1.
Manufacturing
–
Manufacturing is the value added to production of merchandise for use or sale using labour and machines, tools, chemical and biological processing, or formulation. Manufacturing engineering or manufacturing process are the steps through which raw materials are transformed into a final product, the manufacturing process begins with the product design, and materials specification from which the product is made. These materials are modified through manufacturing processes to become the required part. Manufacturing takes turns under all types of economic systems, in a free market economy, manufacturing is usually directed toward the mass production of products for sale to consumers at a profit. In a collectivist economy, manufacturing is more directed by the state to supply a centrally planned economy. In mixed market economies, manufacturing occurs under some degree of government regulation, modern manufacturing includes all intermediate processes required the production and integration of a products components. Some industries, such as semiconductor and steel manufacturers use the term fabrication instead, the manufacturing sector is closely connected with engineering and industrial design. Examples of major manufacturers in North America include General Motors Corporation, General Electric, Procter & Gamble, General Dynamics, Boeing, Pfizer, examples in Europe include Volkswagen Group, Siemens, and Michelin. Examples in Asia include Sony, Huawei, Lenovo, Toyota, Samsung, in its earliest form, manufacturing was usually carried out by a single skilled artisan with assistants. In much of the world, the guild system protected the privileges. Before the Industrial Revolution, most manufacturing occurred in rural areas, entrepreneurs organized a number of manufacturing households into a single enterprise through the putting-out system. Toll manufacturing is an arrangement whereby a first firm with specialized equipment processes raw materials or semi-finished goods for a second firm, manufacturing provides important material support for national infrastructure and for national defense. On the other hand, most manufacturing may involve significant social and environmental costs, the clean-up costs of hazardous waste, for example, may outweigh the benefits of a product that creates it. Hazardous materials may expose workers to health risks and these costs are now well known and there is effort to address them by improving efficiency, reducing waste, using industrial symbiosis, and eliminating harmful chemicals. The negative costs of manufacturing can also be addressed legally, developed countries regulate manufacturing activity with labor laws and environmental laws. Across the globe, manufacturers can be subject to regulations and pollution taxes to offset the costs of manufacturing activities. Labor unions and craft guilds have played a role in the negotiation of worker rights. Environment laws and labor protections that are available in developed nations may not be available in the third world, tort law and product liability impose additional costs on manufacturing
Manufacturing
–
Textile factory (
Germany, circa 1975).
Manufacturing
Manufacturing
–
Assembly of Section 41 of a
Boeing 787 Dreamliner
Manufacturing
–
A female industrial
worker amidst heavy steel semi-products (KINEX BEARINGS,
Bytča,
Slovakia, c. 1995–2000)
2.
Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis
–
Saint-Denis is a commune in the northern suburbs of Paris, France. It is located 9.4 km from the centre of Paris, Saint-Denis is a subprefecture of the department of Seine-Saint-Denis, being the seat of the arrondissement of Saint-Denis. Saint-Denis is home to the necropolis of the Basilica of Saint Denis and was also the location of the associated abbey. It is also home to Frances national football and rugby stadium, Saint-Denis is a formerly industrial suburb currently changing its economic base. Inhabitants of Saint-Denis are called Dionysiens, until the 3rd century, Saint-Denis was a small settlement called Catolacus or Catulliacum, probably meaning estate of Catullius, a Gallo-Roman landowner. About 250 AD, the first bishop of Paris, Saint Denis, was martyred on Montmartre hill, shortly after 250 his grave became a shrine and a pilgrimage centre, with the building of the Abbey of Saint Denis, and the settlement was renamed Saint-Denis. In 1793, during the French Revolution, Saint-Denis was renamed Franciade in a gesture of rejection of religion, in 1803, however, under the Consulate of Napoléon Bonaparte, the city reverted to its former name of Saint-Denis. During its history, Saint-Denis has been associated with the French royal house. Starting from Dagobert I, almost every French king was buried in the Basilica, however, Saint-Denis is older than that. In the 2nd century, there was a Gallo-Roman village named Catolacus on the location that Saint-Denis occupies today, Saint Denis, the first bishop of Paris and patron saint of France, was martyred in about 250 and buried in the cemetery of Catolacus. Denis tomb quickly became a place of worship, around 475, Sainte Geneviève had a small chapel erected on Denis tomb, which by then had become a popular destination for pilgrims. It was this chapel that Dagobert I had rebuilt and turned into a royal monastery, during the Middle Ages, because of the privileges granted by Dagobert, Saint-Denis grew to become very important. Merchants from all over Europe came to visit its market, in 1140, Abbot Suger, counselor to the King, granted further privileges to the citizens of Saint-Denis. He also started the work of enlarging the Basilica of Saint Denis that still exists today, the new church was consecrated in 1144. Saint-Denis suffered heavily in the Hundred Years War, of its 10,000 citizens, during the French Wars of Religion, the Battle of Saint-Denis was fought between Catholics and Protestants on 10 November 1567. The Protestants were defeated, but the Catholic commander Anne de Montmorency was killed, in 1590, the city surrendered to Henry IV, who converted to Catholicism in 1593 in the abbey of Saint-Denis. King Louis XIV started several industries in Saint-Denis, weaving and spinning mills and dyehouses. His successor, Louis XV, whose daughter was a nun in the Carmelite convent, took a lively interest in the city, he added a chapel to the convent and also renovated the buildings of the royal abbey
Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis
–
The
Canal Saint-Denis with swing bridge, pedestrian overpass leading to the
Stade de France and the
Basilique Saint-Denis in the background.
Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis
–
Battle of Saint-Denis (1567)
Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis
–
Saint-Denis 1830
Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis
–
Maison d'éducation de la Légion d'honneur de Saint-Denis.
3.
Automobile
–
A car is a wheeled, self-powered motor vehicle used for transportation and a product of the automotive industry. The year 1886 is regarded as the year of the modern car. In that year, German inventor Karl Benz built the Benz Patent-Motorwagen, cars did not become widely available until the early 20th century. One of the first cars that was accessible to the masses was the 1908 Model T, an American car manufactured by the Ford Motor Company. Cars were rapidly adopted in the United States of America, where they replaced animal-drawn carriages and carts, cars are equipped with controls used for driving, parking, passenger comfort and safety, and controlling a variety of lights. Over the decades, additional features and controls have been added to vehicles, examples include rear reversing cameras, air conditioning, navigation systems, and in car entertainment. Most cars in use in the 2010s are propelled by a combustion engine. Both fuels cause air pollution and are blamed for contributing to climate change. Vehicles using alternative fuels such as ethanol flexible-fuel vehicles and natural gas vehicles are also gaining popularity in some countries, electric cars, which were invented early in the history of the car, began to become commercially available in 2008. There are costs and benefits to car use, the costs of car usage include the cost of, acquiring the vehicle, interest payments, repairs and auto maintenance, fuel, depreciation, driving time, parking fees, taxes, and insurance. The costs to society of car use include, maintaining roads, land use, road congestion, air pollution, public health, health care, road traffic accidents are the largest cause of injury-related deaths worldwide. The benefits may include transportation, mobility, independence. The ability for humans to move flexibly from place to place has far-reaching implications for the nature of societies and it was estimated in 2010 that the number of cars had risen to over 1 billion vehicles, up from the 500 million of 1986. The numbers are increasing rapidly, especially in China, India, the word car is believed to originate from the Latin word carrus or carrum, or the Middle English word carre. In turn, these originated from the Gaulish word karros, the Gaulish language was a branch of the Brythoic language which also used the word Karr, the Brythonig language evolved into Welsh where Car llusg and car rhyfel still survive. It originally referred to any wheeled vehicle, such as a cart, carriage. Motor car is attested from 1895, and is the formal name for cars in British English. Autocar is a variant that is attested from 1895
Automobile
–
Benz "Velo" model (1894) by German inventor
Carl Benz – entered into an
early automobile race as a
motocycle
Automobile
–
A modern car,
BMW E90
Automobile
–
Cugnot's 1771 fardier à vapeur, as preserved at the
Musée des Arts et Métiers, Paris
Automobile
–
Karl Benz, the inventor of the modern car
4.
