1.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
History museum
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Most large museums are located in major cities throughout the world and more local ones exist in smaller cities, towns and even the countryside. Museums have varying aims, ranging from serving researchers and specialists to serving the general public, the goal of serving researchers is increasingly shifting to serving the general public. There are many types of museums, including art museums, natural history museums, science museums, war museums, the city with the largest number of museums is Mexico City with over 128 museums. According to The World Museum Community, there are more than 55,000 museums in 202 countries, the English museum comes from the Latin word, and is pluralized as museums. The first museum/library is considered to be the one of Plato in Athens, however, Pausanias gives another place called Museum, namely a small hill in Classical Athens opposite to the Akropolis. The hill was called Mouseion after Mousaious, a man who used to sing on the hill, the purpose of modern museums is to collect, preserve, interpret, and display items of artistic, cultural, or scientific significance for the education of the public. The purpose can also depend on ones point of view, to a family looking for entertainment on a Sunday afternoon, a trip to a local history museum or large city art museum could be a fun, and enlightening way to spend the day. To city leaders, a healthy museum community can be seen as a gauge of the health of a city. To a museum professional, a museum might be seen as a way to educate the public about the museums mission, Museums are, above all, storehouses of knowledge. In 1829, James Smithsons bequest, that would fund the Smithsonian Institution, stated he wanted to establish an institution for the increase, Museums of natural history in the late 19th century exemplified the Victorian desire for consumption and for order. Gathering all examples of classification of a field of knowledge for research. As American colleges grew in the 19th century, they developed their own natural history collections for the use of their students, while many large museums, such as the Smithsonian Institution, are still respected as research centers, research is no longer a main purpose of most museums. While there is a debate about the purposes of interpretation of a museums collection, there has been a consistent mission to protect. Much care, expertise, and expense is invested in efforts to retard decomposition in aging documents, artifacts, artworks. All museums display objects that are important to a culture, as historian Steven Conn writes, To see the thing itself, with ones own eyes and in a public place, surrounded by other people having some version of the same experience can be enchanting. Museum purposes vary from institution to institution, some favor education over conservation, or vice versa. For example, in the 1970s, the Canada Science and Technology Museum favored education over preservation of their objects and they displayed objects as well as their functions. One exhibit featured a printing press that a staff member used for visitors to create museum memorabilia
4.
Washington Metro
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The Washington Metro, known colloquially as Metro and branded Metrorail, is the heavy rail rapid transit system serving the Washington, D. C. metropolitan area in the United States. It is administered by the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority, which also operates Metrobus service under the Metro name, besides the District, Metro serves several jurisdictions in Maryland and Virginia. In Maryland, Metro provides service to Montgomery and Prince Georges counties, in Virginia, to Arlington and Fairfax counties and the independent city of Alexandria. Combined with its ridership in the independent Virginia cities of Falls Church and Fairfax, the system is currently being expanded into Loudoun County, Virginia. It operates mostly as a subway in the District itself, while most of the tracks are at surface level or elevated. Opened in 1976, the network now includes six lines,91 stations, Metro is the second-busiest rapid transit system in the United States in number of passenger trips, after the New York City Subway. There were 215.3 million trips on Metro in fiscal year 2015, in June 2008, Metro set a monthly ridership record with 19,729,641 trips, or 798,456 per weekday. Fares vary based on the distance traveled, the time of day, Riders enter and exit the system using a proximity card called SmarTrip. Metro also has the distinction of having the longest, single-tier escalator in the Western Hemisphere in the Wheaton station, during the 1960s plans were laid for a massive freeway system in Washington. But the plan met fierce opposition, and was altered to include a Capital Beltway system plus rail line radials, the Beltway received full funding, funding for the ambitious Inner Loop Freeway system was partially reallocated toward construction of the Metro system. In 1960 the federal government created the National Capital Transportation Agency to develop a rail system. In 1966, a bill creating WMATA was passed by the government, the District of Columbia, Virginia. WMATA approved plans for a 98-mile regional system in 1968, the first portion of the system opened March 27,1976, with 4.6 miles available on the Red Line with five stations from Rhode Island Avenue to Farragut North, all in the District of Columbia. Underground stations were built with arches of concrete, highlighted by soft. The name Metro was suggested by Massimo Vignelli, who designed the subway maps for the New York City Subway, the 103-mile, 83-station system was completed with the opening of the Green Line segment to Branch Avenue on January 13,2001. This did not mean the end of the growth of the system, the first in-fill station, NoMa – Gallaudet University on the Red Line between Union Station and Rhode Island Ave-Brentwood, opened November 20,2004. Construction began in March 2009 for an extension to Dulles Airport to be built in two phases, the first phase, five stations connecting East Falls Church to Tysons Corner and Wiehle Avenue in Reston, opened on July 26,2014. Metro construction required billions of dollars, originally provided by Congress under the authority of the National Capital Transportation Act of 1969
5.
Anacostia station
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Anacostia is a Washington Metro station in Washington, D. C. on the Green Line. The station is located in the Anacostia neighborhood of Southeast Washington, with entrances at Shannon Place and Howard Road near Martin Luther King, the station serves as a hub for Metrobus routes in Southeast, Washington, D. C. and Prince Georges County, Maryland. The architecture at Anacostia is unusual, the station is an underground stop because the distance between the Anacostia River tunnels and the station is too short to have permitted an above-ground stop. The station has entrances on both sides of DC-295/I-295, which necessitated the construction of a longer platform than would be necessary to accommodate trains. In addition, there are no pylons at platform-level at Anacostia, because of a 1978 consent decree between Metro and a coalition of handicapped persons advocacy groups, the Anacostia Metro station is one of three Metrorail stations to have two elevators. The Metro station was slated to have a transfer to a stop on the Anacostia Line of the DC Streetcar trolley system, the station also contains a work of public art which reflects on the history and culture of the community. River Spirits of the Anacostia is a mosaic tile frieze completed in 2004 by Martha Jackson-Jarvis. The mosaic, is placed along the roof-line of the Metro station and depicts the life of the river showing fish, plants, birds. The work was commissioned by way of a contest by the D. C, Commission on the Arts and Humanities. Metro drew up its master plan for its planned 103-mile system in 1968. At that time, a Green Line was planned to pass some of the areas poorest and most transit-dependent neighborhoods. The southern part of the Green Line was originally to pass over the 11th Street Bridges to the intersection of Good Hope Road SE and Martin Luther King, the line was originally scheduled to open in 1976. The site of the Anacostia station, set for the intersection of Martin Luther King Jr, by the end of 1977, Metro had pushed the opening of the Green Line to June 1983. Increasing construction costs and financing problems led Metro to consider whether to shift the Green Line to a southerly route along Wheeler Road SE to terminate near Rosecroft Raceway. In January 1978, a Metro regional task force approved a Green Line route in Anacostia that followed Martin Luther King, Jr. Avenue, but the Prince Georges County government demanded in May 1978 that Metro choose the Suitland Parkway-to-Rosecroft route instead, a change Metro agreed to. Nonetheless, Metro reiterated that it intended to complete the extension to Anacostia station by late 1983, funding troubles delayed construction even further. In March 1980, Maryland officials worried that high inflation would leave Metro without enough funds to complete the Green Line and these fears were confirmed in part in September 1980 when Metro announced that inflation had created a $16 million shortfall in its $271 million budget. By now, Anacostia residents were angry at the repeated delays in building the Green Line
6.
Anacostia
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Anacostia /ænəˈkɒstiə/ is a historic neighborhood in Washington, D. C. Its downtown is located at the intersection of Good Hope Road and Martin Luther King and it is located east of the Anacostia River, after which the neighborhood is named. Like the other quadrants of Washington, D. C, Southeast encompasses a large number of named neighborhoods, of which Anacostia and Capitol Hill are the most well known. Anacostia includes all of the Anacostia Historic District that was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978, often the name Anacostia is incorrectly used to refer to the entire portion of the city that is southeast of the Anacostia River. The name Anacostia comes from the name of a Nacochtank Native Americans settlement along the Anacostia River. Captain John Smith explored the area in 1608, traveling up the Eastern Branch—later the Anacostia River—mistaking it for the body of the Potomac River. Before the arrival of whites, the Nacostine villages in this area were a center of trade visited by Native Americans such as the Iroquois of New York. Even after the founding of Maryland, Leonard Calvert, in a letter to a merchant in London, around the year 1668, native peoples previously living south of Anacostia were forced northward by war. Anacostine Island, which first appeared on a 1670 map drawn by Augustine Herman, was settled by the Anacostans around this time. The core of what is now the Anacostia historic district was incorporated in 1854 as Uniontown and was one of the first suburbs in the District of Columbia. The initial subdivision of 1854 carried restrictive covenants prohibiting the sale, abolitionist Frederick Douglass, often called the sage of Anacostia, bought Cedar Hill, the estate belonging to the developer of Uniontown, in 1877 and lived there until he died in 1895. The home is maintained as a historical site in Anacostia. During the Civil War, Anacostia was protected by a series of forts upon the hills southwest of the city, following the conclusion of the war, the forts were dismantled and the land returned to its original owners. Anacostia, always part of the District of Columbia, became a part of the city of Washington when the city and District became coterminous in 1878. In 1932, during the Great Depression, unemployed World War I veterans from all across the country marched on Washington to demand payment of a bonus promised to them. The event became known as the Bonus Army Conflict, most of the Bonus Army camped on Anacostia Flats, a swampy, muddy area along the Anacostia River later reclaimed as Anacostia Park/Fairlawn Park. Fearing civil unrest, the President ordered the military to disperse the campers from Washington, the Army Chief of Staff General Douglas MacArthur dispersed them, but exceeded the orders of President Herbert Hoover by crossing the bridge to Anacostia and torching the veterans encampment. MacArthur believed that the Bonus Army was composed of and led by Communists, george Patton and Dwight Eisenhower served under MacArthur during these events
7.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
8.
