1.
Caesium
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Caesium or cesium is a chemical element with symbol Cs and atomic number 55. It is a soft, silvery-gold alkali metal with a point of 28.5 °C. Caesium is a metal and has physical and chemical properties similar to those of rubidium and potassium. The metal is extremely reactive and pyrophoric, reacting with water even at −116 °C, Caesium is one of the most reactive elements of all, even more reactive than fluorine, the most reactive nonmetal. It is the least electronegative element, with a value of 0.79 on the Pauling scale and it has only one stable isotope, caesium-133. Caesium is mined mostly from pollucite, while the radioisotopes, especially caesium-137, the German chemist Robert Bunsen and physicist Gustav Kirchhoff discovered caesium in 1860 by the newly developed method of flame spectroscopy. The first small-scale applications for caesium were as a getter in vacuum tubes, since then, caesium has been widely used in highly accurate atomic clocks. The radioactive isotope caesium-137 has a half-life of about 30 years and is used in applications, industrial gauges. Although the element is only toxic, the metal is a hazardous material. It is a ductile, pale metal, which darkens in the presence of trace amounts of oxygen. When in the presence of oil, it loses its metallic lustre and takes on a duller. It has a point of 28.4 °C, making it one of the few elemental metals that are liquid near room temperature. Mercury is the elemental metal with a known melting point lower than caesium. In addition, the metal has a low boiling point,641 °C. Its compounds burn with a blue or violet colour, Caesium forms alloys with the other alkali metals, gold, and mercury. At temperatures below 650 °C, it does not alloy with cobalt, iron, molybdenum, nickel, platinum, tantalum and it forms well-defined intermetallic compounds with antimony, gallium, indium, and thorium, which are photosensitive. It mixes with all the alkali metals, the alloy with a molar distribution of 41% caesium, 47% potassium. A few amalgams have been studied, CsHg 2 is black with a metallic lustre, while CsHg is golden-coloured
2.
Vial
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A vial is a small glass or plastic vessel or bottle, often used to store medication as liquids, powders or capsules. They can also be used as scientific sample vessels, for instance, vial-like glass containers date back to classical antiquity, modern vials are often made of plastics such as polypropylene. A vial can be tubular, or have a shape with a neck. The volume defined by the neck is known as the headspace, the English word vial is derived from the Greek phiale, meaning a broad flat container. Comparable terms include the Latin phiala, Late Latin fiola and Middle English fiole and viole, modern vials are often made out of plastic or sometimes glass. There are often used as storage for small quantities of used in medical or molecular biology applications. There are several different types of commonly used closure systems, for glass vials, options include screw vials, lip vials and crimp vials. Plastic vials, which can be moulded in plastic, can have other closure systems and these are sometimes called flip-tops or snap caps. The bottom of a vial is often flat, unlike test tubes, which have usually a rounded bottom, the small bottle-shaped vials typically used in laboratories are also known as bijou or McCartneys bottles. The bijou bottle tends to be smaller, often with a volume of around 10 milliliters, ampoule Seven bowls, also referred to as seven vials, a series of plagues mentioned in the Biblical Book of Revelation Vacutainer Hans-Jürgen Bässler and Frank Lehmann. Containment Technology, Progress in the Pharmaceutical and Food Processing Industry
3.
Pharmaceutical
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A pharmaceutical drug is a drug used to diagnose, cure, treat, or prevent disease. Drug therapy is an important part of the field and relies on the science of pharmacology for continual advancement. Drugs are classified in various ways, one of the key divisions is by level of control, which distinguishes prescription drugs from over-the-counter drugs. Other ways to classify medicines are by mode of action, route of administration, biological system affected, an elaborate and widely used classification system is the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System. The World Health Organization keeps a list of essential medicines, Drug discovery and drug development are complex and expensive endeavors undertaken by pharmaceutical companies, academic scientists, and governments. Governments generally regulate what drugs can be marketed, how drugs are marketed, controversies have arisen over drug pricing and disposal of used drugs. In the US, a drug is, A substance recognized by an official pharmacopoeia or formulary, a substance intended for use in the diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease. A substance intended to affect the structure or any function of the body, a substance intended for use as a component of a medicine but not a device or a component, part or accessory of a device. Pharmaceutical or a drug is classified on the basis of their origin, Drug from natural origin, Herbal or plant or mineral origin, some drug substances are of marine origin. Drug from chemical as well as origin, Derived from partial herbal and partial chemical synthesis Chemical. Drug derived from animal origin, For example, hormones, Drug derived from microbial origin, Antibiotics Drug derived by biotechnology genetic-engineering, hybridoma technique for example Drug derived from radioactive substances. An elaborate and widely used system is the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System. The World Health Organization keeps a list of essential medicines, the main classes of painkillers are NSAIDs, opioids and Local anesthetics. For consciousness Some anesthetics include Benzodiazepines and Barbiturates, the main categories of drugs for musculoskeletal disorders are, NSAIDs, muscle relaxants, neuromuscular drugs, and anticholinesterases. Euthanasia is not permitted by law in countries, and consequently medicines will not be licensed for this use in those countries. Administration is the process by which a patient takes a medicine, there are three major categories of drug administration, enteral, parenteral, and other. It can be performed in various forms such as pills, tablets. There are many variations in the routes of administration, including intravenous and they can be administered all at once as a bolus, at frequent intervals or continuously
4.
