1.
Spanish naming customs
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Spanish naming customs are historical traditions for naming children practised in Spain. According to these customs, a persons name consists of a name followed by two family names. The first surname is usually the fathers first surname, and the second the mothers first surname, in recent years, the order of the surnames can be reversed at birth if it is so decided by the parents. Currently in Spain, people bear a single or composite given name, a composite given name comprises two single names, for example Juan Pablo is considered not to be a first and a second forename, but a single composite forename. The two surnames refer to each of the parental families, traditionally, a persons first surname is the fathers first surname, and the second one is the mothers first surname. From 2013, if the parents of a child are unable to agree on order of surnames, the law also grants a person the option, upon reaching adulthood, of reversing the order of their surnames. Each surname can also be composite, the parts usually linked by the y or e. For example, a name might be Juan Pablo Fernández de Calderón García-Iglesias, consisting of a forename, a paternal surname. There are times when it is impossible, by inspection of a name, for example, the writer Sebastià Juan Arbó was alphabetised by the Library of Congress for many years under Arbó, assuming that Sebastiá and Juan were both given names. However, Juan was actually his first surname, to resolve questions like this, which typically involve very common names, one must consult the person involved, or legal documents. A man named José Antonio Gómez Iglesias would normally be addressed as either señor Gómez or señor Gómez Iglesias instead of señor Iglesias, because Gómez is his first surname. Furthermore, Mr. Gómez might be addressed as José Antonio, José, Pepe, Antonio, or Toño Jose, Joselito, Josito, Joselillo, Josico or Joselín, Antoñito, Tonín or Nono. Very formally, he could be addressed with an honorific as don José Antonio or don José, colombian writer Gabriel García Márquez is sometimes incorrectly referred to in English media as Mr. Márquez, when it should be Mr. García Márquez or, simply, Mr. García. It is not unusual, when the first surname is very common, for example, José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero is often called simply Zapatero, the name he inherited from his mothers family, since Rodríguez is a common surname and may be ambiguous. The same occurs with another former Spanish Socialist leader, Alfredo Pérez Rubalcaba, with the poet and dramatist Federico García Lorca, as these peoples paternal names are very common, they are often called with their maternal names. It would nonetheless be a mistake to index José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero under Z as Zapatero, a practical option to spare an explanation is using a single surname composed of two separate words. Parents choose their childs name, which must be recorded in the Registro Civil to establish his or her legal identity. With few restrictions, parents can now choose any name, common sources of names are the parents taste, honouring a relative, the General Roman Calendar nomina, legislation in Spain under Franco legally limited cultural naming customs to only Christian and typical Spanish names
2.
Paraguay
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Paraguay lies on both banks of the Paraguay River, which runs through the center of the country from north to south. Due to its location in South America, it is sometimes referred to as Corazón de Sudamérica. Paraguay is one of the two landlocked countries that lie outside Afro-Eurasia, Paraguay is the smallest landlocked country in the Americas. The indigenous Guaraní had been living in Paraguay for at least a millennium before the Spanish conquered the territory in the 16th century, Spanish settlers and Jesuit missions introduced Christianity and Spanish culture to the region. Paraguay was a colony of the Spanish Empire, with few urban centers and settlers. Following independence from Spain in 1811, Paraguay was ruled by a series of dictators who generally implemented isolationist and protectionist policies and he was toppled in an internal military coup, and free multi-party elections were organized and held for the first time in 1993. A year later, Paraguay joined Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay to found Mercosur, as of 2009, Paraguays population was estimated to be at around 6.5 million, most of whom are concentrated in the southeast region of the country. The capital and largest city is Asunción, of which the area is home to nearly a third of Paraguays population. In contrast to most Latin American nations, Paraguays indigenous language and culture, Guaraní, in each census, residents predominantly identify as mestizo, reflecting years of intermarriage among the different ethnic groups. Guaraní is recognized as an official language alongside Spanish, and both languages are spoken in the country. There is no consensus for the derivation or meaning of the name Paraguay, the most common interpretations include, Born from water Riverine of many varieties River which originates a sea Fray Antonio Ruiz de Montoya said that it meant river crowned. The Spanish officer and scientist Félix de Azara suggests two derivations, the Payaguas, referring to the tribe who lived along the river. The French-Argentine historian and writer Paul Groussac argued that it meant river that flows through the sea, Paraguayan poet and ex-president Juan Natalicio González said it meant river of the inhabitants of the sea. Indigenous peoples have inhabited this area for thousands of years, pre-Columbian society in the region which is now Paraguay consisted of semi-nomadic tribes that were known for their warrior traditions. These indigenous tribes belonged to five language families, which was the basis of their major divisions. Differing language groups were generally competitive over resources and territories and they were further divided into tribes by speaking languages in branches of these families. Today 17 separate ethnolinguistic groups remain, the first Europeans in the area were Spanish explorers in 1516. The Spanish explorer Juan de Salazar de Espinosa founded the settlement of Asunción on 15 August 1537, the city eventually became the center of a Spanish colonial province of Paraguay
3.