Smithsonian Institution
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The Smithsonian Institution, established in 1846 for the increase and diffusion of knowledge, is a group of museums and research centers administered by the Government of the United States. Originally organized as the United States National Museum, that ceased to exist as an administrative entity in 1967. Additional facilities are located in Arizona, Maryland, Massachusetts, New York City, Texas, Virginia, more than 200 institutions and museums in 45 states, Puerto Rico, and Panama are Smithsonian Affiliates. The Institutions thirty million annual visitors are admitted without charge and its annual budget is around $1.2 billion with 2/3 coming from annual federal appropriations. Other funding comes from the Institutions endowment, private and corporate contributions, membership dues, and earned retail, concession, Institution publications include Smithsonian and Air & Space magazines. The British scientist James Smithson left most of his wealth to his nephew Henry James Hungerford, Congress officially accepted the legacy bequeathed to the nation, and pledged the faith of the United States to the charitable trust on July 1,1836. The American diplomat Richard Rush was dispatched to England by President Andrew Jackson to collect the bequest, Rush returned in August 1838 with 105 sacks containing 104,960 gold sovereigns. Once the money was in hand, eight years of Congressional haggling ensued over how to interpret Smithsons rather vague mandate for the increase, unfortunately, the money was invested by the US Treasury in bonds issued by the state of Arkansas which soon defaulted. The United States Exploring Expedition by the U. S. Navy circumnavigated the globe between 1838 and 1842, in 1846, the regents developed a plan for weather observation, in 1847, money was appropriated for meteorological research. The Institution became a magnet for young scientists from 1857 to 1866, the Smithsonian played a critical role as the U. S. partner institution in early bilateral scientific exchanges with the Academy of Sciences of Cuba. The Smithsonian Institution Building began construction in 1849, designed by architect James Renwick Jr. its interiors were completed by general contract Gilbert Cameron and the building opened in 1855. The Smithsonians first expansion came with construction of the Arts and Industries Building in 1881, Congress had promised to build a new structure for the museum if the 1876 Philadelphia Centennial Exposition generated enough income. It did, and the building was designed by architects Adolf Cluss and Paul Schulze, meigs of the United States Army Corps of Engineers. The National Zoological Park opened in 1889 to accommodate the Smithsonians Department of Living Animals and this structure was designed by the D. C. architectural firm of Hornblower & Marshall. More than 40 years would pass before the museum, the Museum of History. It was designed by the firm of McKim, Mead & White. That same year, the Smithsonian signed an agreement to take over the Cooper Union Museum for the Arts of Decoration, the National Portrait Gallery and the Smithsonian American Art Museum opened in the Old Patent Office Building on October 7,1968. The first new building to open since the National Museum of Natural History was the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden
9.
National Mall
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The National Mall is a national park in downtown Washington, D. C. the capital of the United States. The National Park Service administers the National Mall, which is part of its National Mall, a smaller designation, sometimes referred to as the Mall proper, excludes both the Capitol grounds and the Washington Monument grounds, applying only to an area between them. The National Mall contains a number of museums and memorials and receives approximately 24 million visitors each year, in his 1791 plan for the future city of Washington, D. C. The National Mall occupies the site of this grand avenue. The Washington Monument stands near the site of its namesakes equestrian statue. Mathew Careys 1802 map is reported to be the first to name the area west of the United States Capitol as the Mall, during the early 1850s, architect and horticulturist Andrew Jackson Downing designed a landscape plan for the Mall. Over the next century, federal agencies developed several naturalistic parks within the Mall in accordance with Downings plan. Two such areas were Henry Park and Seaton Park, in addition, railroad tracks crossed the Mall on 6th Street, west of the Capitol. Near the tracks, a market and a railroad station rose on the north side of the Mall. Greenhouses belonging to the U. S. Botanic Garden appeared near the east end of the Mall, the plan differed from LEnfants by replacing the 400 feet wide grand avenue with a 300 feet wide vista containing a long and broad expanse of grass. Four rows of American elm trees planted fifty feet apart between two paths or streets would line each side of the vista. Buildings housing cultural and educational institutions constructed in the Beaux-Arts style would line each outer path or street, on the opposite side of the path or street from the elms. In subsequent years, the vision of the McMillan plan was followed with the planting of American elms. In accordance with a plan that it completed in 1976, the NPS converted the two innermost boulevards into gravel walking paths, the two outermost boulevards remain paved and open to vehicular traffic. Although the Navy intended the buildings to provide quarters for the United States military during World War I. Much of the area then became Constitution Gardens, which was dedicated in 1976. From the 1970s to 1994, a model of a triceratops named Uncle Beazley stood on the Mall in front of the National Museum of Natural History. The life-size statue, which is now located at the National Zoological Park in Northwest Washington, in 2003, the 108th United States Congress enacted the Commemorative Works Clarification and Revision Act
10.
Carver Theater (Washington, D.C.)
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The Carver Theater is a former movie theater located in the Anacostia neighborhood of Washington, D. C. in the United States. The building opened in 1948 and is of the Streamline Moderne style of architecture and it was built by John Jacob Zink and held upwards of 500 people seated. The Carver Theater closed in the 1960s only to reopen in 1967 as the first home of the Anacostia Community Museum, the museum moved from the theater in 1987. Currently, the theater is undergoing renovations to serve as a center for the Good Samaritan Foundation. In 2001, the city of Washington agreed to a 20-year lease with the organization, as of 2008, the building has undergone few renovations. Almost $1 million has been invested in the building through grants, in 2004, the city sold the building to the foundation for $255,235 in the hope they would restore and reoccupy Carver Theater
11.
S. Dillon Ripley
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Sidney Dillon Ripley II was an American ornithologist and wildlife conservationist. He served as Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution for 20 years, from 1964 to 1984, leading the Institution through its period of greatest growth, for his leadership at the Smithsonian, he was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by Ronald Reagan in 1985. Ripley was born in New York City and studied at St. Pauls School in Concord, in 1936, he graduated with a Bachelor of Arts from Yale University. His great-grandfather, Sidney Dillon, was President of the Union Pacific Railroad, a visit to India at age 13, along with his sister, included a walking tour into Ladakh and western Tibet. This led to his lifelong interest in the birds of India and he decided that birds were more interesting than law, and he began studying zoology at Columbia University. As a part of his study, Ripley participated in the Denison-Crockett Expedition to New Guinea in 1937-1938 and he later obtained a Ph. D. in Zoology from Harvard University in 1943. During World War II, he served in the Office of Strategic Services, the predecessor of the Central Intelligence Agency and he trained many Indonesian spies, all of whom were killed during the war. The government of Thailand gave him an award for his support of the Thai underground during the war. While serving in the OSS he met his future wife Mary Livingston, nehru came to hear of this from an article in The New Yorker and was furious, leading to a difficult time for his collaborator and coauthor, Salim Ali. Salim Ali came to hear of Nehrus displeasure through Horace Alexander, the OSS past however led to a growing suspicion that American scientists working in India were CIA agents. David Challinor, a former Smithsonian administrator, noted there were many CIA agents in India. He joined the American Ornithologists Union in 1938, became an Elective Member in 1942, after the war he taught at Yale and was a Fulbright fellow in 1950 and a Guggenheim fellow in 1954. He became a professor and director of the Peabody Museum of Natural History. Ripley served for years on the board of the World Wildlife Fund in the U. S. and was the third president of the International Council for Bird Preservation. He served as Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution from 1964 to 1984, haupt Garden, the underground quadrangle complex known as the S. Dillon Ripley Center, and the Arthur M. Sackler Gallery. In 1967, he helped found the Smithsonian Folklife Festival, and in 1970 and he believed that 75% to 80% of then-living animal species would become extinct in the next 25 years. In 1985 he was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian award of the United States and he was awarded honorary degrees from 15 colleges and universities, including Brown, Yale, Johns Hopkins, Harvard, and Cambridge. Ripley successfully defended the National Museum of Natural History against a lawsuit that objected to the Dynamics of Evolution exhibit, Ripley had intended to produce a definitive guide to the birds of South Asia, but became too ill to play an active part in its realisation
12.
African Americans
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African Americans are an ethnic group of Americans with total or partial ancestry from any of the Black racial groups of Africa. The term may also be used to only those individuals who are descended from enslaved Africans. As a compound adjective the term is usually hyphenated as African-American, Black and African Americans constitute the third largest racial and ethnic group in the United States. Most African Americans are of West and Central African descent and are descendants of enslaved peoples within the boundaries of the present United States. On average, African Americans are of 73. 2–80. 9% West African, 18–24% European, according to US Census Bureau data, African immigrants generally do not self-identify as African American. The overwhelming majority of African immigrants identify instead with their own respective ethnicities, immigrants from some Caribbean, Central American and South American nations and their descendants may or may not also self-identify with the term. After the founding of the United States, black people continued to be enslaved, believed to be inferior to white people, they were treated as second-class citizens. The Naturalization Act of 1790 limited U. S. citizenship to whites only, in 2008, Barack Obama became the first African American to be elected President of the United States. The first African slaves arrived via Santo Domingo to the San Miguel de Gualdape colony, the ill-fated colony was almost immediately disrupted by a fight over leadership, during which the slaves revolted and fled the colony to seek refuge among local Native Americans. De Ayllón and many of the colonists died shortly afterwards of an epidemic, the settlers and the slaves who had not escaped returned to Haiti, whence they had come. The first recorded Africans in British North America were 20 and odd negroes who came to Jamestown, as English settlers died from harsh conditions, more and more Africans were brought to work as laborers. Typically, young men or women would sign a contract of indenture in exchange for transportation to the New World, the landowner received 50 acres of land from the state for each servant purchased from a ships captain. An indentured servant would work for years without wages. The status of indentured servants in early Virginia and Maryland was similar to slavery, servants could be bought, sold, or leased and they could be physically beaten for disobedience or running away. Africans could legally raise crops and cattle to purchase their freedom and they raised families, married other Africans and sometimes intermarried with Native Americans or English settlers. By the 1640s and 1650s, several African families owned farms around Jamestown and some became wealthy by colonial standards and purchased indentured servants of their own. In 1640, the Virginia General Court recorded the earliest documentation of slavery when they sentenced John Punch. One of Dutch African arrivals, Anthony Johnson, would own one of the first black slaves, John Casor
13.