Hermetic seal
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A hermetic seal is the quality of something—a container, structure, etc. —being airtight. Used technically, it is stated in conjunction with a specific test method, the word hermetic comes from the Greek god Hermes, via the vocabulary of alchemy. The alchemists invented a process for making a glass tube. The process used a seal, whose invention was attributed to the legendary inspiration of alchemy. Some kinds of packaging must maintain a seal against flow of gases, foods, pharmaceuticals, some chemicals, the term can describe food preservation practices, such as vacuum packing and canning. Barrier packaging includes containers such as glass, aluminum cans, metal foils, buildings designed with sustainable architecture principles use airtight technologies to conserve energy. Under low energy building, passive house, low-energy house, self-sufficient homes, zero energy building, air barriers, careful sealing of construction joints and service penetrations achieve this. Airtightness minimizes the amount of air that can pass through the structure. Green buildings may include windows that combine triple-pane insulated glazing with argon or krypton gas to reduce thermal conductivity, in landscape and exterior construction projects, airtight seals protect general service and landscape lighting electrical connections and splices. Many other specific applications must meet standards to be waterproof or vapor-proof for human safety. Applications for hermetic sealing include semiconductor electronics, thermostats, optical devices, MEMS and it is used for electrical or electronic parts that must be secure against water vapor and foreign bodies to maintain proper functioning and reliability. Hermetic sealing for airtight conditions is used in archiving significant historical items, in 1951, The U. S. Constitution, U. S. Declaration of Independence, and U. S. Bill of Rights were hermetically sealed with helium gas in glass cases housed in the U. S. National Archives in Washington, in 2003, they were moved to new glass cases hermetically sealed with argon. Typical epoxy resins have pendant hydroxyl groups along their chain that can form bonds or strong polar attractions to oxide or hydroxyl surfaces, metals, minerals, glasses, ceramics—have polarity so they have high surface energy. The important factor in determining good adhesive strength is whether the energy of the substrate is close to or higher than the surface energy of the cured adhesive. When the glass and the metal being hermetically sealed have the same coefficient of thermal expansion and this type of glass-to-metal hermetic seal is the weaker of the two types and is generally used for low-intensity applications such as in light bulb bases. Compression seals occur when the glass and the metal have different coefficients of thermal expansion such that the metal compresses around the glass as it cools. Compression seals can withstand high pressure and are used in a variety of industrial applications
5.
Glovebox
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A glovebox is a sealed container that is designed to allow one to manipulate objects where a separate atmosphere is desired. Built into the sides of the glovebox are gloves arranged in such a way that the user can place their hands into the gloves, part or all of the box is usually transparent to allow the user to see what is being manipulated. It is also possible to use a glovebox for manipulation of items in a vacuum chamber, the gas in a glovebox is pumped through a series of treatment devices which remove solvents, water and oxygen from the gas. It is common to use molecular sieves to remove water by adsorbing it in the molecular sieves pores, such a box is often used by organometallic chemists to transfer dry solids from one container to another. An alternative to using a glovebox for air sensitive work is to employ Schlenk methods using a Schlenk line, one disadvantage of working in a glovebox is that organic solvents will attack the plastic seals. As a result, the box will start to leak and water, another disadvantage of a glovebox is that oxygen and water can diffuse through the plastic gloves. Inert atmosphere gloveboxes are typically kept at a higher pressure than the surrounding air, other materials used in the gloveboxes included acrylic viewing windows and Benelex shielding composed of wood fiber and plastic which shielded against neutron radiation. Manipulation of the gloves was onerous work. Some gloveboxes for radioactive work are under inert conditions, for instance, the argon box is fitted with a gas treatment system to keep the gas very pure to enable electrochemical experiments in molten salts. Gloveboxes are also used in the biological sciences when dealing with anaerobes or high-biosafety level pathogens, gloveboxes used for hazardous materials are generally maintained at a lower pressure than the surrounding atmosphere, so that microscopic leaks result in air intake rather than hazard outflow. Gloveboxes used for hazardous materials generally incorporate HEPA filters into the exhaust, desiccators are used for storing chemicals which are moisture-sensitive, but do not react quickly or violently with water. Fume hoods are used for material handling where less operator protection. Hot cells often use remote manipulators to provide radiological containment where more operator protection is required, Schlenk lines are used for manipulating oxygen- and moisture-sensitive chemicals. American Glovebox Society Hans-Jürgen Bässler und Frank Lehmann, Containment Technology, Progress in the Pharmaceutical and Food Processing Industry
6.
