions, and Honeywell Performance Materials and Technologies. Honeywell is a Fortune 100 company, in 2016, Honeywell ranked 75th in the Fortune 500. Honeywell has a workforce of approximately 130,000, of whom approximately 58,000 are employed in the United States. The company is headquartered in Morris Plains, New Jersey and its current chief executive officer is Darius Adamczyk. The company and its predecessors were part of the Dow Jones Industrial Average Index from December 7,1925 until February 9,2008. The companys current name, Honeywell International Inc. is the product of a merger in which Honeywell Inc. was acquired by the much larger AlliedSignal in 1999. The company headquarters were consolidated with AlliedSignals headquarters in Morristown, New Jersey, in 2015, the headquarters were moved to Morris Plains. Honeywell has many brands that commercial and retail consumers may recognize, including its line of home thermostats, the following year he founded the Butz Thermo-Electric Regulator Company. As the years passed, CTCC struggled with growing debts, in 1906, Mark Honeywell founded the Honeywell Heating Specialty Company in Wabash, Indiana to manufacture and market his invention, the mercury seal generator. As Honeywell’s company grew it began to clash with the renamed Minneapolis Heat Regulator Company and this led to the merging of the two companies into the publicly held Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator Company in 1927. Honeywell named its first president, W. R. Sweatt as its first chairman, W. R. Sweatt and his son Harold provided 75 years of uninterrupted leadership for the company. W. R. Sweatt survived rough spots and turned an innovative idea – thermostatic heating control – into a thriving business. Harold, who took over in 1934, led Honeywell through a period of growth, the merger into the Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator Company proved to be a saving grace for the corporation. This expansion into international markets continued in 1936, with their first distributorship in London, by 1937, ten years after the merger, Minneapolis-Honeywell had over 3,000 employees, with $16 million in annual revenue. Having survived the Depression, Minneapolis-Honeywell was approached by the US military for engineering and manufacturing projects, in 1941, Minneapolis-Honeywell developed a superior tank periscope and camera stabilizers, as well as the C-1 autopilot. The C-1 revolutionized precision bombing in the war effort, and was used on the two B-29 bombers that dropped atomic bombs on Japan in 1945, Honeywell also helped develop and manufacture the RUR-5 ASROC for the US Navy. Technologically, this effort had parallels to contemporary efforts in missile guidance, Honeywell also developed the Wagtail missile with the USAF. From the 1950s until the mid-1970s, Honeywell was the United States importer of Pentax cameras, through most of the 1960s, Honeywell was one of the Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs of computing
34.
Terrain awareness and warning system
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A terrain awareness and warning system aims to prevent controlled flight into terrain accidents. The actual systems in current use are known as ground proximity warning system, the U. S. Federal Aviation Administration developed the TAWS term to encompass all current and future systems which meet the relevant FAA standards. New systems, with different names than GPWS and EGPWS, may be developed which meet TAWS objectives, as well, the term TAWS is sometimes used to refer to second-generation EGPWS systems as opposed to first generation GPWS systems, although this usage can be confusing. As of 2007, 5% of the commercial airlines still lack a TAWS. Several factors can still place aircraft at risk for CFIT accidents, older TAWS systems, deactivation of the EGPWS system, findings from these studies indicated that many such accidents could have been avoided if a warning device called a ground proximity warning system had been used. In 1978, the FAA extended the GPWS requirement to Part 135 certificate holders operating smaller airplanes and this requirement was considered necessary because of the complexity, size, speed, and flight performance characteristics of these airplanes. The GPWS equipment was considered essential in helping the pilots of these airplanes to regain altitude quickly, for example, it was thought that turboprop airplanes had a greater ability to respond quickly in situations where altitude control was inadvertently neglected, as compared to turbojet airplanes. Some of these studies also compared the effectiveness of the ground proximity advisory system to the GPWS. GPWS was found to be superior in that it would warn only when necessary, provide maximum warning time with minimal unwanted alarms, and use command-type warnings. Based on these reports and NTSB recommendations, in 1992 the FAA amended §135.153 to require GPWS equipment on all turbine-powered airplanes with ten or more passenger seats, the FAA has approved certain installations of this type of equipment, known as the enhanced ground proximity warning system. These improvements provide more time for the crew to make smoother. In 1998, the FAA issued Notice No, on March 23,2000, the FAA issued Amendments 91–263, 121–273, and 135-75 with an effective date of March 29,2001. These amendments amended the rules to require that all U. S. registered turbine-powered airplanes with six or more passenger seats be equipped with an FAA-approved TAWS. The mandate only affects aircraft manufactured after March 29,2002, the technology had not yet been developed for the unique flight characteristics of helicopters in 2000. A TAWS works by using digital elevation data and airplane instrumental values to predict if a future position of the aircraft intersects with the ground. The flight crew is provided with earlier aural and visual warning of impending terrain, forward looking capability. Class B TAWS is defined by the U. S. FAA as, A class of equipment that is defined in TSO-C151b, optional, Class B TAWS installation may provide a terrain awareness display that shows either the surrounding terrain or obstacles relative to the airplane, or both. Class C defines voluntary equipment intended for general aviation airplanes that are not required to install Class B equipment
35.