John Kinard
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John Robert Edward Kinard was an American social activist, pastor, and museum director. He is best known as the director of the Anacostia Museum, Kinard was the museums first director, and remained in the post until his death. The Washington Post said Kinard was a believer in the idea that the well-being of black people depends on having a record of their past. Noted British archeologist and museologist Sir Kenneth Hudson said Kinard developed the Anacostia Museum into one of the number of museums of influence in the world. Kinard was born in November 1936 in Southeast, Washington, D. C. to Robert Francis, Kinard attended Dunbar High School but transferred and then graduated from Spingarn High School in 1955. He attended Howard University in Washington, D. C. for a year and a half and he graduated with a bachelors degree in 1960. He subsequently enrolled at Hood Theological Seminary, earning a Bachelor of Divinity degree in 1963, in 1962, while attending Hood Theological Seminary, he joined Operation Crossroads Africa and spent a summer building student housing and dining facilities in Tanzania. Dr. James Herman Robinson, founder of Operation Crossroads, encouraged him to return to Africa, Kinard did so after graduation, becoming a paid staff member of the organization. He worked in Kenya, Tanzania, and Zanzibar and he was later promoted to coordinator of all Operation Crossroads projects in eastern Africa. Kinard returned to Washington, D. C. in 1964, Kinard married Marjorie Anne Williams on November 1,1964. The couple had three daughters, Sarah, Joy, and Hope, in 1966, Kinard was appointed assistant pastor at John Wesley African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church in Washington, D. C. While at the State Department, Kinard became friends with the son of Marion Conover Hope, S. Dillon Ripley, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, began pushing in 1966 for a new and innovative kind of Smithsonian museum. Ripley conceived of a neighborhood or storefront museum that would be small, interactive, the Greater Anacostia Peoples Corp. had persuaded Ripley to put the first such neighborhood museum in Anacostia. The abandoned Carver movie theater on Nichols Avenue SE was renovated and turned into the new museum, Hope met Kinard through her son, and convinced Kinard to speak with Charles Blitzer, director of the Smithsonians Office of Education and Training. Blitzer was deeply impressed by Kinard, and asked him to meet with Ripley, when Kinard walked into Ripleys office, Ripley thanked him for taking the job. Shocked, Kinard nonetheless agreed to become the Anacostia Museums director and he later recalled, I thought, what the hell. Everybody ought to take a leap once in their lives—just jump, Kinard was named director of the Anacostia Museum in July 1967. He held the position until his death in 1989, under Kinards leadership, the Anacostia Museum had 35 major exhibitions in its first eight years
14.
Fiberglass
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Fiberglass is a type of fiber-reinforced plastic where the reinforcement fiber is specifically glass fiber. The glass fiber may be arranged, flattened into a sheet. The plastic matrix may be a polymer matrix – most often based on thermosetting polymers such as epoxy, polyester resin. The glass fibers are made of various types of glass depending upon the fiberglass use and these glasses all contain silica or silicate, with varying amounts of oxides of calcium, magnesium, and sometimes boron. To be used in fiberglass, glass fibers have to be made very low levels of defects. Fiberglass is a lightweight material and is used for many products. Although it is not as strong and stiff as composites based on fiber, it is less brittle. Its bulk strength and weight are also better than many metals, other common names for fiberglass are glass-reinforced plastic, glass-fiber reinforced plastic or GFK. Because glass fiber itself is referred to as fiberglass, the composite is also called fiberglass reinforced plastic. This article will adopt the convention that fiberglass refers to the glass fiber reinforced composite material. A patent for this method of producing glass wool was first applied for in 1933, Owens joined with the Corning company in 1935 and the method was adapted by Owens Corning to produce its patented fibreglas in 1936. Originally, fibreglas was a wool with fibers entrapping a great deal of gas, making it useful as an insulator. A suitable resin for combining the fibreglass with a plastic to produce a material was developed in 1936 by du Pont. The first ancestor of modern polyester resins is Cyanamids resin of 1942, peroxide curing systems were used by then. With the combination of fiberglass and resin the gas content of the material was replaced by plastic and this reduced the insulation properties to values typical of the plastic, but now for the first time the composite showed great strength and promise as a structural and building material. Confusingly, many glass fiber composites continued to be called fiberglass, ray Greene of Owens Corning is credited with producing the first composite boat in 1937, but did not proceed further at the time due to the brittle nature of the plastic used. In 1939 Russia was reported to have constructed a boat of plastic materials. The first car to have a body was a 1946 prototype of the Stout Scarab
15.
Triceratops
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It is one of the last known non-avian dinosaur genera, and became extinct in the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event 66 million years ago. The term Triceratops, which literally means three-horned face, is derived from the Greek τρί- meaning three, κέρας meaning horn, and ὤψ meaning face, the exact placement of the Triceratops genus within the ceratopsid group has been debated by paleontologists. Two species, T. horridus and T. prorsus, are considered valid, research published in 2010 suggested that the contemporaneous Torosaurus, a ceratopsid long regarded as a separate genus, represents Triceratops in its mature form. The view was disputed and examination of more fossil evidence is expected to settle the debate. Triceratops has been documented by numerous remains collected since the genus was first described in 1889, Paleontologist John Scannella observed, It is hard to walk out into the Hell Creek Formation and not stumble upon a Triceratops weathering out of a hillside. Forty-seven complete or partial skulls were discovered in just that area from 2000 to 2010, specimens representing life stages from hatchling to adult have been found. The functions of the frills and three distinctive facial horns on its head have long inspired debate, traditionally, these have been viewed as defensive weapons against predators. Individual Triceratops are estimated to have reached about 7.9 to 9.0 m in length,2.9 to 3.0 m in height, the most distinctive feature is their large skull, among the largest of all land animals. The largest known skull is estimated to have been 2.5 metres in length when complete, and could reach almost a third of the length of the entire animal. A specimen of T. horridus named Kelsey measured 7.3 metres long with a 1.98 metres skull, stood about 2.3 metres tall, a Triceratops 8 metres long has been estimated by Gregory S. Paul to have massed 9.3 tonnes. It bore a single horn on the snout, above the nostrils, in 2010, paleontologists revealed a fossil with 115-centimetre-long horn cores, housed and displayed at the Museum of the Rockies in Montana. To the rear of the skull was a short, bony frill. Most other ceratopsids had large fenestrae in their frills, while those of Triceratops were noticeably solid, T. horridus can be distinguished from T. prorsus by having a shallower snout. Triceratops species possessed a sturdy build, with limbs, short hands with three hooves each, and short feet with four hooves each. Although certainly quadrupedal, the posture of these dinosaurs has long been the subject of some debate, originally, it was believed that the front legs of the animal had to be sprawling at angles from the thorax in order to better bear the weight of the head. This stance can be seen in paintings by Charles Knight and Rudolph Zallinger, the hands and forearms of Triceratops retained a fairly primitive structure compared to other quadrupedal dinosaurs such as thyreophorans and many sauropods. In those two groups, the forelimbs of quadrupedal species were usually rotated so that the hands faced forward with palms backward as the animals walked. In Triceratops, the weight of the body was carried by only the first three fingers of the hand, while digits 4 and 5 were vestigial and lacked claws or hooves
16.
Uncle Beazley
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Uncle Beazley is a life-size fiberglass statue of a triceratops by Louis Paul Jonas. It is located near Lemur Island in the National Zoological Park in Northwest Washington, the statue is named after a dinosaur in the childrens book The Enormous Egg, by Oliver Butterworth, and a movie adaptation televised on the NBC Childrens Theatre in which the statue appeared. The book and the film, which aired on April 18,1968, the triceratops, named Uncle Beazley, becomes too big, so the boy brings him to the Smithsonian Institution. Colbert of the American Museum of Natural History in New York City, after the Fair closed, the statue was featured in Sinclairs traveling Dinoland display. In 1967, Sinclair donated the nine dinosaurs to various American museums, the Smithsonians Uncle Beazley was initially displayed at the Zoo. In July 1967, a crew from NBC-TV visited the Zoo to film the statue during the production of The Enormous Egg, after the filming ended, Sinclair donated the statue to the Smithsonian. Uncle Beazley was present at the Smithsonians Anacostia Neighborhood Museum when the museum opened on September 15,1967, from the 1970s to 1994, the statue was located at the National Mall in front of the National Museum of Natural History. In 1994, the statue was returned to the Zoo and was displayed in the former rhinoceros yard until 2003, in 2007, the Zoo and Smithsonian exhibits staff began work to restore the dinosaur. Zoo staff also created an exhibit for Uncle Beazley near Lemur Island with funding from a gift from a Director’s Circle donor in memory of her parents. The “dinosaur garden” features plants such as ferns, papyrus, the statue was again refurbished in 2011. NBCs telecast of The Enormous Egg also featured five smaller triceratops models that Louis Paul Jonas had created to represent the dinosaur during its youth, in 1979, George Heinemann, the telecasts producer, donated the models to Pittsfields Berkshire Museum, a Smithsonian Affiliate organization in Western Massachusetts. In 2014, the five models, the largest of which bears the name of Uncle Beazley, were moved to Pittsfields public library, the Berkshire Athenaeum
17.