Guardia Nacional (Nicaragua)
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In Nicaragua, the National Guard was a militia and a gendarmerie created during the occupation of that country by the United States from 1909 to 1933. It became notorious for human rights abuses and corruption under the regime of the Somoza family, prior to the U. S. occupation, the long period of civil strife had encouraged the development of a variety of private armies. The freshly elected government of President Carlos José Solórzano requested that the U. S, Marines remain in Nicaragua until an indigenous security force could be trained, the Nicaraguan government hired a retired US General to set up the Guardia Nacional de Nicaragua. Somoza Garcia was trusted as a friend of Moncada, a supporter of the revolt. He was trusted by the U. S. from his service as a translator to Henry Stimson during the 1927 peace conference, schooling in the U. S. and training under the U. S. Marines. After the departure of U. S. troops in 1933, the National Guard then swiftly defeated Sandinos forces, further weakening the Sacasa government. By this time the force had grown to some 3000 troops, breaking with the party, he established the Partido Liberal Nacionalista and won the election with a remarkable 107,201 votes to 108. On 1 January 1937, President Somoza Garcia reappointed himself chief director of the National Guard, Somoza Garcia rapidly took complete control of Nicaraguan institutions including the National Guard, promoting allies and purging enemies. The National Guard was the backbone of a network of control, eventually including telecommunications, railroads. Increasingly pervasive corruption comparable to a mob, with bribery, kickbacks. The U. S. supported the National Guard through the World War II Lend-Lease act and under the terms of the Rio Treaty, but did not publicly approve of Somoza Garcias extraconstitutional governance. The National Guard, which had limited to small arms and was largely composed of rifle companies, began to acquire surplus equipment such as tanks. Under a new constitution, a president, and a strong anti-communist stance relations improved. Nevertheless, Somoza Garcia was the power behind the curtain and a target of attempted coups and assassination. In 1956, Somoza Garcia was fatally shot by a dissident poet. Brutal repression of political opposition followed, in 1957, the National Guard was involved in the only external military action of its existence, a brief border skirmish with Honduras. The National Guard cooperated with the U. S, Central Intelligence Agency in the preparation for the abortive Bay of Pigs Invasion of Cuba, permitting its bases to be used for training and staging areas. In 1965, the National Guard participated in an operation in the Dominican Republic under the aegis of the OAS
4.
FSLN
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The Sandinista National Liberation Front is now a democratic socialist political party in Nicaragua. Its members are called Sandinistas in both English and Spanish, the party is named after Augusto César Sandino, who led the Nicaraguan resistance against the United States occupation of Nicaragua in the 1930s. The FSLN overthrew Anastasio Somoza Debayle in 1979, ending the Somoza dynasty, following their seizure of power, the Sandinistas ruled Nicaragua from 1979 to 1990, first as part of a Junta of National Reconstruction. Following the resignation of centrist members from this Junta, the FSLN took exclusive power in March 1981, a militia, known as the Contras, was formed in 1981 to overthrow the Sandinista government and was funded and trained by the US Central Intelligence Agency. In 1984 elections were held but were boycotted by opposition parties. The FSLN won the majority of the votes, and those who opposed the Sandinistas won approximately a third of the seats, the civil war between the Contras and the government continued until 1989. The FSLN remains one of Nicaraguas two leading parties, the FSLN often polls in opposition to the Constitutionalist Liberal Party, or PLC. Ortega and the FSLN were re-elected again in the election of November 2011. The Sandinistas took their name from Augusto César Sandino, the leader of Nicaraguas nationalist rebellion against the US occupation of the country during the early 20th century. The FSLN originated in the milieu of various organizations, youth and student groups in the late 1950s. The University of Léon, and the National Autonomous University of Nicaragua in Managua were two of the centers of activity. Inspired by the Revolution and the FLN in Algeria, the FSLN itself was founded in 1961 by Carlos Fonseca, Silvio Mayorga, Tomás Borge, only Tomás Borge lived long enough to see the Sandinista victory in 1979. The term Sandinista, was added two years later, establishing continuity with Sandinos movement, and using his legacy in order to develop the movements ideology and strategy. By the early 1970s, the FSLN was launching limited military initiatives, on December 23,1972, a magnitude 6.2 earthquake leveled the capital city, Managua. The earthquake killed 10,000 of the citys 400,000 residents, about 80% of Managuas commercial buildings were destroyed. The president gave reconstruction contracts preferentially to family and friends, thereby profiting from the quake, by some estimates, his personal wealth rose to US$400 million in 1974. The siege was carefully timed to take place after the departure of the US ambassador from the gathering, at 10,50 pm, a group of 15 young guerrillas and their commanders, Pomares and Contreras, entered the house. They killed the Minister, who tried to shoot them, during the takeover, the guerrillas received US$2 million ransom, and had their official communiqué read over the radio and printed in the newspaper La Prensa
5.
French people
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The French are an ethnic group and nation who are identified with the country of France. This connection may be legal, historical, or cultural, modern French society can be considered a melting pot. To be French, according to the first article of the French Constitution, is to be a citizen of France, regardless of origin, race. The debate concerning the integration of this view with the underlying the European Community remains open. A large number of foreigners have traditionally been permitted to live in France, indeed, the country has long valued its openness, tolerance and the quality of services available. Application for French citizenship is often interpreted as a renunciation of previous state allegiance unless a dual citizenship agreement exists between the two countries, the European treaties have formally permitted movement and European citizens enjoy formal rights to employment in the state sector. Seeing itself as a nation with universal values, France has always valued. However, the success of such assimilation has recently called into question. There is increasing dissatisfaction with, and within, growing ethno-cultural enclaves, the 2005 French riots in some troubled and impoverished suburbs were an example of such tensions. However they should not be interpreted as ethnic conflicts but as social conflicts born out of socioeconomic problems endangering proper integration, the name France etymologically derives from the word Francia, the territory of the Franks. The Franks were a Germanic tribe that overran Roman Gaul at the end of the Roman Empire, in the pre-Roman era, all of Gaul was inhabited by a variety of peoples who were known collectively as the Gaulish tribes. Gaul was militarily conquered in 58-51 BCE by the Roman legions under the command of General Julius Caesar, the area then became part of the Roman Empire. Over the next five centuries the two cultures intermingled, creating a hybridized Gallo-Roman culture, the Gaulish vernacular language disappeared step by step to be replaced everywhere by Vulgar Latin, which would later develop under Frankish influence into the French language in the North of France. With the decline of the Roman Empire in Western Europe, a federation of Germanic peoples entered the picture, the Franks were Germanic pagans who began to settle in northern Gaul as laeti, already during the Roman era. They continued to filter across the Rhine River from present-day Netherlands, at the beginning, they served in the Roman army and reached high commands. Their language is spoken as a kind of Dutch in northern France. Another Germanic people immigrated massively to Alsace, the Alamans, which explains the Alemannic German spoken there and they were competitors of the Franks, thats why it became at the Renaissance time the word for German in French, Allemand. By the early 6th century the Franks, led by the Merovingian king Clovis I and his sons, had consolidated their hold on much of modern-day France, the Vikings eventually intermarried with the local people, converting to Christianity in the process
6.
