1.
Anamorphic widescreen
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Anamorphic widescreen is a process by which a comparatively wide widescreen image is vertically expanded to fit into a storage medium with a narrower aspect ratio. Compatible play-back equipment can then recompress the vertical dimension to show the original widescreen image, the technique originally comes from cinema. A film would be framed and recorded as widescreen, but the picture would be squashed together using a specially crafted concave lens to fit into non-widescreen 1.37,1 aspect ratio film. This film can then be printed and manipulated like any other 1.37,1 film stock, an anamorphic lens on the projector in the cinema corrects the picture by performing exactly the opposite distortion, returning it to its original width and its widescreen aspect ratio. The anamorphic lens on the projector is a specially crafted convex lens that corrects the picture so that the images on the screen look normal, similar operations are performed electronically to allow widescreen material to be stored on formats or broadcast on systems that assume a non-widescreen aspect ratio. Many commercial cinematic presentations are recorded on standard 35 mm ~4,3 aspect ratio film, another anamorphic lens on the movie theatre projector ultimately corrects the picture. Other movies are made using the simpler technique, which involves both filming and projecting without any expensive special lenses. The movie is produced in 1.375 format, and then the image is simply cropped in post-production to fit the desired aspect ratio of 1.85,1 or 1.66,1 or whatever is desired. The anamorphic encoding on DVD is related to the filming technique only by name. For instance, Star Wars was filmed in 2.35,1 ratio using a camera lens. Since it is a film, when encoded on a widescreen-format DVD the studio would almost certainly use the anamorphic encoding process. Monty Python and the Holy Grail was filmed in 1.85,1 ratio without using a lens on the camera. However, since it is also a film, when encoded on a widescreen-format DVD the studio would probably use the anamorphic encoding process. As a sidenote, if a purely non-widescreen version of the analog-anamorphic Star Wars were to be released on DVD, a DVD labeled as Widescreen Anamorphic contains video that has the same frame size in pixels as traditional fullscreen video, but uses wider pixels. The shape of the pixels is called pixel aspect ratio and is encoded in the stream for a DVD player to correctly identify the proportions of the video. If an anamorphic DVD video is played on standard 4,3 television without adjustment, if not so labeled, the DVD is intended for a 4,3 display, and will be letterboxed or panned and scanned. There has been no clear standardization for companies to follow regarding the advertisement of anamorphically enhanced widescreen DVDs, some companies, such as Universal and Disney, include the aspect ratio of the movie. Below are how various companies advertise their anamorphic DVD movies on their packaging, Anchor Bay, Enhanced for 16,9 TVs, artisan Entertainment,16,9 Fullscreen Version or Enhanced for 16,9 Television
2.
Cinematography
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Typically, a lens is used to repeatedly focus the light reflected from objects into real images on the light-sensitive surface inside a camera during a questioned exposure, creating multiple images. With an electronic sensor, this produces an electrical charge at each pixel. The result with photographic emulsion is a series of invisible latent images on the film stock, the images on the film stock are played back at a rapid speed and projected onto a screen, creating the illusion of motion. Cinematography finds uses in fields of science and business as well as for entertainment purposes. The word cinematography was created from the Greek words κίνημα, meaning movement, motion and γράφειν meaning to record, the word used to refer to the art, process, or job of filming movies, but later its meaning was restricted to motion picture photography. In the 1830s, moving images were produced on revolving drums and disks, with independent invention by Simon von Stampfer in Austria, Joseph Plateau in Belgium, and William Horner in Britain. In 1845, Francis Ronalds invented the first successful camera able to make recordings of the varying indications of meteorological. The cameras were supplied to numerous observatories around the world and some remained in use well into the 20th century. William Lincoln patented a device, in 1867, that showed animated pictures called the wheel of life or zoopraxiscope, in it, moving drawings or photographs were watched through a slit. On 19 June 1873, Eadweard Muybridge successfully photographed a horse named Sallie Gardner in fast motion using a series of 24 stereoscopic cameras. The cameras were arranged along a parallel to the horses. They were 21 inches apart to cover the 20 feet taken by the horse stride, although it was never played back at speed to create motion, this was the first step towards motion pictures. The late nineteenth to the twentieth century brought rise to the use of film not only for entertainment purposes. The experimental film Roundhay Garden Scene, filmed by Louis Le Prince on 14 October 1888, in Roundhay, Leeds and this movie was shot on paper film. W. K. L. Dickson, working under the direction of Thomas Alva Edison, was the first to design a successful apparatus and this camera took a series of instantaneous photographs on standard Eastman Kodak photographic emulsion coated onto a transparent celluloid strip 35 mm wide. The results of work were first shown in public in 1893, using the viewing apparatus also designed by Dickson. Contained within a box, only one person at a time looking into it through a peephole could view the movie. The Lumière brothers were the first to present projected, moving, photographic, in 1896, movie theaters were open in France, Italy, Brussels, and London
3.
Widescreen
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Widescreen images are a variety of aspect ratios used in film, television and computer screens. In film, a film is any film image with a width-to-height aspect ratio greater than the standard 1.37,1 Academy aspect ratio provided by 35mm film. For television, the screen ratio for broadcasts was 4,3. Between the 1990s and early 2000s,16,9 TV displays came into wide use and they are typically used in conjunction with high-definition television receivers, or Standard-Definition DVD players and other digital television sources. With computer displays, aspect ratios wider than 4,3 are also called widescreen, widescreen computer displays were previously of 16,10 aspect ratio, but now are usually 16,9. Widescreen was first used in the film of the Corbett-Fitzsimmons Fight in 1897 and this was not only the longest film that had been released to date at 100 minutes, it was also the first widescreen film being shot on 63mm Eastman stock with five perforations per frame. Widescreen was first widely used in the late 1920s in some films and newsreels. Claude Autant-Lara released a film Pour construire un feu in the early Henri Chretien widescreen process, in 1927, The American aka The Flag Maker was released. In 1926, Spoor and Berggren had released a Natural Vision film of Niagara Falls, the Natural Vision widescreen process used 63. 5mm film and had a 2,1 aspect ratio. On May 26,1929, Fox Film Corporation released Fox Grandeur News, which premiered at Graumans Chinese Theatre in Hollywood on October 2,1930, all of which were also made in the 70mm Fox Grandeur process. On November 13,1930, United Artists released The Bat Whispers directed by Roland West in a 70mm widescreen process known as Magnafilm, warner Brothers released Song of the Flame and Kismet in a widescreen process they called Vitascope. In 1930, after experimenting with the system called Fanthom Screen for The Trail of 98, MGM filmed The Great Meadow in Realife—however, its unclear if it was ever released in that widescreen process due to declining interest of the movie-going public. S. However, a few producers and directors, among them Alfred Hitchcock, have been reluctant to use the anamorphic widescreen size featured in such formats as Cinemascope. Hitchcock alternatively used VistaVision, a widescreen process developed by Paramount Pictures. Masked widescreen was introduced in April 1953, a detriment is that the film grain size is thus increased because only part of the image is being expanded to full height. Films are designed to be shown in cinemas in masked widescreen format, in such an instance, a photographer will compose for widescreen, but protect the full image from things such as microphones and other filming equipment. Standardized flat wide screen ratios are 1.66,1,1.75,1,1.85,1,1.85,1 has become the predominant aspect ratio for the format. 35mm anamorphic – This type of widescreen is used for CinemaScope, Panavision, the film is essentially shot squeezed, so that the actors appear vertically elongated on the actual film
4.
35 mm film
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35 mm film is the film gauge most commonly used for motion pictures and chemical still photography. The name of the gauge refers to the width of the photographic film, the standard negative pulldown for movies is four perforations per frame along both edges, which results in 16 frames per foot of film. For still photography, the frame has eight perforations on each side. This resulted in cameras, projectors, and other equipment having to be calibrated to each gauge, the 35 mm width, originally specified as 1.375 inches, was introduced in 1892 by William Dickson and Thomas Edison, using film stock supplied by George Eastman. The gauge has been versatile in application, Eastman Kodak, Fujifilm and Agfa-Gevaert are some companies which offered 35 mm films. Today Kodak is the last remaining manufacturer of motion picture film and it is difficult to compare the quality of film to digital media but a good estimate would be about 20.8 million total pixels would equal one 35 millimeter high quality color frame of film. In 1880, George Eastman began to manufacture gelatin dry plates in Rochester. Along with W. H. Walker, Eastman invented a holder for a roll of picture-carrying gelatin layer coated paper, hannibal Goodwins invention of nitrocellulose film base in 1887 was the first transparent, flexible film. With the advent of film, Thomas Alva Edison quickly set out on his invention, the Kinetoscope. The Kinetoscope was a loop system intended for one-person viewing. Edison, along with assistant W. K. L. Dickson, followed that up with the Kinetophone, beginning in March 1892, Eastman and then, from April 1893 into 1896, New Yorks Blair Camera Co. supplied Edison with film stock. Edisons aperture defined a single frame of film at 4 perforations high, a court judgment in March 1902 invalidated Edisons claim, allowing any producer or distributor to use the Edison 35 mm film design without license. Filmmakers were already doing so in Britain and Europe, where Edison had failed to file patents, at the time, film stock was usually supplied unperforated and punched by the filmmaker to their standards with perforation equipment. A variation developed by the Lumière Brothers used a circular perforation on each side of the frame towards the middle of the horizontal axis.33 aspect ratio. Spehr describes the importance of these developments, The early acceptance of 35 mm as a standard had momentous impact on the development and spread of cinema. The film format was introduced into still photography as early as 1913 but first became popular with the launch of the Leica camera, created by Oskar Barnack in 1925. The costly image-forming silver compounds in a film stocks emulsion meant from the start that 35 mm filmmaking was to be a hobby with a high barrier to entry for the public at large. Furthermore, the film base of all early film stock was highly flammable
5.