National Zoological Park (United States)
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The National Zoological Park, commonly known as the National Zoo, is one of the oldest zoos in the United States. It is part of the Smithsonian Institution and does not charge for admission, founded in 1889, its mission is to provide engaging experiences with animals and create and share knowledge to save wildlife and habitats. The National Zoo has two campuses, the first is an 163-acre urban park located in Northwest Washington, D. C. that is 20 minutes from the National Mall by Metro. The other campus is the 3, 200-acre Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute in Front Royal, on this land, there are 180 species of trees,850 species of woody shrubs and herbaceous plants,40 species of grasses, and 36 different species of bamboo. The SCBI is a facility devoted to training wildlife professionals in conservation biology and to propagating rare species through natural means. The National Zoo is accredited by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums, altogether, the two facilities host about 1,800 animals of 300 different species. About one-fifth of them are endangered or threatened, most species are on exhibit at the Zoos Rock Creek Park campus. The best known residents are the giant pandas, but the zoo is home to birds, great apes, big cats, Asian elephants, insects, amphibians, reptiles, aquatic animals, small mammals. The SCBI facility houses between 30 and 40 endangered species at any time depending on research needs and recommendations from the zoo. The zoo was one of the first to establish a research program. Because it is a part of the Smithsonian Institution, the National Zoo receives federal appropriations for operating expenses, a new master plan for the park was introduced in 2008 to upgrade the parks exhibits and layout. The National Zoo is open day of the year except for December 25. The zoo first started as the National Museums Department of Living Animals in 1886, by an act of Congress in 1889, for the advancement of science and the instruction and recreation of the people the National Zoo was created. In 1890, it became a part of the Smithsonian Institution, william Temple Hornaday was the curator of all 185 animals when the park was first opened. Together, they designed a new zoo to animals for the public and to serve as a refuge for wildlife, such as bison and beaver. For the first 50 years, the National Zoo, like most zoos around the world, the number of many species in the wild began to decline drastically because of human activities. In 1899, the Kansas frontiersman Charles Buffalo Jones captured a bighorn sheep for the zoo, the fate of animals and plants became a pressing concern. Many of these species were favorite zoo animals, such as elephants and tigers, hence the staff began to concentrate on the long-term management, in the mid-1950s, the zoo hired its first full-time permanent veterinarian, reflecting a priority placed on professional health care for the animals
18.
Carnegie Corporation of New York
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Carnegie Corporation of New York was established by Andrew Carnegie during 1911 to promote the advancement and diffusion of knowledge and understanding. Nevertheless, ten years after the sale of the Carnegie Steel Company, he still had more than $150 million and, having already used the conventional formats for his previously endowed institutions, he selected corporation for this last and largest. It was chartered by the State of New York as Carnegie Corporation of New York, the Corporations capital fund, originally donated as a value of about $135 million, had a market value of $1.55 billion on March 31,1999. During 1911 and 1912, Carnegie gave the corporation $125 million, as the residual legatee of his will, the corporation received an additional $10 million when the estate was settled. Carnegie reserved a portion of the endowment to be used for purposes in Canada. This part of the endowment was first known as the Special Fund, then the British Dominions and Colonies Fund, charter amendments have allowed the corporation to use 7.4 percent of its income in countries that are or have been members of the British Commonwealth. During the corporations early years, Carnegie himself was president and a trustee, James Bertram, his private secretary, and Robert A. Franks, his financial agent, were also trustees and, respectively, secretary and treasurer of the corporation. These three comprised the first executive committee and made most of the funding decisions, soon after Carnegies death during 1919, the trustees elected a full-time, salaried president as chief executive officer of the corporation and made him an ex officio member of the board. Initially, grants followed the pattern of Carnegies personal philanthropies, until 1917, gifts for the construction of public libraries and for the purchase of church organs were continued. The other Carnegie organizations in the United States also received grants for their programs, as did universities, colleges, schools. In his letter of gift to his trustees, Carnegie wrote, Conditions upon erth inevitably change, hence, no wise man will bind Trustees forever to certain paths. I disclaim any intention of doing so, on the contrary, I giv my Trustees full authority to change policy or causes hitherto aided, from time to time, when this, in their opinion, has become necessary or desirable. They shall best conform to my wishes by using their own judgement, thus, over the years, the corporations priorities for grant making have changed, while always remaining educational. After Carnegies death, the corporation began to devote its funding increasingly to scientific research, convinced of the nations need to increase scientific expertise and scientific management, the corporation sought to build facilities for research of the natural and social sciences. At this time, the corporation developed a interest in adult education. During 1919 it initiated the Americanization Study to explore opportunities for adults. The foundations grantmaking during this period had a certain eclecticism and a remarkable perseverance with respect to its chosen causes, widely heralded, Myrdals book American Dilemma had no immediate public policy effect, although it was later much cited in legal challenges to segregation. Keppel believed foundations should make the facts available to the public and his cogent writings about philanthropy left a lasting impression on the foundation field and influenced the organization and leadership of many new foundations
19.
Oral history
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These interviews are conducted with people who participated in or observed past events and whose memories and perceptions of these are to be preserved as an aural record for future generations. Oral history strives to obtain information from different perspectives and most of these cannot be found in written sources, Oral history also refers to information gathered in this manner and to a written work based on such data, often preserved in archives and large libraries. Knowledge presented by Oral History is unique in that it shares the tacit perspective, thoughts, opinions, however, as the Columbia Encyclopedia explains, Primitive societies have long relied on oral tradition to preserve a record of the past in the absence of written histories. In Western society, the use of oral material goes back to the early Greek historians Herodotus and Thucydides, the modern concept of oral history was developed in the 1940s by Allan Nevins and his associates at Oral history has become an international movement in historical research. Oral historians in different countries have approached the collection, analysis, however, it should also be noted that there are many ways of creating oral histories and carrying out the study of oral history even within individual national contexts. Authors such as Studs Terkel, Alex Haley, and Oscar Lewis have employed oral history in their books, in another important example of the genre, a massive archive covering the oral history of American music has been compiled at the Yale School of Music. By the end of the 20th cent, Oral history had become a respected discipline in many colleges and universities. At that time the Italian historian Alessandro Portelli and his associates began to study the role that memory itself, whether accurate or faulty, plays in the themes and structures of oral history. Their published work has become standard material in the field. Since the early 1970s, oral history in Britain has grown from being a method in folklore studies to becoming a key component in community histories, Oral history continues to be an important means by which non-academics can actively participate in the compilation and study of history. However, practitioners across a range of academic disciplines have also developed the method into a way of recording, understanding. Influences have included womens history and labour history, in Britain, the Oral History Society has played a key role in facilitating and developing the use of oral history. A more complete account of the history of history in Britain. The Bureau of Military History conducted over 1700 interviews with veterans of the First World War, the documentation was released for research in 2003. During 1998 and 1999,40 BBC local radio stations recorded personal oral histories from a broad cross-section of the population for The Century Speaks series. The result was 640 half-hour radio documentaries, broadcast in the weeks of the millennium, and one of the largest single oral history collections in Europe. The interview based recordings are held by the British Library Sound Archive in the history collection. In one of the largest memory project anywhere, The BBC in 2003-6 invited its audiences to send in recollections of the homefront in the Second World War and it put 47,000 of the recollections online, along with 15,000 photographs
20.
Louise Daniel Hutchinson
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Louise Daniel Hutchinson was an American historian. She was the former Director of the Research at the Anacostia Community Museum, growing up in Washington, D. C. Hutchinson was exposed to the Civil Rights Movement and the importance of community. Hutchinson worked closely with the African American community of Washington, D. C. and she was a historian of the Anacostia community. Louise Daniel Hutchinson was born in Ridge, Maryland, only to be raised in the Shaw neighborhood of Washington and her mother, Constance Eleanor Hazel, was an acquaintance of William Henry Hastie, Mary McLeod Bethune and Carter G. Woodson. Her parents were active in local African American affairs, including civil rights activities. As a young person, she attended Brown v. Board of Education in Kansas and she attended a number of different colleges, including Miner Teachers College, Prairie View A&M University, and Howard University. It was from the latter that she earned her bachelors degree in 1951, at Howard, she studied under Ralph Bunche, John Hope Franklin and E. Franklin Frazer. Soon thereafter, she married Ellsworth W. Hutchinson, Jr. and she also worked as a substitute teacher. She died at the age of 86 on October 12,2014, Hutchinson started working as a researcher at the National Portrait Gallery in 1971. She researched African American portraits, such as the legacy of John Brown, the following year, she became an Education Research Specialist, where she worked on partnership projects between the museum and D. C. In 1973, she took the title, Education Research Specialist. There, she trained staff regarding the interpretation of the memorial, the following year,1974, Hutchinson became the Historian and Director of Research at the Anacostia Community Museum. She helped write the mission for the museum, acquired objects for the collection, strengthened relationships with the other Smithsonian Institution units, Hutchinson also developed the museum’s oral history program and helped found the Anacostia Historical Society. Hutchinsons work influenced her scholarly contributions and vice versa and her book about Anna J. Cooper was called an important contribution to American history in The Georgia Historical Quarterly. Anna J. Cooper, a voice from the South, out of Africa, From west African kingdoms to colonization
21.
