1.
Caesium
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Caesium or cesium is a chemical element with symbol Cs and atomic number 55. It is a soft, silvery-gold alkali metal with a point of 28.5 °C. Caesium is a metal and has physical and chemical properties similar to those of rubidium and potassium. The metal is extremely reactive and pyrophoric, reacting with water even at −116 °C, Caesium is one of the most reactive elements of all, even more reactive than fluorine, the most reactive nonmetal. It is the least electronegative element, with a value of 0.79 on the Pauling scale and it has only one stable isotope, caesium-133. Caesium is mined mostly from pollucite, while the radioisotopes, especially caesium-137, the German chemist Robert Bunsen and physicist Gustav Kirchhoff discovered caesium in 1860 by the newly developed method of flame spectroscopy. The first small-scale applications for caesium were as a getter in vacuum tubes, since then, caesium has been widely used in highly accurate atomic clocks. The radioactive isotope caesium-137 has a half-life of about 30 years and is used in applications, industrial gauges. Although the element is only toxic, the metal is a hazardous material. It is a ductile, pale metal, which darkens in the presence of trace amounts of oxygen. When in the presence of oil, it loses its metallic lustre and takes on a duller. It has a point of 28.4 °C, making it one of the few elemental metals that are liquid near room temperature. Mercury is the elemental metal with a known melting point lower than caesium. In addition, the metal has a low boiling point,641 °C. Its compounds burn with a blue or violet colour, Caesium forms alloys with the other alkali metals, gold, and mercury. At temperatures below 650 °C, it does not alloy with cobalt, iron, molybdenum, nickel, platinum, tantalum and it forms well-defined intermetallic compounds with antimony, gallium, indium, and thorium, which are photosensitive. It mixes with all the alkali metals, the alloy with a molar distribution of 41% caesium, 47% potassium. A few amalgams have been studied, CsHg 2 is black with a metallic lustre, while CsHg is golden-coloured
2.
Vial
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Allahabad Airport or Bamrauli Airport is located at Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, India. It is at a distance of 12 km from Allahabad city and is operational for domestic flights, nearest other operational airports are Lucknow, Varanasi and Kanpur. Currently, only Air India Regional operates from here, with services to Delhi. Allahabad Airport was built in 1919 and served as an international airport till 1946 with direct flights to London till 1932, commuters usually fly from Lucknow International Airport or Varanasi International Airport which are 200 km and 120 km respectively, for further connectivity. The Airport has VOR and DME installed by AAI as part of an upgrade in 2011, Allahabad airports area is 1 acre, the terminals capacity being 72, for both arrival and departure. It is a civil enclave managed by Airports Authority of India, under the control of Civil Aviation Training College, the adjoining concrete apron measures 500 by 150 metres, and has 2 parking bays to cater to 1 CRJ and 1 Q400 aircraft simultaneously being maintained by IAF. Allahabads runway is oriented 12/30, is 8400 feet long and 150 feet wide, the Airfield has ground lighting facility, which is to be upgraded and also equipped with Navigational facilities like DVOR/DME. There is constant effort by the ministry to extend and upgrade the Allahabad airport. In a letter written to it was stated that given the lack of space, ajit Singh further wrote that the AAI has already made a preliminary study of the surroundings of the airport area and discussed with the Indian Air Force. The site measuring approximately 50 acres has been identified south of the airfield for development of a new civil enclave, the new civil enclave will include a new terminal building, an apron to park civil schedule flights, link taxi track, car parks, etc
3.
Pharmaceutical
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A pharmaceutical drug is a drug used to diagnose, cure, treat, or prevent disease. Drug therapy is an important part of the field and relies on the science of pharmacology for continual advancement. Drugs are classified in various ways, one of the key divisions is by level of control, which distinguishes prescription drugs from over-the-counter drugs. Other ways to classify medicines are by mode of action, route of administration, biological system affected, an elaborate and widely used classification system is the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System. The World Health Organization keeps a list of essential medicines, Drug discovery and drug development are complex and expensive endeavors undertaken by pharmaceutical companies, academic scientists, and governments. Governments generally regulate what drugs can be marketed, how drugs are marketed, controversies have arisen over drug pricing and disposal of used drugs. In the US, a drug is, A substance recognized by an official pharmacopoeia or formulary, a substance intended for use in the diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease. A substance intended to affect the structure or any function of the body, a substance intended for use as a component of a medicine but not a device or a component, part or accessory of a device. Pharmaceutical or a drug is classified on the basis of their origin, Drug from natural origin, Herbal or plant or mineral origin, some drug substances are of marine origin. Drug from chemical as well as origin, Derived from partial herbal and partial chemical synthesis Chemical. Drug derived from animal origin, For example, hormones, Drug derived from microbial origin, Antibiotics Drug derived by biotechnology genetic-engineering, hybridoma technique for example Drug derived from radioactive substances. An elaborate and widely used system is the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System. The World Health Organization keeps a list of essential medicines, the main classes of painkillers are NSAIDs, opioids and Local anesthetics. For consciousness Some anesthetics include Benzodiazepines and Barbiturates, the main categories of drugs for musculoskeletal disorders are, NSAIDs, muscle relaxants, neuromuscular drugs, and anticholinesterases. Euthanasia is not permitted by law in countries, and consequently medicines will not be licensed for this use in those countries. Administration is the process by which a patient takes a medicine, there are three major categories of drug administration, enteral, parenteral, and other. It can be performed in various forms such as pills, tablets. There are many variations in the routes of administration, including intravenous and they can be administered all at once as a bolus, at frequent intervals or continuously
4.
Hermetic seal
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A hermetic seal is the quality of something—a container, structure, etc. —being airtight. Used technically, it is stated in conjunction with a specific test method, the word hermetic comes from the Greek god Hermes, via the vocabulary of alchemy. The alchemists invented a process for making a glass tube. The process used a seal, whose invention was attributed to the legendary inspiration of alchemy. Some kinds of packaging must maintain a seal against flow of gases, foods, pharmaceuticals, some chemicals, the term can describe food preservation practices, such as vacuum packing and canning. Barrier packaging includes containers such as glass, aluminum cans, metal foils, buildings designed with sustainable architecture principles use airtight technologies to conserve energy. Under low energy building, passive house, low-energy house, self-sufficient homes, zero energy building, air barriers, careful sealing of construction joints and service penetrations achieve this. Airtightness minimizes the amount of air that can pass through the structure. Green buildings may include windows that combine triple-pane insulated glazing with argon or krypton gas to reduce thermal conductivity, in landscape and exterior construction projects, airtight seals protect general service and landscape lighting electrical connections and splices. Many other specific applications must meet standards to be waterproof or vapor-proof for human safety. Applications for hermetic sealing include semiconductor electronics, thermostats, optical devices, MEMS and it is used for electrical or electronic parts that must be secure against water vapor and foreign bodies to maintain proper functioning and reliability. Hermetic sealing for airtight conditions is used in archiving significant historical items, in 1951, The U. S. Constitution, U. S. Declaration of Independence, and U. S. Bill of Rights were hermetically sealed with helium gas in glass cases housed in the U. S. National Archives in Washington, in 2003, they were moved to new glass cases hermetically sealed with argon. Typical epoxy resins have pendant hydroxyl groups along their chain that can form bonds or strong polar attractions to oxide or hydroxyl surfaces, metals, minerals, glasses, ceramics—have polarity so they have high surface energy. The important factor in determining good adhesive strength is whether the energy of the substrate is close to or higher than the surface energy of the cured adhesive. When the glass and the metal being hermetically sealed have the same coefficient of thermal expansion and this type of glass-to-metal hermetic seal is the weaker of the two types and is generally used for low-intensity applications such as in light bulb bases. Compression seals occur when the glass and the metal have different coefficients of thermal expansion such that the metal compresses around the glass as it cools. Compression seals can withstand high pressure and are used in a variety of industrial applications
5.
Glovebox
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A glovebox is a sealed container that is designed to allow one to manipulate objects where a separate atmosphere is desired. Built into the sides of the glovebox are gloves arranged in such a way that the user can place their hands into the gloves, part or all of the box is usually transparent to allow the user to see what is being manipulated. It is also possible to use a glovebox for manipulation of items in a vacuum chamber, the gas in a glovebox is pumped through a series of treatment devices which remove solvents, water and oxygen from the gas. It is common to use molecular sieves to remove water by adsorbing it in the molecular sieves pores, such a box is often used by organometallic chemists to transfer dry solids from one container to another. An alternative to using a glovebox for air sensitive work is to employ Schlenk methods using a Schlenk line, one disadvantage of working in a glovebox is that organic solvents will attack the plastic seals. As a result, the box will start to leak and water, another disadvantage of a glovebox is that oxygen and water can diffuse through the plastic gloves. Inert atmosphere gloveboxes are typically kept at a higher pressure than the surrounding air, other materials used in the gloveboxes included acrylic viewing windows and Benelex shielding composed of wood fiber and plastic which shielded against neutron radiation. Manipulation of the gloves was onerous work. Some gloveboxes for radioactive work are under inert conditions, for instance, the argon box is fitted with a gas treatment system to keep the gas very pure to enable electrochemical experiments in molten salts. Gloveboxes are also used in the biological sciences when dealing with anaerobes or high-biosafety level pathogens, gloveboxes used for hazardous materials are generally maintained at a lower pressure than the surrounding atmosphere, so that microscopic leaks result in air intake rather than hazard outflow. Gloveboxes used for hazardous materials generally incorporate HEPA filters into the exhaust, desiccators are used for storing chemicals which are moisture-sensitive, but do not react quickly or violently with water. Fume hoods are used for material handling where less operator protection. Hot cells often use remote manipulators to provide radiological containment where more operator protection is required, Schlenk lines are used for manipulating oxygen- and moisture-sensitive chemicals. American Glovebox Society Hans-Jürgen Bässler und Frank Lehmann, Containment Technology, Progress in the Pharmaceutical and Food Processing Industry
6.
Hypodermic needle
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A hypodermic needle, also called a sharp, is a very thin, hollow tube with a sharp tip which contains a small opening at the pointed end. It is commonly used with a syringe, a device with a plunger. They are used to take samples from the body, for example taking blood from a vein in venipuncture. Large bore hypodermic intervention is useful in catastrophic blood loss or treating shock. A hypodermic needle is used for delivery of liquids, or when the injected substance cannot be ingested, either because it would not be absorbed. There are many routes for an injection, with the arm being a common location. The hypodermic needle also serves an important role in research environments where sterile conditions are required, the hypodermic needle significantly reduces contamination during inoculation of a sterile substrate. The ancient Greeks and Romans knew injection as a method of delivery from observations of snakebites. There are also references to anointing and inunction in the Old Testament as well as the works of Homer, christopher Wren performed the earliest confirmed experiments with crude hypodermic needles, performing intravenous injection into dogs in 1656. These experiments consisted of using animal bladders and goose quills to administer drugs such as opium intravenously to dogs, Wren and others’ main interest was to learn if medicines traditionally administered orally would be effective intravenously. Elsholtz of Berlin were the first to experiment with injections in humans and these early experiments were generally ineffective and in some cases fatal. Injection fell out of favor for two centuries, the 19th century saw the development of medicines that were effective in small doses, such as opiates and strychnine. This spurred a renewed interest in direct, controlled application of medicine, some controversy surrounds the question of priority in hypodermic medication. Dr. Francis Rynd is generally credited with the first successful injection in 1844, Dr. Alexander Wood’s main contribution was the all-glass syringe in 1851, which allowed the user to estimate dosage based on the levels of liquid observed through the glass. Wood used hypodermic needles and syringes primarily for the application of localized, subcutaneous injection, simultaneous to Wood’s work in Edinburgh, Dr. Charles Pravaz of Lyon also experimented with sub-dermal injections in sheep using a syringe of his own design. Pravaz designed a syringe measuring 3 cm long and 5 mm in diameter, Dr. Charles Hunter, a London surgeon, is credited with the coining of the term hypodermic to describe subcutaneous injection in 1858. The name originates from two Greek words, hypo, under, and derma, skin, Hunter and Wood were involved in lengthy legal disputes over not only the origin of the modern hypodermic needle, but also because of their disagreement to the medicine’s effect once administered. Dr. Wood can be credited with the popularization and acceptance of injection as a medical technique, as well as the widespread use
7.