Aspect ratio (image)
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The aspect ratio of an image describes the proportional relationship between its width and its height. It is commonly expressed as two separated by a colon, as in 16,9.5 yards high. The most common ratios used today in the presentation of films in cinemas are 1.85,1 and 2.39,1. Two common videographic aspect ratios are 4,3, the video format of the 20th century. Other cinema and video aspect ratios exist, but are used infrequently, in still camera photography, the most common aspect ratios are 4,3,3,2, and more recently being found in consumer cameras 16,9. Other aspect ratios, such as 5,3,5,4, in motion picture formats, the physical size of the film area between the sprocket perforations determines the images size. The universal standard is a frame that is four perforations high, the film itself is 35 mm wide, but the area between the perforations is 24.89 mm×18.67 mm, leaving the de facto ratio of 4,3, or 1.33,1. A4,3 ratio mimics human eyesight visual angle of 155°h x 120°v, the motion picture industry convention assigns a value of 1.0 to the image’s height, an anamorphic frame is often incorrectly described as 2.40,1 or 2.40. After 1952, a number of aspect ratios were experimented with for anamorphic productions, a SMPTE specification for anamorphic projection from 1957 finally standardized the aperture to 2.35,1. An update in 1970 changed the ratio to 2.39,1 in order to make splices less noticeable. This aspect ratio of 2.39,1 was confirmed by the most recent revision from August 1993, in American cinemas, the common projection ratios are 1.85,1 and 2.39,1. Some European countries have 1.66,1 as the wide screen standard, the Academy ratio of 1.375,1 was used for all cinema films in the sound era until 1953. During that time, television, which had a aspect ratio of 1.33,1. Hollywood responded by creating a number of wide-screen formats, CinemaScope, Todd-AO. The flat 1.85,1 aspect ratio was introduced in May 1953, and became one of the most common cinema projection standards in the U. S. and elsewhere. The goal of these lenses and aspect ratios was to capture as much of the frame as possible, onto as large an area of the film as possible. In either case the image was squeezed horizontally to fit the frame size. Development of various film camera systems must ultimately cater to the placement of the frame in relation to the constraints of the perforations
6.
Anamorphosis
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Anamorphosis is a distorted projection or perspective requiring the viewer to use special devices or occupy a specific vantage point to reconstitute the image. The word anamorphosis is derived from the Greek prefix ana‑, meaning back or again, an optical anamorphism is the visualization of a mathematical operation called an affine transformation. There are two types of anamorphosis, perspective and mirror. More-complex anamorphoses can be devised using distorted lenses, mirrors, or other optical transformations, examples of perspectival anamorphosis date to the early Renaissance. Examples of mirror anamorphosis were first seen in the late Renaissance, the deformed image is painted on a plane surface surrounding the mirror. By looking into the mirror, a viewer can see the image undeformed, leonardos Eye is the earliest known definitive example of perspective anamorphosis in modern times. The prehistoric cave paintings at Lascaux may also use this technique, Hans Holbein the Younger is well known for incorporating an oblique anamorphic transformation into his painting The Ambassadors. In this artwork, a distorted shape lies diagonally across the bottom of the frame, viewing this from an acute angle transforms it into the plastic image of a human skull, a symbolic memento mori. During the seventeenth century, Baroque trompe loeil murals often used anamorphism to combine actual architectural elements with illusory painted elements, when a visitor views the art work from a specific location, the architecture blends with the decorative painting. The dome and vault of the Church of St. Ignazio in Rome, painted by Andrea Pozzo, due to neighboring monks complaining about blocked light, Pozzo was commissioned to paint the ceiling to look like the inside of a dome, instead of building a real dome. As the ceiling is flat, there is one spot where the illusion is perfect. Mirror anamorphosis emerged early in the 17th century in Italy and China and it remains uncertain whether Jesuit missionaries imported or exported the technique. Anamorphosis could be used to conceal images for privacy or personal safety, a secret portrait of Bonnie Prince Charlie is painted in a distorted manner on a tray and can only be recognized when a polished cylinder is placed in the correct position. To possess such an image would have seen as treason in the aftermath of the 1746 Battle of Culloden. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, anamorphic images had come to be used more as childrens games than fine art, in the twentieth century, some artists wanted to renew the technique of anamorphosis. Marcel Duchamp was interested in anamorphosis, and some of his installations are visual paraphrases of anamorphoses, Jan Dibbets conceptual works, the so-called perspective corrections are examples of linear anamorphoses. In the late century, mirror anamorphosis was revived as childrens toys. Beginning in 1967, Dutch artist Jan Dibbets based a series of photographic work titled Perspective Corrections on the distortion of reality through perspective anamorphosis
7.
Super 35
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Super 35 was revived from a similar Superscope variant known as Superscope 235, which was originally developed by the Tushinsky Brothers for RKO in 1954. When cameraman Joe Dunton was preparing to shoot Dance Craze in 1982, he chose to revive the Superscope format by using a full silent-standard gate and these two characteristics are central to the format. It was adopted by Hollywood starting with Greystoke in 1984, under the format name Super Techniscope and it is often the standard production format for television shows, music videos, and commercials. Since none of these require a print, it is unnecessary to reserve space for an optical soundtrack. James Cameron was an early, consistent, and vocal supporter of the format, Super 35 is a production format. Theatres do not receive or project Super 35 prints, rather, films are shot in a Super 35 format but are then — either through optical blowdown/matting or digital intermediate — converted into one of the standard formats to make release prints. 4-perf Super 35 is simply the original frame size that was used in 35 mm silent films and that is, it is a return to the way the film stock was used before the frame size was cropped to allow room for a soundtrack. Super 35 competes with the use of the standard 35 mm format used with an anamorphic lens. Super 35 uses standard spherical lenses, which are faster, smaller. The chief advantage of Super 35 for productions is its adaptability to different release formats, Super 35 negatives can be used to produce high-quality releases in any aspect ratio, as the final frame is extracted and converted from the larger full frame negative. This also means that a video release can actually use more of the frame than the theatrical release. Super 35 ratios have included,4,316,91.85,12.00,1 Univisium 2.20,12.39,11.66,1 and 1. Theoretically,2.39,1 release prints made from Super 35 should have slightly lower quality than films produced directly in the anamorphic format. Because part of the Super 35 image is thrown away when printing to this format, films originated with anamorphic lenses use a larger negative area. 3-perf Super 35 has also used for some time for 2.39,1 feature films. List of film formats Full frame Maxivision Negative pulldown James Cameron and Russell Carpenter discuss Super 35 Some Encounters with Super 35 and Other Thoughts at ICG Camera Guild
8.
Camera lens
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A lens might be permanently fixed to a camera, or it might be interchangeable with lenses of different focal lengths, apertures, and other properties. While in principle a simple convex lens will suffice, in practice a compound made up of a number of optical lens elements is required to correct the many optical aberrations that arise. Some aberrations will be present in any lens system and it is the job of the lens designer to balance these and produce a design that is suitable for photographic use and possibly mass production. Typical rectilinear lenses can be thought of as improved pinhole lenses, as shown, a pinhole lens is simply a small aperture that blocks most rays of light, ideally selecting one ray to the object for each point on the image sensor. Here a pixel is the area of the detector exposed to light from a point on the object, making the pinhole smaller improves resolution, but reduces the amount of light captured. At a certain point, shrinking the hole does not improve the resolution because of the diffraction limit, beyond this limit, making the hole smaller makes the image blurrier as well as darker. Practical lenses can be thought of as an answer to the question how can a pinhole lens be modified to more light. A first step is to put a simple convex lens at the pinhole with a length equal to the distance to the film plane. The geometry is almost the same as with a pinhole lens. From the front of the camera, the hole, would be seen. If one were inside the camera, one would see the acting as a projector. The virtual image of the aperture from inside the camera is the exit pupil. Practical photographic lenses include more lens elements, a camera lens may be made from a number of elements, from one, as in the Box Brownies meniscus lens, to over 20 in the more complex zooms. These elements may themselves comprise a group of lenses cemented together, the front element is critical to the performance of the whole assembly. In all modern lenses the surface is coated to reduce abrasion, flare, and surface reflectance, to minimize aberration, the curvature is usually set so that the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction are equal. In a prime lens this is easy, but in a zoom there is always a compromise, the lens usually is focused by adjusting the distance from the lens assembly to the image plane, or by moving elements of the lens assembly. To improve performance, some lenses have a cam system that adjusts the distance between the groups as the lens is focused, manufacturers call this different things, Nikon calls it CRC, Canon calls it a floating system, and Hasselblad and Mamiya call it FLE. Glass is the most common used to construct lens elements, due to its good optical properties
9.