De La Salle Brothers
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The Brothers of the Christian Schools is a Roman Catholic religious teaching congregation, founded in France by Jean-Baptiste de La Salle, and now based in Rome. The Brothers use the post-nominal abbreviation F. S. C. to denote their membership of the order, the Lasallian Christian Brothers are not the same order as the Irish Christian Brothers. The central administration of the Brothers operates out of the Generalate in Rome and is made up of the Superior General, a number of Lasallian institutions have been accused of, and have admitted and apologised for, longstanding and serious physical and sexual abuse against their charges. The order was founded by Jean-Baptiste de La Salle, a French priest from a wealthy family, in March,1679, La Salle met Adrian Nyel in a chance encounter at the Convent of the Sisters of the Infant Jesus. Nyel asked for De La Salles help in opening schools for the poor boys in Reims. A novitiate and normal school were established in Paris in 1694, La Salle spent his life teaching poor children in parish charity schools, and was canonized as a saint on 15 May 1900. In 1950 Pope Pius XII declared him to be the Special Patron of All Teachers of Youth in the Catholic Church, the order, approved by Pope Benedict XIII in 1725, rapidly spread over France. It was dissolved by a decree of the National Assembly set up after the French revolution in February 1790, since then its members penetrated into nearly every country of Europe, America, Asia, Africa and Australia. As religious, members take the three vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience. The Institutes headquarters is in Rome, Italy, the order has five global regions, North America, Asia/Oceania, Europe/Mediterranean, Africa, and Latin America. During the International Year of Literacy/Schooling, UNESCO awarded the NOMA prize to Lasallian Institutions, the order says that its key principles are faith, proclamation of the gospel, respect for all persons, quality education, concern for the poor and social justice. In 2016 the Institute had 4,100 brothers, 75% fewer than in 1965, the decline is due partly to many brothers reaching retirement age, and the small number of new recruits. In the same period the number of students in Lasallian schools increased from about 700,000 to over a million, La Salle initiated a number of innovations in teaching. He recommended dividing up of the children into distinct classes according to their attainments and he also taught pupils to read the vernacular language. In accordance with their statement to provide a human and Christian education. Especially the poor the Brothers principal activity is education, especially of the poor, as of 2016 the Institute conducted educational work in 80 different countries, in both developed and developing nations, with more than 800,000 students enrolled in its educational works. The Guadalupana De La Salle Sisters were founded by Br, juan Fromental Cayroche in the Archdiocese of Mexico. They currently teach in ten countries, the motherhouse is in Mexico City
7.
Saint Leo University
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Saint Leo University is a private, non-profit, Roman Catholic liberal arts university established in 1889 and reestablished in 1959. It is located in St. Leo, Florida,35 miles north of Tampa, the university is associated with the Holy Name Monastery, a Benedictine convent, and Saint Leo Abbey, a Benedictine monastery. Saint Leo University enrolls students at the traditional University Campus and at more than 40 education centers, worldwide, Saint Leo University had a total enrollment of 14,654 students in 2016, many of whom were military-related students. 2,265 students were enrolled at the university campus in Saint Leo, Saint Leo University offers over 40 associate, baccalaureate, and masters degree, and certificate programs, and inaugurated its first doctoral program in 2013. The university employs no teaching assistants, two hundred nineteen full-time faculty and 1,157 fully qualified adjunct faculty members. In 2013, Saint Leo announced plans for a center at a Sykes Enterprises building in Lakeland. Saint Leo was founded as the first Catholic college in Florida, chartered on June 4,1889 by a group of Benedictine monks from Saint Vincent Archabbey in Latrobe, the University opened its doors on September 14,1890 with an enrollment of 32 students. The first to arrive was 12 years old, the youngest ever to enroll was 7 and its first director was Father Charles Mohr, who served until 1931. The first five students graduated in June 1893 with Master of Accounts degrees, in 1889, before it was legal to do so in Florida, Saint Leo enrolled a black student. Three times, the became a military institution, December 1890—1903, 1908—1909. In 1920, the College was temporarily phased out to become an English-style prep school, from 1929-64, it was known as Saint Leo College Preparatory School. Saint Leo opened again as a college in 1959, graduating its first associate degree class in 1961. The college was accredited by the Southern Educational Association that November, in 1973, the college responded to requests from the armed services to offer degree programs on US military bases. Today Saint Leo University is one of the largest providers of education to military-related personnel in the United States. Continuing in the tradition of learning, the Saint Leo University Center for Online Learning was established in 1999. Growth continues rapidly at Saint Leo, and on August 24,1999, several new centers have been established nationwide in recent years. In July 2011, the university opened its Channelside Tampa Education Center, classes are offered at night and on evenings for continuing education students. There is also a student support center for students attending classes online, since 2015, Dr. William J. Lennox, Jr. has been the president of the university
8.