France
–
France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
France
–
One of the
Lascaux paintings: a horse –
Dordogne, approximately 18,000 BC
France
–
Flag
France
–
The
Maison Carrée was a temple of the
Gallo-Roman city of Nemausus (present-day
Nîmes) and is one of the best preserved vestiges of the
Roman Empire.
France
–
With
Clovis ' conversion to Catholicism in 498, the
Frankish monarchy,
elective and
secular until then, became
hereditary and of
divine right.
5.
11th arrondissement of Paris
–
The 11th arrondissement of Paris is one of the 20 arrondissements of the capital city of France. Situated on the Right Bank of the River Seine, the 11th is one of the most densely populated urban districts not just of Paris, the eleventh arrondissement is a varied and engaging area. The Place de la Bastille and the rue du Faubourg St Antoine are full of fashionable cafés, restaurants, and nightlife, the Oberkampf district to the north is another popular area for nightlife. The east is residential, with more wholesale commerce, while the areas around the Boulevard Voltaire. In recent years this district has emerged as one of the trendiest regions of Paris, on November 13th 2015, it was the site of coordinated shootings and bombings that left 132 dead. The land area of this arrondissement is 3.666 km2, the peak population of Pariss 11th arrondissement occurred in 1911, with 242,295 inhabitants. Today, the arrondissement remains the most densely populated in Paris, accompanied by a volume of business activity,149,102 inhabitants and 71,962 jobs in the last census. The population consists of a number of single adults, though its eastern portions are more family-oriented. There is a community spirit in most areas of the eleventh. Cirque dhiver Église Saint-Ambroise ESCP-EAP Musée Édith Piaf Musée du Fumeur 11th arrondissement travel guide from Wikivoyage Mairie du 11e website
11th arrondissement of Paris
–
The
Cirque d'Hiver in the 11th arrondissement.
11th arrondissement of Paris
–
Cirque d'hiver
11th arrondissement of Paris
–
Église Saint-Ambroise
11th arrondissement of Paris
–
Arrondissement hall
6.
Cyclecar
–
A cyclecar was a type of small, lightweight and inexpensive car manufactured mainly between 1910 and the late 1920s. Cyclecars were characterised by their use of materials and sometimes fragile engineering and were largely contrived to fill a gap in the market between the motorcycle and the car. Their demise was largely the result of economies in the manufacture of more substantial economy cars such as the Austin 7. Vehicles with similar qualities produced after World War II, are categorized as microcars. Cyclecars were propelled by single-cylinder, V-twin or more rarely four-cylinder engines, sometimes these had been originally used in motorcycles and other components from this source such as gearboxes were also employed. They used various layouts and means of transmitting the power to the wheels. The rise of cyclecars was a result of reduced taxation both for registration and annual licences of lightweight small-engined cars. In France, for example, a car was classed for reduced rates if it weighed less than 350 kg and it was also decided to establish two classes of cyclecars, as follows, Large class Max. Engine capacity,1,100 cc Min. tyre section,60 mm Small class Min. weight,150 kg Max, engine capacity,750 cc Min. tyre section,55 mm All cyclecars were to have clutches and change-speed gears. This requirement could be fulfilled by even the simplest devices such as provision for slipping the belt on the pulley to act as a clutch, from 1898 to 1910, automobile production quickly expanded. Light cars of that era were known as voiturettes. From 1912, the Motor Cycle show at Olympia became the Motor Cycle and Cycle Car Show, some cyclecars such as Amilcar, Major or Salmson of France had sufficient performance and handling to be regarded as sports cars. The first race dedicated to cyclecars was organised by the Automobile Club de France in 1913, the Auto Cycle Union was to have introduced cycle car racing on the Isle of Man in September 1914, but the race was abandoned due to the onset of the war. By the early 1920s, the days of the cyclecar were numbered, mass producers, such as Ford, were able to reduce their prices to undercut those of the usually small cyclecar makers. Similar affordable cars were offered in Europe, such as the Citroën 5CV, the majority of cyclecar manufacturers closed down. Some companies such as Chater-Lea survived by returning to the manufacture of motorcycles, after World War II, small, economic cars were again in demand and a new set of manufacturers appeared. The cyclecar name did not reappear however and the cars were called microcars by enthusiasts, brass Era car Kei car Microcar Roadster List of motorcycles of 1900 to 1909 List of motorcycles of the 1910s List of motorcycles of the 1920s Worthington-Williams, Michael. From cyclecar to microcar the story of the cyclecar movement, minimal Motoring, From Cyclecar to Microcar
Cyclecar
–
1914
La Vigne cyclecar advertisement
7.
Paris Motor Show
–
The Paris Motor Show is a biennial auto show in Paris. Held during October, it is one of the most important auto shows, often with new production automobile. The show presently takes place in Paris expo Porte de Versailles, the Mondial is scheduled by the Organisation Internationale des Constructeurs dAutomobiles, which considers it a major international auto show. In 2014, the Paris Motor Show welcomed 1,253,513 visitors, making it the most visited auto show in the world, ahead of Tokyo, until 1986, it was called the Salon de lAutomobile, it took the name Mondial de lAutomobile in 1988. The show was held annually through 1976, since, it has been biennial, the show was the first motor show in the world, started in 1898 by industry pioneer, Albert de Dion. After 1910 it was held at the Grand Palais in the Champs-Élysées, during the First World War motor shows were suspended, meaning that the show of October 1919 was only the 15th Salon. There was again no Paris Motor Show in 1925, the venue having been booked instead for an Exhibition of Decorative Arts, in October 1926 the Motor Show returned, this being the 26th Paris Salon de lAutomobile. The outbreak of war again intervened in 1939 when the 33rd Salon de lAutomobile was cancelled at short notice, normality of a sorts returned some six years later and the 33rd Salon finally opened in October 1946. 1898 1st 1913 14th Salon de lAutomobile 1919 15th Salon de lAutomobile The first Salon since 1913,9 October 191965 French automobile makers exhibited. At least 118 exhibitors in total, there was no Salon de lAutomobile in 19201921 16th Salon de lAutomobile 1922 17th Salon de lAutomobile 4 October 192281 French automobile makers exhibited 113 exhibitors in total. 1923 18th Salon de lAutomobile 1924 19th Salon de lAutomobile 2 October 192478 French automobile makers exhibited 116 exhibitors in total,1931 25th Salon de lAutomobile 1 October 193139 French automobile makers and 37 non-French automobile makers exhibited. 1932 26th Salon de lAutomobile 1933 27th Salon de lAutomobile 5 October 193326 French automobile makers exhibited,1934 28th Salon de lAutomobile 1935 29th Salon de lAutomobile 1936 30th Salon de lAutomobile 1937 31st Salon de lAutomobile 7 October 193722 French automobile makers exhibited. 1938 32nd 1946 33rd 1947 34th Salon de lAutomobile 23 October 194727 French automobile makers exhibited,1948 35th 1949 36th 1950 37th 1951 38th Salon de lAutomobile 4 October 195123 French automobile makers exhibited. 1952 39th 1953 40th 1954 41st 1955 42nd 1956 43rd 1957 44th Salon de lAutomobile 3 October 195724 French automobile makers exhibited,1958 45th 1959 46th 1960 47th 1961 48th Salon de lAutomobile 5 October 19619 French automobile makers exhibited. 1962 49th Salon This was the first year the show was held at the Porte de Versailles on the outskirts of Paris,1963 50th 1964 51st 1965 52nd Salon de lAutomobile October 19659 French automobile makers exhibited
Paris Motor Show
–
12e. Salon de l'Automobile et du Cycle (Gaston Simoes de Fonseca, 1910).
Paris Motor Show
–
Salon de l'Automobile de Paris 1946
8.
Voiturette
–
A voiturette is a miniature automobile. Voiturette was first registered by Léon Bollée in 1895 to name his new motor tricycle, the term became so popular in the early years of the motor industry that it was used by many makers to describe their small cars. The word comes from the French word for automobile, voiture, in France, in the years after World War II a type of small three-wheeled vehicle voiturette was produced. In 1990s, voiturette became a French classification for a vehicle weighing less than 350 kilograms empty, the top speed is limited to 45 km/h and engine size to 50 cc or 4 kilowatts for an engine of another type for example an electric car. Such vehicles are also called motor quadricycles or motor tricycles. The drivers license for them are available to people over 16 years and are in category B1 and are valid, subject to restrictions, French maker Renaults first car was simply called Voiturette, instead of the common usage then. The 1900 model was considered the first ever sedan and it is seen as a predecessor for todays Clio or the smaller Twingo
Voiturette
–
Léon Bollée Voiturette 1895
Voiturette
–
Laurin & Klement A 1905
Voiturette
–
Delage Voiturette c. 1906
9.