Movie projectors
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A movie projector is an opto-mechanical device for displaying motion picture film by projecting it onto a screen. Most of the optical and mechanical elements, except for the illumination, the first movie projector was the Zoopraxiscope, invented by British photographer Eadweard Muybridge in 1879. The zoopraxiscope projected images from rotating glass disks in rapid succession to give the impression of motion, the stop-motion images were initially painted onto the glass, as silhouettes. A second series of discs, made in 1892–94, used outline drawings printed onto the discs photographically, a more sophisticated movie projector was invented by Frenchman Louis Le Prince while working in Leeds. In 1888 Le Prince took out a patent for a 16-lens device that combined a motion picture camera with a projector, in 1888, he used an updated version of his camera to film the first ever motion picture, the Roundhay Garden Scene. The pictures were exhibited in Hunslet. The Lumière brothers invented the first successful movie projector and they made their first film, Sortie de lusine Lumière de Lyon, in 1894, which was publicly screened at LEden, La Ciotat a year later. The first commercial, public screening of cinematographic films happened in Paris on 28 December 1895, the cinematograph was also exhibited at the Paris Exhibition of 1900. At the Exhibition, films made by the Lumière Brothers were projected onto a screen measuring 16 by 21 meters. In 1999, digital projectors were being tried out in some movie theatres. These early projectors played the movie stored on a server and played back through the projector, due to their relatively low resolution, the images at the time showed pixelization blocks in some scenes, much like images on early widescreen televisions. By 2006, the advent of much higher 4K resolution digital projection had removed any traces of pixelization, the systems became more compact than the larger machines of four years earlier. By 2009, movie theatres started replacing the film projectors with digital projectors, in 2013, it was estimated that 92% of movie theatres in the United States had converted to digital, with 8% still playing film. In 2015, numerous popular filmmakers—including Quentin Tarantino and Christopher Nolan—lobbied large studios to commit to purchase an amount of 35 mm film from Kodak. The decision ensured that Kodaks 35mm film production would continue for several years, nowadays film projectors are considered obsolete as high-resolution digital projectors offer many advantages over traditional film units. For example, digital projectors contain no moving parts except fans, can be operated remotely and they also allow for much easier, less expensive, and more reliable storage and distribution of content, including the ability to display live broadcasts. According to the theory of the phi phenomenon, the brain constitutes an experience of apparent movement when presented with a sequence of near-identical still images. Persistence of vision should be compared with the phenomena of beta movement
10.
Negative (photography)
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In the case of color negatives, the colors are also reversed into their respective complementary colors. Typical color negatives have a dull orange tint due to an automatic color-masking feature that ultimately results in improved color reproduction. Negatives are normally used to make prints on photographic paper by projecting the negative onto the paper with a photographic enlarger or making a contact print. The paper is also darkened in proportion to its exposure to light, so a second reversal results which restores light, negatives were once commonly made on a thin sheet of glass rather than a plastic film, and some of the earliest negatives were made on paper. It is incorrect to call an image a negative solely because it is on a transparent material, transparent prints can be made by printing a negative onto special positive film, as is done to make traditional motion picture film prints for use in theaters. Some films used in cameras are designed to be developed by reversal processing, positives on film or glass are known as transparencies or diapositives, and if mounted in small frames designed for use in a slide projector or magnifying viewer they are commonly called slides. A positive image is a normal image, a negative image is a total inversion, in which light areas appear dark and vice versa. A negative color image is additionally color-reversed, with red areas appearing cyan, greens appearing magenta and blues appearing yellow, film negatives usually have less contrast, but a wider dynamic range, than the final printed positive images. The contrast typically increases when they are printed onto photographic paper, when negative film images are brought into the digital realm, their contrast may be adjusted at the time of scanning or, more usually, during subsequent post-processing. Film for cameras that use the 35 mm still format is sold as a strip of emulsion-coated and perforated plastic spooled in a light-tight cassette. Before each exposure, a mechanism inside the camera is used to pull an unexposed area of the out of the cassette. When all exposures have been made the strip is rewound into the cassette, after the film is chemically developed, the strip shows a series of small negative images. It is usually cut into sections for easier handling. Each of these images may be referred to as a negative. They are the images, from which all positive prints will derive. However, when an image is created from a negative image a positive image results. This makes most chemical-based photography a two-step process, which uses negative film, special films and development processes have been devised so that positive images can be created directly on the film, these are called positive, or slide, or reversal films and reversal processing. Scanning film negatives at the Wayback Machine NegaTIV -. -
11.
Release print
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A release print is a copy of a film that is provided to a movie theater for exhibition. Workprints, sometimes called cutting copies, are, like rush prints and they are used for editing before the negative itself is conformed, or cut to match the edited workprint. A Showprint is a high quality projection print made for screening at special events such as gala premieres. As a showprint is at least two generations closer to the camera negative than a typical release print, the definition and saturation in the projected image is significantly higher. Showprints have been referred to as EKs, since Showprint is a tradename of DeLuxe. In short, a release print is three generations removed from the cut camera negative. This procedure eliminates at least one generation of analogue duplication and usually results in a significant higher quality of release prints, as of March 2015, Eastman Kodak is the only remaining manufacturer of colour release print stock in the world. Along with Kodak, ORWO of Germany also sells black-and-white print stock, the person operating the printer on which the release print is struck must take several factors into consideration in order to achieve accurate color. At the theater, release prints are projected through an aperture plate, sometimes a hard matte is used in printing to ensure that only the area of the frame shot in the camera that is intended to be projected is actually present on the release print. The audience may be confused when significant action appears on the edges of the picture. Director Brad Bird expressed frustration at this practice, which some theaters applied to his film The Incredibles, for example, in the United States, it is not unusual for each one to cost around $1,500 to print and ship to theaters around the country. The cost of a print is determined primarily by its length, the type of print stock used. Laser subtitling release prints of foreign language films adds significantly to the cost per print, due to the fear of piracy, distributors try to ensure that prints are returned and destroyed after the movies theatrical run is complete. A significant number of films have been preserved this way, via prints eventually being donated to film archives, the polyester film base is often recycled. EKs are even more expensive as they are almost completely made by hand, perhaps only five EKs will be made of a widely distributed feature, compared to thousands of standard prints. They are intended primarily for first-run and Academy-consideration theatrical runs in Los Angeles and this accounts for two of the typically five produced. Two EKs are usually reserved for the films producer, the remaining EK is usually archived by the films distributor. SFIFF, Brad Birds State of Cinema Address
12.
Film speed
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Film speed is the measure of a photographic films sensitivity to light, determined by sensitometry and measured on various numerical scales, the most recent being the ISO system. A closely related ISO system is used to measure the sensitivity of digital imaging systems, highly sensitive films are correspondingly termed fast films. In both digital and film photography, the reduction of exposure corresponding to use of higher sensitivities generally leads to reduced image quality, in short, the higher the sensitivity, the grainier the image will be. Ultimately sensitivity is limited by the efficiency of the film or sensor. The speed of the emulsion was then expressed in degrees Warnerke corresponding with the last number visible on the plate after development. Each number represented an increase of 1/3 in speed, typical speeds were between 10° and 25° Warnerke at the time. The concept, however, was built upon in 1900 by Henry Chapman Jones in the development of his plate tester. In their system, speed numbers were inversely proportional to the exposure required, for example, an emulsion rated at 250 H&D would require ten times the exposure of an emulsion rated at 2500 H&D. The methods to determine the sensitivity were later modified in 1925, the H&D system was officially accepted as a standard in the former Soviet Union from 1928 until September 1951, when it was superseded by GOST 2817-50. The Scheinergrade system was devised by the German astronomer Julius Scheiner in 1894 originally as a method of comparing the speeds of plates used for astronomical photography, Scheiners system rated the speed of a plate by the least exposure to produce a visible darkening upon development. ≈2 The system was extended to cover larger ranges and some of its practical shortcomings were addressed by the Austrian scientist Josef Maria Eder. Scheiners system was abandoned in Germany, when the standardized DIN system was introduced in 1934. In various forms, it continued to be in use in other countries for some time. The DIN system, officially DIN standard 4512 by Deutsches Institut für Normung, was published in January 1934, International Congress of Photography held in Dresden from August 3 to 8,1931. The DIN system was inspired by Scheiners system, but the sensitivities were represented as the base 10 logarithm of the sensitivity multiplied by 10, similar to decibels. Thus an increase of 20° represented an increase in sensitivity. ≈3 /10 As in the Scheiner system, speeds were expressed in degrees, originally the sensitivity was written as a fraction with tenths, where the resultant value 1.8 represented the relative base 10 logarithm of the speed. Tenths were later abandoned with DIN4512, 1957-11, and the example above would be written as 18° DIN, the degree symbol was finally dropped with DIN4512, 1961-10
13.
Negative pulldown
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Negative pulldown is the manner in which an image is exposed on a film stock, described in the number of film perforations spanned by an individual frame. It can also describe the orientation of the image on the negative, changing the number of exposed perforations allows a cinematographer to change both the aspect ratio of the image and the size of the area on the film stock that the image occupies. The most common film pulldowns for 35 mm film are 4-perf and 3-perf, 2-perf, used in Techniscope in the 1960s, is enjoying a slight resurgence due to the birth of digital intermediate techniques eliminating the need for optical lab work. Vertical pulldown is overwhelmingly the dominant axis of motion in cinematography, although horizontal pulldown is used in IMAX, VistaVision, and in 35 mm consumer and professional still cameras. Eventually, aspect ratios of 1.85,1 in North America and 1.66,1 in Europe became standard for 35mm productions shot with normal non-anamorphic lenses. However, the way the ratio is created with these films is not in-camera. What this means is that most films are shot in full screen format, therefore, a fair percentage of the film is wasted, because the cropped top and bottom are never meant to be shown. 3-perf and 2-perf are only used in the origination and post-production transfer process, 2-perf camera systems use only 2 perforations per frame on 35mm film, which gives an aspect ratio close to the 2.39,1 aspect ratio used in anamorphic prints. It was first proposed conceptually around 1930, but was not put into practice until 1961, while in the recent past, some companies have offered custom conversions of camera equipment to 2-perf, it appears that camera manufacturers are now poised to support the format. In the early 1980s, Swedish cinematographer Rune Ericson collaborated with Panavision on the concept of creating a 3-perf mechanism for motion picture cameras. 3-perf minimized the problem of wasted film by changing the camera gate and shutter mechanism so that each frame is 3 perforations high instead of the standard 4-perforations. The 3-perf images aspect ratio is roughly 1.78,1, in the late 1990s, noted cinematographer Vittorio Storaro proposed a film standard known as Univisium, which advocates 3-perf Super 35 to create a 2,00,1 aspect ratio. Even so, the amount of shot on a production is much greater than the length of the final film. Recently, this process has become popular with big-budget motion picture production, the negative is scanned to high resolution digital files, colour graded, and ultimately printed back to standard 4-perf for projection. At some point in the future, the final 4-perf print will become unnecessary assuming the distribution and projection chain become fully digital. 3-perf and 2-perf pose minor problems for visual effects work, the area of the film in 4-perf work that is not projected nonetheless contains picture information which is useful for such visual effects tasks as 2D and 3D tracking. This mildly complicates certain visual effects efforts for productions using 3-perf and 2-perf, VistaVision is a higher resolution, widescreen variant of the 35mm motion picture film format which was created by engineers at Paramount Pictures in 1954. It uses a horizontal,8 perforation 35mm image, similar to that used in 135 film for still photography
14.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
15.