Hypodermic needle
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A hypodermic needle, also called a sharp, is a very thin, hollow tube with a sharp tip which contains a small opening at the pointed end. It is commonly used with a syringe, a device with a plunger. They are used to take samples from the body, for example taking blood from a vein in venipuncture. Large bore hypodermic intervention is useful in catastrophic blood loss or treating shock. A hypodermic needle is used for delivery of liquids, or when the injected substance cannot be ingested, either because it would not be absorbed. There are many routes for an injection, with the arm being a common location. The hypodermic needle also serves an important role in research environments where sterile conditions are required, the hypodermic needle significantly reduces contamination during inoculation of a sterile substrate. The ancient Greeks and Romans knew injection as a method of delivery from observations of snakebites. There are also references to anointing and inunction in the Old Testament as well as the works of Homer, christopher Wren performed the earliest confirmed experiments with crude hypodermic needles, performing intravenous injection into dogs in 1656. These experiments consisted of using animal bladders and goose quills to administer drugs such as opium intravenously to dogs, Wren and others’ main interest was to learn if medicines traditionally administered orally would be effective intravenously. Elsholtz of Berlin were the first to experiment with injections in humans and these early experiments were generally ineffective and in some cases fatal. Injection fell out of favor for two centuries, the 19th century saw the development of medicines that were effective in small doses, such as opiates and strychnine. This spurred a renewed interest in direct, controlled application of medicine, some controversy surrounds the question of priority in hypodermic medication. Dr. Francis Rynd is generally credited with the first successful injection in 1844, Dr. Alexander Wood’s main contribution was the all-glass syringe in 1851, which allowed the user to estimate dosage based on the levels of liquid observed through the glass. Wood used hypodermic needles and syringes primarily for the application of localized, subcutaneous injection, simultaneous to Wood’s work in Edinburgh, Dr. Charles Pravaz of Lyon also experimented with sub-dermal injections in sheep using a syringe of his own design. Pravaz designed a syringe measuring 3 cm long and 5 mm in diameter, Dr. Charles Hunter, a London surgeon, is credited with the coining of the term hypodermic to describe subcutaneous injection in 1858. The name originates from two Greek words, hypo, under, and derma, skin, Hunter and Wood were involved in lengthy legal disputes over not only the origin of the modern hypodermic needle, but also because of their disagreement to the medicine’s effect once administered. Dr. Wood can be credited with the popularization and acceptance of injection as a medical technique, as well as the widespread use
7.
Tetrakis(triphenylphosphine)palladium(0)
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Tetrakispalladium is the chemical compound Pd4, often abbreviated Pd4, or even PdP4, as well as. It is a yellow crystalline solid that becomes brown upon decomposition in air. The four phosphorus atoms are at the corners of a tetrahedron surrounding the palladium center and this structure is typical for four-coordinate 18 e− complexes. The corresponding complexes Ni4 and Pt4 are also well known, such complexes reversibly dissociate PPh3 ligands in solution, so reactions attributed to Pd4 often in fact arise from Pd3 or even Pd2. Tetrakispalladium was first prepared by Lamberto Malatesta et al. in the 1950s by reduction of sodium chloropalladate with hydrazine in the presence of the phosphine, reductants other than hydrazine can be employed. The compound is sensitive to air, but can be purified by washing with methanol to give the yellow powder. It is usually stored cold under argon, Pd4 is widely used as a catalyst for palladium-catalyzed coupling reactions. Prominent applications include the Heck reaction, Suzuki coupling, Stille coupling, Sonogashira coupling and these processes begin with two successive ligand dissociations followed by the oxidative addition of an aryl halide to the Pd center, Pd4 + ArBr → PdBr2 +2 PPh3
8.