National Transportation Safety Board
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The National Transportation Safety Board is an independent U. S. government investigative agency responsible for civil transportation accident investigation. In this role, the NTSB investigates and reports on accidents and incidents, certain types of highway crashes, ship and marine accidents, pipeline incidents. When requested, the NTSB will assist the military and foreign governments with accident investigation, the NTSB is also in charge of investigating cases of hazardous materials releases that occur during transportation. The agency is based in Washington, D. C, as of December 2014, it has four regional offices located in Anchorage, Alaska, Denver, Colorado, Ashburn, Virginia, and Seattle, Washington. The agency also operates a training center at its Ashburn facility. The origin of the NTSB was in the Air Commerce Act of 1926, the USAs first independent Air Safety Board was established in 1938, it lasted only fourteen months. In 1940, this authority was transferred to the Civil Aeronautics Boards newly formed Bureau of Aviation Safety, in 1967, Congress created a separate cabinet-level Department of Transportation, which among other things established the Federal Aviation Administration as an agency under the DOT. At the same time, the NTSB was established as an independent agency which absorbed the Bureau of Aviation Safetys responsibilities. However, from 1967 to 1975, the NTSB reported to the DOT for administrative purposes, while conducting investigations into the Federal Aviation Administration, also a DOT agency. To avoid any conflict, Congress passed the Independent Safety Board Act, as of 2015, the NTSB has investigated over 140,000 aviation incidents and several thousand surface transportation incidents. Formally, the National Transportation Safety Board refers to a five-manager investigative board whose five members are nominated by the President, no more than three of the five members may be from the same political party. This board is authorized by Congress under Chapter 11, Title 49 of the United States Code to investigate civil aviation, highway, marine, pipeline, and railroad accidents and incidents. This five-member board is authorized to establish and manage separate sub-offices for highway, marine, aviation, railroad, pipeline, collectively, National Transportation Safety Board, the Safety Board or NTSB is used to refer to the entire investigative agency established and managed by this five-member board. As of December 2015, Christopher A. Hart is Chairman of the NTSB, the board also includes Robert L. Sumwalt and Earl F. Weener, and has one vacant seat. Based on the results of investigations within its jurisdiction, the NTSB issues formal safety recommendations to agencies, the NTSB considers safety recommendations to be its primary tool for preventing future civil transportation accidents. However, the NTSB does not have the authority to enforce its safety recommendations, the NTSB is the lead agency in the investigation of a civil transportation accident or incident within its sphere. The go team can have as few as 3-4 people or as many as a dozen, following the investigation, the agency may then choose to hold public hearings on the issue. Ultimately, it will publish a report which may include safety recommendations based on its findings
36.