Amilcar C4
–
The Amilcar C4 is a light sporting car designed for road use made between 1922 and 1929 by the French Amilcar company. The C4 is one of three models introduced by Amilcar in 1922, the others were the CC and the CS, the C4 was touted as a more economical and usable vehicle than the other more sporty models. Also available were a sedan, and a commercial version, the C4 chassis is a lengthened version of that of the Amilcar CC model. Coachwork for this vehicle was fabricated by subcontractors and delivered to the Amilcar for final assembly, the vehicle transmission provided three speeds, with power being sent to the rear wheels. The suspension used leaf springs in both the front and rear as well as fitted friction type dampers. Brakes were only provided on the rear wheels, the drum-type brakes were 220 mm diameter, and were operated by foot-pedal, which differed from the hand-lever operation employed in both the CS and CC automobiles. Standard equipment was ample for the period, consisting of a speedometer with recording odometer, an ammeter, the horn initially was a classical trumpet with rubber bulb, this was replaced by an electric horn beginning in 1925. Amilcar CC Fiat 509 Citroën Type C from Histomobile, C4 page from the Amilcar site, section covering the history and details of the C4 and of its specification page
Amilcar C4
–
Amilcar C4 2-Seater Sports 1923
10.
Flathead engine
–
A flathead engine is an internal combustion engine with valves placed in the engine block beside the piston, instead of in the cylinder head, as in an overhead valve engine. As the cylinder cross-section has the shape of an upside-down L, the sidevalves poppet valves are usually sited on one side of the cylinder. A recess in the head creates a corridor connecting the valves. The valve gear comprises a camshaft which operates the valves via simple tappets, indian, however, employs both rocker arms and pushrods to transmiit motion from the cam lobes to the valve stems. Flathead designs are commonly built new for many small engine applications of one. The main advantages of an engine are simplicity, reliability, low cost, compactness, responsive low-speed power, low mechanical engine noise. The absence of an overhead valve valvetrain allows a compact engine that is less expensive to manufacture. Even today, flatheads are common in lawnmowers and basic farm machinery, if a valve head breaks off, it may become lodged between the piston and the head causing severe damage. At top dead centre, the piston gets very close to the portion of the cylinder head above. The typical flathead engine has its valves adjacent, but the T-head variant acts as a cross-flow head, the main disadvantages of a sidevalve engine are poor gas flow, poor combustion chamber shape, and low compression ratio, all of which result in a low power output. The sidevalve configuration makes intake and exhaust gases follow a route, with low volumetric efficiency. Although a sidevalve engine can operate at high speed, its volumetric efficiency swiftly deteriorates. High volumetric efficiency was important for early cars because their engines rarely sustained extended high speeds. A compromise used by Willys, Rover and Rolls-Royce in the 1950s was the F-head, in there is one side valve. An advance in technology resulted from experimentation in the 1920s by Sir Harry Ricardo. Because the exhaust follows a path to leave the engine. In a T-head engine, the pairs have a crossflow configuration. American LaFrance powered their fire engines with T-head engines from the 1920s to the 1950s, the Cleveland Motorcycle Manufacturing Company produced a T-head four-cylinder in-line motorcycle engine in the 1920s, and early Stutz engines were T heads
Flathead engine
–
Harley-Davidson flathead engine
Flathead engine
–
Engine block of the
Ford flathead V8 engine showing the location of the valve ports (the holes above the large cylinder bores). These blocks were the basis of the original "Hotrod" Engines
Flathead engine
–
T head sidevalve arrangement
11.
Gearbox
–
A transmission is a machine in a power transmission system, which provides controlled application of the power. Often the term refers simply to the gearbox that uses gears and gear trains to provide speed. In British English, the term refers to the whole drivetrain, including clutch, gearbox, prop shaft, differential. In American English, however, the term more specifically to the gearbox alone. The most common use is in vehicles, where the transmission adapts the output of the internal combustion engine to the drive wheels. Such engines need to operate at a high rotational speed, which is inappropriate for starting, stopping. The transmission reduces the engine speed to the slower wheel speed. Transmissions are also used on bicycles, fixed machines. Often, a transmission has multiple gear ratios with the ability to switch between them as speed varies and this switching may be done manually or automatically. Directional control may also be provided, single-ratio transmissions also exist, which simply change the speed and torque of motor output. The output of the transmission is transmitted via the driveshaft to one or more differentials, while a differential may also provide gear reduction, its primary purpose is to permit the wheels at either end of an axle to rotate at different speeds as it changes the direction of rotation. Conventional gear/belt transmissions are not the mechanism for speed/torque adaptation. Alternative mechanisms include torque converters and power transformation, automatic transmissions use a valve body to shift gears using fluid pressures in conjunction with an ecm. Early transmissions included the right-angle drives and other gearing in windmills, horse-powered devices, and steam engines, in support of pumping, milling, most modern gearboxes are used to increase torque while reducing the speed of a prime mover output shaft. This means that the shaft of a gearbox rotates at a slower rate than the input shaft. A gearbox can be set up to do the opposite and provide an increase in speed with a reduction of torque. Some of the simplest gearboxes merely change the rotational direction of power transmission. Many typical automobile transmissions include the ability to select one of several gear ratios, in this case, most of the gear ratios are used to slow down the output speed of the engine and increase torque
Gearbox
–
Gears from a five-speed + reverse gearbox from the 1600 Volkswagen Golf (2009).
Gearbox
–
The main gearbox and rotor of a
Bristol Sycamore helicopter
Gearbox
–
Tractor transmission with 16 forward and 8 backward gears
Gearbox
–
Amphicar gearbox cutaway w/optional shift for water going propellers
12.
Germany
–
Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
Germany
–
The
Nebra sky disk is dated to c. 1600 BC.
Germany
–
Flag
Germany
–
Martin Luther (1483–1546) initiated the
Protestant Reformation.
Germany
–
Foundation of the
German Empire in
Versailles, 1871.
Bismarck is at the center in a white uniform.
13.
Austria
–
Austria, officially the Republic of Austria, is a federal republic and a landlocked country of over 8.7 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Hungary and Slovakia to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, the territory of Austria covers 83,879 km2. The terrain is mountainous, lying within the Alps, only 32% of the country is below 500 m. The majority of the population speaks local Bavarian dialects of German as their native language, other local official languages are Hungarian, Burgenland Croatian, and Slovene. The origins of modern-day Austria date back to the time of the Habsburg dynasty, from the time of the Reformation, many northern German princes, resenting the authority of the Emperor, used Protestantism as a flag of rebellion. Following Napoleons defeat, Prussia emerged as Austrias chief competitor for rule of a greater Germany, Austrias defeat by Prussia at the Battle of Königgrätz, during the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, cleared the way for Prussia to assert control over the rest of Germany. In 1867, the empire was reformed into Austria-Hungary, Austria was thus the first to go to war in the July Crisis, which would ultimately escalate into World War I. The First Austrian Republic was established in 1919, in 1938 Nazi Germany annexed Austria in the Anschluss. This lasted until the end of World War II in 1945, after which Germany was occupied by the Allies, in 1955, the Austrian State Treaty re-established Austria as a sovereign state, ending the occupation. In the same year, the Austrian Parliament created the Declaration of Neutrality which declared that the Second Austrian Republic would become permanently neutral, today, Austria is a parliamentary representative democracy comprising nine federal states. The capital and largest city, with a population exceeding 1.7 million, is Vienna, other major urban areas of Austria include Graz, Linz, Salzburg and Innsbruck. Austria is one of the richest countries in the world, with a nominal per capita GDP of $43,724, the country has developed a high standard of living and in 2014 was ranked 21st in the world for its Human Development Index. Austria has been a member of the United Nations since 1955, joined the European Union in 1995, Austria also signed the Schengen Agreement in 1995, and adopted the euro currency in 1999. The German name for Austria, Österreich, meant eastern realm in Old High German, and is cognate with the word Ostarrîchi and this word is probably a translation of Medieval Latin Marchia orientalis into a local dialect. Austria was a prefecture of Bavaria created in 976, the word Austria is a Latinisation of the German name and was first recorded in the 12th century. Accordingly, Norig would essentially mean the same as Ostarrîchi and Österreich, the Celtic name was eventually Latinised to Noricum after the Romans conquered the area that encloses most of modern-day Austria, around 15 BC. Noricum later became a Roman province in the mid-first century AD, heers hypothesis is not accepted by linguists. Settled in ancient times, the Central European land that is now Austria was occupied in pre-Roman times by various Celtic tribes, the Celtic kingdom of Noricum was later claimed by the Roman Empire and made a province
Austria
–
First appearance of the word "ostarrichi", circled in red. Modern Austria honours this document, dated 996, as the founding of the nation.