Fort Stanton
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Fort Stanton was a U. S. military fort built in New Mexico in the United States. It was established to protect settlements along the Rio Bonito in the Apache Wars, kit Carson, John Black Jack Pershing, Billy the Kid, and Buffalo Soldiers of the 9th Cavalry all lived here. Confederate forces occupied the outpost in the beginning of the American Civil War after the post was abandoned with the withdrawal of U. S. forces in the region, the fort was originally established in part as the Mescalero Apache reservation. In 1873 the reservation was moved 30 miles southwest to its current location, during World War II, Fort Stanton was used as a detention center for German and Japanese Americans arrested as enemy aliens, and 411 German nationals taken from the luxury liner Columbus in 1939. The 31 German American internees, labeled troublemakers by the Department of Justice, were separate from the 17 Japanese Americans who were transferred to Fort Stanton on March 10,1945. These new arrivals were deported to Japan later that year, Snowy River was discovered in 2001 by members of the Fort Stanton Cave Study Project. The new NCA, called Fort Stanton – Snowy River Cave, is managed by the Bureau of Land Management, the NCA has over 90 miles of multi-use trails for horseback riding, mountain bike riding and hiking. It is the venue of an annual endurance riding event that has grown to be 6 days long, the NCA is joined on its south and northeast boundaries by the Smokey Bear Ranger District of the Lincoln National Forest. In 2012, members of the Southwestern Region of the National Speleological Society completed a project on the second floor balcony of Building #9
22.
Masonite
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Masonite is a type of hardboard made of steam-cooked and pressure-molded wood fibres in a process patented by William H. Mason. This product is known as Quartrboard, Isorel, hernit, karlit. A product resembling masonite was first made in England in 1898 by hot-pressing waste paper, Masonite was patented in 1924 in Laurel, Mississippi, by William H. Mason, who was a friend and protégé of inventor Thomas Edison. In the 1930s and 1940s, Masonite was used for applications including doors, roofing, walls, desktops. It was sometimes used for house siding, similar tempered hardboard is now a generic product made by many forest product companies. Forming the fibers into boards on a screen, the boards are then pressed and heated to form the product with a smooth burnished finish. The original lignin in the wood serves to bond the fibers without any added adhesive, the long fibers give Masonite a high bending strength, tensile strength, density, and stability. Unlike other composite wood panels, no formaldehyde-based resins are used to bind the fibers in Masonite, artists have often used it as a support for painting, and in artistic media such as linocut printing. Masonites smooth surface makes it a material for table tennis tables. Moving companies are large users of Masonite, among other things, they use it to protect the walls of buildings they are working in, and lay it on floors to enable smooth rolling of dollies loaded with goods. Masonite is widely used in construction, particularly in high-end renovations where floors are finished prior to other work, sheets of ⅛ or ¼ Masonite are typically laid over red rosin paper on finished floors to protect them. The Masonite sheets are taped together with tape to prevent shifting. Masonite is also used extensively in the construction of sets for theater and film and it is especially common in theaters as the stage floor, painted matte black. It is also considered one of the best materials in the making of a wobble board. Masonite 4x8 panels are sometimes purchased and sawn into 4 high x8 long strips and these 4 high strips are used by concrete workers for forming the perimeter or outside edge of sidewalks where curved walkways are desired when concrete is poured into forms. To a lesser extent, Masonite is used in guitar bodies, Masonite was also a popular protective backing for wooden console stereo and television cabinets, from the 1960s to the 1980s. Masonite swells and rots over time when exposed to the elements, in 1996, International Paper lost a class action suit brought by homeowners whose Masonite siding had deteriorated. The jury found that IPs Masonite siding was defective
23.
Archive
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An archive is an accumulation of historical records or the physical place they are located. Archives contain primary source documents that have accumulated over the course of an individual or organizations lifetime, in general, archives consist of records that have been selected for permanent or long-term preservation on grounds of their enduring cultural, historical, or evidentiary value. Archival records are normally unpublished and almost always unique, unlike books or magazines for which many copies exist. This means that archives are quite distinct from libraries with regard to their functions and organization, a person who works in archives is called an archivist. The study and practice of organizing, preserving, and providing access to information, the physical place of storage can be referred to as an archive, an archives, or a repository. When referring to historical records or the places they are kept, the computing use of the term archive should not be confused with the record-keeping meaning of the term. The adjective formed from archive is archival, the practice of keeping official documents is very old. Archaeologists have discovered archives of hundreds of clay tablets going back to the third and second millennia BC in sites like Ebla, Mari, Amarna, Hattusas, Ugarit and these discoveries have been fundamental to know ancient alphabets, languages, literature, and politics. Archives were well developed by the ancient Chinese, the ancient Greeks, however, they have been lost, since documents written on materials like papyrus and paper deteriorated at a faster pace, unlike their stone tablet counterparts. Archives of churches, kingdoms, and cities from the Middle Ages survive and have kept their official status uninterruptedly till now. They are the tool for historical research on these ages. Modern archival thinking has many roots from the French Revolution, historians, genealogists, lawyers, demographers, filmmakers, and others conduct research at archives. The research process at each archive is unique, and depends upon the institution that houses the archive. While there are kinds of archives, the most recent census of archivists in the United States identifies five major types, academic, business, government, non-profit. There are also four main areas of inquiry involved with archives, material technologies, organizing principles, geographic locations and these areas help to further categorize what kind of archive is being created. Archives in colleges, universities, and other facilities are typically housed within a library. Academic archives exist to preserve history and serve the academic community. Access to the collections in these archives is usually by prior appointment only, users of academic archives can be undergraduates, graduate students, faculty and staff, scholarly researchers, and the general public
24.
Steven Newsome
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Steven Newsome is an American arts and museum administrator. Newsome grew up in Norfolk, Virginia and he attended Trinity College, Hartford and Emory University. He was Executive Director of the Maryland Commission on Afro-American History and Culture, in 1990 he became the director of the Anacostia Museum, before retiring in 2004. Newsome is the director of the Prince Georges African American Museum & Cultural Center
25.
Kente cloth
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Kente, known as nwentom in Akan, is a type of silk and cotton fabric made of interwoven cloth strips and is native to the Akan ethnic group of South Ghana. Kente is made in Akan lands such as Ashanti Kingdom, and it is also worn by many other groups who have been influenced by Akans. It is the best known of all African textiles, Kente comes from the word kenten, which means basket in Akan dialect Asante. Akans refer to kente as nwentoma, meaning woven cloth and it is an Akan royal and sacred cloth worn only in times of extreme importance and was the cloth of kings. Over time, the use of kente became more widespread, however, its importance has remained and it is held in high esteem with Akans. The Ewe people especially those from Agortime-Kpetoe of Ghana also claim that, according to their history weaving was the skill they came with when they migrated from Egypt through Nigeria to their present location in Ghana. Per the oral history of the people, during the Ashante wars they captured some of their men who were skilled in the weaving of Agbamevor. For that reason, the Ewes believe that the name Kete originates from the used to weave such cloths which is also the same name that has been corrupted into kente. The icon of African cultural heritage around the world, Akan kente is identified by its dazzling, multicolored patterns of colors, geometric shapes. Kente characterized by weft designs woven into every available block of plain weave is called adweneasa, the Akan people choose kente cloths as much for their names as their colors and patterns. Although the cloths are identified primarily by the found in the lengthwise threads. Names are derived from sources, including proverbs, historical events, important chiefs, queen mothers. West Africa has had a weaving culture for centuries via the stripweave method. Kente cloth has its origin in the Ashanti kingdom, and was adopted by people in Ivory Coast, the origin of kente is in the Akan empire of Bonoman. Most Akans migrated out of the area that was Bonoman to create various states, the Ewe people think that weaving of Kente originates with them although they are not claiming they for most invent the art of weaving. In addition, the Ewes suggest that the name Kente is derived from Kete which relates to the two alternating rhythmic actions associated with the weaving of the loom. The Pangi cloth made by the Maroons is a fabric with multi-colored vertical and horizontal stripes. With the female essence of life, a mild, gentle aspect of red purple—assoc, with feminine aspects of life, usually worn by women red—political and spiritual moods, bloodshed, sacrificial rites and death
26.