Tetrakis(triphenylphosphine)palladium(0)
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Tetrakispalladium is the chemical compound Pd4, often abbreviated Pd4, or even PdP4, as well as. It is a yellow crystalline solid that becomes brown upon decomposition in air. The four phosphorus atoms are at the corners of a tetrahedron surrounding the palladium center and this structure is typical for four-coordinate 18 e− complexes. The corresponding complexes Ni4 and Pt4 are also well known, such complexes reversibly dissociate PPh3 ligands in solution, so reactions attributed to Pd4 often in fact arise from Pd3 or even Pd2. Tetrakispalladium was first prepared by Lamberto Malatesta et al. in the 1950s by reduction of sodium chloropalladate with hydrazine in the presence of the phosphine, reductants other than hydrazine can be employed. The compound is sensitive to air, but can be purified by washing with methanol to give the yellow powder. It is usually stored cold under argon, Pd4 is widely used as a catalyst for palladium-catalyzed coupling reactions. Prominent applications include the Heck reaction, Suzuki coupling, Stille coupling, Sonogashira coupling and these processes begin with two successive ligand dissociations followed by the oxidative addition of an aryl halide to the Pd center, Pd4 + ArBr → PdBr2 +2 PPh3
8.
Hygroscopic
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Hygroscopy is the phenomenon of attracting and holding water molecules from the surrounding environment, which is usually at normal or room temperature. This is achieved through either absorption or adsorption with the absorbing or adsorbing substance becoming physically changed somewhat. Zinc chloride and calcium chloride, as well as potassium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide, are so hygroscopic that they readily dissolve in the water they absorb, not only is sulfuric acid hygroscopic in concentrated form but its solutions are hygroscopic down to concentrations of 10 Vol-% or below. A hygroscopic material will tend to damp and cakey when exposed to moist air. Because of their affinity for moisture, hygroscopic materials might require storage in sealed containers. When added to foods or other materials for the purpose of maintaining moisture content. Materials and compounds exhibit different hygroscopic properties, and this difference can lead to detrimental effects, differences in hygroscopy can be observed in plastic-laminated paperback book covers—often, in a suddenly moist environment, the book cover will curl away from the rest of the book. The unlaminated side of the cover absorbs more moisture than the side and increases in area. This is similar to the function of a thermostats bi-metallic strip, inexpensive dial-type hygrometers make use of this principle using a coiled strip. Deliquescence, the process by which a substance absorbs moisture from the atmosphere until it dissolves in the absorbed water, deliquescence occurs when the vapour pressure of the solution that is formed is less than the partial pressure of water vapour in the air. While some similar forces are at work here, it is different from capillary attraction, a process where glass or other solid substances attract water, the similar-sounding but unrelated word hydroscopic is sometimes used in error for hygroscopic. A hydroscope is a device used for making observations deep under water. The amount of moisture held by hygroscopic materials is proportional to the relative humidity. Tables containing this information can be found in engineering handbooks and is also available from suppliers of various materials and chemicals. Hygroscopy also plays an important role in the engineering of plastic materials, some plastics are hygroscopic while others are not. The seeds of grasses have hygroscopic extensions that bend with changes in humidity. An example is Needle-and-Thread, Hesperostipa comata, each seed has an awn that twists several turns when the seed is released. Increased moisture causes it to untwist, and, upon drying, to twist again, thorny dragons collect moisture in the dry desert via nighttime condensation of dew that forms on their skin and is channeled to their mouths in hygroscopic grooves between the spines of their skin
9.
Deuterated solvents
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Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, most commonly known as NMR spectroscopy, is a research technique that exploits the magnetic properties of certain atomic nuclei. This type of spectroscopy determines the physical and chemical properties of atoms or the molecules in which they are contained and it relies on the phenomenon of nuclear magnetic resonance and can provide detailed information about the structure, dynamics, reaction state, and chemical environment of molecules. Suitable samples range from small compounds analyzed with 1-dimensional proton or carbon-13 NMR spectroscopy to large proteins or nucleic acids using 3 or 4-dimensional techniques. The impact of NMR spectroscopy on the sciences has been substantial because of the range of information, NMR spectra are unique, well-resolved, analytically tractable and often highly predictable for small molecules. Thus, in organic chemistry practice, NMR analysis is used to confirm the identity of a substance, different functional groups are obviously distinguishable, and identical functional groups with differing neighboring substituents still give distinguishable signals. NMR has largely replaced traditional wet chemistry tests such as reagents or typical chromatography for identification. A disadvantage is that a large amount, 2–50 mg, of a purified substance is required. Preferably, the sample should be dissolved in a solvent, because NMR analysis of solids requires a dedicated MAS machine, the timescale of NMR is relatively long, and thus it is not suitable for observing fast phenomena, producing only an averaged spectrum. NMR spectrometers are relatively expensive, universities usually have them, modern NMR spectrometers have a very strong, large and expensive liquid helium-cooled superconducting magnet, because resolution directly depends on magnetic field strength. There are even benchtop NMR spectrometers, the Purcell group at Harvard University and the Bloch group at Stanford University independently developed NMR spectroscopy in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Edward Mills Purcell and Felix Bloch shared the 1952 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discoveries, when placed in a magnetic field, NMR active nuclei absorb electromagnetic radiation at a frequency characteristic of the isotope. The resonant frequency, energy of the absorption, and the intensity of the signal are proportional to the strength of the magnetic field, for example, in a 21 Tesla magnetic field, protons resonate at 900 MHz. It is common to refer to a 21 T magnet as a 900 MHz magnet, spinning the sample is necessary to average out diffusional motion. Whereas, measurements of diffusion constants are done the sample stationary and spinning off, the vast majority of nuclei in a solution would belong to the solvent, and most regular solvents are hydrocarbons and would contain NMR-reactive protons. The most used deuterated solvent is deuterochloroform, although deuterium oxide and deuterated DMSO are used for hydrophilic analytes, the chemical shifts are slightly different in different solvents, depending on electronic solvation effects. NMR spectra are often calibrated against the known solvent residual proton peak instead of added tetramethylsilane, to detect the very small frequency shifts due to nuclear magnetic resonance, the applied magnetic field must be constant throughout the sample volume. High resolution NMR spectrometers use shims to adjust the homogeneity of the field to parts per billion in a volume of a few cubic centimeters. In order to detect and compensate for inhomogeneity and drift in the magnetic field, in modern NMR spectrometers shimming is adjusted automatically, though in some cases the operator has to optimize the shim parameters manually to obtain the best possible resolution
10.
Trifluoromethanesulfonic acid
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Trifluoromethanesulfonic acid, also known as triflic acid, TFMS, TFSA, HOTf or TfOH, is a sulfonic acid with the chemical formula CF3SO3H. It is one of the strongest acids, Triflic acid is mainly used in research as a catalyst for esterification. It is a hygroscopic, colorless, slightly viscous liquid and is soluble in polar solvents and it is also used as an acidic titrant in nonaqueous acid-base titration because it behaves as a strong acid in many solvents where common mineral acids are only moderately strong. With a Ka =5 ×1014, pKa −14.7 and it owes many of its useful properties to its great thermal and chemical stability. Both the acid and its conjugate base CF3SO−3, known as triflate, resist oxidation/reduction reactions, whereas many strong acids are oxidizing, e. g. perchloric or nitric acid. Further recommending its use, triflic acid does not sulfonate substrates, which can be a problem with acid, fluorosulfuric acid. Below is a prototypical sulfonation, which HOTf does not undergo, C6H6 + H2SO4 → C6H5 + H2O Triflic acid fumes in moist air and forms a stable solid monohydrate, CF3SO3H·H2O, the triflate ligand is labile, reflecting its low basicity. Trifluoromethanesulfonic acid exothermically reacts with metal carbonates, hydroxides, and oxides, illustrative is the synthesis of Cu2. Triflic acid reacts with acyl halides to give mixed triflate anhydrides, Triflic acid promotes other Friedel–Crafts-like reactions including the cracking of alkanes and alkylation of alkenes, which are very important to the petroleum industry. These triflic acid derivative catalysts are effective in isomerizing straight chain or slightly branched hydrocarbons that can increase the octane rating of a particular petroleum-based fuel. Triflic acid reacts exothermically with alcohols to produce ethers and olefins, dehydration gives the acid anhydride, trifluoromethanesulfonic anhydride, 2O. Trifluoromethanesulfonic acid is one of the strongest acids, contact with skin causes severe burns with delayed tissue destruction. On inhalation it causes fatal spasms, inflammation and edema, addition of triflic acid to polar solvents can be dangerously exothermic
11.
Catacombs of Rome
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The Catacombs of Rome are ancient catacombs, underground burial places under Rome, Italy, of which there are at least forty, some discovered only in recent decades. The Etruscans, like many other European peoples, used to bury their dead in underground chambers, the original Roman custom was cremation, after which the burnt remains were kept in a pot, ash-chest or urn, often in a columbarium. From about the 2nd century AD, inhumation became more fashionable, in graves or sarcophagi, often elaborately carved, Christians also preferred burial to cremation because of their belief in bodily resurrection at the Second Coming. The Jewish catacombs are similarly important for the study of Jewish culture at this period, a number of dubious relics of catacomb saints were promoted after the rediscovery of the catacombs. The Etruscans, like many other European people, used to bury their dead in underground chambers, the original Roman custom was cremation, after which the burnt remains were kept in a pot, ash-chest or urn, often in a columbarium. From about the 2nd century AD, inhumation became more fashionable, in graves or sarcophagi, often elaborately carved, Christians also preferred burial to cremation because of their belief in bodily resurrection. The first large-scale catacombs in the vicinity of Rome were excavated from the 2nd century onwards and they were carved through tufo, a soft volcanic rock, outside the walls of the city, because Roman law forbade burial places within city limits. The pagan custom was to incinerate corpses, while early Christians, since most Christians and Jews at that time belonged to the lower classes or were slaves, they usually lacked the resources to buy land for burial purposes. Instead, networks of tunnels were dug in the layers of tufo which occurred naturally on the outskirts of Rome. There are sixty known subterranean burial chambers in Rome and they were built outside the walls along main Roman roads, like the Via Appia, the Via Ostiense, the Via Labicana, the Via Tiburtina, and the Via Nomentana. Names of the catacombs – like St Calixtus and St Sebastian, about 80% of the excavations used for Christian burials date to after the time of the persecutions. Excavators, no slaves, built vast systems of galleries and passages on top of each other. They lie 7–19 metres below the surface in an area of more than 2.4 square kilometres, narrow steps that descend as many as four stories join the levels. Passages are about 2.5 by 1 metre, burial niches were carved into walls. They are 40–60 centimetres high and 120–150 centimetres long, bodies were placed in chambers in stone sarcophagi in their clothes and bound in linen. Then the chamber was sealed with a slab bearing the name, age, the catacomb of Saint Agnes is a small church. Some families were able to construct cubicula which would house various loculi, another excellent place for artistic programs were the arcosolia. In 380, Christianity became a state religion, at first, many still desired to be buried in chambers alongside the martyrs
12.