La Salle Military Academy
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The La Salle Military Academy was a Catholic school with middle school/junior high school and high school divisions located in Oakdale, New York. It closed in 2001, and the extensive campus is now owned by St. Johns University located in nearby Jamaica Queens. The school was founded by the Institute of the Brothers of the Christian Schools, the school was actually founded in Westchester, New York in 1883 as Westchester Institute. Soon thereafter, the relocated to Clason Point in the Bronx, New York. The school had boarding facilities and attracted many sons of the wealthiest Catholic families in the northeastern United States. It also attracted an international contingent, particularly from Latin America. For many years LSMA was considered one of the top schools on the East Coast. It was accredited by the Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools and its academics were held in the highest regard and although LSMA did not require its students to take Regents exams, they never found this to be a problem. LSMAs reputation was such that its grads were consistently admitted to the best colleges, graduating classes were often 100% college-bound. Another academic benefit of not being a Regents program was that the faculty were not bound by a rigid curriculum and this benefited the day-to-day education that took place there. For example, in English classes students would read books that would never have been permitted in a Public School setting. Honors-track students were able to take college-level courses. LSMA offered some very advanced Math and History classes, as well as Marine Biology, the Christian Brothers administered the academic program, while the military program was run by the United States Army in close coordination with the Christian Brothers. La Salle was consistently rated in the top ten high schools in the country. As a Junior ROTC Honor School with Distinction, the school could actually make nominations to the service academies, the school maintained this status until it closed its doors in 2001. Another benefit of this status was that the Army assigned active duty personnel to conduct Military training and this was led by a command-rank officer, who served as the schools SAI. The rest of the team was made up of NCOs, for many of these Army personnel, LSMA was their last stop before retirement. Perhaps the most distinguishing feature of LSMA was its magnificent campus, in the Sixties and Seventies the campus was 200-plus acres, though later classes may remember the campus being smaller
9.
United States Military Academy
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It sits on scenic high ground overlooking the Hudson River,50 miles north of New York City. It is one of the four U. S. military service academies, the entire central campus is a national landmark and home to scores of historic sites, buildings, and monuments. The majority of the campuss Norman-style buildings are constructed from gray, the campus is a popular tourist destination complete with a large visitor center and the oldest museum in the United States Army. Candidates for admission must both apply directly to the academy and receive a nomination, usually from a member of Congress or Delegate/Resident Commissioner in the case of Washington, puerto Rico, Northern Mariana Islands, Guam, American Samoa, and the Virgin Islands. Other nomination sources include the President and Vice President of the United States, students are officers-in-training and are referred to as cadets or collectively as the United States Corps of Cadets. Tuition for cadets is fully funded by the Army in exchange for an active duty service obligation upon graduation, approximately 1,300 cadets enter the Academy each July, with about 1,000 cadets graduating. Cadets are required to adhere to the Cadet Honor Code, which states that a cadet will not lie, cheat, steal, the academy bases a cadets leadership experience as a development of all three pillars of performance, academics, physical, and military. Most graduates are commissioned as lieutenants in the Army. Foreign cadets are commissioned into the armies of their home countries, since 1959, cadets have also been eligible to cross-commission, or request a commission in one of the other armed services, provided that they meet that services eligibility standards. Every year, a small number of cadets do this. The academys traditions have influenced other institutions because of its age and it was the first American college to have an accredited civil-engineering program and the first to have class rings, and its technical curriculum was a model for later engineering schools. West Points student body has a rank structure and lexicon. All cadets reside on campus and dine together en masse on weekdays for breakfast, the academy fields fifteen mens and nine womens National Collegiate Athletic Association sports teams. Cadets compete in one sport every fall, winter, and spring season at the intramural, club and its football team was a national power in the early and mid-20th century, winning three national championships. The Continental Army first occupied West Point, New York, on 27 January 1778, between 1778 and 1780, the Polish engineer and military hero Tadeusz Kościuszko oversaw the construction of the garrison defenses. While the fortifications at West Point were known as Fort Arnold during the war, as commander, Benedict Arnold committed his act of treason, after Arnold betrayed the patriot cause, the Army changed the name of the fortifications at West Point, New York, to Fort Clinton. With the peace after the American Revolutionary War, various ordnance, Cadets underwent training in artillery and engineering studies at the garrison since 1794. In 1801, shortly after his inauguration as president, Thomas Jefferson directed that plans be set in motion to establish at West Point the United States Military Academy and he selected Jonathan Williams to serve as its first superintendent
10.
National Guard (Nicaragua)
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In Nicaragua, the National Guard was a militia and a gendarmerie created during the occupation of that country by the United States from 1909 to 1933. It became notorious for human rights abuses and corruption under the regime of the Somoza family, prior to the U. S. occupation, the long period of civil strife had encouraged the development of a variety of private armies. The freshly elected government of President Carlos José Solórzano requested that the U. S, Marines remain in Nicaragua until an indigenous security force could be trained, the Nicaraguan government hired a retired US General to set up the Guardia Nacional de Nicaragua. Somoza Garcia was trusted as a friend of Moncada, a supporter of the revolt. He was trusted by the U. S. from his service as a translator to Henry Stimson during the 1927 peace conference, schooling in the U. S. and training under the U. S. Marines. After the departure of U. S. troops in 1933, the National Guard then swiftly defeated Sandinos forces, further weakening the Sacasa government. By this time the force had grown to some 3000 troops, breaking with the party, he established the Partido Liberal Nacionalista and won the election with a remarkable 107,201 votes to 108. On 1 January 1937, President Somoza Garcia reappointed himself chief director of the National Guard, Somoza Garcia rapidly took complete control of Nicaraguan institutions including the National Guard, promoting allies and purging enemies. The National Guard was the backbone of a network of control, eventually including telecommunications, railroads. Increasingly pervasive corruption comparable to a mob, with bribery, kickbacks. The U. S. supported the National Guard through the World War II Lend-Lease act and under the terms of the Rio Treaty, but did not publicly approve of Somoza Garcias extraconstitutional governance. The National Guard, which had limited to small arms and was largely composed of rifle companies, began to acquire surplus equipment such as tanks. Under a new constitution, a president, and a strong anti-communist stance relations improved. Nevertheless, Somoza Garcia was the power behind the curtain and a target of attempted coups and assassination. In 1956, Somoza Garcia was fatally shot by a dissident poet. Brutal repression of political opposition followed, in 1957, the National Guard was involved in the only external military action of its existence, a brief border skirmish with Honduras. The National Guard cooperated with the U. S, Central Intelligence Agency in the preparation for the abortive Bay of Pigs Invasion of Cuba, permitting its bases to be used for training and staging areas. In 1965, the National Guard participated in an operation in the Dominican Republic under the aegis of the OAS
11.