Jack London
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John Griffith Jack London was an American novelist, journalist, and social activist. Some of his most famous works include The Call of the Wild and White Fang, both set in the Klondike Gold Rush, as well as the short stories To Build a Fire, An Odyssey of the North, and Love of Life. He also wrote about the South Pacific in stories such as The Pearls of Parlay and The Heathen, London was part of the radical literary group The Crowd in San Francisco and a passionate advocate of unionization, socialism, and the rights of workers. He wrote several works dealing with these topics, such as his dystopian novel The Iron Heel, his non-fiction exposé The People of the Abyss. Jack Londons mother, Flora Wellman, was the fifth and youngest child of Pennsylvania Canal builder Marshall Wellman and his first wife, Marshall Wellman was descended from Thomas Wellman, an early Puritan settler in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Flora left Ohio and moved to the Pacific coast when her father remarried after her mother died, in San Francisco, Flora worked as a music teacher and spiritualist, claiming to channel the spirit of a Sauk chief, Black Hawk. Biographer Clarice Stasz and others believe Londons father was astrologer William Chaney, Flora Wellman was living with Chaney in San Francisco when she became pregnant. Whether Wellman and Chaney were legally married is unknown, most San Francisco civil records were destroyed by the extensive fires that followed the 1906 earthquake, nobody knows what name appeared on her sons birth certificate. Stasz notes that in his memoirs, Chaney refers to Londons mother Flora Wellman as having been his wife, according to Flora Wellmans account, as recorded in the San Francisco Chronicle of June 4,1875, Chaney demanded that she have an abortion. When she refused, he disclaimed responsibility for the child and she was not seriously wounded, but she was temporarily deranged. After giving birth, Flora turned the baby over for care to Virginia Prentiss and she was a major maternal figure throughout Londons life. Late in 1876, Flora Wellman married John London, a partially disabled Civil War veteran, the family moved around the San Francisco Bay Area before settling in Oakland, where London completed public grade school. He wrote to William Chaney, then living in Chicago, Chaney concluded by saying that he was more to be pitied than London. London was devastated by his fathers letter, in the following, he quit school at Berkeley. London was born near Third and Brannan Streets in San Francisco, the house burned down in the fire after the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, the California Historical Society placed a plaque at the site in 1953. Although the family was working class, it was not as impoverished as Londons later accounts claimed, in 1885, London found and read Ouidas long Victorian novel Signa. He credited this as the seed of his literary success, in 1886, he went to the Oakland Public Library and found a sympathetic librarian, Ina Coolbrith, who encouraged his learning. In 1889, London began working 12 to 18 hours a day at Hickmotts Cannery, seeking a way out, he borrowed money from his foster mother Virginia Prentiss, bought the sloop Razzle-Dazzle from an oyster pirate named French Frank, and became an oyster pirate
16.
Special effect
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Special effects are illusions or visual tricks used in the film, television, theatre, video game, and simulator industries to simulate the imagined events in a story or virtual world. Special effects are divided into the categories of optical effects. Mechanical effects are usually accomplished during the live-action shooting and this includes the use of mechanized props, scenery, scale models, animatronics, pyrotechnics and atmospheric effects, creating physical wind, rain, fog, snow, clouds, etc. Making a car appear to drive by itself and blowing up a building are examples of mechanical effects, mechanical effects are often incorporated into set design and makeup. For example, a set may be built with doors or walls to enhance a fight scene. An optical effect might be used to place actors or sets against a different background, since the 1990s, computer generated imagery has come to the forefront of special effects technologies. It gives filmmakers greater control, and allows many effects to be accomplished safely and convincingly and—as technology improves—at lower costs. As a result, many optical and mechanical effects techniques have been superseded by CGI, in 1857, Oscar Rejlander created the worlds first special effects movie by combining different sections of 30 negatives into a single image. In 1895, Alfred Clark created what is accepted as the first-ever motion picture special effect. While filming a reenactment of the beheading of Mary, Queen of Scots, as the executioner brought the axe above his head, Clark stopped the camera, had all of the actors freeze, and had the person playing Mary step off the set. He placed a Mary dummy in the place, restarted filming. Techniques like these would dominate the production of special effects for a century and it wasnt only the first use of trickery in cinema, it was also the first type of photographic trickery only possible in a motion picture, i. e. the stop trick. Georges Méliès accidentally discovered the same stop trick, according to Méliès, his camera jammed while filming a street scene in Paris. When he screened the film, he found that the trick had caused a truck to turn into a hearse, pedestrians to change direction. Because of his ability to manipulate and transform reality with the cinematograph. From 1910 to 1920, the innovations in special effects were the improvements on the matte shot by Norman Dawn. With the original matte shot, pieces of cardboard were placed to block the exposure of the film, Dawn combined this technique with the glass shot. Rather than using cardboard to block certain areas of the film exposure, from the partially exposed film, a single frame is then projected onto an easel, where the matte is then drawn
17.
20th Century Fox
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Twentieth Century Fox Film Corporation is an American film studio currently owned by 21st Century Fox. It is one of the Big Six major American film studios and is located in the Century City area of Los Angeles, the studio was formerly owned by News Corporation. 20th Century Fox is a member of the Motion Picture Association of America, in 2015, 20th Century Fox celebrated its 80th anniversary as a studio. Spyros Skouras, then manager of the Fox West Coast Theaters, the studios biggest star, Will Rogers, died in a plane crash weeks after the merger. Its leading female star, Janet Gaynor, was fading in popularity and promising leading men James Dunn, at first, it was expected that the new company was originally to be called Fox-20th Century, even though 20th Century was the senior partner in the merger. However, 20th Century brought more to the bargaining table besides Schenck and Zanuck, the new company, 20th Century-Fox Film Corporation, began trading on May 31,1935, the hyphen was dropped in 1985. Schenck became Chairman and Chief Executive Officer, while Kent remained as President, Zanuck became Vice President in Charge of Production, replacing Foxs longtime production chief Winfield Sheehan. The company established a training school. The contracts included an option for renewal for as long as seven years. For many years, 20th Century Fox claimed to have founded in 1915. For instance, it marked 1945 as its 30th anniversary, however, in recent years it has claimed the 1935 merger as its founding, even though most film historians agree it was founded in 1915. The companys films retained the 20th Century Pictures searchlight logo on their credits as well as its opening fanfare. Also on the Fox payroll he found two players who he built up into the studios leading assets, Alice Faye and seven-year-old Shirley Temple, favoring popular biographies and musicals, Zanuck built Fox back to profitability. Thanks to record attendance during World War II, Fox overtook RKO, while Zanuck went off for eighteen months war service, junior partner William Goetz kept profits high by going for light entertainment. The studios—indeed the industrys—biggest star was creamy blonde Betty Grable, in 1942, Spyros Skouras succeeded Kent as president of the studio. Together with Zanuck, who returned in 1943, they intended to make Foxs output more serious-minded. During the next few years, with pictures like The Razors Edge, Wilson, Gentlemans Agreement, The Snake Pit, Boomerang, and Pinky, Zanuck established a reputation for provocative, adult films. Fox also specialized in adaptations of best-selling books such as Ben Ames Williams Leave Her to Heaven, starring Gene Tierney and they also made the 1958 film version of South Pacific
18.
CinemaScope
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CinemaScope is an anamorphic lens series used, from 1953 to 1967, for shooting widescreen movies. Its creation in 1953 by Spyros P. Skouras, the president of 20th Century Fox, marked the beginning of the modern anamorphic format in both principal photography and movie projection. The anamorphic lenses theoretically allowed the process to create an image of up to a 2.66,1 aspect ratio, although the CinemaScope lens system was made obsolete by new technological developments, primarily advanced by Panavision, the CinemaScope anamorphic format has continued to this day. Bausch & Lomb won a 1954 Oscar for its development of the CinemaScope lens, french inventor Henri Chrétien developed and patented a new film process that he called Anamorphoscope in 1926. It was this process that would form the basis for CinemaScope. He attempted to interest the motion picture industry in his invention, by 1950, however, cinema attendance seriously declined with the advent of a new competitive rival, television. The optical company Bausch & Lomb was asked to produce a prototype anamorphoser lens, test footage shot with these lenses was screened for Skouras, who gave the go-ahead for development of a widescreen process based on Chrétiens invention, which was to be known as CinemaScope. Twentieth Century-Foxs pre-production of The Robe, originally committed to Technicolor Three-Strip origination, was halted so that the film could be changed to a CinemaScope production, two other CinemaScope productions were also planned, How to Marry a Millionaire and Beneath the Twelve-Mile Reef. The introduction of CinemaScope enabled Fox and other studios to reassert its distinction from the new competitor, Chrétiens Hypergonars proved to have significant optical and operational defects. Ultimately Bausch & Lomb formula combined lens designs incorporated both the lens and the anamorphic lens in one unit. These combined lenses continue to be used to day, particularly in special effects units. Other manufacturers lenses are preferred for so-called production applications that benefit from significantly lighter weight or lower distortion. When, however, developers found that magnetic stripes could be added to the film to produce a composite picture/sound print and this reduction was kept to a minimum by reducing the width of the normal KS perforations so that they were nearly square, but of DH height. This was the CinemaScope, or CS, perforation, known colloquially as fox-holes, later still an optical soundtrack was added, reducing the aspect ratio further to 2.35,1. This change also meant a shift in the center of the projected image. All of Foxs CinemaScope films were made using an aperture for the negatives, as was this studios practice for all films. In order to better hide so-called negative assembly splices, the ratio of the image was changed by others to 2.39,1 and, finally. All professional cameras are capable of shooting 2.55,1 or 2.66,1, Fox selected The Robe as the first film to start production in CinemaScope, a project chosen because of its epic nature
19.