Martyr
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A martyr is somebody who suffers persecution and death for advocating, renouncing, refusing to renounce, or refusing to advocate a belief or cause as demanded by an external party. This refusal to comply with the presented demands results in the punishment or execution of the martyr by the oppressor, originally applied only to those who suffered for their religious beliefs, the term is now often used in connection with people imprisoned or killed for espousing a political cause. Most martyrs are considered holy or are respected by their followers, becoming symbols of exceptional leadership, Martyrs play significant roles in religions. Similarly, martyrs have had effects in secular life, including specific figures such as Socrates, as well as in politics. In its original meaning, the martyr, meaning witness, was used in the secular sphere as well as in the New Testament of the Bible. The term, in this sense, entered the English language as a loanword. The death of a martyr or the value attributed to it is called martyrdom, the early Christians who first began to use the term martyr in its new sense saw Jesus as the first and greatest martyr, on account of his crucifixion. The early Christians appear to have seen Jesus as the archetypal martyr, the word martyr is used in English to describe a wide variety of people. However, the table presents a general outline of common features present in stereotypical martyrdoms. Examples of this are found in the Mahabharata, during the great war which commenced, even Arjuna was brought down with doubts, e. g. attachment, sorrow, fear. This is where Krishna instructs Arjuna how to carry out his duty as a righteous warrior, Martyrdom in Judaism is one of the main examples of Kiddush Hashem, meaning sanctification of Gods name through public dedication to Jewish practice. Religious martyrdom is considered one of the significant contributions of Hellenistic Judaism to Western Civilization. Frend, Judaism was itself a religion of martyrdom and it was this Jewish psychology of martyrdom that inspired Christian martyrdom. In Christianity, a martyr, in accordance with the meaning of the original Greek martys in the New Testament, is one who brings a testimony, in particular, the testimony is that of the Christian Gospel, or more generally, the Word of God. A Christian witness is a biblical witness whether or not death follows, however, over time many Christian testimonies were rejected, and the witnesses put to death, and the word martyr developed its present sense. Where death ensues, the follow the example of Jesus in offering up their lives for truth. The concept of Jesus as a martyr has recently received greater attention, analyses of the Gospel passion narratives have led many scholars to conclude that they are martyrdom accounts in terms of genre and style. Several scholars have concluded that Paul the Apostle understood Jesus death as a martyrdom
13.
Blood
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Blood is a body fluid in humans and other animals that delivers necessary substances such as nutrients and oxygen to the cells and transports metabolic waste products away from those same cells. In vertebrates, it is composed of blood cells suspended in blood plasma, plasma, which constitutes 55% of blood fluid, is mostly water, and contains dissipated proteins, glucose, mineral ions, hormones, carbon dioxide, and blood cells themselves. Albumin is the protein in plasma, and it functions to regulate the colloidal osmotic pressure of blood. The blood cells are red blood cells, white blood cells. The most abundant cells in blood are red blood cells. These contain hemoglobin, a protein, which facilitates oxygen transport by reversibly binding to this respiratory gas. In contrast, carbon dioxide is mostly transported extracellularly as bicarbonate ion transported in plasma, vertebrate blood is bright red when its hemoglobin is oxygenated and dark red when it is deoxygenated. Some animals, such as crustaceans and mollusks, use hemocyanin to carry oxygen, insects and some mollusks use a fluid called hemolymph instead of blood, the difference being that hemolymph is not contained in a closed circulatory system. In most insects, this blood does not contain oxygen-carrying molecules such as hemoglobin because their bodies are small enough for their system to suffice for supplying oxygen. Jawed vertebrates have an immune system, based largely on white blood cells. White blood cells help to resist infections and parasites, platelets are important in the clotting of blood. Arthropods, using hemolymph, have hemocytes as part of their immune system, Blood is circulated around the body through blood vessels by the pumping action of the heart. Medical terms related to blood often begin with hemo- or hemato- from the Greek word αἷμα for blood. In terms of anatomy and histology, blood is considered a form of connective tissue, given its origin in the bones. The average adult has a volume of roughly 5 litres. These blood cells consist of erythrocytes, leukocytes, and thrombocytes, by volume, the red blood cells constitute about 45% of whole blood, the plasma about 54. 3%, and white cells about 0. 7%. Whole blood exhibits non-Newtonian fluid dynamics, if all human hemoglobin were free in the plasma rather than being contained in RBCs, the circulatory fluid would be too viscous for the cardiovascular system to function effectively. One microliter of blood contains,4.7 to 6.1 million,4.2 to 5.4 million erythrocytes, Red blood cells contain the bloods hemoglobin, mature red blood cells lack a nucleus and organelles in mammals
14.
Saint Januarius
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Januarius, also known as Januarius I of Benevento, was Bishop of Benevento and is a martyr and saint of the Roman Catholic and the Eastern Orthodox Churches. While no contemporary sources on his life are preserved, later sources, little is known of the life of Januarius, and what follows is mostly derived from later Christian sources, such as the Acta Bononensia and the Acta Vaticana, and from later-developing folk tradition. According to various hagiographies, Januarius was born in Benevento to a patrician family that traced its descent to the Caudini tribe of the Samnites. At a young age of 15, he became local priest of his parish in Benevento, when Januarius was 20, he became Bishop of Naples and befriended Juliana of Nicomedia and Saint Sossius whom he met during his priestly studies. During the 1 1⁄2-year-long persecution of Christians by Emperor Diocletian, he hid his fellow Christians, unfortunately, while visiting Sossius in jail, he too was arrested. Other legends state either that the beasts refused to eat them, or that he was thrown into a furnace. About Januarius, the account says only that he was bishop as well as martyr, the Feast of St Januarius or San Gennaro is celebrated on 19 September in the calendar of the Catholic Church. In the Eastern Church, it is celebrated on 21 April, the city of Naples has more than fifty official patron saints, although its principal patron is Saint Januarius. According to an hagiography, Januariuss relics were transferred by order of Saint Severus, Bishop of Naples. In the early ninth century the body was moved to Beneventum by Sico, prince of Benevento, subsequently, during the turmoil at the time of Frederick Barbarossa, his body was moved again, this time to the Territorial Abbey of Montevergine where it was rediscovered in 1480. At the instigation of Cardinal Oliviero Carafa, his body was transferred in 1497 to Naples. Carafa commissioned a richly decorated crypt, the Succorpo, beneath the cathedral to house the reunited body, the Succorpo was finished in 1506 and is considered one of the prominent monuments of the High Renaissance in the city. Saint Januarius is famous for the miracle of the annual liquefaction of his blood. A chronicle of Naples written in 1382 describes the cult of Saint Januarius in detail, the first certain date is 1389, when it was found to have melted. Then, over the two and a half centuries official reports began to appear declaring that the blood spontaneously melted, at first once a year, then twice. This explanation was definitively abandoned only in the eighteenth century, thousands of people assemble to witness this event in Naples Cathedral three times a year, on September 19, on December 16, and on the Saturday before the first Sunday of May. The blood is said to spontaneously liquefy at certain other times. It liquefied in the presence of Pope Pius IX in 1848, on March 21,2015, Pope Francis venerated the dried blood during a visit to Naples Cathedral, saying the Lords Prayer over it and kissing it
15.
Benevento
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Benevento listen is a city and comune of Campania, Italy, capital of the province of Benevento,50 kilometres northeast of Naples. It is situated on a hill 130 metres above sea level at the confluence of the Calore Irpino and it is also the seat of a Roman Catholic archbishop. Benevento occupies the site of the ancient Beneventum, originally Maleventum or still earlier Maloenton, the -vent portion of the name probably refers to a market-place and is a common element in ancient place names. The Romans theorized that it meant the site of bad events, in the imperial period it was supposed to have been founded by Diomedes after the Trojan War. A patron saint of Benevento is Saint Bartholomew, the Apostle, Benevento, as Maleventum, was one of the chief cities of Samnium, situated on the Via Appia at a distance of 51 kilometres east from Capua on the banks of the river Calor. Festus, on the contrary, related that it was founded by Auson, a son of Ulysses and Circe, a tradition which indicates that it was an ancient Ausonian city, previous to its conquest by the Samnites. But it first appears in history as a Samnite city, and must have already been a place of strength and it appears, however, to have fallen into their hands during the Third Samnite War, though the exact occasion is unknown. Benevento was certainly in the power of the Romans in 274 BC, six years later they further sought to secure its possession by establishing there a Roman colony with Latin rights. It is probable that the Oscan or Samnite name was Maloeis, or Malieis, whence the form Maleventum would derive, like Agrigentum from Acragas, Selinuntium from Selinus and its wealth is also evidenced by the quantity of coins minted by Beneventum. Horace famously notes Beneventum on his journey from Rome to Brundusium and it was indebted to the same circumstance for the honor of repeated visits from the emperors of Rome, among which those of Nero, Trajan, and Septimus Severus, are particularly recorded. It was probably for the reason that the triumphal arch. The Arch of Trajan is one of the best-preserved Roman structures in the Campania and it repeats the formula of the Arch of Titus in the Roman Forum, with reliefs of Trajans life and exploits of his reign. Some of the sculptures are in the British Museum, successive emperors seem to have bestowed on the city accessions of territory, and erected, or at least given name to, various public buildings. Its inhabitants were included in the Stellatine tribe, diaconus speaks of it as a very wealthy city, and the capital of all the surrounding provinces. The territory of Beneventum under the Roman Empire was of considerable extent. An inscription has preserved to us the names of several of the pagi or villages dependent upon Beneventum, the citys most ancient coins bear the legend Malies or Maliesa, which have been supposed to belong to the Samnite, or pre-Samnite, Maleventum. Coins with the legend BENVENTOD, must have struck after it became a Latin colony. Not long after it had been sacked by Totila and its walls razed, the circumstances of the creation of duchy of Benevento are disputed
16.
Naples Cathedral
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Naples Cathedral is a Roman Catholic cathedral, the main church of Naples, southern Italy, and the seat of the Archbishop of Naples. It is widely known as the Cattedrale di San Gennaro, in honour of Saint Januarius, the present cathedral was commissioned by King Charles I of Anjou. Construction continued during the reign of his successor, Charles II and was completed in the early 14th century under Robert of Anjou and it was built on the foundations of two palaeo-Christian basilicas, whose traces can still be clearly seen. Underneath the building excavations have revealed Greek and Roman artifacts, the Archbishops Palace adjoins the cathedral. Other artworks include an Assumption by Pietro Perugino, canvasses by Luca Giordano, the main chapel is a restoration of the 18th century, with a Baroque relief by Pietro Bracci. The Minutolo Chapel, mentioned in Boccaccios Decameron, has 14th-century frescoes, the crypt is by the Lombard Tommaso Malvito. The façade was reworked by Enrico Alvino in the late 19th century, the church houses a vial of the blood of Saint Januarius which is brought out twice a year, on the first Saturday in May and on 19 September, when the dried blood usually liquefies. If the blood fails to liquefy, then legend has it that disaster will befall Naples, in such a substance viscosity increases if left unstirred and decreases if stirred or moved. Researchers have proposed specifically a suspension of hydrated iron oxide, FeO, the suspension can be prepared from simple chemicals that would have been easily available locally since antiquity. On March 21,2015, the blood in the vial appeared to liquify during a visit by Pope Francis and this was taken as a sign of the saints favour of the pope. The blood did not liquify when Pope Benedict XVI visited in 2007, Saint Januarius Pope Innocent IV Charles I of Naples Saint Restituta Sisto Riario Sforza Rinaldo Piscicello Ascanio Filomarino Alfonso Castaldo
17.