Federal Aviation Administration
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The Federal Aviation Administration of the United States is a national authority with powers to regulate all aspects of civil aviation. The FAAs roles include, Regulating U. S, each LOB has a specific role within the FAA. Airports — plans and develops projects involving airports, overseeing their construction, Air Traffic Organization — primary duty is to safely and efficiently move air traffic within the National Airspace System. ATO employees manage air traffic facilities including Airport Traffic Control Towers, Aviation Safety — Responsible for aeronautical certification of personnel and aircraft, including pilots, airlines, and mechanics. Commercial Space Transportation — ensures protection of U. S. assets during the launch or reentry of commercial space vehicles, the FAA is headquartered in Washington, D. C. as well as the William J. The newly created Aeronautics Branch, operating under the Department of Commerce assumed primary responsibility for aviation oversight, in fulfilling its civil aviation responsibilities, the Department of Commerce initially concentrated on such functions as safety regulations and the certification of pilots and aircraft. It took over the building and operation of the system of lighted airways. The Aeronautics Branch was renamed the Bureau of Air Commerce in 1934 to reflect its status within the Department. As commercial flying increased, the Bureau encouraged a group of airlines to establish the first three centers for providing air traffic control along the airways, in 1936, the Bureau itself took over the centers and began to expand the ATC system. The pioneer air traffic controllers used maps, blackboards, and mental calculations to ensure the separation of aircraft traveling along designated routes between cities. In 1938, the Civil Aeronautics Act transferred the civil aviation responsibilities from the Commerce Department to a new independent agency. The legislation also expanded the role by giving them the authority. President Franklin D. Roosevelt split the authority into two agencies in 1940, the Civil Aeronautics Administration and the Civil Aeronautics Board, CAA was responsible for ATC, airman and aircraft certification, safety enforcement, and airway development. CAB was entrusted with safety regulation, accident investigation, and economic regulation of the airlines, the CAA was part of the Department of Commerce. The CAB was an independent federal agency, on the eve of Americas entry into World War II, CAA began to extend its ATC responsibilities to takeoff and landing operations at airports. This expanded role eventually became permanent after the war, the application of radar to ATC helped controllers in their drive to keep abreast of the postwar boom in commercial air transportation. The approaching era of jet travel, and a series of midair collisions and this legislation gave the CAAs functions to a new independent body, the Federal Aviation Agency. The act transferred air safety regulation from the CAB to the new FAA, the FAAs first administrator, Elwood R. Quesada, was a former Air Force general and adviser to President Eisenhower
37.
Allied Pilots Association
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The Allied Pilots Association is the labor union representing American Airlines pilots. APA was founded in 1963 by a group of American Airlines pilots who broke away from the Air Line Pilots Association, the five founding pilots of APA, Nick OConnell, Paul Atkins, Bob Guba, Joe Garvey, and Dick Lyons, were expelled for life from ALPA. The first headquarters was located in New York City before it moved to Fort Worth, APA provides all of the traditional union representation services for its members. This includes the lobbying of airline pilots views to the U. S. Congress, in addition, it devotes more than 20% of its dues income to support aviation safety. The Board of Directors consist of a chairman and vice chairman of the airlines eleven domiciles, serves as the body for the association. The board meets at least three times each year, with the fall meeting constituting the annual meeting, the association has numerous active committees made up of pilot volunteers that focus on key facets of a pilot’s working life. In 2001, on its pilots behalf, APA filed a lawsuit against American Airlines, the airline attempted to circumvent scope clause that placed limits on regional flying. It did so by altering the AmericanConnection IATA code to AX for flights operated by Chautauqua, the issue was settled in 2007 when a federal arbitrator ordered American to pay $23 million to APA members for violating the scope clause. The merger of American and US Airways resulted in the carriers pilot labor organizations to be combined, in 2014, USAPA merged into the much larger APA. At the time, USAPA had been under a permanent federal injunction but asked the judge to have the injunction lifted, the protagonist organization that opposed USAPA, known as America West Airlines Pilots Protective Alliance, was dissolved. APA membership is voluntary, however, American Airlines is an agency shop, employees represented by the union pay 1% of their salary per month via payroll deduction. American Pilots Act to Form New Union, // Aviation Week & Space Technology, April 15,1963, v.78, no. Court Delays Stall New Pilot Union, // Aviation Week & Space Technology, July 8,1963, v.79, no. Allied Pilots Association website American Airlines website
38.