Constitutionalist Liberal Party
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The Constitutionalist Liberal Party is an opposition political party in Nicaragua. At the Nicaraguan general election of 5 November 2006, the party won 25 of 92 seats in the National Assembly, however, the party suffered a devastating loss in the 2011 general election and lost 23 seats in the National Assembly. The Constitutionalist Liberal Party is the successor of the Liberal Party. After being defeated by the conservatives in a war in the 1850s, the Liberal Party returned to power in 1893 under President José Santos Zelaya. The Liberal Party had by this split into many groups. By the late 1990s, led by Arnoldo Alemán, most of the Liberal groups consolidated to form the Constitutionalist Liberal Party, which was at first known as the Liberal Alliance. In 1996 Alemán won the election and served as president until 2002, while the party won 42 of the 93 seats in the 1996 congressional elections. At the November 2001 elections, the party gained a majority in Congress, the same day, its candidate Enrique Bolaños won the presidential elections. Though still a force in Nicaragua, there have been many disputes within it since 2001 which, by 2006, had caused it to lose its majority in Congress. Bolaños broke with the PLC to form the Alliance for the Republic, José Rizo was nominated as the presidential candidate and José Antonio Alvarado was nominated as the vice-presidential candidate for the November 2006 elections. Montealegre and Rizo were both defeated, as Sandinista Daniel Ortega finished far ahead of both of them to avoid a runoff. Rizo came in place with 26% of the vote. The party came in place in the congressional elections. The party was a member of the Liberal International, but left that organization in 2005
12.
Conservative Party (Nicaragua)
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The Conservative Party is a conservative political party in Nicaragua. The partys colour is green and its emblem is a torch of freedom in a circle and its slogan is “Dios, Orden, Justicia”, often depicted on the three sides of a triangle. The conservative party is the oldest currently existing political party in Nicaragua and it was founded during the late 1830s, as Nicaragua established itself as an independent republic, by members of the elite of Granada. As in many Latin American countries, a political conflict took place between conservatives and liberals. During the 1840s and 1850s a nearly constant civil war took place between conservatives and liberals in Nicaragua, in 1857 the conservatives won, and dominated the country for 35 years. In 1893 the conservative party split, and the took advantage of this to make a successful rebellion. The conservative party returned to power in 1910, following the intervention of American troops and it remained in power until another liberal rebellion in 1926, and a coalition government was established. Factions of the party, along with factions of the liberal party. Many conservatives, however, vigorously opposed the Somoza regime, in the first elections after the Revolution, in 1984, the Conservatives finished runner-up behind the FSLN. In 1990 the Conservative Party joined the National Opposition Union to successfully oppose the Sandinista National Liberation Front in elections. Following the rapid collapse of that party, the became the third largest political force in the country. At the legislative elections, held on 4 November 2001, the party won 2. 1% of the vote and 2 out of 90 seats in the National Assembly. The same day, Alberto Saborío won only 1. 4% in the presidential elections, in the 2006 election it became part of a coalition with the Nicaraguan Liberal Alliance
13.
1972 Nicaragua earthquake
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The 1972 Nicaragua earthquake occurred at 12,29 a. m. local time on Saturday, December 23 near Managua, the capital of Nicaragua. It had a magnitude of 6.2, with the epicenter 28 kilometers northeast of the city centre, and a depth of about 5 kilometers. Within an hour after the shock, two aftershocks, one of magnitude 5.0 and the other 5.2, occurred at 1,18 a. m. and 1,20 a. m. The earthquake caused widespread casualties among Managuas residents,6,000 were killed,20,000 were injured and over 250,000 were left homeless. Managua, which lies on the shore of Lake Xolotlan. The city has a history of volcanic and seismic activity which arise from the relative movements of two crustal plates which intersect near the southwestern border of Central America. The Cocos plate, located east of the East Pacific Rise, is moving northeastward and is slowly being submerged under the Caribbean Plate. The zone of dipping is initiated at the surface of the Middle America Trench, one of the most significant geological effects of the 1972 Nicaragua earthquake quake was surface faulting. The earthquake severely damaged an area of 27 square kilometers and destroyed 13 square kilometers in the city centre, much of the damage arose from seismic ground movement which occurred within 10–15 seconds of the main shock. The majority of the factories and smaller buildings were severely damaged and this architecture is far from earthquake resistant, something that became fatally evident. An estimated 53,000 homes in the city were affected, the water and electrical power networks were so severely damaged that a week following the earthquake only 10% of the city had any working water service. Two-thirds of Managuas 1000000 residents were displaced and faced food shortage and disease, because of the damaging effects of the earthquake many of the emergency services in the city were operating at a seriously lower level than normal. The earthquake destroyed all the equipment available and fires were prevalent in some areas for several days. All four main hospitals which before the disaster had 1650 beds were unserviceable, the Nicaraguan government appealed for aid, and the government accepted aid from countries like the United States and Mexico and some 25 other countries worth millions of dollars. It was because of reports that the Puerto Rican baseball star Roberto Clemente chose to personally accompany the fourth of a number of relief flights he had organized. That flight crashed on December 31,1972, killing Clemente among others, another difficulty was that much of the material aid donated was inappropriate for the needs of the affected Nicaraguans, including such items as winter clothes and frozen TV dinners. This grew into a revolt that became the Nicaraguan Revolution, in which Somoza was overthrown in 1979, reconstruction only began in earnest in the 1990s. The earthquake changed the face of Managua during its decades of recovery, the city centre is no longer clearly defined, as buildings have been constructed away from the city centre
14.