Naples
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Naples is the capital of the Italian region Campania and the third-largest municipality in Italy, after Rome and Milan. In 2015, around 975,260 people lived within the administrative limits. The Metropolitan City of Naples had a population of 3,115,320, Naples is the 9th-most populous urban area in the European Union with a population of between 3 million and 3.7 million. About 4.4 million people live in the Naples metropolitan area, Naples is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. Bronze Age Greek settlements were established in the Naples area in the second millennium BC, a larger colony – initially known as Parthenope, Παρθενόπη – developed on the Island of Megaride around the ninth century BC, at the end of the Greek Dark Ages. Naples remained influential after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, thereafter, in union with Sicily, it became the capital of the Two Sicilies until the unification of Italy in 1861. Naples was the most-bombed Italian city during World War II, much of the citys 20th-century periphery was constructed under Benito Mussolinis fascist government, and during reconstruction efforts after World War II. The city has experienced significant economic growth in recent decades, and unemployment levels in the city, however, Naples still suffers from political and economic corruption, and unemployment levels remain high. Naples has the fourth-largest urban economy in Italy, after Milan, Rome and it is the worlds 103rd-richest city by purchasing power, with an estimated 2011 GDP of US$83.6 billion. The port of Naples is one of the most important in Europe, numerous major Italian companies, such as MSC Cruises Italy S. p. A, are headquartered in Naples. The city also hosts NATOs Allied Joint Force Command Naples, the SRM Institution for Economic Research, Naples is a full member of the Eurocities network of European cities. The city was selected to become the headquarters of the European institution ACP/UE and was named a City of Literature by UNESCOs Creative Cities Network, the Villa Rosebery, one of the three official residences of the President of Italy, is located in the citys Posillipo district. Naples historic city centre is the largest in Europe, covering 1,700 hectares and enclosing 27 centuries of history, Naples has long been a major cultural centre with a global sphere of influence, particularly during the Renaissance and Enlightenment eras. In the immediate vicinity of Naples are numerous culturally and historically significant sites, including the Palace of Caserta, culinarily, Naples is synonymous with pizza, which originated in the city. Neapolitan music has furthermore been highly influential, credited with the invention of the romantic guitar, according to CNN, the metro stop Toledo is the most beautiful in Europe and it won also the LEAF Award 2013 as Public building of the year. Naples is the Italian city with the highest number of accredited stars from the Michelin Guide, Naples sports scene is dominated by football and Serie A club S. S. C. Napoli, two-time Italian champions and winner of European trophies, who play at the San Paolo Stadium in the south-west of the city, the Phlegraean Fields around Naples has been inhabited since the Neolithic period. The earliest Greek settlements were established in the Naples area in the second millennium BC, sailors from the Greek island of Rhodes established a small commercial port called Parthenope on the island of Megaride in the ninth century BC
18.
Holy Ghost
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For the majority of Christian denominations, the Holy Spirit or Holy Ghost is the third person of the Trinity, the Triune God manifested as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, each person itself being God. The New Testament details a relationship between the Holy Spirit and Jesus during his earthly life and ministry. The Gospels of Matthew and Luke and the Nicene Creed state that Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit, born of the Virgin Mary. The Holy Spirit descended on Jesus like a dove during his baptism, the theology of the Holy Spirit is called pneumatology. The Holy Spirit is referred to as the Lord, the Giver of Life in the Nicene Creed, since the first century, Christians have also called upon God with the trinitarian formula Father, Son and Holy Spirit in prayer, absolution and benediction. The Koine Greek word pneûma is found around 385 times in the New Testament, Pneuma appears 105 times in the four canonical gospels,69 times in the Acts of the Apostles,161 times in the Pauline epistles, and 50 times elsewhere. These usages vary, in 133 cases, it refers to spirit in a general sense, around 93 times, the reference to the Holy Spirit, sometimes under the name pneuma and sometimes explicitly as the pneûma tò Hagion. It was generally translated into the Vulgate as Spiritus and Spiritus Sanctus, the English terms Holy Ghost and Holy Spirit are complete synonyms, one derives from the Old English gast and the other from the Latin loanword spiritus. Like pneuma, they refer to the breath, to its animating power, and to the soul. In particular, Another Stoic concept which offered inspiration to the Church was that of divine Spirit, cleanthes, wishing to give more explicit meaning to Zenos creative fire, had been the first to hit upon the term pneuma, or spirit, to describe it. The sacredness of the Holy Spirit is affirmed in all three Synoptic Gospels which proclaim blasphemy against the Holy Spirit is the unforgivable sin. What the Hebrew Bible calls Spirit of God and Spirit of Elohim is called in the Talmud, although the expression Holy Spirit occurs in Ps.51,11 and in Isa. 63, 10–11, it had not yet acquired quite the same meaning which was attached to it in rabbinical literature, in Gen.1,2 Gods spirit hovered over the form of lifeless matter, thereby making the Creation possible. The most characteristic sign of the presence of the ruach ha-kodesh is the gift of prophecy, the use of the word ruach in the phrase ruach ha-kodesh seems to suggest that Judaic authorities believed the Holy Spirit was a kind of communication medium like the wind. The spirit talks sometimes with a masculine and sometimes with a feminine voice, the Holy Spirit does not simply appear for the first time at Pentecost after the resurrection of Jesus, but is present in the Gospel of Luke prior to the birth of Jesus. In Luke 1,15, John the Baptist was said to be filled with the Holy Spirit prior to birth, and the Holy Spirit came upon the Virgin Mary in Luke 1,35. In Luke 3,16 John the Baptist stated that Jesus baptized not with water but with the Holy Spirit, in Luke 11,13 Jesus provided assurances that God the Father would give the Holy Spirit to those who ask him. Matthew 10,20 refers to the act of speaking through the disciples
19.
Baptism
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Baptism is a Christian sacrament of admission and adoption, almost invariably with the use of water, into the Christian Church generally. The canonical Gospels report that Jesus was baptized—a historical event to which a degree of certainty can be assigned. Baptism has been called a sacrament and an ordinance of Jesus Christ. In some denominations, baptism is also called christening, but for others the word christening is reserved for the baptism of infants, Baptism has also given its name to the Baptist churches and denominations. The usual form of baptism among the earliest Christians was for the candidate to be immersed, in v.16, Matthew will speak of Jesus coming up out of the water. The traditional depiction in Christian art of John the Baptist pouring water over Jesus head may therefore be based on later Christian practice, other common forms of baptism now in use include pouring water three times on the forehead, a method called affusion. Martyrdom was identified early in Church history as baptism by blood, later, the Catholic Church identified a baptism of desire, by which those preparing for baptism who die before actually receiving the sacrament are considered saved. Today, some Christians, particularly Christian Scientists, Quakers, The Salvation Army, and Unitarians, do not see baptism as necessary, among those that do, differences can be found in the manner and mode of baptizing and in the understanding of the significance of the rite. Most Christians baptize in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit, much more than half of all Christians baptize infants, many others hold that only believers baptism is true baptism. Some insist on submersion or at least partial immersion of the person who is baptized, others consider that any form of washing by water, as long as the water flows on the head, is sufficient. The term baptism has also used to refer to any ceremony, trial, or experience by which a person is initiated, purified. The Greek verb baptō, dip, from which the verb baptizo is derived, is in turn hypothetically traced to a reconstructed Indo-European root *gʷabh-, the Greek words are used in a great variety of meanings. John the Baptist, who is considered a forerunner to Christianity, the apostle Paul distinguished between the baptism of John, and baptism in the name of Jesus, and it is questionable whether Christian baptism was in some way linked with that of John. Christians consider Jesus to have instituted the sacrament of baptism, though whether Jesus intended to institute a continuing, the earliest Christian baptisms were probably normally by immersion, complete or partial. Though other modes may have also been used, at the hour in which the cock crows, they shall first pray over the water. When they come to the water, the water shall be pure and flowing, that is, then they shall take off all their clothes. The children shall be baptized first, all of the children who can answer for themselves, let them answer. If there are any children who cannot answer for themselves, let their parents answer for them, after this, the men will be baptized
20.
Holy Ampulla
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The role played by the Sainte Ampoule in the sacre of the kings of France is specified in a document of ca 1260, recently republished and examined in detail. Apparently when the containing the body of St. When St Remigius died the ancient art of perfumery was known and practiced in the collapsing Roman Empire. It was not uncommon for chalices, patens and other sacred vessels to be buried with high ranking clergymen, the fate of the second vial is uncertain. The ampoule, a vial of Roman glass about 1½ inches tall, an order of knights named after the ampoule, the Knights of the Holy Ampulla was created for the coronation of kings. The Bishop of Laon held the right to carry the Holy Ampoule during the coronation ceremony, only three of the kings who ruled between Louis the Pious and Charles X were not anointed with holy oil at Reims Cathedral. The ampoule was destroyed in 1793 by French revolutionaries, when the Convention sent Philippe Rühl to smash the ampoule publicly on the pedestal of the statue of Louis XV with a hammer. Furthermore, Louis Champagne Prévoteau ensured the preservation of two pieces of the vial with some remaining balm on them. All these fragments except the one kept by Hourelle which was lost were gathered on 25 May 1825 by the Archbishop of Reims. These were placed in a new reliquary made in time for the coronation of Charles X four days later which is now displayed at the Palace of Tau, since 1906, the preserved contents of the Holy Ampulla are kept at the Archbishopric of Reims. Among the implements used in the Coronation of the British Monarch is a golden, eagle-shaped Ampulla, the Ampulla was believed to have been first used in the coronation of Henry IV in 1399. According to legend, it was made to contain the oil presented by the Virgin Mary to St Thomas of Canterbury and its accompanying golden spoon, which is certainly of the 13th century, is used to anoint the Sovereign on several parts of the body. Monza ampullae Oppenheimer, Sir Francis The Legend of the Ste, london, Faber & Faber La Sainte Ampoule et le sacre des rois de France
21.
Anointing
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Anointing is the ritual act of pouring aromatic oil over a persons head or entire body. By extension, the term is applied to related acts of sprinkling, dousing, or smearing a person or object with any perfumed oil, milk, butter. Scented oils are used as perfumes and sharing them is an act of hospitality, in present usage, anointing is typically used for ceremonial blessings such as the coronation of European monarchs. This continues an earlier Hebrew practice most famously observed in the anointings of Aaron as high priest, the concept is important to the figures of the Messiah and the Christ who appear prominently in Jewish and Christian theology and eschatology. Anointing—particularly the anointing of the sick—may also be known as unction, the present verb derives from the now obsolete adjective anoint, equivalent to anointed. The adjective is first attested in 1303, derived from Old French enoint, the past participle of enoindre, from Latin inungere and it is thus cognate with unction. The oil used in a ceremonial anointment may be called chrism, several related words such as chrismation and chrismarium derive from the same root. Anointing served and serves three purposes, it is regarded as a means of health and comfort, as a token of honor. Used in conjunction with bathing, anointment with oil closes pores and it was regarded as counteracting the influence of the sun, reducing sweating. Aromatic oils naturally masked body and other odors, and other forms of fat could be combined with perfumes. Applications of oils and fats are used as traditional medicines. The Bible records olive oil being applied to the sick and poured into wounds and it is still used in traditional Indian medicine to remove illness, bad luck, and demonic possession. For sanitary and religious reasons, the bodies of the dead are sometimes anointed, in medieval and early modern Christianity, the practice was particularly associated with protection against vampires and ghouls who might otherwise take possession of the corpse. Anointing guests with oil as a mark of hospitality and token of honor is recorded in Egypt, Greece and it was a common custom among the ancient Hebrews and continued among the Arabs into the 20th century. For about 3,000 years, Persian Zoroastrians honor their guests with rose extract while holding a mirror in front of their guests face, the guests hold their palms out, collect the rose water, and then spread the perfumed liquid upon their faces and sometimes heads. The words of rooj kori aka might be said as well, east African Arabs traditionally anointed themselves with lions fat to gain courage and provoke fear in other animals. Australian Aborigines would rub themselves with a human victims caul fat to gain his powers, in religions like Christianity where animal sacrifice is no longer practiced, it is common to consecrate the oil in a special ceremony. The most famous example of this is on the throne of Tutankhamun, anointment of the corpse with sweet-smelling oils was an important part of mummification
22.