The Robe (film)
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The Robe is a 1953 American Biblical epic film that tells the story of a Roman military tribune who commands the unit that crucifies Jesus. The film was released by 20th Century Fox and is notable for being the first film released in the widescreen process CinemaScope, like other early CinemaScope films, The Robe was shot with Henri Chrétiens original Hypergonar anamorphic lenses. The picture was directed by Henry Koster and produced by Frank Ross, the screenplay was adapted by Gina Kaus, Albert Maltz, and Philip Dunne from Lloyd C. Douglas eponymous 1942 novel. The music score was composed by Alfred Newman, and the cinematography was by Leon Shamroy. This first widescreen movie in more than two decades stars Richard Burton, Jean Simmons, Victor Mature, and Michael Rennie, with Dean Jagger, Jay Robinson, Richard Boone, the Robe had one sequel, Demetrius and the Gladiators. The action takes place in Ancient Rome, Judaea, Capri, Marcellus Gallio, son of an important Roman senator and himself a military tribune, begins the film in a prologue that introduces the viewer to the might and scope of the Roman empire. He is notoriously known as a man but is captivated by the reappearance of a childhood sweetheart, Diana. Diana is unofficially pledged in marriage to Tiberius regent, Caligula, in a slave market, Marcellus bids against Caligula for a defiant Greek slave Demetrius and wins. Angrily, Caligula issues orders for Marcellus to receive a transfer to Jerusalem. Marcellus has Demetrius released and orders him to go on his own to the Gallio home, Marcellus is surprised to find Demetrius waiting for him when he gets home. Unofficially, Marcellus had freed Demetrius, but Demetrius feels honor bound to compensate Marcellus by being his servant. Demetrius accompanies Marcellus to Palestine, but before the sails, Diana comes to see Marcellus, pledging her love for him. Marcellus declares his love for Diana and asks her to make the promise not to give her in marriage to Caligula. Marcellus rides into Jerusalem with the centurion Paulus on the day as Jesus triumphal entry on Palm Sunday. Demetrius locks gazes with Jesus and feels compelled to follow him, Jesus is arrested and condemned by Pontius Pilate, the procurator. Marcellus reports to Pilate, who informs him that the emperor has sent for him, before Marcellus departs, he is ordered to take charge of the detail of Roman soldiers assigned to crucify Jesus. Marcellus wins the robe worn by Jesus in a game and is told it will be a reminder of Marcellus first crucifixion. Demetrius has had enough, he curses Marcellus and the Roman Empire and runs away, Marcellus now behaves like a madman haunted by nightmares of the crucifixion
20.
Academy format
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The Academy ratio of 1.375,1 is an aspect ratio of a frame of 35mm film when used with 4-perf pulldown. It was standardized by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences as the standard aspect ratio in 1932. Silent films were shot at a 1.33 aspect ratio, the frame line between the silent film frames was very thin. When sound-on-film was introduced in the late 1920s, the soundtrack was recorded in a stripe running just inside of one set of the perforations and cut into the 1.33 image. From studio to studio, the attempt to reduce the image back to a 1.33,1 ratio by decreasing the projector aperture in-house met with conflicting results. Each movie theater chain, furthermore, had its own designated house ratio.800 in ×0.600 in returning to the ratio of 1.33,1. Following this, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences considered further alterations to this 1930 standard, various dimensions were submitted, and the projector aperture plate opening size of 0.825 in ×0.600 in was agreed upon. The resulting 1.375,1 aspect ratio was then dubbed the Academy Ratio, on May 9,1932, the SMPE adopted the same 0.825 in ×0.600 in projector aperture standard. All studio films shot in 35mm from 1932 to 1952 were shot in the Academy ratio, however, following the widescreen revolution of 1953, it quickly became an obsolete production format. The Academy ratio is not created in the camera, which has continued to use the full frame silent aperture gate for all 4-perf spherical filming, rather, it is created in the married print, when the optical soundtrack and frame lines are added. Though most non-anamorphic film prints with a soundtrack are now framed to one of the non-anamorphic widescreen ratios, from 1.66 to 1.85, some still retain Academy-sized frames. These frames are then cropped in the projector by means of aperture masks used in the gate in conjunction with a wider lens than would be used for projecting Academy ratio films. The 3-perf pulldown process was proposed in 1973, developed by Miklos Lente in 1976. Full frame List of film formats Matte
21.
Sound-on-film
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Sound-on-film processes can either record an analog sound track or digital sound track, and may record the signal either optically or magnetically. Earlier technologies were sound-on-disc, meaning the films soundtrack would be on a phonograph record. The most prevalent current method of recording sound on a film print is by stereo variable-area recording. A two-channel audio signal is recorded as a pair of running parallel with the films direction of travel through the projector. The lines change area depending on the magnitude of the signal, the projector shines light from a small lamp, called an exciter, through a perpendicular slit onto the film. The image on the slice of exposed track modulates the intensity of the light, which is collected by a photosensitive element, a photocell. These LED or laser exciters are backwards-compatible with older tracks, earlier processes, used on 70 mm film prints and special presentations of 35 mm film prints, recorded sound magnetically on ferric oxide tracks bonded to the film print, outside the sprocket holes. 16 mm and Super 8 formats sometimes used a magnetic track on the camera film. Film of this form is no longer manufactured, but single-perforated film without the track or, in the case of 16 mm. Three different digital systems for 35 mm cinema release prints were introduced during the 1990s. Almost all sound formats used with motion-picture film have been sound-on-film formats, including, RCA Photophone, a variable-area format now universally used for optical analog soundtracks—since the late 1970s, usually with a Dolby encoding matrix. Tri-Ergon, the patent of this Berlin based company was bought by Fox in 1926 and this was a system developed by RCA and Disney Studios with a multi-channel soundtrack recorded on a separate strip of film from the picture
22.
Total internal reflection
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Total internal reflection is the phenomenon which occurs when a propagated wave strikes a medium boundary at an angle larger than a particular critical angle with respect to the normal to the surface. If the refractive index is lower on the side of the boundary and the incident angle is greater than the critical angle. The critical angle is the angle of incidence above which the internal reflection occurs. This is particularly common as a phenomenon, where light waves are involved. When a wave reaches a boundary between different materials with different refractive indices, the wave will in general be partially refracted at the boundary surface, and partially reflected. This can only occur when the wave in a medium with a refractive index reaches a boundary with a medium of lower refractive index. For example, it will occur with light reaching air from glass, Total internal reflection of light can be demonstrated using a semi-circular block of glass or plastic. A ray box shines a beam of light onto the glass medium. At the glass/air boundary of the surface, what happens will depend on the angle. If θc is the angle, then the following scenarios depict what will happen according to the size of the incident angle. If θ ≤ θc, the ray will split, some of the ray will reflect off the boundary and this is not total internal reflection. If θ > θc, the ray reflects from the boundary. This is called total internal reflection and this physical property makes optical fibers useful and prismatic binoculars possible. It is also what gives diamonds their distinctive sparkle, as diamond has a high refractive index. The critical angle is the angle of incidence for which the angle of refraction is 90°, the angle of incidence is measured with respect to the normal at the refractive boundary. Consider a light ray passing from glass into air, the light emanating from the interface is bent towards the glass. When the incident angle is increased sufficiently, the transmitted angle reaches 90 degrees and it is at this point no light is transmitted into air. The critical angle θ c is given by Snells law, n 1 sin θ i = n 2 sin θ t, rearranging Snells Law, we get incidence sin θ i = n 2 n 1 sin θ t
23.
Technirama
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Technirama is a screen process that has been used by some film production houses as an alternative to CinemaScope. It was first used in 1957 but fell into disuse in the mid-1960s, the process was invented by Technicolor and is an anamorphic process with a screen ratio the same as revised CinemaScope, but its actually 2.25,1 on the negative. The Technirama process used an area twice that of CinemaScope. Cameras used 35-mm film running horizontally with an 8-perforation frame, double the normal size, Technirama used a 1.5,1 anamorphic optic in front of the lens in order to stretch the vertical image. To achieve the wider format, lenses of shorter focal-length had to be used. These prints could be shown with the same lenses as CinemaScope productions. The name Super Technirama 70 was used on films where the shooting was done in Technirama, such prints would be compatible with those made by such 65-mm negative processes as Todd-AO and Super Panavision. The quality would have very good but perhaps a bit less than those processes, because the negative was not quite as large. After the 1956 delivery by Mitchell Camera Corporation, the converted Technicolor Three-Strip cameras immediately became obsolete, the logistical advantage of using 35mm film, end-to-end, should not be underestimated. A few 8-perf titles have been preserved on 65mm film, the color was enhanced through the use of a special development process that was used to good effect in films such as The Vikings and The Music Man. However, fewer than 40 films were produced using this process in the United States and it was more popular and longer-lasting in Europe. Walt Disney Productions used the process twice for animated features, Sleeping Beauty. The 2008 DVD and Blu-ray Disc release of Walt Disneys Sleeping Beauty was shown at an aspect-ratio of 2.55,1 for the first time, film,35 mm running horizontally using eight perforations at 24 frames per second. Anamorphic power,1.5 Aspect ratio,2.35,12.25,1 See List of Technirama films, List of film formats Widescreen museum Technirama page
24.