Managua
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Managua is the capital city of Nicaragua as well as of the department of the same name. The city was declared the capital in 1852. Prior, the capital alternated between the cities of León and Granada, the 1972 Nicaragua earthquake and years of civil war in the 1980s severely disrupted and stunted Managuas growth. It was not until the mid-1990s that Managua began to see a resurgence, the name Managua originates from the term Mana-ahuac, which in the indigenous Nahuatl language translates to adjacent to the water or site surrounded by water. Residents of the city are called managüenses or capitalinos, Nicaragua was inhabited by Paleo-Americans as far back as 6,000 years ago. The ancient footprints of Acahualinca are 2, 100-year-old fossils discovered along the shores of Lake Managua, founded by a pre-Columbian fishing town, the city was incorporated in 1819 and given the name Leal Villa de Santiago de Managua. Efforts to make Managua the capital of Nicaragua began in 1824, Managuas location between the rival cities of León and Granada made it a logical compromise site. After Granada was destroyed by an army led by William Walker in 1857. Between 1852 and 1930, Managua underwent extensive urbanization, becoming a base of governance, infrastructure, the city was hampered by major floods in 1876 and 1885. A disastrous earthquake in 1931 and large fire in 1936 destroyed much of the city, under the rule of dictator Anastasio Somoza García and his family, the city was rebuilt and began to grow rapidly. New government buildings were erected, industry developed, and universities were established, Managua had become Central Americas most developed city. Todays references differentiate the pre-1970s Managua by labeling it as La Antigua Ciudad, Managuas progress came to a sudden halt after it suffered a second major earthquake on December 23,1972, which destroyed 90% of the citys downtown and killed more than 19,120 people. Infrastructure was severely damaged and rehabilitation or restoration of buildings was nearly impossible, at the time, Managuas limited resources had to be directed to other disaster relief purposes. Managuas ability to cope with the disaster was also limited, surviving fire squadrons and ambulance companies were not able to handle the skyrocketing demand for their services. Some buildings burned to the ground, while the foundations of others simply gave way, not able to rebuild quickly, the city directed emergency workers to clear away much of the citys ruins quickly while burying the deceased in mass graves. Residences, government buildings and entire avenues were demolished, escaping the city center, earthquake victims found refuge in the outskirts of the city. The Nicaraguan Civil War of 1979 to overthrow the Somoza regime, to make matters worse, a series of natural disasters, including Hurricane Mitch in 1998, made economic recovery more difficult. After winning the elections of 1990, UNO the reconstruction of Managua began in earnest, in 2006, after the FSLN came back into power, literacy, health and reconstruction programs were expanded
15.
Martial law
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It is usually imposed temporarily when the government or civilian authorities fail to function effectively. Martial law can be used by governments to enforce their rule over the public, such incidents may occur after a coup détat, when threatened by popular protest, to suppress political opposition, or to stabilize insurrections or perceived insurrections. Martial law may be declared in cases of natural disasters, however, most countries use a different legal construct. Martial law has also been imposed during conflicts, and in cases of occupations, examples of this form of military rule include post World War II reconstruction in Germany and Japan as well as the Southern Reconstruction following the U. S. Civil War. Civilians defying martial law may be subjected to military tribunal, the Black War was a period of violent conflict between British colonists and Aboriginal Australians in Tasmania from the mid-1820s to 1832. With an escalation of violence in the late 1820s, Lieutenant-Governor George Arthur declared martial law in November 1828—effectively providing legal immunity for killing Aboriginal people and it would remain in force for more than three years, the longest period of martial law in Australian history. Brunei has been under a law since a rebellion occurred on 8 December 1962 known as the Brunei Revolt and was put down by British troops from Singapore. e. The military does not administer justice, which remains in the hands of the courts, the Act has been invoked three times, During World War I, World War II, and the October Crisis of 1970. In 1988, the War Measures Act was replaced by the Emergencies Act, during the colonial era, martial law was proclaimed and applied in the territory of the Province of Quebec during the invasion of Canada by the army of the American Continental Congress in 1775–1776. It was also applied twice in the territory of Lower Canada during the 1837–1838 insurrections and it was imposed until April 27,1838. Martial law was proclaimed a second time on November 4,1838, this time by acting Governor John Colborne, in Egypt, a State of Emergency has been in effect almost continuously since 1967. Following the assassination of President Anwar el-Sadat in 1981, state of emergency was declared, Egypt has been under state of emergency ever since, the Parliament has renewed the emergency laws every three years since they were imposed. The legislation was extended in 2003 and were due to expire at the end of May 2006, but after the Dahab bombings in April of that year, state of emergency was renewed for another two years. In May 2008 there was an extension to June 2010. In May 2010, the state of emergency was extended, albeit with a promise from the government to be applied only to Terrorism. Public demonstrations are banned under the legislation, under martial law the source of power is not the people, not the parliament, not the constitution, not a Holy Text, but solely the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces. The military issued in its announcement the end of the State of Emergency as soon as order is restored in Egypt. Before martial law, the Egyptian parliament under the constitution had the power to declare a State of Emergency
16.