Hygroscopy
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Hygroscopy is the phenomenon of attracting and holding water molecules from the surrounding environment, which is usually at normal or room temperature. This is achieved through either absorption or adsorption with the absorbing or adsorbing substance becoming physically changed somewhat. Zinc chloride and calcium chloride, as well as potassium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide, are so hygroscopic that they readily dissolve in the water they absorb, not only is sulfuric acid hygroscopic in concentrated form but its solutions are hygroscopic down to concentrations of 10 Vol-% or below. A hygroscopic material will tend to damp and cakey when exposed to moist air. Because of their affinity for moisture, hygroscopic materials might require storage in sealed containers. When added to foods or other materials for the purpose of maintaining moisture content. Materials and compounds exhibit different hygroscopic properties, and this difference can lead to detrimental effects, differences in hygroscopy can be observed in plastic-laminated paperback book covers—often, in a suddenly moist environment, the book cover will curl away from the rest of the book. The unlaminated side of the cover absorbs more moisture than the side and increases in area. This is similar to the function of a thermostats bi-metallic strip, inexpensive dial-type hygrometers make use of this principle using a coiled strip. Deliquescence, the process by which a substance absorbs moisture from the atmosphere until it dissolves in the absorbed water, deliquescence occurs when the vapour pressure of the solution that is formed is less than the partial pressure of water vapour in the air. While some similar forces are at work here, it is different from capillary attraction, a process where glass or other solid substances attract water, the similar-sounding but unrelated word hydroscopic is sometimes used in error for hygroscopic. A hydroscope is a device used for making observations deep under water. The amount of moisture held by hygroscopic materials is proportional to the relative humidity. Tables containing this information can be found in engineering handbooks and is also available from suppliers of various materials and chemicals. Hygroscopy also plays an important role in the engineering of plastic materials, some plastics are hygroscopic while others are not. The seeds of grasses have hygroscopic extensions that bend with changes in humidity. An example is Needle-and-Thread, Hesperostipa comata, each seed has an awn that twists several turns when the seed is released. Increased moisture causes it to untwist, and, upon drying, to twist again, thorny dragons collect moisture in the dry desert via nighttime condensation of dew that forms on their skin and is channeled to their mouths in hygroscopic grooves between the spines of their skin
9.
Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy
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Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, most commonly known as NMR spectroscopy, is a research technique that exploits the magnetic properties of certain atomic nuclei. This type of spectroscopy determines the physical and chemical properties of atoms or the molecules in which they are contained and it relies on the phenomenon of nuclear magnetic resonance and can provide detailed information about the structure, dynamics, reaction state, and chemical environment of molecules. Suitable samples range from small compounds analyzed with 1-dimensional proton or carbon-13 NMR spectroscopy to large proteins or nucleic acids using 3 or 4-dimensional techniques. The impact of NMR spectroscopy on the sciences has been substantial because of the range of information, NMR spectra are unique, well-resolved, analytically tractable and often highly predictable for small molecules. Thus, in organic chemistry practice, NMR analysis is used to confirm the identity of a substance, different functional groups are obviously distinguishable, and identical functional groups with differing neighboring substituents still give distinguishable signals. NMR has largely replaced traditional wet chemistry tests such as reagents or typical chromatography for identification. A disadvantage is that a large amount, 2–50 mg, of a purified substance is required. Preferably, the sample should be dissolved in a solvent, because NMR analysis of solids requires a dedicated MAS machine, the timescale of NMR is relatively long, and thus it is not suitable for observing fast phenomena, producing only an averaged spectrum. NMR spectrometers are relatively expensive, universities usually have them, modern NMR spectrometers have a very strong, large and expensive liquid helium-cooled superconducting magnet, because resolution directly depends on magnetic field strength. There are even benchtop NMR spectrometers, the Purcell group at Harvard University and the Bloch group at Stanford University independently developed NMR spectroscopy in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Edward Mills Purcell and Felix Bloch shared the 1952 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discoveries, when placed in a magnetic field, NMR active nuclei absorb electromagnetic radiation at a frequency characteristic of the isotope. The resonant frequency, energy of the absorption, and the intensity of the signal are proportional to the strength of the magnetic field, for example, in a 21 Tesla magnetic field, protons resonate at 900 MHz. It is common to refer to a 21 T magnet as a 900 MHz magnet, spinning the sample is necessary to average out diffusional motion. Whereas, measurements of diffusion constants are done the sample stationary and spinning off, the vast majority of nuclei in a solution would belong to the solvent, and most regular solvents are hydrocarbons and would contain NMR-reactive protons. The most used deuterated solvent is deuterochloroform, although deuterium oxide and deuterated DMSO are used for hydrophilic analytes, the chemical shifts are slightly different in different solvents, depending on electronic solvation effects. NMR spectra are often calibrated against the known solvent residual proton peak instead of added tetramethylsilane, to detect the very small frequency shifts due to nuclear magnetic resonance, the applied magnetic field must be constant throughout the sample volume. High resolution NMR spectrometers use shims to adjust the homogeneity of the field to parts per billion in a volume of a few cubic centimeters. In order to detect and compensate for inhomogeneity and drift in the magnetic field, in modern NMR spectrometers shimming is adjusted automatically, though in some cases the operator has to optimize the shim parameters manually to obtain the best possible resolution
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