Coronation
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The ceremony can also be conducted for the monarchs consort, either simultaneously with the monarch or as a separate event. A ceremony without the placement of a crown on the head is known as an enthronement. Coronations are still observed in the United Kingdom, Tonga, in addition to investing the monarch with symbols of state, Western-style coronations have often traditionally involve anointing with holy oil, or chrism as it is often called. Wherever a ruler is anointed in this way, as in Great Britain and Tonga, some other lands use bathing or cleansing rites, the drinking of a sacred beverage, or other religious practices to achieve a comparable effect. Such acts symbolise the granting of divine favour to the monarch within the relevant spiritual-religious paradigm of the country, in the past, concepts of royalty, coronation and deity were often inexorably linked. Rome promulgated the practice of worship, in Medieval Europe. Coronations were once a direct expression of these alleged connections. Thus, coronations have often been discarded altogether or altered to reflect the nature of the states in which they are held. However, some monarchies still choose to retain an overtly religious dimension to their accession rituals, others have adopted simpler enthronement or inauguration ceremonies, or even no ceremony at all. In non-Christian states, coronation rites evolved from a variety of sources, buddhism, for instance, influenced the coronation rituals of Thailand, Cambodia and Bhutan, while Hindu elements played a significant role in Nepalese rites. The ceremonies used in modern Egypt, Malaysia, Brunei and Iran were shaped by Islam, Coronations, in one form or another, have existed since ancient times. Egyptian records show coronation scenes, such as that of Seti I in 1290 BC, judeo-Christian scriptures testify to particular rites associated with the conferring of kingship, the most detailed accounts of which are found in II Kings 11,12 and II Chronicles 23,11. Following the assumption of the diadem by Constantine, Roman and Byzantine emperors continued to wear it as the symbol of their authority. Although no specific coronation ceremony was observed at first, one gradually evolved over the following century, the emperor Julian was hoisted upon a shield and crowned with a gold necklace provided by one of his standard-bearers, he later wore a jewel-studded diadem. Later emperors were crowned and acclaimed in a manner, until the momentous decision was taken to permit the Patriarch of Constantinople to physically place the crown on the emperors head. Historians debate when exactly this first took place, but the precedent was established by the reign of Leo II. This ritual included recitation of prayers by the Byzantine prelate over the crown, after this event, according to the Catholic Encyclopedia, the ecclesiastical element in the coronation ceremonial rapidly develop. This was usually performed three times, following this, the king was given a spear, and a diadem wrought of silk or linen was bound around his forehead as a token of regal authority
23.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
24.
Clovis I of France
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He is considered to have been the founder of the Merovingian dynasty, which ruled the Frankish kingdom for the next two centuries. Clovis was the son of Childeric I, a Merovingian king of the Salian Franks, and Basina, in 481, at the age of fifteen, Clovis succeeded his father. Clovis is important in the historiography of France as the first king of what would become France and his name is Germanic, composed of the elements hlod and wig, and is the origin of the later French given name Louis, borne by 18 kings of France. Dutch, the most closely related language to Frankish, reborrowed the name as Lodewijk from German in the 12th century. Clovis was baptized on Christmas Day in 508, numerous small Frankish kingdoms existed during the 5th century. After the collapse of Roman power in the last days of 406 the Salian Franks had expanded to the south of the military highway Boulogne-Cologne. The powerbase of Clovis father was the area around Tournai, in the current province of Hainault, upon the death of his father, Merovech in 457 Childeric I, Clovis father, became king of the subgroup of the Salian Franks based around Tournai. In 463 he fought in conjunction with Aegidius, the magister militum of northern Gaul, Childeric died in 481 and was buried in Tournai, Clovis succeeded him as king, aged just 15. Under Clovis, the Salian Franks came to dominate their neighbours, historians believe that Childeric and Clovis were both commanders of the Roman military in the Province of Belgica Secunda and were subordinate to the magister militum. Clovis then had the Frankish king Chararic imprisoned and executed, a few years later, he killed Ragnachar, the Frankish king of Cambrai, along with his brothers. Another victory followed in 491 over a group of Thuringians to the east. By this time Clovis had conquered all the Frankish kingdoms to the west of the River Maas and he secured an alliance with the Ostrogoths through the marriage of his sister Audofleda to their king, Theodoric the Great. With the help of the Ripuarian Franks he narrowly defeated the Alamanni in the Battle of Tolbiac in 496 and he made Paris his capital and established an abbey dedicated to Saints Peter and Paul on the south bank of the Seine. In 500 Clovis fought a battle with the Burgundian kingdom at Dijon but was unable to subdue them, the battle added most of Aquitaine to Clovis kingdom and resulted in the death of the Visigothic king Alaric II. According to Gregory of Tours, following the Battle of Vouillé, since Clovis name does not appear in the consular lists, it is likely he was granted a suffect consulship. Clovis became the first king of all Franks in 508, after he had conquered Cologne and this contrasted with Catholicism, whose followers believe that God the Father, Jesus and the Holy Spirit are three persons of one being. By the time of the ascension of Clovis, Gothic Arians dominated Christian Gaul and this included his wife, Clotilde, a Burgundian princess who was a Catholic in spite of the Arianism that surrounded her at court. Clotilde evangelized Clovis to convert to Catholicism, which he initially resisted, Clotilde had wanted her son to be baptized, but Clovis refused to allow it, so Clotilde had the child baptized without Cloviss knowledge
25.
Saint Remigius
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Saint Remigius, Remy or Remi, was Bishop of Reims and Apostle of the Franks. On 25 December 496 he baptised Clovis I, King of the Franks and this baptism, leading to the conversion of the entire Frankish people to Catholic Christianity, was a momentous success for the Church and a seminal event in European history. Remigius was born, traditionally, at Cerny-en-Laonnois, near Laon, Picardy and he is said to have been son of Emilius, count of Laon and of Celina, daughter of the Bishop of Soissons, which Clovis had conquered in 486. He studied at Reims and soon became so noted for his learning and sanctity, and his high status and he was both Lord Chancellor of France and Référendaire of France. King Clovis granted Remigius stretches of territory, in which Remigius established and endowed many churches, in 530 he consecrated Medardus, Bishop of Noyon. The chroniclers of Gallia Christiana record that numerous donations were made to Remigius by the Frankish nobles, though Remigius never attended any of the church councils, in 517 he held a synod at Reims, at which after a heated discussion he converted a bishop of Arian views. The reply of Remigius, still extant, is able and convincing, few authentic works of Remigius remain, his Declamations were elaborately admired by Sidonius Apollinaris, in a finely turned letter to Remigius, but are now lost. Four letters survive, one containing his defence in the matter of Claudius, the Testament of St. Remigius is apocryphal. A brief and strictly legendary Vita was formerly ascribed to Venantius Fortunatus, another, according to Jacobus de Voragine, was written by Ignatius, bishop of Reims. A Commentary on the Pauline Epistles is not his work, St Remigius relics were kept in the Cathedral of Reims, whence Hincmar had them translated to Épernay during the Viking invasions and thence, in 1099 to the Abbey of Saint-Rémy. His feast is celebrated on October 1, apparently when the sepulcher containing the body of St. If one recalls that when St. Remigius’ corpse during his funeral, Remigius combined to suggest to those present that these two vials were the miraculously filled vials of the legend. It should be remembered as well that it was not uncommon for chalices, patens, Hincmar adroitly combined the discovery of the two vials the Legend of the Moribund Pagan and the historical memory that St. Remigius had baptized Clovis, into the Legend of the Sainte Ampoule. Hincmar used the new legend to strengthen his claim that his own archepiscopal see of Reims should be recognized as the chosen site for all subsequent anointings of French kings. The fate of the vial is uncertain. List of Catholic saints Vase of Soissons Saint Abran, hermit of Brittany Jacobus de Voragine, The Golden Legend, October 1, St. Remigius
26.
Cathedral of Notre-Dame, Reims
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Notre-Dame de Reims is a Roman Catholic church in Reims, France. It is the seat of the Archdiocese of Reims, where the kings of France were crowned. The cathedral replaced a church, destroyed by fire in 1211. That original structure had itself been erected on the site of some Roman baths, a major tourism destination, the cathedral receives about one million visitors annually. Excavations have shown that the present building occupies roughly the site as the original cathedral. That church was rebuilt during the Carolingian period and further extended in the 12th century, on 19 May 1051, King Henry I of France and Anne of Kiev were married in the cathedral. Whilst conducting the Council of Reims in 1131, Pope Innocent II anointed and crowned the future Louis VII in the cathedral, on May 6,1210 the cathedral was damaged by fire and reconstruction started shortly after, beginning at the eastern end. In 1233 a long-running dispute between the chapter and the townsfolk boiled over into open revolt. Several clerics were killed or injured during the violence and the entire cathedral chapter fled the city. Work on the new cathedral was suspended for three years, only resuming in 1236 after the clergy returned to the city and the interdict was lifted following mediation by the King and the Pope. The area from the crossing eastwards was in use by 1241, work on the west facade took place in several phases, which is reflected in the very different styles of some of the sculptures. The upper parts of the facade were completed in the 14th century, unusually the names of the cathedrals original architects are known. The labyrinth itself was destroyed in 1779 but its details and inscriptions are known from 18th century drawings, the clear association here between a labyrinth and master masons adds weight to the argument that such patterns were an allusion to the emerging status of the architect. The cathedral also contains evidence of the rising status of the architect in the tomb of Hugues Libergier. Not only is he given the honor of a slab, he is shown holding a miniature model of his church. The towers,81 m tall, were designed to rise 120 m. The south tower holds just two great bells, one of them, named “Charlotte” by Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine in 1570, following the death of the infant King John I, his uncle Philip would be hurriedly crowned at Reims,9 January 1317. During the Hundred Years War the cathedral and city were under siege by the English from 1359 to 1360, but the siege failed
27.