Austria
–
Flag
Austria
–
Venus of Willendorf, 28,000 to 25,000 BC.
Museum of Natural History Vienna
Austria
–
"Heidentor" – Remains of the
Roman military city of
Carnuntum
14.
Italy
–
Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
Italy
–
The
Colosseum in Rome, built c. 70 – 80 AD, is considered one of the greatest works of
architecture and
engineering of ancient history.
Italy
–
Flag
Italy
–
The
Iron Crown of Lombardy, for centuries symbol of the
Kings of Italy.
Italy
–
Castel del Monte, built by German Emperor
Frederick II,
UNESCO World Heritage site
15.
Marque
–
A brand is a name, term, design, symbol, or other feature that distinguishes one seller’s product from those of others. Brands are used in business, marketing, and advertising, however, the term has been extended to mean a strategic personality for a product or company, so that ‘brand’ now suggests the values and promises that a consumer may perceive and buy into. Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company from competitors, the key components that form a brands toolbox include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty, and various branding strategies. Brand equity is the totality of a brands worth and is validated by assessing the effectiveness of these branding components. To reach such an invaluable brand prestige requires a commitment to a way of doing business. A corporation who exhibits a strong brand culture is dedicated on producing intangible outputs such as customer satisfaction, reduced price sensitivity and customer loyalty. A brand is in essence a promise to its customers that they can expect long-term security, when a customer is familiar with a brand or favours it incomparably to its competitors, this is when a corporation has reached a high level of brand equity. Many companies are beginning to understand there is often little to differentiate between products in the 21st century. Branding remains the last bastion for differentiation, in accounting, a brand defined as an intangible asset is often the most valuable asset on a corporation’s balance sheet. The word ‘brand’ is often used as a referring to the company that is strongly identified with a brand. Marque or make are often used to denote a brand of motor vehicle, a concept brand is a brand that is associated with an abstract concept, like breast cancer awareness or environmentalism, rather than a specific product, service, or business. A commodity brand is a associated with a commodity. The word, brand, derives from Dutch brand meaning to burn and this product was developed at Dhosi Hill, an extinct volcano in northern India. Roman glassmakers branded their works, with Ennion being the most prominent, the Italians used brands in the form of watermarks on paper in the 13th century. Blind Stamps, hallmarks, and silver-makers marks are all types of brand, industrialization moved the production of many household items, such as soap, from local communities to centralized factories. When shipping their items, the factories would literally brand their logo or insignia on the barrels used, Bass & Company, the British brewery, claims their red-triangle brand as the worlds first trademark. Another example comes from Antiche Fornaci Giorgi in Italy, which has stamped or carved its bricks with the same proto-logo since 1731, cattle-branding has been used since Ancient Egypt. The term, maverick, originally meaning an un-branded calf, came from a Texas pioneer rancher, Sam Maverick, use of the word maverick spread among cowboys and came to apply to unbranded calves found wandering alone
Marque
–
Ferrari is the world's most powerful brand according to
Brand Finance.
Marque
–
The color, letter font and style of the
Coca-Cola and
Diet Coca-Cola logos in
English were copied into matching
Hebrew logos to maintain brand identity in Israel.
16.
Dohc
–
Compared to OHV pushrod systems with the same number of valves, the reciprocating components of the OHC system are fewer and have a lower overall mass. Though the system drives the camshafts may be more complex, most engine manufacturers accept that added complexity as a trade-off for better engine performance. The fundamental reason for the OHC valvetrain is that it offers an increase in the ability to exchange induction. Another performance advantage is gained as a result of the better optimised port configurations made possible with overhead camshaft designs, with no intrusive pushrods, the overhead camshaft cylinder head design can use straighter ports of more advantageous cross-section and length. The OHC design allows for higher speeds than comparable cam-in-block designs. The higher engine speeds thus allowed increases power output for a given torque output, in earlier OHC systems, including inter-war Morrises and Wolseleys, oil leaks in the lubrication systems were also an issue. Single overhead camshaft is a design in which one camshaft is placed within the cylinder head, in the SOHC design, the camshaft operates the valves directly, traditionally via a bucket tappet, or via an intermediary rocker arm. SOHC cylinder heads are less expensive to manufacture than double overhead camshaft cylinder heads. Timing belt replacement can be easier since there are fewer camshaft drive sprockets that need to be aligned during the replacement procedure, SOHC designs offer reduced complexity compared to overhead valve designs — when used for multivalve cylinder heads, in which each cylinder has more than two valves. Exhaust and inlet manifolds were both on the side of the engine block. This did, however, offer excellent access to the spark plugs, in the early 1980s, Toyota and Volkswagen Group also used a directly actuated, SOHC parallel valve configuration with two valves for each cylinder. The Toyota system used hydraulic tappets, the Volkswagen system used bucket tappets with shims for valve clearance adjustment. Honda later used a similar system in their motorcycles, using the term Unicam for the concept. This system uses one camshaft for each bank of cylinder heads, with the cams operating directly onto the valve and indirectly, through a short rocker arm. This allows a compact, light valvetrain to operate valves in a combustion chamber. The Unicam valve train was first used in single cylinder dirt bikes, a dual overhead camshaft valvetrain layout is characterised by two camshafts located within the cylinder head, one operating the intake valves and the other one operating the exhaust valves. This design reduces valvetrain inertia more than is the case with a SOHC engine, a DOHC design permits a wider angle between intake and exhaust valves than do SOHC engines. This can allow for a less restricted airflow at higher engine speeds, DOHC with a multivalve design also allows for the optimum placement of the spark plug which, in turn, improves combustion efficiency
Dohc
–
A
sectioned part of a
cylinder head cut along the plane of the
valvetrain shows two overhead camshafts — one above each of the two hollow-section
valves.
Dohc
–
A single overhead camshaft cylinder head from a 1987
Honda CRX Si.
Dohc
–
Section of a Triumph Dolomite Sprint cylinder head, highlighting the single cam operating both inlet (directly) and exhaust (through a rocker arm) valves.
Dohc
–
Overhead view of Suzuki
GS550 cylinder head showing double camshafts and chain-drive sprockets.
17.
Roller bearing
–
A rolling-element bearing, also known as a rolling bearing, is a bearing which carries a load by placing rolling elements between two bearing rings called races. The relative motion of the causes the rolling elements to roll with very little rolling resistance. One of the earliest and best-known rolling-element bearings are sets of logs laid on the ground with a stone block on top. As the stone is pulled, the roll along the ground with little sliding friction. As each log comes out the back, it is moved to the front where the block then rolls on to it and it is possible to imitate such a bearing by placing several pens or pencils on a table and placing an item on top of them. See bearings for more on the development of bearings. A rolling element rotary bearing uses a shaft in a larger hole. As the shaft turns, each acts as the logs in the above example. However, since the bearing is round, the rollers never fall out from under the load, rolling-element bearings have the advantage of a good tradeoff between cost, size, weight, carrying capacity, durability, accuracy, friction, and so on. Only plain bearings are used as widely as rolling-element bearings, there are five types of rolling elements that are used in rolling-element bearings, balls, cylindrical rollers, spherical rollers, tapered rollers, and needle rollers. The cages reduce friction, wear, and bind by preventing the elements from rubbing against each other, caged roller bearings were invented by John Harrison in the mid-18th century as part of his work on chronometers. Typical rolling-element bearings range in size from 10 mm diameter to a few metres diameter, a particularly common kind of rolling-element bearing is the ball bearing. The bearing has inner and outer races between which balls roll, each race features a groove usually shaped so the ball fits slightly loose. Thus, in principle, the ball contacts each race across a narrow area. However, a load on a small point would cause infinitely high contact pressure. In practice, the ball deforms slightly where it contacts each race much as a tire flattens where it contacts the road, the race also yields slightly where each ball presses against it. Thus, the contact between ball and race is of size and has finite pressure. Note also that the ball and race do not roll entirely smoothly because different parts of the ball are moving at different speeds as it rolls
Roller bearing
–
A gear bearing
Roller bearing
–
A sealed deep groove ball bearing
Roller bearing
–
A needle roller bearing
Roller bearing
–
A prematurely failed rear bearing cone from a
mountain bicycle, caused by a combination of
pitting due to wet conditions, improper lubrication, and fatigue from frequent shock loading.