Cylindrical lens
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A cylindrical lens is a lens which focuses light into a line instead of a point, as a spherical lens would. The lens compresses the image in the perpendicular to this line. In a light microscope, a cylindrical lens is placed in front of the illumination objective to create the light sheet used for imaging. Lenticular lens Jacobs, Donald H. Fundamentals of Optical Engineering
25.
Orthogonality
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The concept of orthogonality has been broadly generalized in mathematics, as well as in areas such as chemistry, and engineering. The word comes from the Greek ὀρθός, meaning upright, and γωνία, the ancient Greek ὀρθογώνιον orthogōnion and classical Latin orthogonium originally denoted a rectangle. Later, they came to mean a right triangle, in the 12th century, the post-classical Latin word orthogonalis came to mean a right angle or something related to a right angle. In geometry, two Euclidean vectors are orthogonal if they are perpendicular, i. e. they form a right angle, two vectors, x and y, in an inner product space, V, are orthogonal if their inner product ⟨ x, y ⟩ is zero. This relationship is denoted x ⊥ y, two vector subspaces, A and B, of an inner product space, V, are called orthogonal subspaces if each vector in A is orthogonal to each vector in B. The largest subspace of V that is orthogonal to a subspace is its orthogonal complement. Given a module M and its dual M∗, an element m′ of M∗, two sets S′ ⊆ M∗ and S ⊆ M are orthogonal if each element of S′ is orthogonal to each element of S. A term rewriting system is said to be if it is left-linear and is non-ambiguous. Orthogonal term rewriting systems are confluent, a set of vectors in an inner product space is called pairwise orthogonal if each pairing of them is orthogonal. Such a set is called an orthogonal set, nonzero pairwise orthogonal vectors are always linearly independent. In certain cases, the normal is used to mean orthogonal. For example, the y-axis is normal to the curve y = x2 at the origin, however, normal may also refer to the magnitude of a vector. In particular, a set is called if it is an orthogonal set of unit vectors. As a result, use of the normal to mean orthogonal is often avoided. The word normal also has a different meaning in probability and statistics, a vector space with a bilinear form generalizes the case of an inner product. When the bilinear form applied to two results in zero, then they are orthogonal. The case of a pseudo-Euclidean plane uses the term hyperbolic orthogonality, in the diagram, axes x′ and t′ are hyperbolic-orthogonal for any given ϕ. In 2-D or higher-dimensional Euclidean space, two vectors are orthogonal if and only if their dot product is zero, i. e. they make an angle of 90°, hence orthogonality of vectors is an extension of the concept of perpendicular vectors into higher-dimensional spaces
26.
Cinerama
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Cinerama is a widescreen process that originally projected images simultaneously from three synchronized 35 mm projectors onto a huge, deeply curved screen, subtending 146° of arc. The trademarked process was marketed by the Cinerama corporation and it was the first of a number of novel processes introduced during the 1950s, when the movie industry was reacting to competition from television. Cinerama was presented to the public as an event, with reserved seating and printed programs. The display is accompanied by a high-quality, seven-track discrete, directional, the original system involved shooting with three synchronized cameras sharing a single shutter. This process was abandoned in favor of a system using a single camera. The latter system lost the 146° field of view of the original three-strip system, three-strip Cinerama did not use anamorphic lenses, although two of the systems used to produce the 70mm prints did employ anamorphics. Later, 35mm anamorphic reduction prints were produced for exhibition in theatres with anamorphic CinemaScope-compatible projection lenses, Cooper, produced a commercially viable demonstration of Cinerama which opened on Broadway on September 30,1952. The film, titled This is Cinerama, was received with enthusiasm and it was the outgrowth of many years of development. Waller had earlier developed an 11-projector system called Vitarama at the Petroleum Industry exhibit in the 1939 New York Worlds Fair, a five-camera version, the Waller Gunnery Trainer, was used during the Second World War. The word Cinerama combines cinema with panorama, the origin of all the -orama neologisms, the photographic system used three interlocked 35 mm cameras equipped with 27 mm lenses, approximately the focal length of the human eye. The three cameras were mounted as one unit, set at 48 degrees to each other, a single rotating shutter in front of the three lenses assured simultaneous exposure on each of the films. The image was photographed six sprocket holes high, rather than the four used in other 35 mm processes. The picture was photographed and projected at 26 frames per second rather than the usual 24 and he further comments on the unreliability of numerous websites and other resources that will tell you that Cinerama had an aspect ratio of up to 3,1. In theaters, Cinerama film was projected from three projection booths arranged in the same pattern as the cameras. This was a big-ticket, reserved-seats spectacle, and the Cinerama projectors were adjusted carefully, great care was taken to match color and brightness when producing the prints. Nevertheless, the seams between panels were usually noticeable, optical limitations with the design of the camera itself meant that if distant scenes joined perfectly, closer objects did not. A nearby object might split into two as it crossed the seams, to avoid calling attention to the seams, scenes were often composed with unimportant objects such as trees or posts at the seams, and action was blocked so as to center actors within panels. This gave a distinctly triptych-like appearance to the composition even when the seams themselves were not obvious and it was often necessary to have actors in different sections cheat where they looked in order to appear to be looking at each other in the final projected picture
27.
Synchronization
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Synchronization is the coordination of events to operate a system in unison. The familiar conductor of an orchestra serves to keep the orchestra in time, systems operating with all their parts in synchrony are said to be synchronous or in sync, those which are not are asynchronous. Today, synchronization can occur on a basis through the GPS-enabled timekeeping systems. The invention of a marine chronometer revolutionized marine navigation. By the end of the 19th century, time signals in the form of a gun, flag. Each line handled the problem by synchronizing all its stations to headquarters as a standard railroad time, in some territories, sharing of single railroad tracks was controlled by the timetable. The need for strict timekeeping led the companies to settle on one standard, in electrical engineering terms, for digital logic and data transfer, a synchronous circuit requires a clock signal. In a different sense, electronic systems are synchronized to make events at points far apart appear simultaneous or near-simultaneous from a certain perspective. Poincare phase oscillators are model systems that can interact and partially synchronize within random or regular networks, in the case of global synchronization of phase oscillators, an abrupt transition from unsynchronized to full synchronization takes place when the coupling strength exceeds a critical threshold. This is known as the Kuramoto model phase transition, synchronization is an emergent property that occurs in a broad range of dynamical systems, including neural signaling, the beating of the heart and the synchronization of fire-fly light waves. Synchronization of movement is defined as similar movements between two or more people which are temporally aligned and this is different to mimicry, as these movements occur after a short delay. Muscular bonding is the idea that moving in time evokes particular emotions and this sparked some of the first research into movement synchronization and its effects on human emotion. In dyads, groups of two people, synchronization has been demonstrated to increase affiliation, self-esteem, compassion and altruistic behaviour and increase rapport. During arguments, synchrony between the pair has been noted to decrease, however it is not clear whether this is due to the change in emotion or other factors. This is known as interpersonal synchrony, there has been dispute regarding the true effect of synchrony in these studies. Research in this area detailing the effects of synchrony, have attributed this to synchrony alone, however. Indeed, the Reinforcement of Cooperation Model suggests that perception of synchrony leads to reinforcement that cooperation is occurring, more research is required to separate the effect of intentionality from the beneficial effect of synchrony. Film synchronization of image and sound in sound film, synchronization is important in fields such as digital telephony, video and digital audio where streams of sampled data are manipulated
28.