Concrete
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Concrete is a composite material composed of coarse aggregate bonded together with a fluid cement that hardens over time. Most concretes used are lime-based concretes such as Portland cement concrete or concretes made with other hydraulic cements, when aggregate is mixed together with dry Portland cement and water, the mixture forms a fluid slurry that is easily poured and molded into shape. The cement reacts chemically with the water and other ingredients to form a matrix that binds the materials together into a durable stone-like material that has many uses. Often, additives are included in the mixture to improve the properties of the wet mix or the finished material. Most concrete is poured with reinforcing materials embedded to provide tensile strength, famous concrete structures include the Hoover Dam, the Panama Canal, and the Roman Pantheon. The earliest large-scale users of technology were the ancient Romans. The Colosseum in Rome was built largely of concrete, and the dome of the Pantheon is the worlds largest unreinforced concrete dome. Today, large concrete structures are made with reinforced concrete. After the Roman Empire collapsed, use of concrete became rare until the technology was redeveloped in the mid-18th century, today, concrete is the most widely used man-made material. The word concrete comes from the Latin word concretus, the passive participle of concrescere, from con-. Perhaps the earliest known occurrence of cement was twelve years ago. A deposit of cement was formed after an occurrence of oil shale located adjacent to a bed of limestone burned due to natural causes and these ancient deposits were investigated in the 1960s and 1970s. On a human timescale, small usages of concrete go back for thousands of years and they discovered the advantages of hydraulic lime, with some self-cementing properties, by 700 BC. They built kilns to supply mortar for the construction of houses, concrete floors. The cisterns were kept secret and were one of the reasons the Nabataea were able to thrive in the desert, some of these structures survive to this day. In the Ancient Egyptian and later Roman eras, it was re-discovered that adding volcanic ash to the mix allowed it to set underwater, similarly, the Romans knew that adding horse hair made concrete less liable to crack while it hardened, and adding blood made it more frost-resistant. Crystallization of strätlingite and the introduction of pyroclastic clays creates further fracture resistance, german archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann found concrete floors, which were made of lime and pebbles, in the royal palace of Tiryns, Greece, which dates roughly to 1400–1200 BC. Lime mortars were used in Greece, Crete, and Cyprus in 800 BC, the Assyrian Jerwan Aqueduct made use of waterproof concrete
27.
Great Zimbabwe
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Great Zimbabwe is a ruined city in the south-eastern hills of Zimbabwe near Lake Mutirikwe and the town of Masvingo. It was the capital of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe during the countrys Late Iron Age, construction on the monument began in the 11th century and continued until the 15th century. The most widely-accepted modern archaeological theory is that the edifices were erected by the ancestral Shona, the stone city spans an area of 722 hectares which, at its peak, could have housed up to 18,000 people. It is recognised as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO, Great Zimbabwe is believed to have served as a royal palace for the local monarch. As such, it would have used as the seat of political power. Among the edifices most prominent features were its walls, some of which were over five metres high, eventually, the city was abandoned and fell into ruin. The earliest known mention of the Great Zimbabwe ruins was in 1531 by Vicente Pegado, captain of the Portuguese garrison of Sofala. The first confirmed visits by Europeans were in the late 19th century, Great Zimbabwe has since been adopted as a national monument by the Zimbabwean government, and the modern independent state was named for it. The word great distinguishes the site from the hundreds of small ruins, now known as zimbabwes. There are 200 such sites in southern Africa, such as Bumbusi in Zimbabwe and Manyikeni in Mozambique, with monumental, mortarless walls, Zimbabwe is the Shona name of the ruins, first recorded in 1531 by Vicente Pegado, Captain of the Portuguese Garrison of Sofala. Pegado noted that The natives of the country call these edifices Symbaoe, the name contains dzimba, the Shona term for houses. There are two theories for the etymology of the name, the first proposes that the word is derived from Dzimba-dza-mabwe, translated from the Karanga dialect of Shona as large houses of stone. A second suggests that Zimbabwe is a form of dzimba-hwe. The majority of scholars believe that it was built by members of the Gokomere culture, a few believe that the ancestors of the Lemba or Venda were responsible, or cooperated with the Gokomere in the construction. The Great Zimbabwe area was settled by the century of the common era. Between the fourth and the centuries, communities of the Gokomere or Ziwa cultures farmed the valley, and mined and worked iron. These are the earliest Iron Age settlements in the area identified from archaeological diggings, construction of the stone buildings started in the 11th century and continued for over 300 years. The ruins at Great Zimbabwe are some of the oldest and largest structures located in Southern Africa, and are the second oldest after nearby Mapungubwe in South Africa
28.
Duke Ellington
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Edward Kennedy Duke Ellington was an American composer, pianist, and bandleader of a jazz orchestra, which he led from 1923 until his death in a career spanning over fifty years. Ellington was based in New York City from the mid-1920s onward, in the 1930s, his orchestra toured in Europe. Some of the musicians who were members of Ellingtons orchestra, such as saxophonist Johnny Hodges, are considered to be among the best players in jazz, Ellington melded them into the best-known orchestral unit in the history of jazz. Some members stayed with the orchestra for several decades, a master at writing miniatures for the three-minute 78 rpm recording format, Ellington often composed specifically to feature the style and skills of his individual musicians. Ellington also recorded songs written by his bandsmen, for example Juan Tizols Caravan, and Perdido, after 1941, Ellington collaborated with composer-arranger-pianist Billy Strayhorn, whom he called his writing and arranging companion. With Strayhorn, he composed many extended compositions, or suites, following an appearance at the Newport Jazz Festival, in July 1956, Ellington and his orchestra enjoyed a major career revival and embarked on world tours. Ellington recorded for most American record companies of his era, performed in films, scoring several. His reputation continued to rise after he died, and he was awarded a special posthumous Pulitzer Prize for music in 1999, Ellington was born on April 29,1899, to James Edward Ellington and Daisy Ellington in Washington, D. C. Daisy primarily played parlor songs and James preferred operatic arias and they lived with his maternal grandparents at 2129 Ida Place, NW, in the West End neighborhood of Washington, D. C. Dukes father was born in Lincolnton, North Carolina, on April 15,1879, Daisy Kennedy was born in Washington, D. C. on January 4,1879, the daughter of a former American slave. James Ellington made blueprints for the United States Navy, when Ellington was a child, his family showed racial pride and support in their home, as did many other families. African Americans in D. C. worked to protect their children from the eras Jim Crow laws, at the age of seven, Ellington began taking piano lessons from Marietta Clinkscales. Daisy surrounded her son with dignified women to reinforce his manners, Ellingtons childhood friends noticed that his casual, offhand manner, his easy grace, and his dapper dress gave him the bearing of a young nobleman, and began calling him Duke. Ellington credited his chum Edgar McEntree for the nickname, I think he felt that in order for me to be eligible for his constant companionship, I should have a title. Though Ellington took piano lessons, he was interested in baseball. President Roosevelt would come by on his horse sometimes, and stop and watch us play, Ellington went to Armstrong Technical High School in Washington, D. C. He gained his first job selling peanuts at Washington Senators baseball games, in the summer of 1914, while working as a soda jerk at the Poodle Dog Café, Ellington wrote his first composition, Soda Fountain Rag. He created the piece by ear, as he had not yet learned to read, I would play the Soda Fountain Rag as a one-step, two-step, waltz, tango, and fox trot, Ellington recalled
29.
James A. Porter
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James Amos Porter was a pioneer in establishing the field of African-American art history. He was instrumental as the first scholar to provide a systematic, critical analysis of African-American artists, an artist himself, he provided a unique and critical approach to the analysis of the work. Porter’s determination to document and view African-American art in the context of American art created the canon, born in Baltimore, Maryland, Porter had a long career in the visual arts as an artist and historian. Under the direction of James V. Herring, head of the Art Department at Howard University, Porter studied painting, drawing, Porter was a member of Alpha Phi Alpha. Upon graduating with a bachelor of science in 1927, he accepted a position as instructor of painting and drawing at Howard, throughout his academic professional career, Porter also painted, and continued to exhibit nationally and internationally. After completing undergraduate work, Porter attended the Art Institute in New York City and he also studied in Paris at the Institute of Art and Archeology at the Sorbonne, where he received a Certificat de Présence in 1935. When Porter returned to the United States, he pursued an M. A. in art history at New York University, Porter’s thesis, later the foundation for his book, Modern Negro Art, focused on African-American artists and artisans. During his studies, Porter met Dorothy Burnett, a librarian at the Harlem branch of the New York Public Library, on December 27,1929, Porter and Burnett were married. They had one daughter, Constance Porter and they became professional as well as personal partners. Dorothy worked with Porter, providing bibliographic information critical to his investigations, Dorothy Porter was the director of Moorland Foundation, later known as the Moorland-Spingarn Research Center. She developed and catalogued information about African-American artists, Porter’s interest in nearly forgotten and often ignored artists of African descent was sparked by reading a brief article on African-American landscape artist Robert Scott Duncanson. Due to the brevity, Porter followed his curiosity to research Duncanson. He published Modern Negro Art in 1943, the first comprehensive study in the United States of African-American art, Porter decisively placed African-American artists within the framework of American art. He was the first to recognize and document the significant contributions these artists made to the history of American art, with Porter’s systematic approach, Modern Negro Art became and still is the foundation of African-American art history and for later texts. Porter included art of Cuba, Haiti, and Africa in his investigations of artists of the African diaspora and he visited Haiti and Cuba on a Rockefeller Foundation grant in 1945/46. The Cuban government spurned his painting, The Cuban Bus and his thorough research on these countries and West Africa stimulated his creating courses at Howard in Latin American Art and African Art and Architecture. Porter taught at Howard for more than forty years, together with such as James Lesesne Wells. He headed the Art Department, and served as Director of the Art Gallery from 1953 through 1970, the list of artists who studied under Porter is a long one
30.