18.
Crankshaft
–
A crankshaft—related to crank—is a mechanical part able to perform a conversion between reciprocating motion and rotational motion. In a reciprocating engine, it translates reciprocating motion of the piston into rotational motion, whereas in a reciprocating compressor, a Roman iron crank of yet unknown purpose dating to the 2nd century AD was excavated in Augusta Raurica, Switzerland. The 82.5 cm long piece has fitted to one end a 15 cm long bronze handle, the accompanying inscription is in Greek. The crank and connecting rod mechanisms of the other two archaeologically attested sawmills worked without a gear train, al-Jazari described a crank and connecting rod system in a rotating machine in two of his water-raising machines. His twin-cylinder pump incorporated a crankshaft, though the device was unnecessarily complex, the Italian physician Guido da Vigevano, planning for a new crusade, made illustrations for a paddle boat and war carriages that were propelled by manually turned compound cranks and gear wheels. In Renaissance Italy, the earliest evidence of a crank and connecting-rod is found in the sketch books of Taccola. A sound grasp of the motion involved is demonstrated a little later by Pisanello. One of the drawings of the Anonymous of the Hussite Wars shows a boat with a pair of paddle-wheels at each end turned by men operating compound cranks. Crankshafts were also described by Konrad Kyeser, Leonardo da Vinci and his wind-powered sawmill used a crankshaft to convert a windmills circular motion into a back-and-forward motion powering the saw. Corneliszoon was granted a patent for his crankshaft in 1597, large engines are usually multicylinder to reduce pulsations from individual firing strokes, with more than one piston attached to a complex crankshaft. Many small engines, such as found in mopeds or garden machinery, are single cylinder and use only a single piston. A crankshaft is subjected to stresses, potentially equivalent of several tonnes of force. The crankshaft is connected to the fly-wheel, the block, using bearings on the main journals. An engine loses up to 75% of its energy in the form of friction, noise and vibration in the crankcase. The remaining losses occur in the heat and blow by. The crankshaft has a linear axis about which it rotates, typically with several bearing journals riding on replaceable bearings held in the engine block. As the crankshaft undergoes a great deal of sideways load from each cylinder in an engine, it must be supported by several such bearings. This was a factor in the rise of V8 engines, with their shorter crankshafts, the long crankshafts of the latter suffered from an unacceptable amount of flex when engine designers began using higher compression ratios and higher rotational speeds
Crankshaft
–
Roman crankshaft dated to the 2nd century AD. The right handle is lost.
Crankshaft
–
Flat-plane crankshaft (red), pistons (gray) in their cylinders (blue), and flywheel (black)
Crankshaft
–
Vigevano 's war carriage
Crankshaft
–
15th century paddle-wheel boat whose paddles are turned by single-throw crankshafts (Anonymous of the
Hussite Wars)
19.
Touring car
–
A touring car is an open car seating four or more. A popular car body style in the twentieth century, it declined in popularity in the 1920s when closed bodies became less expensive. A tourer, in Britain and the Commonwealth, is a vehicle, however. The term all-weather tourer was used to describe open vehicles that could be fully enclosed, a popular version of the touring car style was the torpedo, with the hood/bonnet line at the cars waistline giving the car a straight line from front to back. This eventually became the version of the touring car. In 1916, the US-based Society of Automobile Engineers defined a touring car as, the term has also been defined as an open car seating five or more. Touring cars may have two or four doors, engines on early models were either in the front, or in a mid-body position. When the top was folded down, it formed a bulky mass known as the fan behind the seat, fan covers were made to protect the top. The touring car style was popular in the early 20th century, being an alternative to the runabout. Most of Model Ts produced by Ford between 1908 and 1927 were four and then three-door models touring cars, accounting for 6,519,643 cars sold out of the 15,000,000 estimated Model Ts built. The popularity of the car began to wane in the 1920s when cars with enclosed passenger compartments became more affordable. In Australia tourers may have two or four doors, the belt lines of tourers were often lowered in the front doors to give the car a more sporting character. And would then be named sports tourers, the torpedo body style was a type of touring body used from the early twentieth century until the mid-1920s. A torpedos hood line was level with the waistline, giving a straight line from front to back. The torpedo style became the style of touring car and the name fell into disuse around 1920
Touring car
–
1913
Maxwell Model 24-4 touring car
Touring car
–
1920
Studebaker Big Six touring car with its top down. The folded top behind passengers was known as the "fan" when in the down position.
Touring car
–
1924
Ford Model T touring car
Touring car
–
A 1948
Ford Anglia A54A Tourer with hood down and side curtains attached. The belt line in the front door is lowered.
20.
Amilcar M
–
The Amilcar M is a mid-sized car, initially in the 7CV car tax band, made between 1928 and 1935 by the French Amilcar company. Most of the cars were delivered with a four door “berline” body characteristic of the late 1920s. Initially the car was known as the “Amilcar Type M”, launched in an attempt by the manufacturer to recover from the fiasco of the predecessor models. Top speed would have varied according to the weight and style of the body specified, power was transferred from the front-mounted engine to the rear wheels via a four speed manual gear-box. The suspension combined leaf springs with Hartford dampers, front and back, for 1929 the “Type M” was replaced with the “Type M2”, incorporating minor improvements. The process was repeated for 1931 when the “Type M3”, incorporating further modest upgrades, the “Type M3” continued to be offered until 1935. These were nevertheless difficult times for Amilcar, in the event, the “Type M” did in fact have an Amilcar successor in the form of the innovative Amilcar Compound, exhibited at the Paris Motor Show in October 1937
Amilcar M
–
Amilcar M2 Berline ca 1932
21.
Ohc
–
Compared to OHV pushrod systems with the same number of valves, the reciprocating components of the OHC system are fewer and have a lower overall mass. Though the system drives the camshafts may be more complex, most engine manufacturers accept that added complexity as a trade-off for better engine performance. The fundamental reason for the OHC valvetrain is that it offers an increase in the ability to exchange induction. Another performance advantage is gained as a result of the better optimised port configurations made possible with overhead camshaft designs, with no intrusive pushrods, the overhead camshaft cylinder head design can use straighter ports of more advantageous cross-section and length. The OHC design allows for higher speeds than comparable cam-in-block designs. The higher engine speeds thus allowed increases power output for a given torque output, in earlier OHC systems, including inter-war Morrises and Wolseleys, oil leaks in the lubrication systems were also an issue. Single overhead camshaft is a design in which one camshaft is placed within the cylinder head, in the SOHC design, the camshaft operates the valves directly, traditionally via a bucket tappet, or via an intermediary rocker arm. SOHC cylinder heads are less expensive to manufacture than double overhead camshaft cylinder heads. Timing belt replacement can be easier since there are fewer camshaft drive sprockets that need to be aligned during the replacement procedure, SOHC designs offer reduced complexity compared to overhead valve designs — when used for multivalve cylinder heads, in which each cylinder has more than two valves. Exhaust and inlet manifolds were both on the side of the engine block. This did, however, offer excellent access to the spark plugs, in the early 1980s, Toyota and Volkswagen Group also used a directly actuated, SOHC parallel valve configuration with two valves for each cylinder. The Toyota system used hydraulic tappets, the Volkswagen system used bucket tappets with shims for valve clearance adjustment. Honda later used a similar system in their motorcycles, using the term Unicam for the concept. This system uses one camshaft for each bank of cylinder heads, with the cams operating directly onto the valve and indirectly, through a short rocker arm. This allows a compact, light valvetrain to operate valves in a combustion chamber. The Unicam valve train was first used in single cylinder dirt bikes, a dual overhead camshaft valvetrain layout is characterised by two camshafts located within the cylinder head, one operating the intake valves and the other one operating the exhaust valves. This design reduces valvetrain inertia more than is the case with a SOHC engine, a DOHC design permits a wider angle between intake and exhaust valves than do SOHC engines. This can allow for a less restricted airflow at higher engine speeds, DOHC with a multivalve design also allows for the optimum placement of the spark plug which, in turn, improves combustion efficiency
Ohc
–
A
sectioned part of a
cylinder head cut along the plane of the
valvetrain shows two overhead camshafts — one above each of the two hollow-section
valves.