Boeing Commercial Airplanes
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Boeing Commercial Airplanes is a division of The Boeing Company. It designs, assembles, markets, and sells jet airliners and business jets, it also provides product-related maintenance and training to customers worldwide. It operates from headquarters in Renton, Washington, with more than a dozen engineering, manufacturing. BCA includes the assets of the Douglas Aircraft division of the former McDonnell Douglas Corporation, Boeing Canada Boeing Training & Flight Services CDG Jeppesen, formerly Jeppesen Sanderson. Kevin G. McAllister was named President and CEO of Boeing Commercial Airplanes, McAllister is 53 years old and is a former executive at GE Aviation. For all models sold beginning with the Boeing 707 in 1957, all model designations from 707 through 787 have been assigned, leaving 797 as the only 7X7 model name not assigned to a product. Unlike other models, the 787 uses a single digit to designate the series and this convention was followed in the development of the newest version of the 747, the 747-8. The 747 is the model to use both the triple and single-digit designations. Passenger aircraft that are manufactured as passenger aircraft and later converted to freighter configuration by Boeing carry the suffix BCF designating a Boeing converted freighter. The table below lists only airliners from the jet era, the Boeing 707-138B was a shortened-fuselage, long-range model only sold to Qantas. The Boeing 757-200M was a model built for Royal Nepal Airlines. This plane could be converted between passenger and freighter configuration and it was launched by Royal Nepal Airlines in 1986 and delivered two years later. Boeing 747 The Shuttle Carrier Aircraft The Boeing 747 Large Cargo Freighter is a cargo aircraft. The 747SP production resumed nearly four years after the supposedly final 747SP was built and it had a cockpit crew of two instead of the three-crew layout of other 747SPs. Two Boeing VC-25s were built for the US Air Force as Presidential Air Force One transports and this model was a highly modified 747-200B. Boeing was a consultant to Sukhoi on the Russian Regional Jet program that became the Sukhoi Superjet 100 twin-engine narrowbody airliner. Boeing 2707 – supersonic airliner, canceled, Boeing 7J7 – high-efficiency propfan airliner, canceled and may later resume for Y1. Boeing 747-300 Trijet - high-efficiency trijet version of the Boeing 747-200, Boeing New Large Airplane – double-deck jumbo airliner, canceled
39.
Rolls-Royce Holdings
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This article is about the Rolls-Royce aircraft engine and power systems business and its owner since 1987. For previous owners, see Rolls-Royce Limited, for the present day manufacturers of automobiles for BMW, see Rolls-Royce Motor Cars. Rolls-Royce is the world’s second-largest maker of engines and has major businesses in the marine propulsion. All of its shares are tradeable on the London Stock Exchange, Rolls-Royce was the worlds 16th-largest defence contractor in 2011 and 2012 when measured by defence revenues. It had an order book of £71.6 billion as of January 2014. Rolls-Royce Holdings plc is listed on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE100 Index, as of June 2013, it had a market capitalisation of £22.22 billion, the 24th-largest of any company with a primary listing on the London Stock Exchange. Rolls-Royce grew from the business of F H Royce which was established in 1884 and ten years later began to manufacture dynamos. C S Rolls established a business with F H Royce in 1904 because Royce had developed a range of cars which Rolls wanted to sell. A corporate owner was incorporated in 1906 with the name Rolls-Royce Limited and its business and assets were bought by the government using a company created for the purpose named Rolls-Royce limited. This company remains in existence today and carries on Rolls-Royce business under the name Rolls-Royce plc, Rolls-Royce plc returned to the sharemarkets in 1987 under the government of Margaret Thatcher. In 2003 ownership of Rolls-Royce plc was passed to Rolls-Royce Group plc incorporated 21 March 2003 which issued its own new shares for payment to the previous shareholders. In 2011 in the same way Rolls-Royce Group plc passed ownership on 23 May 2011 to Rolls-Royce Holdings plc a wholly new company incorporated 10 February 2011, Rolls-Royce plc remains the principal trading company. Rolls-Royce Holdings plc, like its predecessor, is merely a holding company. The group included Clarke Chapman, Reyrolle and Parsons, the company was renamed Rolls-Royce Industrial Power Group. It was sold off piecemeal over the decade as the company re-focused on its core aero-engine operations following the recession of the early 1990s. On 21 November 1994, Rolls-Royce announced its intention to acquire the Allison Engine Company, the two companies had a technical association dating back to the Second World War. Rolls-Royce had previously tried to buy the company when General Motors sold it in 1993, owing to Allisons involvement in classified and export restricted technology, the 1994 acquisition was subject to investigation to determine the national security implications. On 27 March 1995, the US Department of Defense announced that the deal between Allison Engine Co. and Rolls-Royce does not endanger national security, in 2000, this restriction was replaced by a more flexible Special Security Arrangement
40.