Charles X of France
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Charles X was King of France from 16 September 1824 until 2 August 1830. For most of his life he was known as the Count of Artois, an uncle of the uncrowned King Louis XVII, and younger brother to reigning Kings Louis XVI and Louis XVIII, he supported the latter in exile and eventually succeeded him. His rule of almost six years ended in the July Revolution of 1830, which resulted in his abdication, exiled once again, Charles died in 1836 in Gorizia, then part of the Austrian Empire. He was the last of the French rulers from the branch of the House of Bourbon. Charles Philippe of France was born in 1757, the youngest son of the Dauphin Louis and his wife, Charles was created Count of Artois at birth by his grandfather, the reigning King Louis XV. As the youngest male in the family, Charles seemed unlikely ever to become king and his eldest brother, Louis, Duke of Burgundy, died unexpectedly in 1761, which moved Charles up one place in the line of succession. He was raised in childhood by Madame de Marsan, the Governess of the Children of France. At the death of his father in 1765, Charless oldest surviving brother, Louis Auguste and their mother Marie Josèphe, who never recovered from the loss of her husband, died in March 1767 from tuberculosis. This left Charles an orphan at the age of nine, along with his siblings Louis Auguste, Louis Stanislas, Count of Provence, Clotilde, Louis XV fell ill on 27 April 1774 and died on 10 May of smallpox at the age of 64. His grandson Louis-Auguste succeeded him as King Louis XVI of France, in November 1773, Charles married Marie Thérèse of Savoy. The marriage, unlike that of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette, was consummated almost immediately, in 1775, Marie Thérèse gave birth to a boy, Louis Antoine, who was created Duke of Angoulême by Louis XVI. Three years later, in 1778, Charles second son, Charles Ferdinand, was born, in the same year Queen Marie Antoinette gave birth to her first child, Marie Thérèse, quelling all rumours that she could not bear children. Charles was thought of as the most attractive member of his family and his wife was considered quite ugly by most contemporaries, and he looked for company in numerous extramarital affairs. According to the Count of Hézecques, few beauties were cruel to him, later, he embarked upon a lifelong love affair with the beautiful Louise de Polastron, the sister-in-law of Marie Antoinettes closest companion, the Duchess of Polignac. Charles also struck up a friendship with Marie Antoinette herself. The closeness of the relationship was such that he was accused by Parisian rumour mongers of having seduced her. As part of Marie Antoinettes social set, Charles often appeared opposite her in the theatre of her favourite royal retreat. They were both said to be very talented amateur actors, Marie Antoinette played milkmaids, shepherdesses, and country ladies, whereas Charles played lovers, valets, and farmers
28.
Gas burner
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A Bunsen burner, named after Robert Bunsen, is a common piece of laboratory equipment that produces a single open gas flame, which is used for heating, sterilization, and combustion. The gas can be gas or a liquefied petroleum gas, such as propane, butane. In 1852 the University of Heidelberg hired Bunsen and promised him a new laboratory building, the city of Heidelberg had begun to install coal-gas street lighting, and so the university laid gas lines to the new laboratory. The designers of the building intended to use the gas not just for illumination, for any burner lamp, it was desirable to maximize the temperature and minimize luminosity. However, existing laboratory burner lamps left much to be desired not just in terms of the heat of the flame, but also regarding economy and simplicity. While the building was still under construction in late 1854 Bunsen suggested certain design principles to the mechanic, Peter Desaga. The Bunsen/Desaga design succeeded in generating a hot, sootless, non-luminous flame by mixing the gas with air in a controlled fashion before combustion, Desaga created adjustable slits for air at the bottom of the cylindrical burner, with the flame igniting at the top. By the time the building opened early in 1855 Desaga had made fifty of the burners for Bunsens students, two years later Bunsen published a description, and many of his colleagues soon adopted the design. Bunsen burners are now used in all around the world. The device in use today safely burns a continuous stream of a gas such as natural gas or a liquefied petroleum gas such as propane, butane. The hose barb is connected to a gas nozzle on the bench with rubber tubing. Most laboratory benches are equipped with multiple gas nozzles connected to a gas source, as well as vacuum, nitrogen. The gas then flows up through the base through a hole at the bottom of the barrel and is directed upward. There are open slots in the side of the bottom to admit air into the stream via the venturi effect. The most common methods of lighting the burner are using a match or a spark lighter, the amount of air mixed with the gas stream affects the completeness of the combustion reaction. Less air yields an incomplete and thus cooler reaction, while a gas stream well mixed with air provides oxygen in an amount and thus a complete. The air flow can be controlled by opening or closing the openings at the base of the barrel. If the collar at the bottom of the tube is adjusted so more air can mix with the gas before combustion, the flame will burn hotter, appearing blue as a result
29.
Computer vision
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Computer vision is an interdisciplinary field that deals with how computers can be made for gaining high-level understanding from digital images or videos. From the perspective of engineering, it seeks to automate tasks that the visual system can do. g. in the forms of decisions. Understanding in this means the transformation of visual images into descriptions of the world that can interface with other thought processes. This image understanding can be seen as the disentangling of symbolic information from image data using models constructed with the aid of geometry, physics, statistics, as a scientific discipline, computer vision is concerned with the theory behind artificial systems that extract information from images. The image data can take many forms, such as sequences, views from multiple cameras. As a technological discipline, computer vision seeks to apply its theories, sub-domains of computer vision include scene reconstruction, event detection, video tracking, object recognition, object pose estimation, learning, indexing, motion estimation, and image restoration. Computer vision is a field that deals with how computers can be made for gaining high-level understanding from digital images or videos. From the perspective of engineering, it seeks to automate tasks that the visual system can do. Computer vision is concerned with the extraction, analysis and understanding of useful information from a single image or a sequence of images. It involves the development of a theoretical and algorithmic basis to achieve automatic visual understanding, as a scientific discipline, computer vision is concerned with the theory behind artificial systems that extract information from images. The image data can take many forms, such as sequences, views from multiple cameras. As a technological discipline, computer vision seeks to apply its theories, in the late 1960s, computer vision began at universities that were pioneering artificial intelligence. It was meant to mimic the visual system, as a stepping stone to endowing robots with intelligent behavior. In 1966, it was believed that this could be achieved through a project, by attaching a camera to a computer. The next decade saw studies based on rigorous mathematical analysis. These include the concept of scale-space, the inference of shape from various cues such as shading, texture and focus, researchers also realized that many of these mathematical concepts could be treated within the same optimization framework as regularization and Markov random fields. By the 1990s, some of the research topics became more active than the others. Research in projective 3-D reconstructions led to better understanding of camera calibration, with the advent of optimization methods for camera calibration, it was realized that a lot of the ideas were already explored in bundle adjustment theory from the field of photogrammetry
30.
Quality control
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Quality control, or QC for short, is a process by which entities review the quality of all factors involved in production. ISO9000 defines quality control as A part of quality management focused on fulfilling quality requirements, controls include product inspection, where every product is examined visually, and often using a stereo microscope for fine detail before the product is sold into the external market. Inspectors will be provided with lists and descriptions of product defects such as cracks or surface blemishes for example. The quality of the outputs is at risk if any of three aspects is deficient in any way. For contract work, particularly work awarded by government agencies, quality issues are among the top reasons for not renewing a contract. In practice, projects typically have a quality control team which focuses on this area. The Control of Quality in Manufacturing, New York, Ronald Press Co, OCLC1701274, retrieved 2013-11-16 Shewhart, Walter A. Economic Control of Quality of Manufactured Product, New York, D. Van Nostrand Co. Inc. OCLC1045408 Juran, Joseph M. Quality-Control Handbook, New York, McGraw-Hill, OCLC1220529 Western Electric Company, Statistical Quality Control Handbook, Indianapolis, Indiana, total Quality Control, New York, McGraw-Hill, OCLC567344 ASTM quality control standards
31.
Schlenk line
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The Schlenk line is a commonly used chemistry apparatus developed by Wilhelm Schlenk. It consists of a manifold with several ports. One manifold is connected to a source of purified inert gas, special stopcocks or Teflon taps allow vacuum or inert gas to be selected without the need for placing the sample on a separate line. Schlenk lines are useful for safely and successfully manipulating air-sensitive compounds, the vacuum is also often used to remove the last traces of solvent from a sample. Vacuum and gas manifolds often have many ports and lines, and with care, when the reagents are highly susceptible to oxidation, traces of oxygen may pose a problem. Then, for the removal of oxygen below the ppm level and this is usually a column of copper or manganese oxide, which reacts with oxygen traces present in the inert gas. Liquid flow is supported by vacuum or inert-gas pressure, glassware are usually connected by tightly fitting and greased ground glass joints. Round bends of glass tubing with ground glass joints may be used to adjust the orientation of various vessels, filtration under inert conditions poses a special challenge that is usually tackled with specialized glassware. A Schlenk filter consists of sintered glass funnel fitted with joints, the main dangers associated with the use of a Schlenk line are the risks of an implosion or explosion. An implosion can occur due to the use of vacuum and flaws in the glass apparatus, an explosion can occur due to the common use of liquid nitrogen in the cold trap, used to protect the vacuum pump from solvents. If a reasonable amount of air is allowed to enter the Schlenk line, an explosion may occur due to reaction of the liquid oxygen with any organic compounds also in the trap. Air-free technique gives an overview of methods including, Glovebox – used to manipulate air-sensitive chemicals. Schlenk flask – reaction vessel for handling air-sensitive compounds, perkin triangle – used for the distillation of air-sensitive compounds. Wilhelm Schlenk, The Man Behind the Flask, the Integrated Synthesis Course, Schlenk Technique. Handling and Storage of Air-Sensitive Reagents, preparation of a Manganese oxide column for inert gas purification from oxygen traces
32.
RFID tag
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Radio-frequency identification uses electromagnetic fields to automatically identify and track tags attached to objects. The tags contain electronically stored information, Passive tags collect energy from a nearby RFID readers interrogating radio waves. Active tags have a power source such as a battery. Unlike a barcode, the tag need not be within the line of sight of the reader, RFID is one method for Automatic Identification and Data Capture. These concerns resulted in standard specifications development addressing privacy and security issues, ISO/IEC18000 and ISO/IEC29167 use on-chip cryptography methods for untraceability, tag and reader authentication, and over-the-air privacy. ISO/IEC20248 specifies a digital data structure for RFID and barcodes providing data, source. This work is done within ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC31 Automatic identification, in 2014, the world RFID market is worth US$8.89 billion, up from US$7.77 billion in 2013 and US$6.96 billion in 2012. This includes tags, readers, and software/services for RFID cards, labels, fobs, the market value is expected to rise to US$18.68 billion by 2026. In 1945, Léon Theremin invented a tool for the Soviet Union which retransmitted incident radio waves with the audio information. Sound waves vibrated a diaphragm which slightly altered the shape of the resonator, similar technology, such as the IFF transponder, was routinely used by the allies and Germany in World War II to identify aircraft as friend or foe. Transponders are still used by most powered aircraft to this day, another early work exploring RFID is the landmark 1948 paper by Harry Stockman. Considerable research and development work has to be done before the basic problems in reflected-power communication are solved. Mario Cardullos device, patented on January 23,1973, was the first true ancestor of modern RFID, the basic Cardullo patent covers the use of RF, sound and light as transmission media. The original business plan presented to investors in 1969 showed uses in transportation, banking, security and medical. An early demonstration of reflected power RFID tags, both passive and semi-passive, was performed by Steven Depp, Alfred Koelle, and Robert Frayman at the Los Alamos National Laboratory in 1973, the portable system operated at 915 MHz and used 12-bit tags. This technique is used by the majority of todays UHFID and microwave RFID tags, the first patent to be associated with the abbreviation RFID was granted to Charles Walton in 1983. A radio-frequency identification system uses tags, or labels attached to the objects to be identified, two-way radio transmitter-receivers called interrogators or readers send a signal to the tag and read its response. RFID tags can be passive, active or battery-assisted passive
33.