Ernesto Cardenal
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Ernesto Cardenal Martínez is a Nicaraguan Catholic priest, poet and politician. He is a theologian and the founder of the primitivist art community in the Solentiname Islands. A member of the Nicaraguan Sandinistas, a party he has since left, was born into an upper-class family in Granada, Nicaragua, Cardenal is a first cousin of the poet Pablo Antonio Cuadra. Cardenal studied literature first in Managua and from 1942 to 1946 in Mexico, later, from 1947 to 1949, he continued his studies in New York City and traveled through Italy, Spain and Switzerland between 1949 and 1950. In July 1950, he returned to Nicaragua, where he participated in the 1954 April Revolution against Anastasio Somoza Garcías regime, the coup détat failed and ended with the deaths of many of his associates. Cardenal subsequently entered the Trappist Monastery of Gethsemani, under the other poet-priest Thomas Merton, Cardenal was ordained a Catholic priest in 1965 in Granada. He went to the Solentiname Islands where he founded a Christian, almost monastic, mainly peasant community and it was there that the famous book El Evangelio en Solentiname was written. Cardenal collaborated closely with the leftist Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional, many members of the community of Solentiname engaged with the process of the Revolution in the guerrilla warfare that the FSLN had developed to strike at the regime. On 19 July 1979, immediately after the Liberation of Managua and he campaigned for a revolution without vengeance His brother, Fernando Cardenal, also a Catholic priest, was appointed Minister of Education. On February 4,1984 Pope John Paul II defrocked Cardenal because of his participation in liberation theology, Cardenal remained Minister of Culture until 1987, when his ministry was closed for economic reasons. Cardenal left the FSLN in 1994, protesting the direction of the party under Daniel Ortega. Calling it a robbery of the people and dictatorship not a revolutionary movement when he left the government and he is a member of the Movimiento de Renovación Sandinista that participated in the 2006 Nicaraguan general election. He is also a member of the board of advisers of the pan-Latin American TV station teleSUR, Cardenal has been for a long time a polemical figure of Nicaraguas literature and cultural history. He has been described as the most important poet right now in Latin America politically and poetically and he has been a very vocal figure of Nicaragua and a valid key to analyze and understand the contemporaneous literary and cultural life of Nicaragua. He participated in the Stock Exchange of Visions project in 2007, during a short visit to India, he came in touch with a group of writers called the Hungry generation, which had a profound influence on them. Homage to the American Indians, Johns Hopkins University Press,1973, apocalypse and Other Poems, New Directions,1974. Zero Hour and Other Documentary Poems, New Directions,1980, with Walker in Nicaragua and Other Early Poems, 1949-1954, Wesleyan,1984. Golden UFOs, The Indian Poems, Los ovnis de oro, Poemas indios, the Doubtful Strait/El estrecho dudoso, Indiana University Press,1995
17.
Human rights
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Human rights are moral principles or norms, which describe certain standards of human behaviour, and are regularly protected as legal rights in municipal and international law. They are applicable everywhere and at time in the sense of being universal. They require empathy and the rule of law and impose an obligation on persons to respect the rights of others. They should not be taken away except as a result of due process based on circumstances, for example, human rights may include freedom from unlawful imprisonment, torture. The doctrine of human rights has been influential within international law. Actions by states and non-governmental organizations form a basis of public policy worldwide, the idea of human rights suggests that if the public discourse of peacetime global society can be said to have a common moral language, it is that of human rights. The strong claims made by the doctrine of human rights continue to provoke considerable skepticism and debates about the content, nature, ancient peoples did not have the same modern-day conception of universal human rights. Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the family is the foundation of freedom. All human beings are free and equal in dignity and rights. According to Jack Donnelly, in the ancient world, traditional societies typically have had elaborate systems of duties, conceptions of justice, political legitimacy, and human flourishing that sought to realize human dignity, flourishing, or well-being entirely independent of human rights. These institutions and practices are alternative to, rather than different formulations of, one theory is that human rights were developed during the early Modern period, alongside the European secularization of Judeo-Christian ethics. The most commonly held view is that the concept of human rights evolved in the West, for example, McIntyre argues there is no word for right in any language before 1400. One of the oldest records of rights is the statute of Kalisz, giving privileges to the Jewish minority in the Kingdom of Poland such as protection from discrimination. Samuel Moyn suggests that the concept of rights is intertwined with the modern sense of citizenship. The earliest conceptualization of human rights is credited to ideas about natural rights emanating from natural law, in particular, the issue of universal rights was introduced by the examination of extending rights to indigenous peoples by Spanish clerics, such as Francisco de Vitoria and Bartolomé de Las Casas. In Britain in 1689, the English Bill of Rights and the Scottish Claim of Right each made illegal a range of oppressive governmental actions, additionally, the Virginia Declaration of Rights of 1776 encoded into law a number of fundamental civil rights and civil freedoms. These were followed by developments in philosophy of human rights by philosophers such as Thomas Paine, John Stuart Mill, hegel during the 18th and 19th centuries. Although the term had been used by at least one author as early as 1742, in the 19th century, human rights became a central concern over the issue of slavery
18.