Slavery in the United States
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Slavery had been practiced in British North America from early colonial days, and was legal in all Thirteen Colonies at the time of the Declaration of Independence in 1776. By the time of the American Revolution, the status of slave had been institutionalized as a racial caste associated with African ancestry, when the United States Constitution was ratified, a relatively small number of free people of color were among the voting citizens. During and immediately following the Revolutionary War, abolitionist laws were passed in most Northern states, most of these states had a higher proportion of free labor than in the South and economies based on different industries. They abolished slavery by the end of the 18th century, some with gradual systems that kept adults as slaves for two decades. But the rapid expansion of the industry in the Deep South after the invention of the cotton gin greatly increased demand for slave labor. Congress during the Jefferson administration prohibited the importation of slaves, effective in 1808, domestic slave trading, however, continued at a rapid pace, driven by labor demands from the development of cotton plantations in the Deep South. More than one million slaves were sold from the Upper South, which had a surplus of labor, New communities of African-American culture were developed in the Deep South, and the total slave population in the South eventually reached 4 million before liberation. As the West was developed for settlement, the Southern state governments wanted to keep a balance between the number of slave and free states to maintain a balance of power in Congress. The new territories acquired from Britain, France, and Mexico were the subject of major political compromises, by 1850, the newly rich cotton-growing South was threatening to secede from the Union, and tensions continued to rise. When Abraham Lincoln won the 1860 election on a platform of halting the expansion of slavery, the first six states to secede held the greatest number of slaves in the South. Shortly after, the Civil War began when Confederate forces attacked the US Armys Fort Sumter, four additional slave states then seceded. In the early years of the Chesapeake Bay settlements, colonial officials found it difficult to attract and retain laborers under the frontier conditions. Most laborers came from Britain as indentured servants, having signed contracts of indenture to pay with work for their passage, their upkeep and training and these indentured servants were young people who intended to become permanent residents. In some cases, convicted criminals were transported to the colonies as indentured servants, the indentured servants were not slaves, but were required to work for four to seven years in Virginia to pay the cost of their passage and maintenance. Historians estimate that more than half of all immigrants to the English colonies of North America during the 17th and 18th centuries came as indentured servants. The number of indentured servants among immigrants was particularly high in the South, many Germans, Scots-Irish, and Irish came to the colonies in the 18th century, settling in the backcountry of Pennsylvania and further south. The planters in the South found that the problem with indentured servants was that many left after several years, just when they had become skilled. In addition, an economy in England in the late 17th
31.
Project Mercury
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Project Mercury was the first human spaceflight program of the United States, running from 1958 through 1963. An early highlight of the Space Race, its goal was to put a man into Earth orbit, taken over from the U. S. Air Force by the newly created civilian space agency NASA, it conducted twenty unmanned developmental flights, and six successful flights by astronauts. The program, which took its name from the god of travel in Roman mythology, cost $277 million in 1965 US dollars, the astronauts were collectively known as the Mercury Seven, and each spacecraft was given a name ending with a 7 by its pilot. The Space Race began with the 1957 launch of the Soviet satellite Sputnik 1 and this came as a shock to the American public, and led to the creation of NASA to expedite existing U. S. space exploration efforts, and place most of them under civilian control. After the successful launch of the Explorer 1 satellite in 1958, the Soviet Union put the first human, cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin, into a single orbit aboard Vostok 1 on April 12,1961. Shortly after this, on May 5, the U. S. launched its first astronaut, Alan Shepard, Soviet Gherman Titov followed with a day-long orbital flight in August 1961. The U. S. reached its goal on February 20,1962. When Mercury ended in May 1963, both nations had sent six people into space, but the Soviets led the U. S. in total spent in space. The Mercury space capsule was produced by McDonnell Aircraft, and carried supplies of water, food, Mercury flights were launched from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida, on launch vehicles modified from the Redstone and Atlas D missiles. The capsule was fitted with an escape rocket to carry it safely away from the launch vehicle in case of a failure. The flight was designed to be controlled from the ground via the Manned Space Flight Network, small retrorockets were used to bring the spacecraft out of its orbit, after which an ablative heat shield protected it from the heat of atmospheric reentry. Finally, a parachute slowed the craft for a water landing, both astronaut and capsule were recovered by helicopters deployed from a U. S. Navy ship. After a slow start riddled with humiliating mistakes, the Mercury project gained popularity, its missions followed by millions on radio, Project Mercury was officially approved on October 7,1958 and publicly announced on December 17. Originally called Project Astronaut, President Dwight Eisenhower felt that too much attention to the pilot. Instead, the name Mercury was chosen from classical mythology, which had already lent names to rockets like the Greek Atlas and Roman Jupiter for the SM-65 and it absorbed military projects with the same aim, such as the Air Force Man In Space Soonest. Following the end of World War II, an arms race evolved between the U. S. and the Soviet Union. The rocket technology in turn enabled both sides to develop Earth-orbiting satellites for communications, and gathering data and intelligence. Americans were shocked when the Soviet Union placed the first satellite into orbit in October 1957, a month later, the Soviets launched Sputnik 2, carrying a dog into orbit
32.
Parrot
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Parrots, also known as psittacines /ˈsɪtəsaɪnz/, are birds of the roughly 393 species in 92 genera that make up the order Psittaciformes, found in most tropical and subtropical regions. The order is subdivided into three superfamilies, the Psittacoidea, the Cacatuoidea, and the Strigopoidea, Parrots have a generally pantropical distribution with several species inhabiting temperate regions in the Southern Hemisphere, as well. The greatest diversity of parrots is in South America and Australasia, characteristic features of parrots include a strong, curved bill, an upright stance, strong legs, and clawed zygodactyl feet. Many parrots are vividly coloured, and some are multi-coloured, most parrots exhibit little or no sexual dimorphism in the visual spectrum. They form the most variably sized bird order in terms of length, the most important components of most parrots diets are seeds, nuts, fruit, buds, and other plant material. A few species sometimes eat animals and carrion, while the lories and lorikeets are specialised for feeding on floral nectar, almost all parrots nest in tree hollows, and lay white eggs from which hatch altricial young. Parrots, along with ravens, crows, jays, and magpies, are among the most intelligent birds, some parrots are intelligent and talk at the level of a four-to-five year old human. Measures taken to conserve the habitats of some high-profile charismatic species have protected many of the less charismatic species living in the same ecosystems. Psittaciform diversity in South America and Australasia suggests that the order may have evolved in Gondwana, molecular studies suggest that parrots evolved approximately 59 million years ago in Gondwana. The three major clades of Neotropical parrots originated about 50 Mya, likewise, the earliest parrots do not have the specialised crushing bills of modern species. If so, they probably had not evolved their morphological autapomorphies yet, the combined evidence supported the hypothesis of Psittaciformes being near passerines, i. e. the mostly land-living birds that emerged in close proximity to the K-Pg extinction. Europe is the origin of the first undeniable parrot fossils, which date from about 50 Mya, the climate there and then was tropical, consistent with the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum. Initially, a neoavian named Mopsitta tanta, uncovered in Denmarks Early Eocene Fur Formation and dated to 54 Mya, was assigned to the Psittaciformes, fossils assignable to Psittaciformes date from slightly later in the Eocene, starting around 50 Mya. Several fairly complete skeletons of birds have been found in England. The fossil record—mainly from Europe—consists of bones clearly recognisable as belonging to parrots of modern type, at this point, however, is found the first unambiguous parrot fossil, an upper jaw that is indistinguishable from that of modern cockatoos. The Psittaciformes comprise three lineages, Strigopoidea, Psittacoidea and Cacatuoidea. Colourful feathers with high levels of psittacofulvin resist the feather-degrading bacterium Bacillus licheniformis better than white ones, lorikeets were previously regarded as a third family, Loriidae, but are now considered a tribe within the subfamily Lorinae, family Cacatuoidea. The two other tribes in the subfamily are the closely related fig parrots and budgerigar, the order Psittaciformes consists of roughly 393 species belonging to 92 genera
33.
Rat
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Rats are various medium-sized, long-tailed rodents of the superfamily Muroidea. True rats are members of the genus Rattus, the most important of which to humans are the black rat, Rattus rattus, many members of other rodent genera and families are also referred to as rats, and share many characteristics with true rats. Rats are typically distinguished from mice by their size, generally, when someone discovers a large muroid rodent, its common name includes the term rat, while if it is smaller, the name includes the term mouse. The muroid family is broad and complex, and the common terms rat, scientifically, the terms are not confined to members of the Rattus and Mus genera, for example, the pack rat and cotton mouse. The best-known rat species are the black rat and the brown rat, the group is generally known as the Old World rats or true rats, and originated in Asia. Rats are bigger than most Old World mice, which are their relatives, the term rat is also used in the names of other small mammals which are not true rats. Examples include the North American pack rats, a number of species loosely called kangaroo rats, Rats such as the bandicoot rat are murine rodents related to true rats, but are not members of the genus Rattus. Male rats are called bucks, unmated females are called does, pregnant or parent females are called dams, a group of rats is referred to as a mischief. The common species are opportunistic survivors and often live with and near humans, therefore and they may cause substantial food losses, especially in developing countries. However, the distributed and problematic commensal species of rats are a minority in this diverse genus. Many species of rats are island endemics and some have become endangered due to loss or competition with the brown. Wild rodents, including rats, can carry many different zoonotic pathogens, such as Leptospira, Toxoplasma gondii, another zoonotic disease linked to the rat is the foot-and-mouth disease. The average lifespan of any given rat depends on species is being discussed. The black and brown rats diverged from other Old World rats during the beginning of the Pleistocene in the forests of Asia, specially bred rats have been kept as pets at least since the late 19th century. Pet rats are typically variants of the brown rat, but black rats. Pet rats behave differently from their wild counterparts depending on how many generations they have kept as pets. Pet rats do not pose any more of a risk than pets such as cats or dogs. Tamed rats are generally friendly and can be taught to perform selected behaviors, in 1895, Clark University in Worcester, Massachusetts established a population of domestic albino brown rats to study the effects of diet and for other physiological studies
34.