Paint
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Paint is any liquid, liquefiable, or mastic composition that, after application to a substrate in a thin layer, converts to a solid film. It is most commonly used to protect, color, or provide texture to objects, Paint can be made or purchased in many colors—and in many different types, such as watercolor, synthetic, etc. Paint is typically stored, sold, and applied as a liquid, in 2001 and 2004, South African archeologists reported finds in Blombos Cave of a 100, 000-year-old human-made ochre-based mixture that could have been used like paint. Further excavation in the cave resulted in the 2011 report of a complete toolkit for grinding pigments. Cave paintings drawn with red or yellow ochre, hematite, manganese oxide, ancient colored walls at Dendera, Egypt, which were exposed for years to the elements, still possess their brilliant color, as vivid as when they were painted about 2,000 years ago. The Egyptians mixed their colors with a substance, and applied them separately from each other without any blending or mixture. They appear to have used six colors, white, black, blue, red, yellow and they first covered the area entirely with white, then traced the design in black, leaving out the lights of the ground color. They used minium for red, and generally of a dark tinge, pliny mentions some painted ceilings in his day in the town of Ardea, which had been done prior to the foundation of Rome. He expresses great surprise and admiration at their freshness, after the lapse of so many centuries, Paint was made with the yolk of eggs and therefore, the substance would harden and adhere to the surface it was applied to. Pigment was made from plants, sand, and different soils, Most paints used either oil or water as a base. The process was done by hand by the painters and exposed them to lead poisoning due to the white-lead powder, in 1718, Marshall Smith invented a Machine or Engine for the Grinding of Colours in England. It is not known precisely how it operated, but it was a device that increased the efficiency of pigment grinding dramatically. By the proper onset of the Industrial Revolution, paint was being ground in steam-powered mills, interior house painting increasingly became the norm as the 19th century progressed, both for decorative reasons and because the paint was effective in preventing the walls rotting from damp. Linseed oil was also used as an inexpensive binder. In 1866, Sherwin-Williams in the United States opened as a large paint-maker and it was not until the stimulus of World War II created a shortage of linseed oil in the supply market that artificial resins, or alkyds, were invented. Cheap and easy to make, they held the color well. The vehicle is composed of the binder, or, if it is necessary to thin the binder with a diluent like solvent or water, it is the combination of binder + diluent. In this case, once the paint has dried or cured very nearly all of the diluent has evaporated, thus, an important quantity in coatings formulation is the vehicle solids, sometimes called the resin solids of the formula
34.
Vitreous enamel
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Vitreous enamel, also called porcelain enamel, is a material made by fusing powdered glass to a substrate by firing, usually between 750 and 850 °C. The powder melts, flows, and then hardens to a smooth, durable vitreous coating on metal, so in technical terms fired enamelware is an integrated layered composite of glass and metal. Enamelling is an old and widely adopted technology, for most of its history mainly used in jewelry, enamelled and enamelling are the preferred spellings in British English, while enameled and enameling are preferred in American English. The term enamel is most often restricted to work on metal, enamelled glass is also called painted, and overglaze decoration to pottery is often called enamelling. The word enamel comes from the Old High German word smelzan via the Old French esmail, or from a Latin word smaltum, used as a noun, an enamel is usually a small decorative object coated with enamel. Since the 19th century the term also to industrial materials and many metal consumer objects, such as some cooking vessels, dishwashers, laundry machines, sinks. The ancient Egyptians applied enamels to stone objects, pottery, and sometimes jewellery, the ancient Greeks, Celts, Georgians, and Chinese also used enamel on metal objects. Enamel powder could be produced in two ways, either by powdering coloured glass, or by mixing colourless glass powder with pigments such as a metallic oxide, designs were either painted freehand or over the top of outline incisions, and the technique probably originated in metalworking. Once painted, enamelled glass vessels needed to be fired at a high enough to melt the applied powder. Ancient Persians used this method for colouring and ornamenting the surface of metals by fusing over it brilliant colours that are decorated in an intricate design and called it Meenakari. Gold has been used traditionally for Meenakari Jewellery as it holds the enamel better, lasts longer, initially, the work of Meenakari often went unnoticed as this art was traditionally used as a backing for the famous kundan or stone-studded jewellery. This also allowed the wearer to reverse the jewellery as also promised a special joy in the secret of the hidden design, the Byzantine enamel style was widely adopted by the barbarian peoples of Migration Period northern Europe. The Byzantines then began to use cloisonné more freely to create images, the champlevé technique was considerably easier and very widely practiced in the Romanesque period. In Gothic art the finest work is in basse-taille and ronde-bosse techniques, from either Byzantium or the Islamic world, the cloisonné technique reached China in the 13-14th centuries. The first written reference to cloisonné is in a book from 1388, cloisonné remained very popular in China until the 19th century and is still produced today. Starting from the century, the Japanese also produced large quantities of very high technical quality. A resurgence in enamel-based art took place near the end of the 20th century in the Soviet Union, led by artists like Alexei Maximov, in Australia, abstract artist Bernard Hesling brought the style into prominence with his variously sized steel plates. Enamel was first applied commercially to sheet iron and steel in Austria, industrialization increased as the purity of raw materials increased and costs decreased
35.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
36.
Packaging and labeling
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Packaging is the technology of enclosing or protecting products for distribution, storage, sale, and use. Packaging also refers to the process of designing, evaluating, Packaging can be described as a coordinated system of preparing goods for transport, warehousing, logistics, sale, and end use. Packaging contains, protects, preserves, transports, informs, in many countries it is fully integrated into government, business, institutional, industrial, and personal use. Package labeling or labelling is any written, electronic, or graphic communication on the package or on a separate but associated label. The first packages used the materials available at the time, baskets of reeds, wineskins, wooden boxes, pottery vases, ceramic amphorae, wooden barrels, woven bags. Processed materials were used to form packages as they were developed, for example, early glass, the study of old packages is an important aspect of archaeology. The use of tinplate for packaging dates back to the 18th century, by 1697, John Hanbury had a rolling mill at Pontypool for making Pontypoole Plates. The method pioneered there of rolling iron plates by means of cylinders enabled more uniform black plates to be produced than was possible with the practice of hammering. Tinplate boxes first began to be sold from ports in the Bristol Channel in 1725, the tinplate was shipped from Newport, Monmouthshire. By 1805,80,000 boxes were made and 50,000 exported, tobacconists in London began packaging snuff in metal-plated canisters from the 1760s onwards. With the discovery of the importance of airtight containers for food preservation by French inventor Nicholas Appert, after receiving the patent, Durand did not himself follow up with canning food. By 1813, they were producing the first canned goods for the Royal Navy, the progressive improvement in canning stimulated the 1855 invention of the can opener. In 1858, another lever-type opener of a complex shape was patented in the United States by Ezra Warner of Waterbury. Set-up boxes were first used in the 16th century and modern folding cartons date back to 1839, the first corrugated box was produced commercially in 1817 in England. Corrugated paper received a British patent in 1856 and was used as a liner for tall hats, scottish-born Robert Gair invented the pre-cut paperboard box in 1890—flat pieces manufactured in bulk that folded into boxes. Gair discovered that by cutting and creasing in one operation he could make prefabricated paperboard boxes, commercial paper bags were first manufactured in Bristol, England, in 1844, and the American Francis Wolle patented a machine for automated bag-making in 1852. Packaging advancements in the early 20th century included Bakelite closures on bottles, transparent cellophane overwraps and these innovations increased processing efficiency and improved food safety. As additional materials such as aluminum and several types of plastic were developed, they were incorporated into packages to improve performance, in 1952, Michigan State University became the first university in the world to offer a degree in Packaging Engineering
37.
Active packaging
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The terms active packaging, intelligent packaging, and smart packaging refer to packaging systems used with foods, pharmaceuticals, and several other types of products. They help extend shelf life, monitor freshness, display information on quality, improve safety, active packaging usually means having active functions beyond the inert passive containment and protection of the product. Intelligent and smart packaging usually involve the ability to sense or measure an attribute of the product and this information can be communicated to users or can trigger active packaging functions. Programmable matter, smart materials, etc can be employed in packages, depending on the working definitions, some traditional types of packaging might be considered as active or intelligent. More often, the terms are used with new technologically advanced systems, microelectronics, computer applications, nanotechnology, for many years, desiccants have been used to actively control the water vapor in a closed package. A desiccant is a hygroscopic substance usually in a pouch or sachet which is placed inside a sealed package. They have been used to reduce corrosion of machinery and electronics and to extend the life of moisture sensitive foods. Corrosion inhibitors can be applied to items to prevent rust. Volatile corrosion inhibitors or vapor phase corrosion inhibitors can be provided inside a package in a pouch or can be incorporated in a saturated overwrap of special paper, many of these are organic salts that condense on the metal to resist corrosion. Some films also have VCI emitting capability, films are available with copper ions in the polymer structure, These neutralize the corrosive gas in a package and deter rust. VCI create an environment in the packaging. It works on the principle of difference in pressure and causes reaction with Metals and Non metals. There are different forms of VCIs available like Papers, Plastics, HDPE Papers, Oils, Foams, Chips, Aluminum Barrier Foils, Bubble, Emitters etc. that can prevent corrosion at many stages. Trace transition metals in foods, especially iron, can induce oxidative degradation of food components, especially lipids. Metal-chelating active packaging materials are made by immobilizing metal-chelating active compounds onto traditional active packaging material, the surface immobilized metal-chelating compounds can scavenge the transition metals from the product and enhance the oxidative stability of the product. The metal-chelating active packaging technology is also antioxidant active packaging that will extend the shelf-life of consumer products by controlling the oxidation, the metal-chelating active packaging technology is known to be able to remove synthetic food preservatives from the food product. This technology can be used to address the consumer demand for additive free. Oxygen scavengers or oxygen absorbers help remove oxygen from a closed package, some are small packets or sachets containing powdered iron, as the iron rusts, oxygen is removed from the surrounding atmosphere
38.
Child-resistant packaging
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Child-resistant packaging or CR packaging is special packaging used to reduce the risk of children ingesting dangerous items. This is often accomplished by the use of a safety cap. In some jurisdictions, unit packaging such as blister packs is also regulated for child safety, consumer Product Safety Commission has stated in a press release that There is no such thing as child-proof packaging. So you shouldnt think of packaging as your primary line of defense, rather, you should think of packaging, even child-resistant packaging, as your last line of defense. The child-resistant locking closure for containers was invented in 1967 by Dr. Henri Breault, a history of accidents involving children opening household packaging and ingesting the contents led the United States Congress to pass the Poison Prevention Packaging Act of 1970, authored by U. S. Senator Frank E. Moss of Utah, consumer Product Safety Commission the authority to regulate this area. Additions throughout the decades have increased the coverage to include other hazardous items. Coordination exists for improving standards on requirements and protocols. Child-resistant packaging can be a problem for some aged individuals or people with disabilities, regulations require designs to be tested to verify that most adults can access the package. Some jurisdictions allow pharmacists to provide medications in non CR packages when there are no children in the same house, the regulations are based on protocols of performance tests of packages with actual children, to determine if the packages can be opened. More recently, additional testing is used to determine if aged individuals or people with disabilities have the ability to open the same packages. Often the CR requirements are met by package closures which require two dissimilar motions for opening, hundreds of package designs are available for packagers to consider. ISO8317 Child-resistant packaging - Requirements and testing procedures for reclosable packages, L. Encyclopedia of Packaging Technology, John Wiley & Sons,2009, ISBN 978-0-470-08704-6 Lockhart, H. and Paine, F. A
39.