Panavision
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Panavision is an American motion picture equipment company specializing in cameras and lenses, based in Woodland Hills, California. The company introduced its first products in 1954, originally a provider of CinemaScope accessories, the companys line of anamorphic widescreen lenses soon became the industry leader. In 1972, Panavision helped revolutionize filmmaking with the lightweight Panaflex 35 mm movie camera, the company has introduced other groundbreaking cameras such as the Millennium XL and the digital video Genesis. Panavision operates exclusively as a rental facility—the company owns its entire inventory, robert Gottschalk founded Panavision in late 1953, in partnership with Richard Moore, Meredith Nicholson, Harry Eller, Walter Wallin, and William Mann, the company was formally incorporated in 1954. Panavision was established principally for the manufacture of anamorphic lenses to meet the growing demands of theaters showing CinemaScope films. At the time of Panavisions formation, Gottschalk owned a shop in Westwood Village, California. The technology was created during World War I to increase the field of view on tank periscopes, after it was unsqueezed by a complementary anamorphic optical element, the tank operator could see double the horizontal field of view without significant distortion. Gottschalk and Moore bought some of these lenses from C. P. Goerz, as widescreen filmmaking became popular, Gottschalk saw an opportunity to provide anamorphic lenses to the film industry—first for projectors, and then for cameras. Nicholson, a friend of Moore, started working as a cameraman on early tests of anamorphic photography, in the 1950s, the motion picture industry was threatened by the advent of television—TV kept moviegoers at home, reducing box office revenues. Film studios sought to lure audiences to theaters with attractions that television could not provide and these included a revival of color films, three-dimensional films, stereophonic sound, and widescreen movies. Cinerama was one of the first widescreen movie processes of the era, in its initial conception, the cumbersome system required three cameras for shooting and three synchronized projectors to display a picture on one wide, curved screen. Along with the logistical and financial challenges of tripling equipment usage and cost, by the time the first CinemaScope movie—The Robe —was announced for production, Gottschalk, Moore and Nicholson had a demo reel of work with their anamorphic underwater system. He teamed up with William Mann, who provided optical manufacturing capability, and Walter Wallin, the anamorphic lens design they selected was prismatic rather than the cylindrical design of the Bausch & Lomb CinemaScope lens. The result was the system, designed by Wallin, used in the Panatar lens, the patent for the system was filed on August 11,1954. Panavisions first product—the Super Panatar projection lens—debuted in March 1954, priced at $1,100, it captured the market. The Super Panatar was a box that attached to the existing projection lens with a special bracket. Its variable prismatic system allowed a range of formats to be shown from the same projector with a simple adjustment of the lens. Panavision improved on the Super Panatar with the Ultra Panatar, a design that could be screwed directly to the front of the projection lens
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Artifact (error)
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In natural science and signal processing, an artifact is any error in the perception or representation of any information introduced by the involved equipment or technique. In computer science, digital artifacts are introduced into digital signals as a result of digital processing. In microscopy, artifacts are introduced during the processing of samples into slide form. Such an artifact may be called a statistical artifact, physicians typically learn to recognize some of these artifacts to avoid mistaking them for actual pathology. In medical electrophysiological monitoring, artifacts are anomalous signals that originate from some other than the electrophysiological structure being studied. Offending artifacts may obscure, distort, or completely misrepresent the true underlying electrophysiological signal sought, in radar signal processing, some echoes can be related to fix targets, multipath returns, jamming, atmospheric effect, anomalous propagation, and many other effects. Visual artifact, in imaging, any unwanted visual alteration introduced by the imaging equipment, compression artifact, in computer graphics, distortion of media by the data compression
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Lens flare
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Lens flare refers to a phenomenon wherein light is scattered or flared in a lens system, often in response to a bright light, producing a desirable effect on the image. This happens through unintentional image formation mechanisms, such as internal reflection, lenses with large numbers of elements such as zooms tend to exhibit greater lens flare, as they contain multiple surfaces at which unwanted internal scattering occurs. These mechanisms differ from the image formation mechanism, which depends on rays from the refraction of the image itself. Flare manifests itself in two ways, as visible artifacts, and as a haze across the image, the haze makes the image look washed out by reducing contrast and color saturation. Visible artifacts, usually in the shape of the iris, are formed when light follows a pathway through the lens that contains one or more reflections from the lens surfaces. Flare is particularly caused by bright light sources. Most commonly, this occurs when shooting into the sun, and is reduced by using a hood or other shade. For good-quality optical systems, and for most images, flare is an effect that is widely distributed across the image and thus not visible. The spatial distribution of the lens flare typically manifests as several starbursts, rings, the specific spatial distribution of the flare depends on the shape of the aperture of the image formation elements. For example, if the lens has a 6-bladed aperture, the flare may have a hexagonal pattern, such internal scattering is also present in the human eye, and manifests in an unwanted veiling glare most obvious when viewing very bright lights or highly reflective surfaces. In some situations, eyelashes can also create flare-like irregularities, although these are technically diffraction artifacts, when a bright light source is shining on the lens but not in its field of view, lens flare appears as a haze that washes out the image and reduces contrast. This can be avoided by shading the lens using a lens hoods, in a studio, a gobo or set of barn doors can be attached to the lighting to keep it from shining on the camera. Filters can be attached to the lens which will also minimise lens flare. When using a lens, as is common in analog cinematography. This is most commonly seen in car headlights in a dark scene, a lens flare is often deliberately used to invoke a sense of drama. For both of these reasons artificial lens flare is an effect in various graphics editing programs. Lens flare was one of the first special effects developed for computer graphics because it can be imitated using relatively simple means, more sophisticated rendering techniques have been developed based on ray tracing or photon mapping. S. Costume designer Rita Riggs purposefully would sometimes dress Bea Arthur in Maude in a red that would flare to make a statement, director J. J. Abrams added numerous lens flares to the 2009 film Star Trek by aiming powerful off-camera light sources at the lens
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Wes Anderson
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Wesley Wales Wes Anderson is an American film director, film producer, screenwriter, and actor. His films are known for their visual and narrative style. He received his first Academy Award nomination for Best Director and won the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy for The Grand Budapest Hotel in 2014 and he also received the BAFTA Award for Best Original Screenplay in 2015. His films are produced under his American Empirical Pictures banner, Anderson is regarded by many as a modern-day example of the auteur. Wesley Wales Anderson was born on May 1,1969, in Houston, Texas, the son of Texas Ann, a realtor and archaeologist, and Melver Leonard Anderson and he is the second of three boys, his parents divorced when he was eight. His elder brother, Mel, is a physician, and his brother, Eric Chase Anderson, is a writer and artist whose paintings. Anderson is of Swedish and Norwegian ancestry and he graduated from St. Johns School in Houston in 1987, which he later used as a prominent location throughout Rushmore. As a child, Anderson made silent films on his fathers Super 8 camera, starring his brothers and friends, Anderson attended college while working part-time as a cinema projectionist. He graduated from the University of Texas at Austin with a degree in philosophy in 1990, Andersons first film was Bottle Rocket, based on a short film that he made with Luke and Owen Wilson. It was a crime caper about a group of young Texans aspiring to achieve major heists and it was well reviewed but performed poorly at the box office. Andersons next film was Rushmore, a comedy about a high school students crush on an elementary school teacher starring Bill Murray. Murray has since appeared in every Anderson film to date, in 2000, filmmaker Martin Scorsese praised Bottle Rocket and Rushmore. The Royal Tenenbaums was Andersons next comedy-drama film, about a successful artistic New York City family and it represented his greatest success until Moonrise Kingdom in 2012, earning more than $50 million in domestic box office receipts. The Royal Tenenbaums was nominated for an Academy Award and ranked by an Empire poll as the 159th greatest film ever made, Andersons next feature was The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou about a Jacques Cousteau-esque documentary filmmaker played by Bill Murray. It serves as a example of Andersons style, but its critical reception was less favorable than his previous films. They offered Anderson their soundtrack services for his The Darjeeling Limited, the Darjeeling Limited was about three emotionally distant brothers traveling together on a train in India. It reflected the dramatic tone of The Royal Tenenbaums but faced criticisms similar to The Life Aquatic. Anderson has acknowledged that he went to India to film the 2007 movie, the film starred Anderson staples Jason Schwartzman and Owen Wilson in addition to Adrien Brody, and the script was co-written by Anderson, Schwartzman, and Roman Coppola
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Bokeh
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In photography, bokeh is the aesthetic quality of the blur produced in the out-of-focus parts of an image produced by a lens. Bokeh has been defined as the way the lens renders out-of-focus points of light, Bokeh occurs for parts of the scene that lie outside the depth of field. Photographers sometimes deliberately use a shallow focus technique to create images with prominent out-of-focus regions, Bokeh is often most visible around small background highlights, such as specular reflections and light sources, which is why it is often associated with such areas. However, bokeh is not limited to highlights, blur occurs in all regions of the image. The term comes from the Japanese word boke, which means blur or haze, or boke-aji, the Japanese term boke is also used in the sense of a mental haze or senility. The term bokashi is related, meaning intentional blurring or gradation, the spellings bokeh and boke have both been in use since at least 1996, when Merklinger had suggested or Bokeh if you prefer. The term bokeh has appeared in books as early as 1998. Though difficult to quantify, some lenses have subjectively more pleasing out-of-focus areas, good bokeh is especially important for macro lenses and long telephoto lenses, because theyre typically used in situations that produce shallow depth of field. Good bokeh is also important for medium telephoto lenses, when used in portrait photography, the photographer usually wants a shallow depth of field, so that the subject stands out sharply against a blurred background. Bokeh characteristics may be quantified by examining the images circle of confusion, in out-of-focus areas, each point of light becomes an image of the aperture, generally a more or less round disc. Depending on how a lens is corrected for aberration, the disc may be uniformly illuminated, brighter near the edge. A well-known lens that exhibited the latter soap-bubble characteristic was produced by Hugo Meyer & Co. more recently revived by Meyer Optik Görlitz. Lenses that are corrected for spherical aberration will show one kind of disc for out-of-focus points in front of the plane of focus. This may actually be desirable, as blur circles that are dimmer near the edges produce less-defined shapes which blend smoothly with the surrounding image, the shape of the aperture has an influence on the subjective quality of bokeh as well. For conventional lens designs, when a lens is stopped down smaller than its maximum aperture size and this is most apparent when a lens produces hard-edged bokeh. For this reason, some lenses have many aperture blades and/or blades with curved edges to make the more closely approximate a circle rather than a polygon. In contrast, a telephoto lens renders bokehs resembling doughnuts. Lenses with 11,12, or 15 blade iris diaphragms are often claimed to excel in bokeh quality, because of this, the lenses dont need to reach wide apertures to get better circles
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Television