Ohc
–
A single overhead camshaft cylinder head from a 1987
Honda CRX Si.
Ohc
–
Section of a Triumph Dolomite Sprint cylinder head, highlighting the single cam operating both inlet (directly) and exhaust (through a rocker arm) valves.
Ohc
–
Overhead view of Suzuki
GS550 cylinder head showing double camshafts and chain-drive sprockets.
22.
Delahaye
–
Delahaye automobile was an automotive manufacturing company founded by Émile Delahaye in 1894, in Tours, France, his home town. His first cars were belt-driven, with single- or twin-cylinder engines mounted at the rear and his Type One was an instant success, and he urgently needed investment capital and a larger manufacturing facility. All three worked with the workers to assemble the new machines, but middle-aged Émile was not in good health. In January 1901, he found himself unable to capably continue, Émile Delahaye died soon after, in 1905. Delahaye had hired two men, Charles Weiffenbach and Amédée Varlet in 1898, to assist the three partners. Both were graduate mechanical engineers, and they remained with Delahaye their entire working careers, Amédée Varlet was the companys design-engineer, with a number of innovative inventions to his credit, generated between 1905 and 1914, which Delahaye patented. These included the twin-cam multi-valve engine, and the V6 configuration, Varlet continued in this role until he eventually took over the Drawing Office, at 76 years of age, when much younger Jean François was hired in 1932 as chief design-engineer. In 1932, Varlet was instructed by Weiffenbach, under direction from majority shareholder Madame Desmarais, Leon Desmarais widow, to set up the companys Racing Department and those who knew him well at the factory affectionately referred to Charles Weiffenbach as Monsieur Charles. Delahaye began experimenting with belt-driven cars while manager of the Brethon Foundry and Machine-works in Tours and these experiments encouraged an entry in the 1896 Paris–Marseille–Paris race, held between 24 September-3 October 1896, fielding one car for himself and one for sportsman Ernest Archdeacon. The winning Panhard averaged 15.7 mph, Archdeacon came sixth, averaging 14 mph, while Delahaye himself was eighth, for the 1897 Paris-Dieppe, the 6 hp four-cylinder Delahayes ran in four- and six-seater classes, with a full complement of passengers. Archdeacon was third in the four-seaters behind a De Dion-Bouton and a Panhard, Courtois winning the six-seater class, the July Paris-Amsterdam-Paris earned a satisfying class win for Giver in his Delahaye, the overall win went to Panhard. Soon after the new company was formed in 1898, the firm moved its manufacturing from Tours to Paris, Charles Weiffenbach was named Operations Manager. In 1899, Archdeacon piloted an 8 hp racer in the Nice-Castellane-Nice rally, coming eighth, founder Émile Delahaye retired in 1901, leaving Desmarais and Morane in control, Weiffenbach took over from them in 1906. Delahayes racing days were over with Émile Delahayes death, Charles Weiffenbach had no interest in racing, and focused his production on responsible motorized automotive chassis, heavy commercial vehicles, and early firetrucks for the French government. Race-cars had become a thing of the past for Delahaye, until 1933, when Madame Desmarais caused her company to change direction 180 degrees, the new 10B debuted in 1902. It had a 2,199 cc vertical twin rated 12/14 hp by RAC, mounted in front, with cylinder head, steering wheel. Delahaye also entered the Paris-Vienna rally with a 16 hp four, at the same years Ardennes event, Perrins 16 hp four came tenth. Also in 1902, the singles and twins ceased to be offered except as light vans, before production ceased in 1904, Delahayes first production four, the Type 13B, with 24/27 hp 4. 4-litre, appeared in 1903
Delahaye
–
Industry
Delahaye
–
Delahaye 135 MS Pourtout
cabriolet
Delahaye
–
1899 built vehicle in 2006
Delahaye
–
Engine Delahaye Type 32L Limousine 1912
23.
Boulogne-Billancourt
–
Boulogne-Billancourt is a commune in the western suburbs of Paris, France. It is located 8.2 km from the centre of Paris, Boulogne-Billancourt is a subprefecture of the Hauts-de-Seine department and the seat of the Arrondissement of Boulogne-Billancourt. With an average income in 2013 of €47,592, nearly twice the French average of €25,548. Boulogne-Billancourt is the most populous suburb of Paris and one of the most densely populated municipalities in Europe, formerly an important industrial site, it has successfully reconverted into business services and is now home to major communication companies headquartered in the Val de Seine business district. The original name of the commune was Boulogne-sur-Seine, before the 14th century, Boulogne was a small village called Menuls-lès-Saint-Cloud. The church, meant to become a pilgrimage centre closer to Paris than the distant city of Boulogne-sur-Mer, was named Notre-Dame de Boulogne la Petite, gradually, the village of Menuls-lès-Saint-Cloud became known as Boulogne-la-Petite, and later as Boulogne-sur-Seine. In 1924, Boulogne-sur-Seine was officially renamed Boulogne-Billancourt to reflect the development of the neighbourhood of Billancourt annexed in 1860. As for the name Billancourt, it was recorded for the first time in 1150 as Bullencort and it comes from Medieval Latin cortem, accusative of cors, meaning enclosure, estate, suffixed to the Germanic patronym Buolo, thus having the meaning of estate of Buolo. On 1 January 1860, the city of Paris was enlarged by annexing neighbouring communes, on that occasion, the communes of Auteuil and Passy were disbanded and divided between Boulogne-Billancourt and the city of Paris. Boulogne-sur-Seine received a part of the territory of Passy. Some of the events of the 1900 Summer Olympics took place in Boulogne-Billancourt. In 1929, the Bois de Boulogne, which was divided between the communes of Boulogne-Billancourt and Neuilly-sur-Seine, was annexed in its entirety by the city of Paris. On that occasion, Boulogne-Billancourt, to which most of the Bois de Boulogne belonged, Boulogne-Billancourt is famous for being the birthplace of three major French industries, cinema, automobile with Renault at Île Seguin, and aircraft. It is also famous for being the setting of the TV show Code Lyoko, with the city of Sèvres, Boulogne-Billancourt is part of the communauté dagglomération Val de Seine. Boulogne-Billancourt is served by two stations on Paris Métro Line 10, Boulogne – Jean Jaurès and Boulogne – Pont de Saint-Cloud and it is also served by three stations on Paris Métro Line 9, Marcel Sembat, Billancourt, and Pont de Sèvres. The Musée Albert-Kahn at 14, rue du Port, Boulogne-Billancourt is a museum and includes four hectares of gardens. The museum also includes photographs and film. The Musée des Années Trente is a museum of artistic and industrial objects from the 1930s, see also, Enseignement à Boulogne-Billancourt The public collèges in the commune include Jacqueline-Auriol, Bartholdi, Paul-Landowski, and Jean-Renoir
Boulogne-Billancourt
–
The church of Our Lady of Boulogne-Billancourt
24.