Western United States
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The Western United States, commonly referred to as the American West, the Far West, or simply the West, traditionally refers to the region comprising the westernmost states of the United States. Because European settlement in the U. S. expanded westward after its founding, prior to about 1800, the crest of the Appalachian Mountains was seen as the western frontier. Since then, the frontier moved westward and eventually lands west of the Mississippi River came to be referred to as the West. The West contains several major biomes, the Western U. S. is the largest region of the country, covering more than half the land area of the United States. Given this expansive and diverse geography it is no wonder the region is difficult to specifically define, a majority of the historian respondents placed the eastern boundary of the West east of the Census definition out on the eastern edge of the Great Plains or on the Mississippi River. The survey respondents as a whole showed just how little agreement there was on the boundaries of the West, within a region as large and diverse as the Western United States, smaller areas with more closely shared demographics and geography have developed as subregions. Meanwhile, the states of Idaho, Montana, Oregon and Washington can be considered part of the Northwest or Pacific Northwest, West Texas in the Chihuahuan Desert may be considered as part of the Western U. S. Fort Worth has long laid claim to be Where the West Begins, the West is still one of the most sparsely settled areas in the United States with 49.5 inhabitants per square mile. Only Texas with 78.0 inhabitants/sq mi, Washington with 86.0 inhabitants/sq mi. and California with 213.4 inhabitants/sq mi. exceed the national average of 77.98 inhabitants/sq mi. The entire Western region has also strongly influenced by European, Hispanic or Latino, Asian and Native Americans. African and European Americans, however, continue to wield a stronger political influence because of the rates of citizenship and voting among Asians. The West also contains much of the Native American population in the U. S. particularly in the reservations in the Mountain. The Western United States has a sex ratio than any other region in the United States. Because the tide of development had not yet reached most of the West when conservation became an issue, agencies of the federal government own. National parks are reserved for activities such as fishing, camping, hiking, and boating, but other government lands also allow commercial activities like ranching, logging. The largest city in the region is Los Angeles, located on the West Coast, Other West Coast cities include San Diego, San Bernardino, San Jose, San Francisco, Oakland, Bakersfield, Sacramento, Seattle, Tacoma, and Portland. Prominent cities in the Mountain States include Denver, Colorado Springs, Phoenix, Tucson, Albuquerque, Las Vegas, Salt Lake City, Boise, El Paso, and Cheyenne. Along the Pacific Ocean coast lie the Coast Ranges, which and they collect a large part of the airborne moisture moving in from the ocean
35.
Documentary film
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A documentary film is a nonfictional motion picture intended to document some aspect of reality, primarily for the purposes of instruction, education, or maintaining a historical record. Documentary has been described as a practice, a cinematic tradition. Polish writer and filmmaker Bolesław Matuszewski was among those who identified the mode of documentary film and he wrote two of the earliest texts on cinema Une nouvelle source de lhistoire and La photographie animée. Both were published in 1898 in French and among the written works to consider the historical. Matuszewski is also among the first filmmakers to propose the creation of a Film Archive to collect, the American film critic Pare Lorentz defines a documentary film as a factual film which is dramatic. Others further state that a documentary stands out from the types of non-fiction films for providing an opinion. Documentary practice is the process of creating documentary projects. Documentary filmmaking can be used as a form of journalism, advocacy, early film was dominated by the novelty of showing an event. They were single-shot moments captured on film, a train entering a station and these short films were called actuality films, the term documentary was not coined until 1926. Many of the first films, such as made by Auguste and Louis Lumière, were a minute or less in length. Films showing many people were made for commercial reasons, the people being filmed were eager to see, for payment. One notable film clocked in at over an hour and a half, using pioneering film-looping technology, Enoch J. Rector presented the entirety of a famous 1897 prize-fight on cinema screens across the United States, in May 1896, Bolesław Matuszewski recorded on film few surigical operations in Warsaw and Saint Petersburg hospitals. In 1898, French surgeon Eugène-Louis Doyen invited Bolesław Matuszewski and Clément Maurice and they started in Paris a series of surgical films sometime before July 1898. Until 1906, the year of his last film, Doyen recorded more than 60 operations, Doyen said that his first films taught him how to correct professional errors he had been unaware of. These and five other of Doyens films survive, all these short films have been preserved. I must say I forgot those works and I am thankful to you that you reminded them to me, unfortunately, not many scientists have followed your way. Travelogue films were popular in the early part of the 20th century
36.
James E. Mayo
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James E. Mayo was an American exhibition specialist. He held this role at the Anacostia Community Museum, where he also was co-director, james Mayo was born and raised in Washington, D. C. After he graduated from Cardozo High School, he joined the workforce, starting his career, in 1959 and he would marry, which would end in divorce. Upon joining the National Museum of American History, Mayo took on the role of production supervisor. He would go on to also design exhibitions for Dumbarton Oaks and he also ran the renovation of the Benjamin Brown French School and was chairman of the board at the Market 5 Gallery, both in Washington, D. C. He co-founded the Erika Thimey Dance and Theater Company, while at the Anacostia Community Museum, he worked on exhibitions such as Blacks in the Westward Movement and Black Women, Achievement Against the Odds, alongside Louise Daniel Hutchinson. He retired in September,1994, as director emeritus and his exhibition style was described as elegant in The Art Museum as Educator. James E. Mayo died on July 13,1995, at George Washington University Hospital of lung cancer, a scholarship named in his honor is awarded by the Erika Thimey Dance and Theater Company
37.
Frederick Douglass
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Frederick Douglass was an African-American social reformer, abolitionist, orator, writer, and statesman. In his time, he was described by abolitionists as a living counter-example to slaveholders arguments that slaves lacked the capacity to function as independent American citizens. Northerners at the found it hard to believe that such a great orator had once been a slave. After the Civil War, Douglass remained an active campaigner against slavery and wrote his last autobiography, Life, First published in 1881 and revised in 1892, three years before his death, it covered events during and after the Civil War. Douglass also actively supported womens suffrage, and held public offices. Douglass was a believer in the equality of all peoples, whether black, female, Native American. He was also a believer in dialogue and in making alliances across racial and ideological divides, one biographer argues, The most influential African American of the nineteenth century, Douglass made a career of agitating the American conscience. He spoke and wrote on behalf of a variety of causes, womens rights, temperance, peace, land reform, free public education. But he devoted the bulk of his time, immense talent and these were the central concerns of his long reform career. Douglass understood that the struggle for emancipation and equality demanded forceful, persistent, and he recognized that African Americans must play a conspicuous role in that struggle. Less than a month before his death, when a black man solicited his advice to an African American just starting out in the world, Douglass replied without hesitation. Frederick Augustus Washington Bailey was born into slavery on the Eastern Shore of the Chesapeake Bay in Talbot County, the plantation was between Hillsboro and Cordova, his birthplace was likely his grandmothers shack east of Tappers Corner, and west of Tuckahoe Creek. The exact date of his birth is unknown, and he chose to celebrate his birthday on February 14. In his first autobiography, Douglass stated, I have no knowledge of my age. Douglass was of mixed race, which likely included Native American on his mothers side and he was given his name by his mother, Harriet Bailey. After escaping to the North years later, he took the surname Douglass and he wrote of his earliest times with his mother, The opinion was. Whispered that my master was my father, but of the correctness of this opinion I know nothing and my mother and I were separated when I was but an infant. It common custom, in the part of Maryland from which I ran away, … I do not recollect ever seeing my mother by the light of day
38.
Anna J. Cooper
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Anna Julia Haywood Cooper was an American author, educator, sociologist, speaker, Black Liberation activist, and one of the most prominent African-American scholars in United States history. Upon receiving her PhD in history from the University of Paris-Sorbonne in 1924 and she was also a prominent member of Washington, D. C. s African-American community and a member of Alpha Kappa Alpha sorority. Either George or his brother Fabius J. Haywood are thought to be Coopers father, Cooper worked as a domestic servant in the Haywood home and had two older brothers, Andrew J. Haywood and Rufus Haywood. Andrew was a slave of Dr. Fabius J. Haywood, Rufus was also born a slave and was the leader of the music group Stanleys Band. The Reverend J. Brinton offered Anna J. Cooper a scholarship to pay for her expenses. According to Mark S. Giles, a Cooper biographer, the levels offered at St. Augustine ranged from primary to high school. During her fourteen years at St, in fact, Cooper excelled in her academics to the point where she was able to tutor younger students. During this period, St. Augustines pedagogical emphasis was on training young men for the ministry, one of these men, George A. C. Cooper, would become her husband for two years until his death. Coopers work as a tutor also helped her pay for her educational expenses, after completing her studies, she remained at the institution as an instructor. After her husbands death, Cooper entered Oberlin College, where she continued to insist on following the course of study for men, after teaching briefly at Wilberforce College, Cooper returned to St. Augustines in 1885. She then came back to Oberlin and earned an M. A. in Mathematics in 1887, Cooper has made contributions to fields in the social sciences, particularly in sociology. She is sometimes called the mother of Black Feminism, during her years as a teacher and principal at M Street High School in Washington, D. C. Cooper completed her first book, A Voice from the South, By A Woman from the South and it was her only published work, although she delivered many speeches calling for civil rights and womans rights. Perhaps her most well-known volume of writing, A Voice from the South is widely viewed as one of the first articulations of Black feminism, the book advanced a vision of self-determination through education and social uplift for African-American women. Its central thesis was that the educational, moral, and spiritual progress of women would improve the general standing of the entire African-American community. She says that the violent natures of men often run counter to the goals of higher education, so it is important to foster more female intellectuals because they will bring more elegance to education. This view was criticized by some as submissive to the 19th-century cult of true womanhood, Cooper advanced the view that it was the duty of educated and successful black women to support their underprivileged peers in achieving their goals
Anacostia