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Television or TV is a telecommunication medium used for transmitting moving images in monochrome, or in color, and in two or three dimensions and sound. The term can refer to a set, a television program. Television is a medium for entertainment, education, news, politics, gossip. Television became available in experimental forms in the late 1920s. After World War II, a form of black-and-white TV broadcasting became popular in the United States and Britain, and television sets became commonplace in homes, businesses. During the 1950s, television was the medium for influencing public opinion. In the mid-1960s, color broadcasting was introduced in the US, for many reasons, the storage of television and video programming now occurs on the cloud. At the end of the first decade of the 2000s, digital television transmissions greatly increased in popularity, another development was the move from standard-definition television to high-definition television, which provides a resolution that is substantially higher. HDTV may be transmitted in various formats, 1080p, 1080i, in 2013, 79% of the worlds households owned a television set. Most TV sets sold in the 2000s were flat-panel, mainly LEDs, major manufacturers announced the discontinuation of CRT, DLP, plasma, and even fluorescent-backlit LCDs by the mid-2010s. In the near future, LEDs are gradually expected to be replaced by OLEDs, also, major manufacturers have announced that they will increasingly produce smart TVs in the mid-2010s. Smart TVs with integrated Internet and Web 2.0 functions became the dominant form of television by the late 2010s, Television signals were initially distributed only as terrestrial television using high-powered radio-frequency transmitters to broadcast the signal to individual television receivers. Alternatively television signals are distributed by cable or optical fiber, satellite systems and. Until the early 2000s, these were transmitted as analog signals, a standard television set is composed of multiple internal electronic circuits, including a tuner for receiving and decoding broadcast signals. A visual display device which lacks a tuner is correctly called a video monitor rather than a television, the word television comes from Ancient Greek τῆλε, meaning far, and Latin visio, meaning sight. The Anglicised version of the term is first attested in 1907 and it was. formed in English or borrowed from French télévision. In the 19th century and early 20th century, other. proposals for the name of a technology for sending pictures over distance were telephote. The abbreviation TV is from 1948, the use of the term to mean a television set dates from 1941
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Film grain
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While film grain is a function of such particles it is not the same thing as such. It is an effect, the magnitude of which depends on both the film stock and the definition at which it is observed. It can be noticeable in an over-enlarged photographic film photograph. When the particles of silver are small, the aperture area measures an average of many particles. When the particles are large, fewer are averaged in the area, so there is a larger random fluctuation. The standard 0.048 mm aperture size derives from a bit used by an employee of Kodak. The Selwyn granularity is defined as, G = σ2 a where σ is the RMS granularity, the images below show an example of extreme film grain, Digital photography does not exhibit film grain, since there is no film for any grain to exist within. However, unlike pixels, film grain does not represent the limit of resolution, the effect of film grain can be simulated in some digital photo manipulation programs, such as Photoshop, adding grain to a digital image after it is taken. In digital photography, image noise sometimes appears as a grain-like effect, Film grain overlay, sometimes referred to as FGO, is a process in which film emulsion characteristics are overlaid using different levels of opacity onto a digital file. This process adds film noise characteristics, and in instances with moving images, as opposed to computer plug-ins, FGO is typically derived from actual film grain samples taken from film, shot against a gray card. Film speed Film Grain discussed at FLIP Animation blog Retrieved March 2013
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Entrance pupil
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In an optical system, the entrance pupil is the optical image of the physical aperture stop, as seen through the front of the lens system. The corresponding image of the aperture as seen through the back of the system is called the exit pupil. If there is no lens in front of the aperture, the entrance pupils location, optical elements in front of the aperture will produce a magnified or diminished image that is displaced from the location of the physical aperture. The entrance pupil is usually an image, it lies behind the first optical surface of the system. This point is important in panoramic photography, because the camera must be rotated around it in order to avoid errors in the final. Panoramic photographers often incorrectly refer to the pupil as a nodal point. In photography, the size of the pupil is used to calibrate the opening and closing of the diaphragm aperture. The f-number, N, is defined by N = f/EN, increasing the focal length of a lens will usually cause the f-number to increase, and the entrance pupil location to move further back along the optical axis. The entrance pupil of the eye, which is not quite the same as the physical pupil, is typically about 4 mm in diameter. It can range from 2 mm in a brightly lit place to 8 mm in the dark. Exit pupil Transmittance Pupil magnification Stops and Pupils in Field Guide to Geometrical Optics Greivenkamp, John E,2004
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Full frame
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In cinematography, full frame refers to the use of the full film gate at maximum width and height for 35 mm film cameras. It is sometimes referred to as silent aperture, full gate. It is the gate size pioneered by William Dickson and Thomas Edison in 1892. Full frame is used by all 4-perf films, whether silent, standard 35. 4-perf Super 35 is nearly identical to the full frame standard. It should also be noted that hard mattes for all common ratios exist, however, these are usually not used in the event that any reframing needs to be done
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Open matte
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Usually, non-anamorphic 4-perf films are filmed directly on the entire full frame silent aperture gate. When a married print is created, this frame is slightly re-cropped by the frame line, the movie projector then uses an aperture mask to soft matte the Academy frame to the intended aspect ratio. When the 4,3 fullscreen video master is created, many filmmakers may prefer to use the full Academy frame instead of creating a pan and scan version from within the 1.85 framing. Because the framing is increased vertically in the open matte process, additionally, the unmatted 4,3 version will often throw off an otherwise tightly-framed shot and add an inordinate amount of headroom above actors. Many films over the years have used this technique, the most prominent of which include Schindlers List, stanley Kubrick also used this technique for his last five films. OPEN MATTE Master List the most comprehensive list of open matte movies
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Pan and scan
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The most extreme examples remove up to 75% of the original picture on such aspect ratios as 2.75,1 or even 3,1 in epics such as Ben-Hur, King of Kings or Lawrence of Arabia. The vertical equivalent is known as tilt and scan or reverse pan and scan, the method was most common in the days of VHS, before widescreen home media such as DVD and Blu-ray. Center cut is similar with the difference as the name suggests that it is simply a cut of the material from the center of the image with no horizontal panning or vertical tilting involved. This method doesnt require the permission or availability of the maker or director to identify the most important part of each frame. Most video displays have three options for 16,9 widescreen frame formatting, which are either center cut, letterbox or full frame, the first two options are reliant on the video streams aspect ratio flag being set correctly. For the first several decades of broadcasting, sets displayed images with a 4,3 aspect ratio in which the width is 1.33 times the height—similar to most theatrical films prior to 1960. This was fine for pre-1953 films such as The Wizard of Oz or Casablanca, films with these formats might be twice as wide as a TV screen when televised. Pan and scan cuts out as much as half of the image, DVD packaging began to use the expression,16,9 – Enhanced for Widescreen TVs. However, films shot at aspect ratios of 2.20,1,2.35,1,2.39,1,2.55,1, and especially 2.76,1 might still be problematic when displayed on televisions of any type. Though 16,9 remain standard as of 2012, wider-screen consumer TVs in 21,9 have been released to the market by multiple brands. During the pan and scan process, an editor selects the parts of the original filmed composition that seem to be the focus of the shot and makes sure that these are copied. When the important action shifts to a new position in the frame, if the actors are closer together on the screen, the editor may pan slightly, alternately cropping one or the other partially. It also gives an image on a traditional television set. However, it also has several drawbacks, some visual information is necessarily cropped out. It can also change a shot in which the camera was originally stationary to one in which it is frequently panning, or change a single continuous shot into one with frequent cuts. In a shot which was originally panned to show something new, or one in which something enters the shot from off-camera, as an example, in the film Oliver. Made in Panavision, the criminal Bill Sikes commits a murder, the murder takes place mostly offscreen, behind a staircase wall, and Oliver is a witness to it. As Sikes steps back from behind the wall, we see Oliver from the back watching him in terror, in the pan-and-scan version of the film, we see Olivers reaction as the murder is being committed, but not when Sikes steps backward from the wall having done it
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Academy ratio
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The Academy ratio of 1.375,1 is an aspect ratio of a frame of 35mm film when used with 4-perf pulldown. It was standardized by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences as the standard aspect ratio in 1932. Silent films were shot at a 1.33 aspect ratio, the frame line between the silent film frames was very thin. When sound-on-film was introduced in the late 1920s, the soundtrack was recorded in a stripe running just inside of one set of the perforations and cut into the 1.33 image. From studio to studio, the attempt to reduce the image back to a 1.33,1 ratio by decreasing the projector aperture in-house met with conflicting results. Each movie theater chain, furthermore, had its own designated house ratio.800 in ×0.600 in returning to the ratio of 1.33,1. Following this, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences considered further alterations to this 1930 standard, various dimensions were submitted, and the projector aperture plate opening size of 0.825 in ×0.600 in was agreed upon. The resulting 1.375,1 aspect ratio was then dubbed the Academy Ratio, on May 9,1932, the SMPE adopted the same 0.825 in ×0.600 in projector aperture standard. All studio films shot in 35mm from 1932 to 1952 were shot in the Academy ratio, however, following the widescreen revolution of 1953, it quickly became an obsolete production format. The Academy ratio is not created in the camera, which has continued to use the full frame silent aperture gate for all 4-perf spherical filming, rather, it is created in the married print, when the optical soundtrack and frame lines are added. Though most non-anamorphic film prints with a soundtrack are now framed to one of the non-anamorphic widescreen ratios, from 1.66 to 1.85, some still retain Academy-sized frames. These frames are then cropped in the projector by means of aperture masks used in the gate in conjunction with a wider lens than would be used for projecting Academy ratio films. The 3-perf pulldown process was proposed in 1973, developed by Miklos Lente in 1976. Full frame List of film formats Matte
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Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers
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SMPTE Membership is open to any individual or organization with interest in the subject matter. SMPTE standards documents are copyrighted and may be purchased from the SMPTE website, standard documents may be purchased by the general public. Significant standards promulgated by SMPTE include, All film and television formats and media. The society sponsors many awards, the oldest of which are the SMPTE Progress Medal, the Samuel Warner Memorial Medal, SMPTE also has a number of student Chapters and sponsors scholarships for college students in the motion imaging disciplines. A group within the standards committees has begun to work on the definition of the SMPTE 3D Home Master. SMPTE, instituted in 1999, a committee for the foundations of Digital Cinema. The SMPTE presents awards to individuals for outstanding contributions in fields of the society, James Cameron Edwin Catmull Birney Dayton Clyde D. Smith Roderick Snell Dr. Kees Immink Stanley N. Baron William C. Miller Bernard J. Lechner Ray Dolby Harold E. Edgerton Vladimir K. Zworykin John G. Frayne Walt Disney Chuck Pagano James M. DeFilippis Bernard J. Lechner Stanley N. Baron William F. Schreiber Adrian Ettlinger Joseph A. Flaherty, goldmark W. R. G. Baker Albert Rose Charles Ginsburg Robert E. Shelby Arthur V. Loughren Otto H. Recent recipients are Andrew Laszlo James MacKay Dr. Roderick T. Swartz