Hotchkiss (car)
–
Hotchkiss were luxury cars made between 1903 and 1955 by the French company Hotchkiss et Cie in Saint-Denis, Paris. The badge for the marque showed a pair of crossed cannons, the first Hotchkiss car, a 17 CV four-cylinder model, appeared in 1903. The engine of the 20 CV type C was heavily based on the Mercedes Simplex except that wherever possible it used ball bearings rather than plain ones, six-cylinder models, the types L and O followed in 1907. The ball bearing engines lasted until the 30CV type X of 1910, in that same year Hotchkiss moved into a smaller car market with the 2212cc type Z. With the outbreak of World War I, the factory turned to war production, car production resumed in France 1919 with the pre war types AD, AD6, AF and AG. During World War I, they produced machine guns and tested them from the factory roof. After an attempt to enter the market with the AK, which did not get beyond the prototype stage. Later that year the Coventry plant was sold to Morris, Henry Mann Ainsworth and Alfred Herbert Wilde who had run it, moved to Paris to become general manager and chief engineer of the car division respectively. In 1926 construction of the new factory in the Boulevard Ornano was completed, the one model policy lasted until 1929 when the six-cylinder AM73 and AM80 models were announced. 73 and 80 stood for the bore of the engines used, although most cars had bodies that were factory built, Hotchkiss still was a luxury car brand, and so coachbuilder Veth and Sons built a small number of bodies for the AM80. The AM models were replaced by a new range in 1933 with a new naming system, the 411 was an 11CV model with four-cylinder engine, the 413 a 13CV four and the 615,617 and 620 were similar six-cylinder types. The new naming scheme introduced in 1936 consisted of the number of cylinders, the armament side of the company and the body stamping plant were nationalised in 1936 by the Front Populaire government. The car company in 1937 took over Amilcar, with re-armament speeding up they also started making military vehicles and light tanks. However, as the situation deteriorated the decision was taken, on 20 May 1940. However, the national capitulation implicit in the signing of the armistice on 22 June left these efforts looking somewhat irrelevant, and most of the employees drifted back in the ensuing weeks. Two exceptions were the Commercial Director, Jacques Jacobsen and the English born General Director, during the war, like many businesses in the occupied zone, the company was obliged to work for the occupiers and was engaged in the repair of military vehicles. The suggestion from Lehideux derived from a German law dated 18 October 1940 authorising the confiscation of businesses controlled by Jews, the Peugeot business itself had been operating, grudgingly, under overall German control since the summer of 1940. In any event, in July 1942 Peugeot took a share in the Hotchkiss business and towards the end of 1942 the names of Peugeot
Hotchkiss (car)
–
Hotchkiss logo on GS car.
Hotchkiss (car)
–
Hubert and Mme Le Blon at the
1906 Targa Florio driving a Hotchkiss 35 hp
Hotchkiss (car)
–
1931 Hotchkiss Sports
Hotchkiss (car)
–
Hotchkiss 686 produced from 1936 to 1952
25.
Popular Front (France)
–
Blums government implemented various social reforms. All employees were assured a two-week paid vacation, and the rights of unions were strengthened, the socialist movements euphoria was apparent in SFIO member Marceau Piverts Tout est possible. However, the continued to stall, by 1938 production still had not recovered to 1929 levels. Blum was forced to stop his reforms and devalue the franc, with the French Senate controlled by conservatives, Blum, and thus the whole Popular Front, fell out of power in June 1937. Blum was then replaced by Camille Chautemps, a Radical, but Blum came back as President of the Council in March 1938, before being succeeded by Édouard Daladier, another Radical, the next month. After one year of activity, it lost its spirit by June 1937. The Socialists were forced out, only the Radicals were left and it failed to live up to the expectations of the left. The workers did gain new rights, but their 48 percent increase in wages was offset by a 46 percent rise in prices. Unemployment remained high, and overall production was stagnant. France joined other nations and refused to help the Spanish Republicans in the Spanish Civil War, the refusal bitterly disappointed the French Left. The idea of a Popular Front came from two directions, first, the view, following the 6 February 1934 riots, that the far-right had tried to organize a coup détat against the Republic. Thus, both the consequences of the 1934 riots, which had removed the second Cartel des gauches from power, the Radicals were at the time the largest party in the Chamber, governing throughout most of the Third Republic. The first Popular Front cabinet consisted of 20 Socialists,13 Radicals, through the 1936 Matignon Accords, the Popular Front government introduced new labor laws. Ensured that there would be no retaliation against strikers, the government sought to carry out its reforms as rapidly as possible. On 11 June, the Chamber of Deputies voted for the forty-hour workweek, the restoration of civil servants salaries, the Senate voted in favour of these laws within a week. The Blum administration democratised the Bank of France by enabling all shareholders to attend meetings, other measures carried out by the Popular Front government improved the pay, pensions, allowances and tax-obligations of public-sector workers and ex-servicemen. The 1920 Sales Tax, opposed by the Left as a tax on consumers, was abolished and replaced by a production tax, which was considered to be a tax on the producer instead of the consumer. The government also made some changes to the civil service, such as a new director-general for the Paris police
Popular Front (France)
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general election of 3 May 1936
26.
Peugeot 402
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The Peugeot 402 is a large family car produced in Sochaux, France from 1935 to 1942 by Peugeot. It was unveiled in Paris Motor Show in 1935, replacing the Peugeot 401, the Peugeot 403, introduced approximately thirteen years after the demise of the 402, can be seen as the older car’s natural heir. The 402 was characterized by what became during the 1930s a typically Peugeot front end, the style of the body was reminiscent of the Chrysler Airflow, and received in France the soubriquet Fuseau Sochaux which loosely translates as Sochaux spindle. Recessed ‘safety’ door handles also highlighted the car’s innovative aspirations, as did the automatic transmission. Comparisons with Citroëns large family car of the time were and remain unavoidable, sticking to a traditional separate chassis configuration also made it much easier for Peugeots 402 to be offered with a wide range of different bodies. The wide range of car bodies was therefore devised to maximise the sharing of panels between the different body variants listed. There were three different standard wheelbases of 2,880 mm,3,150 mm and 3,300 mm. When the 402 was launched in 1935 there were just two chassis lengths, but for 1937 the manufacturer added a third “short” chassis, inherited from the short-lived Peugeot 302, the short chassis was used from 1937 for the Peugeot 402 Légère. The Peugeot 402 Légère was first exhibited in July 1937 and was featured on the Peugeot stand in place of the Peugeot 302 at that year’s October Motor Show. The car combined the 2,880 mm wheelbase and body from the Peugeot 302 with the larger 1991 cc engine of the Peugeot 402. Whereas the 302 had produced an output of 43 hp at 4,000 rpm. That translated into a difference in listed top speed between 105 km/h and 125 km/h, the simple formula of combining one existing bodyshell with another engine that was also already in production enabled the manufacturer to produce an attractively brisk car with minimum investment. From the outside the 402 Légère was initially virtually indistinguishable from the 302, although sources tend to refer to the 402 Légère as a single model, there was nevertheless a choice of at least three bodies. Priced at 24,900 Francs in October 1937 was the four door “402 Légère berline” using the already familiar from the 302. Represented at the show by a prototype which differed in certain details from the cars that actually appeared a few months later was the 402 Légère “décapotable”. The four door “berline” came as a “6 glaces” saloon/sedan, in 1936 the price list showed the saloon as the least expensive of the “normal” wheelbase 402s, priced from 23,900 francs. Closely resembling the 402 berline “6 glaces”, at first sight, was the 402 “normale commerciale” also offering seating for six people accommodated in two rows, however, at the back, in place of the more usual panels, the “commerciale” featured a two piece tailgate. The rear of the cabin was described as being “transformable pour transport de marchandises” which presumably would have involved lifting out the rear seat, the Éclipse was significant as the first of many Peugeot coupes with a steel roof that would fold and stow in the boot/trunk
Peugeot 402
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Peugeot 402 Légère
Peugeot 402
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The 402 "longue" became popular with the military after Peugeot began to supply them to the
French army in 1938.
Peugeot 402
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Peugeot 402 Eclipse.
Peugeot 402
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Various low volume coupé versions included the Peugeot 402 Darl'Mat, unmistakably reminiscent of a body produced by the same coachbuilder (
Carrosserie Pourtout) for
Bugatti.
27.