International Civil Aviation Organization
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The International Civil Aviation Organization, is a specialized agency of the United Nations. It codifies the principles and techniques of international air navigation and fosters the planning and development of air transport to ensure safe. Its headquarters are located in the Quartier International of Montreal, Quebec, ICAO defines the protocols for air accident investigation followed by transport safety authorities in countries signatory to the Convention on International Civil Aviation. The Air Navigation Commission is the body within ICAO. The Commission is composed of 19 Commissioners, nominated by the ICAOs contracting states, Commissioners serve as independent experts, who although nominated by their states, do not serve as state or political representatives. The development of Aviation Standards and Recommended Practices is done under the direction of the ANC through the process of ICAO Panels. Once approved by the Commission, standards are sent to the Council, the forerunner to ICAO was the International Commission for Air Navigation. It held its first convention in 1903 in Berlin, Germany, at the second convention in 1906, also held in Berlin,27 countries attended. The third convention, held in London in 1912 allocated the first radio callsigns for use by aircraft, ICAN continued to operate until 1945. Fifty-two countries signed the Convention on International Civil Aviation, also known as the Chicago Convention, in Chicago, Illinois, on 7 December 1944. Under its terms, a Provisional International Civil Aviation Organization was to be established, accordingly, PICAO began operating on 6 June 1945, replacing ICAN. The 26th country ratified the Convention on 5 March 1947 and, consequently PICAO was disestablished on 4 April 1947 and replaced by ICAO, in October 1947, ICAO became an agency of the United Nations linked to the United Nations Economic and Social Council. In April 2013 Qatar offered to serve as the new permanent seat of the Organization, according to the Globe and Mail, Qatars move was at least partly motivated by the pro-Israel foreign policy of Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper. Approximately one month later, Qatar withdrew its bid after a proposal to the ICAOs governing council to move the ICAO triennial conference to Doha was defeated by a vote of 22–14. The 9th edition of the Convention on International Civil Aviation includes modifications from 1948 up to year 2006, ICAO refers to its current edition of the Convention as the Statute, and designates it as ICAO Document 7300/9. The Convention has 19 Annexes that are listed by title in the article Convention on International Civil Aviation, as of March 2016, there are 191 ICAO members, consisting of 190 of the 193 UN members, plus the Cook Islands. Liechtenstein has delegated Switzerland to implement the treaty to make it applicable in the territory of Liechtenstein, Taiwan attended the 38th Session of the ICAO Assembly in 2013, but in 2016 was denied such an invitation, despite expressions of support from the United States for Taiwan to participate. However, the Republic of China under the name of Chinese Taipei is a member of International Air Transport Association, the Council of ICAO is elected by the Assembly every 3 years and consists of 36 members elected in 3 categories
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Paris Kanellakis
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Paris Christos Kanellakis was a Greek American computer scientist. Kanellakis was born on December 3,1953 in Athens, Greece as the child of General Eleftherios. In 1976, he received a diploma in engineering from the National Technical University of Athens. He continued his studies at the level in electrical engineering. He received his M. Sc. degree in 1978 and his thesis Algorithms for a scheduling application of the Asymmetric Traveling Salesman Problem was supervised by Ron Rivest and Michael Athans, although Christos Papadimitriou was also involved. He then continued working for his Ph. D. with Papadimitriou as advisor and he submitted his thesis The complexity of concurrency control for distributed databases in September 1981. He was awarded the degree in February 1982. In 1981, he joined the Computer Science Department at Brown University as assistant professor and he obtained tenure as associate professor in 1986, and became full professor in 1990. Between 1982 and 1991, he paid several visits to the IBM T. J. His awards include an IBM Faculty Development Award and a Sloan Research Fellowship in mathematics, during 1989-90, he was IBM Associate Professor of Computer Science. He was born a Greek citizen, and obtained U. S. citizenship in 1988, while at Brown, he supervised seven Ph. D. theses there and one at MIT. He participated in the committees of numerous editions of international meetings, including PODS, VLDB, LICS, STOC, FOCS, STACS. Together with Alex Shvartsman, they co-authored the monograph Fault-Tolerant Parallel Computation, at the time of his death, the book was still incomplete. Past recipients include Leonard Adleman, Whitfield Diffie, Martin Hellman, Ralph Merkle, Ron Rivest, and Adi Shamir, Abraham Lempel and Jacob Ziv, Randy Bryant, Edmund Clarke, E. After donations from Kanellakiss parents, three graduate fellowships and a prize have been established in his memory at the three institutions where he studied and worked, Brown, MIT, and NTUA. Past recipients include Christos Amanatidis, Aris Anagnostopoulos, Alexandru Balan, Foteini Baldimtsi, in 1996, the Computer Science Department at Brown declared its 17th Industrial Partners Program symposium a celebration of Kanellakiss research career, inviting lectures by some of his co-authors. In 2002, the first Hellenic Data Management Symposium was held in his memory, in 2003, the meeting Principles of Computing & Knowledge, Paris C. Kanellakis Memorial Workshop was organized on the occasion of his 50th birthday, in the few years after Kanellakiss death, several scientific journals published technical obituaries of him and/or dedicated an issue to his memory
Pre-crash photo taken from Airliners.net