Disposable food packaging
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Disposable food packaging comprises disposable items often found in fast food restaurants, takeout restaurants and kiosks, and catering establishments. Food serving items for picnics and parties are very similar, typical disposable foodservice products are plates, bowls, cups, utensils, doilies and tray papers. These products can be made from a number of materials including plastics, paper, bioresins, Packaging of fast food and take-out food is necessary for the customer but involves a significant amount of material that ends up in landfill, recycling, composting, or litter. The paper plate was invented by the German bookbinder Hermann Henschel in Luckenwalde in 1867, in 1908, Samuel J. Crumbine was a public health officer in Kansas. He was on a train when he witnessed one of his tuberculosis patients taking a drink of water from a dipper and water bucket in the car. Right behind his patient was a girl who drank from the same dipper. This inspired him to launch a crusade to ban publicly shared or common utensils in public places, taking note of the trend, Lawrence Luellen and Hugh Moore invented a disposable paper cup called the Health Cup and later renamed the Dixie Cup. Single-use cone cups were followed by the commercialization of single-use plates and bowls, wooden cutlery, by the 1930s these products were widely used to feed the men and women who worked on the remote dams, bridges and roads of the Works Progress Administration. In the 1940s they were used to feed factory workers. After World War II, foodservice packaging materials like plastic and polystyrene foam were developed, the unique properties of these materials and their ability to be made into a variety of shapes and sizes, provided foodservice operators, and consumers, with a wider variety of packaging choices. A major development in disposable foodservice packaging happened in 1948 when the newly founded McDonalds restaurant closed to revamp its menu. Along with changing their menu items, the restaurant wanted to change the way it handled dishwashing and dishwashers, car hops and wait staff, and storage, breakage and theft of table ware. When the McDonalds re-opened six months later, its meals were no longer served with the use of glasses, plates or cutlery, the use of disposable foodservice packaging is a step toward preventing foodborne disease. By being used once, these products significantly reduce food contamination. The U. S. Food and Drug Administration’s Food Code authoritatively spells out the sanitary and health advantages of single-use foodservice packaging, A food establishment without facilities. The Food Code further states in situations in which the reuse of multiuse items could result in foodborne illness to consumers, single-service, disposable foodservice packaging can be made from a number of materials, each with its own uses and benefits. Aluminum Aluminum is used to manufacture foils, wraps, bags, containers, plastics Many disposable foodservice products can be made of plastic or plastic-coated paper, cups, plates, bowls, trays, food containers and cutlery, for example. Plastics are used because the material is lightweight and holds the temperature of hot/cold food, polystyrene is in one of the most common types of plastics used for foodservice packaging
40.
Food packaging
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Food packaging is packaging for food. A package provides protection, tampering resistance, and special physical, chemical and it may bear a nutrition facts label and other information about food being offered for sale. Barrier protection - A barrier from oxygen, water vapor, dust, permeation is a critical factor in design. Some packages contain desiccants or oxygen absorbers to help extend shelf life, modified atmospheres or controlled atmospheres are also maintained in some food packages. Keeping the contents clean, fresh, and safe for the shelf life is a primary function. Containment or agglomeration - Small items are grouped together in one package to allow efficient handling. Liquids, powders, and granular materials need containment, information transmission - Packages and labels communicate how to use, transport, recycle, or dispose of the package or product. Some types of information are required by governments, marketing - The packaging and labels can be used by marketers to encourage potential buyers to purchase the product. Package design has been an important and constantly evolving phenomenon for several decades, marketing communications and graphic design are applied to the surface of the package and the point of sale display. Security - Packaging can play an important role in reducing the security risks of shipment, Packages can be made with improved tamper resistance to deter tampering and also can have tamper-evident features to help indicate tampering. Packages can be engineered to reduce the risks of package pilferage, some package constructions are more resistant to pilferage. Packages may include authentication seals to indicate that the package. Using packaging in this way is a means of retail loss prevention, convenience - Packages can have features which add convenience in distribution, handling, stacking, display, sale, opening, reclosing, use, and reuse. Portion control - Single-serving packaging has an amount of contents to control usage. Bulk commodities can be divided into packages that are a suitable size for individual households. It also aids the control of inventory, selling sealed one-liter bottles of milk, the above materials are fashioned into different types of food packages and containers such as, Primary packaging is the main package that holds the food that is being processed. Secondary packaging combines the primary packages into one box being made, tertiary packaging combines all of the secondary packages into one pallet. Packaging machines may be of the general types, Reduced packaging
41.
Luxury packaging
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Luxury and specialty packaging is the design, research, development, and manufacturing of packaging, displays, and for luxury brands. The packaging of a product is part of the brand’s image and research shows consumers are willing to spend more on products if the packaging looks appealing. Globally, the packaging market continues to grow, driven by global trends of personalised packaging, attention to sustainability issues. The luxury packaging market is forecast to grow by 4. 4% to 2019, reaching $17.6 billion, package design and development are often thought of as an integral part of the new product development process. Alternatively, development of a package can be a separate process, the design criteria, performance, completion time targets, resources, and cost constraints need to be established and agreed upon. Package design processes often employ rapid prototyping, computer-aided design, computer-aided manufacturing, high value products are inviting to theft. Security packaging can be an important consideration to help reduce package pilferage, authentication technologies can be used to help verify that the expensive luxury product is not among the many counterfeit consumer goods. Security solutions involve all phases of production, packaging, distribution, logistics, sale. No single solution is considered as pilfer proof, often, packaging engineers, logistics engineers, and security professionals have addressed multiple levels of security to reduce the risk of pilfering. Some considerations have included, Identifying who a potential thief might be, engineers usually start with knowing what level of knowledge, materials, tools, etc. might they have. Identifying all feasible methods of unauthorized access into a product, package, in addition to the primary means of entry, engineers also consider secondary or back door methods. Identifying available means of resealing, reclosing, or replacing special seals, using extra strong and secure packaging, A weak or damaged package is an invitation to pilferage. Considering unique custom seals and labels Improving the pilfer resistance to make pilfering more difficult, time-consuming, concealing the identity and value of a pilfer able item during distribution. Logistics and packaging professionals do not want bring attention to the item, its package, addresses, names, adding pilfer-evident features to help indicate the existence of pilfering. Choosing a logistics provider who can reduce the risks of pilferage, shipping in packages in unit loads with stretch wrap or in intermodal shipping containers with security seals Educating people to watch for evidence of pilfering. With a corrugated box, using a wider and stronger closure tape, 3-inch or 72 mm, using a tamper-evident tape or seal on packages that leaves a message, warning, or other indication if removed. Installing a surveillance system to identify any suspects. Some designers consider nine steps to creating the design of luxury packaging, beginning with meeting the client to gain insight into the product
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Package pilferage
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Pilferage is the theft of part of the contents of a package. It may also include theft of the contents but leaving the package, small packages can be pilfered from a larger package such as a shipping container. Broader and related aspects of theft may include taking the entire package, pallet load, truck load, shoplifting, Solutions involve all phases of product production, packaging, distribution, logistics, sale, and use. No single solution is considered as pilfer proof, often, packaging engineers, logistics engineers, and security professionals have addressed multiple levels of security to reduce the risk of pilfering. Some considerations have included, Identifying who a potential pilferer might be, engineers usually start with knowing what level of knowledge, materials, tools, etc. might they have. Identifying all feasible methods of unauthorized access into a product, package, in addition to the primary means of entry, engineers also consider secondary or back door methods. Identifying available means of resealing, reclosing, or replacing special seals, using extra strong and secure packaging, A weak or damaged package is an invitation to pilferage. Considering unique custom seals and labels Improving the pilfer resistance to make pilfering more difficult, time-consuming, concealing the identity and value of a pilferable item. Logistics and packaging professionals do not want to bring attention to the item, its package, addresses, names, adding pilfer-evident features to help indicate the existence of pilfering. Choosing a logistics provider who can reduce the risks of pilferage, shipping in packages in unit loads with stretch wrap or in intermodal shipping containers with security seals Educating people to watch for evidence of pilfering. With a corrugated box, using a wider and stronger closure tape, 3-inch or 72 mm, using a tamper-evident tape or seal on packages that leaves a message, warning, or other indication if removed. Installing a surveillance system to identify any suspects. L. Encyclopedia of Packaging Technology, John Wiley & Sons,2009, ISBN 978-0-470-08704-6 Rosette, J. L, Improving Tamper-Evident Packaging, Problems, Tests and Solutions,1992
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Package testing
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Package testing or packaging testing involves the measurement of a characteristic or property involved with packaging. This includes packaging materials, packaging components, primary packages, shipping containers, testing measures the effects and interactions of the levels of packaging, the package contents, external forces, and end-use. It can involve controlled laboratory experiments, subjective evaluations by people, documentation is important, formal test method, test report, photographs, video, etc. Testing can be a qualitative or quantitative procedure, package testing is often a physical test. With some types of packaging such as food and pharmaceuticals, chemical tests are conducted to determine suitability of food contact materials, testing programs range from simple tests with little replication to more thorough experimental designs. Package testing can extend for the life cycle. Packages can be tested for their ability to be recycled and their ability to degrade as surface litter, pharmaceuticals, medical devices, dangerous goods, etc. This may cover both the qualification, periodic retesting, and control of the packaging processes. Processes may be controlled by a variety of quality management systems such as HACCP, statistical process control, validation protocols, ISO9000, for unregulated products, testing can be required by a contract or governing specification. The degree of testing can often be a business decision. With distribution packaging, one vital packaging development consideration is to determine if a packaged-product is likely to be damaged in the process of getting to the final customer, a primary purpose of a package is to ensure the safety of a product during transportation and storage. Package testing is often a part of Project management programs. Packages are usually tested when there is a new packaging design, a revision to a current design, a change in packaging material, testing a new packaging design before full scale manufacturing can save time and money. Many suppliers or vendors offer limited material and package testing as a service to customers. It is common for packagers to partner with reputable suppliers, Many suppliers have certified quality management systems such as ISO9000 or allow customers to conduct technical, data from testing is commonly shared. There is sometimes a risk that supplier testing may tend to be self-serving, large companies often have their own packaging staff and a package testing and development laboratory. Corporate engineers know their products, manufacturing capabilities, logistics system, cost reduction of existing products and cost avoidance for new products have been documented. Another option is to use a paid consultant, Independent contractor and they are commonly chosen for specialized expertise, for access to certain test equipment, for surge projects, or where independent testing is otherwise required
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Packaging engineering
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Packaging engineering, also package engineering, packaging technology and packaging science, is a broad topic ranging from design conceptualization to product placement. All steps along the process, and more, must be taken into account in the design of the package for any given product. Package engineering includes industry-specific aspects of engineering, marketing, materials science, industrial design. Packaging engineers must interact with research and development, manufacturing, marketing, graphic design, regulatory, purchasing, planning, the package must sell and protect the product, while maintaining an efficient, cost-effective process cycle. Engineers develop packages from a variety of rigid and flexible materials. Some materials have scores or creases to allow controlled folding into package shapes, Packaging involves extrusion, thermoforming, molding and other processing technologies. Packages are often developed for high speed fabrication, filling, processing, Packaging engineers use principles of structural analysis and thermal analysis in their evaluations. Contract Packaging Engineering also known as Staffing Packaging Engineering, is a subgroup within the Packaging Engineering Field. Contract Packaging Engineers typically work under the jurisdiction of a legal arrangement between a company and the engineer or consulting company. Contrary to an engineer, Contract Packaging Engineers work per project and/or predetermined time stated within the contract. Some packaging engineers have backgrounds in science, engineering, or design disciplines while some have college degrees specializing in this field. Formal packaging programs might be listed as engineering, packaging science, packaging technology. BE, BS, MS, M. Tech and PhD programs are available, in 1952, Michigan State University became the first university in the USA to offer a degree in Packaging. Faculty and staff are published in packaging and other technical subjects. Indiana State University began offering Packaging as a B. S. in 1974, today, ISU offers Packaging Engineering Technology. The University of Wisconsin-Stout is the school in the UW System that offers a B. S. degree in Packaging. Rutgers University offers the nation’s only packaging program housed in an engineering school, the Rutgers Packaging Engineering Program also offers an 18 credit Graduate Packaging Engineering Certificate. Clemson University offers a bachelors and masters degrees in Packaging Science, the undergraduate program at Clemson requires students to take at least one six-month co-op for the degree
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