Amilcar Compound
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The Amilcar Compound is a front wheel drive car with unitary body/chassis introduced shortly before World War II by Amilcar after their takeover by Hotchkiss. It was designed by the famous French engineer Jean-Albert Grégoire, series production only got underway a year later. Nevertheless,35 of the cars were produced during the quarter of 1938. A further 64 were produced during the months of 1940, however France. The four cylinder, side valve,1185 cc engine had its all synchromesh equipped, four speed, the drive was transmitted to the front wheels via short shafts and constant velocity joints. The steering used a rack and pinion mechanism, suspension was independent all round using torsion bars at the rear. The car’s technical design, including but not restricted to the technology, was supplied by a brilliant. Increasing the cylinder diameter made it practical at the time to replace the side-valve lay-out with overhead valves. Claimed top speed was increased from 110 km/h to 115 km/h, several pre-production Compound B67s were running during the summer of 1939, and it appears that the manufacturer planned to launch it in October 1939 at the Paris Motor Show. By the time the event was cancelled it appears that about five Compound B67s had been produced in the Amilcar section of the Hotchkiss factory. Wartime records may not be complete, but it is apparent that the front wheel drive layout made it particularly suitable for adaptation to different body types. The 149 estate cars delivered between 1942 and 1943 all used the older engine and other mechanical elements from the B38. However, a number of B67 engined Compounds were also produced during the war years. These featured a simplified but more robust three speed gear box in place of the four speed unit that had come with the B38 Compound, the manufacturer also produced a few B67 engines that were shipped to Laffly who installed them in some prototypes for their V10R all-terrain vehicle. The Compound B38, made use of Alpax, an aluminium alloy. Between 1938 and 1940 it seems that almost all Compounds came with saloon/sedan bodies, a prototype was due to be built and would have become Vinciguerra’s personal transport, but there is no trace of this unique vehicle ever having been constructed. There seems to have some overlap of reponsbilities regarding the Amilcar Compound’s development between Jean-Albert Grégoire and Clément Vinciguerra. In any event, after 1940 Grégoire was increasingly preoccupied by other projects and it was the company man Clément Vinciguerra at Hotchkiss who took the project forward
Amilcar Compound
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Amilcar Compound
28.
Front-wheel-drive
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Front-wheel drive is a form of engine and transmission layout used in motor vehicles, where the engine drives the front wheels only. Most modern front-wheel-drive vehicles feature an engine, rather than the conventional longitudinal engine arrangement generally found in rear-wheel-drive. Rear-engined layouts are possible, but rare, according to various sources, sometime between 1895 and 1898 Gräf & Stift built a voiturette with a one-cylinder De Dion-Bouton engine fitted in the front of the vehicle, powering the front axle. It was thus arguably the worlds first front-wheel-drive automobile, but it never saw mass production, in 1898, Latil, in France, devised a front-wheel-drive system for motorising horse-drawn carts. In 1898/9 the French manufacturer Société Parisienne patented their front-wheel drive articulated vehicle concept which they manufactured as a Victoria Combination and it was variously powered by 1.75 or 2.5 horsepower De Dion-Bouton engine or a water cooled 3.5 horsepower Aster engine. The engine was mounted on the front axle and so was rotated by the tiller steering and it also known as the Eureka. By 1899 Victoria Combinations were participating in motoring events such as the 371 km Paris-St Malo race, finishing 23rd overall, in October a Victoria Combination won its class in the Paris-Rambouillet-Paris event, covering the 100 kilometre course at 26 km/h. In 1900 it completed 240 kilometres non-stop at 29 km/h, when production ceased in mid-1901, over 400 copies had been sold for 3,000 Francs each. J. Walter Christie of the United States patented a design for a front-wheel-drive car and he promoted and demonstrated the vehicle by racing at various speedways in the United States, and even competed in the 1906 Vanderbilt Cup and the French Grand Prix. In 1912 he began manufacturing a line of wheeled fire engine tractors which used his front-wheel-drive system, the next successful application of front-wheel drive was the supercharged Alvis 12/50 racing car designed by George Thomas Smith-Clarke and William M. Dunn of Alvis Cars of the United Kingdom. This vehicle was entered in the 1925 Kop Hill Climb in Princes Risborough in Buckinghamshire on March 28,1925, however, the idea of front-wheel drive languished outside of the motor racing arena as no major auto manufacturer attempted the same for production automobiles. Market experiments in the United States were left to small endeavors such as the Ruxton, neither automobile maker was particularly successful on the open market. Alvis Cars introduced a commercial model of the Alvis 12/50 in 1928. The first successful consumer application came in 1929, the BSA produced the unique front-wheel-drive BSA three-wheeler. Production continued until 1936 during which time sports and touring models were available, in 1931 the DKW F1 from Germany made its debut. Buckminster Fuller adopted rear-engine, front wheel drive for his three Dymaxion Car prototypes, other German car producers followed, Stoewer offered a car with front-wheel drive in 1931, Adler in 1932 and Audi in 1933. In 1934, the very successful Traction Avant cars were introduced by Citroën of France, the Cord 810 of the United States managed a bit better in the late 1930s than its predecessor one decade earlier. These vehicles featured a layout that places the engine behind the transmission, another result of this design is a lengthened chassis
Front-wheel-drive
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A classic front-wheel-drive car, the
Citroën Traction Avant
Front-wheel-drive
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1898-1901 Victoria Combination
Front-wheel-drive
Front-wheel-drive
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1925 Miller 122 Indianapolis 500 front-wheel-drive racer
29.
Monocoque
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Monocoque, also structural skin, is a structural system where loads are supported through an objects external skin, similar to an egg shell. The word monocoque is a French term for single shell or single hull, a true monocoque carries both tensile and compressive forces within the skin and can be recognised by the absence of a load carrying internal frame. By contrast, a semi-monocoque is a combining a tensile stressed skin. Other semi-monocoques not to be confused with true monocoques include vehicle unibodies, which tend to be composites, early aircraft were constructed using frames, typically of wood or steel tubing, which could then be covered with fabric such as irish linen or cotton. The skin added nothing to the strength of the airframe and was dead weight beyond providing a smooth sealed surface. This reduced drag so effectively it was able to win most of the races it was entered into, however, it was prone to damage from moisture and delamination. While all metal aircraft from the Junkers firm had appeared as early as 1915, the first metal monocoques were built by Claudius Dornier, while working for Zeppelin-Lindau. After failed attempts with several large flying boats in which a few components were monocoques, the aluminum alloy monocoque chassis was first used in the 1962 Lotus 25 Formula 1 race car. The term monocoque is frequently misused when referring to unibody cars, in motor racing, the safety of the driver depends on the car body which must meet stringent regulations and a few cars have been built with monocoque structures. Tanks and other armored vehicles such as the German Fuchs 2 and this reduces weight for a given amount of armor compared to vehicles to which armor has been attached to an underlying frame. A monocoque-framed motorcycle was developed by the Spanish motorcycle manufacturer, Ossa, Ossa won four Grand Prix races with the monocoque bike before their rider was killed during the 1970 Isle of Man TT, causing the Ossa factory to withdraw from Grand Prix competition. Notable designers such as Eric Offenstadt and Dan Hanebrink created unique monocoque designs in the early 1970s, the 1973 Isle of Man TT was won by Peter Williams on the monocoque-framed Norton John Player Special that he helped design. Honda also experimented with a monocoque Grand Prix racing motorcycle named the NR500 in 1979, in 1987 John Britten developed the Aero-D One, featuring a composite monocoque chassis that weighed only 12 kg. The first time an aluminium monocoque frame appeared on a production motorcycle was the 2000 Kawasaki Ninja ZX-12R. This was Kawasakis flagship production sportbike aimed at being the fastest production motorcycle, various rockets have used pressure-stabilized monocoque designs, such as Atlas and Falcon 1. Balloon tanks are not true monocoques but act in the way as inflatable shells. A balloon tank skin only handles tensile forces while compression is resisted by internal pressure in a way similar to semi-monocoques braced by a solid frame. This becomes obvious when internal pressure is lost and the structure collapses, the Handle is an electric guitar characterized by its hollow sectioned monocoque chassis, created by the award-winning designer Peter Solomon
Monocoque
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Deperdussin Monocoque, with wooden shell construction
Monocoque
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View of the inside of the tail of a
Murphy Moose homebuilt aircraft under construction, showing the semi-monocoque design
Monocoque
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The McLaren MP4/1, introduced in 1981, was the first Formula One car to use a
carbon fiber composite monocoque instead of the standard aluminum alloy
Monocoque
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Ariel Arrow showing monocoque frame
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Media related to Amilcar at Wikimedia Commons