Sandinista National Liberation Front
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The Sandinista National Liberation Front is now a democratic socialist political party in Nicaragua. Its members are called Sandinistas in both English and Spanish, the party is named after Augusto César Sandino, who led the Nicaraguan resistance against the United States occupation of Nicaragua in the 1930s. The FSLN overthrew Anastasio Somoza Debayle in 1979, ending the Somoza dynasty, following their seizure of power, the Sandinistas ruled Nicaragua from 1979 to 1990, first as part of a Junta of National Reconstruction. Following the resignation of centrist members from this Junta, the FSLN took exclusive power in March 1981, a militia, known as the Contras, was formed in 1981 to overthrow the Sandinista government and was funded and trained by the US Central Intelligence Agency. In 1984 elections were held but were boycotted by opposition parties. The FSLN won the majority of the votes, and those who opposed the Sandinistas won approximately a third of the seats, the civil war between the Contras and the government continued until 1989. The FSLN remains one of Nicaraguas two leading parties, the FSLN often polls in opposition to the Constitutionalist Liberal Party, or PLC. Ortega and the FSLN were re-elected again in the election of November 2011. The Sandinistas took their name from Augusto César Sandino, the leader of Nicaraguas nationalist rebellion against the US occupation of the country during the early 20th century. The FSLN originated in the milieu of various organizations, youth and student groups in the late 1950s. The University of Léon, and the National Autonomous University of Nicaragua in Managua were two of the centers of activity. Inspired by the Revolution and the FLN in Algeria, the FSLN itself was founded in 1961 by Carlos Fonseca, Silvio Mayorga, Tomás Borge, only Tomás Borge lived long enough to see the Sandinista victory in 1979. The term Sandinista, was added two years later, establishing continuity with Sandinos movement, and using his legacy in order to develop the movements ideology and strategy. By the early 1970s, the FSLN was launching limited military initiatives, on December 23,1972, a magnitude 6.2 earthquake leveled the capital city, Managua. The earthquake killed 10,000 of the citys 400,000 residents, about 80% of Managuas commercial buildings were destroyed. The president gave reconstruction contracts preferentially to family and friends, thereby profiting from the quake, by some estimates, his personal wealth rose to US$400 million in 1974. The siege was carefully timed to take place after the departure of the US ambassador from the gathering, at 10,50 pm, a group of 15 young guerrillas and their commanders, Pomares and Contreras, entered the house. They killed the Minister, who tried to shoot them, during the takeover, the guerrillas received US$2 million ransom, and had their official communiqué read over the radio and printed in the newspaper La Prensa
19.
Nicaraguan Revolution
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During the 1980s both the FSLN and the Contras received large amounts of aid from the Cold War super-powers. The Contra War ultimately ended following the signing of the Tela Accord in 1989, a second election in 1990 resulted in the election of a majority of anti-Sandinista parties and the FSLN handing over power. The Somoza dynasty consisted of Anastasio Somoza García, his eldest son Luis Somoza Debayle, in 1961 Carlos Fonseca Amador, Silvio Mayorga, and Tomás Borge Martínez formed the FSLN with other student activists at the Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Nicaragua in Managua. For the founding members of the FSLN, this was not their first experience with political activism, Amador, first General Secretary of the organization, had worked with others on a newspaper “broadly critical” of the Somoza reign titled Segovia. The FSLN focused on guerrilla tactics almost immediately, inspired by the campaigns of Fidel Castro and Ché Guevara. Penetrating the Northern coast of Nicaragua, the Río Coco/Bocay-Raití campaign was largely a failure, “when guerrillas did encounter the National Guard, they had to retreat…with heavy losses. ”During this time, the FSLN reduced attacks, instead focusing on solidifying the organization as a whole. This led to condemnation of the regime and in 1978 the administration of U. S. president Jimmy Carter cut off aid to the Somoza regime due to its human rights violations. After two days, the government agreed to pay $500,000 and release certain prisoners resulting in a victory for the FSLN. In early 1979 the Organization of American States supervised negotiations between the FSLN and the government, however, these broke down when it became clear that the Somoza regime had no intention of allowing democratic elections to take place. Immediately following the fall of the Somoza regime, Nicaragua was largely in ruins, the country had suffered both war and, earlier, natural disaster in the form of the devastating 1972 Nicaragua earthquake. In 1979, approximately 600,000 Nicaraguans were homeless and 150,000 were either refugees or in out of a total population of just 2.8 million. It is famously stated that Somoza himself owned 1/5 of all land in Nicaragua. While this is not correct, Somoza or his adepts did own or give away banks, ports, communications, services, the Nicaraguan Revolution brought immense restructuring and reforms to all three sectors of the economy, directing it towards a mixed economy system. Economic reforms overall needed to out of limbo the inefficient. As a third-world country, Nicaragua had, and has, an economy, undeveloped and susceptible to the flow of market prices for its agricultural goods, such as coffee. The Revolution faced a rural economy well behind in technology and, at the time, devastated by the guerrilla warfare. This represented about 75 percent of all distributed to peasants since 1980. According to Project, the reform had the twofold purpose of increasing the support for the government among the campesinos
20.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
21.
Cuba
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Cuba, officially the Republic of Cuba, is a country comprising the island of Cuba as well as Isla de la Juventud and several minor archipelagos. Cuba is located in the northern Caribbean where the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, and it is south of both the U. S. state of Florida and the Bahamas, west of Haiti, and north of Jamaica. Havana is the largest city and capital, other cities include Santiago de Cuba. Cuba is the largest island in the Caribbean, with an area of 109,884 square kilometres, prior to Spanish colonization in the late 15th century, Cuba was inhabited by Amerindian tribes. It remained a colony of Spain until the Spanish–American War of 1898, as a fragile republic, Cuba attempted to strengthen its democratic system, but mounting political radicalization and social strife culminated in the dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista in 1952. Further unrest and instability led to Batistas ousting in January 1959 by the July 26 Movement, since 1965, the state has been governed by the Communist Party of Cuba. A point of contention during the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, a nuclear war broke out during the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. Culturally, Cuba is considered part of Latin America, Cuba is a Marxist–Leninist one-party republic, where the role of the vanguard Communist Party is enshrined in the Constitution. Independent observers have accused the Cuban government of human rights abuses. It is one of the worlds last planned economies and its economy is dominated by the exports of sugar, tobacco, coffee, according to the Human Development Index, Cuba is described as a country with high human development and is ranked the eighth highest in North America. It also ranks highly in some metrics of national performance, including health care, the name Cuba comes from the Taíno language. The exact meaning of the name is unclear but it may be translated either as where fertile land is abundant, authors who believe that Christopher Columbus was Portuguese state that Cuba was named by Columbus for the town of Cuba in the district of Beja in Portugal. Before the arrival of the Spanish, Cuba was inhabited by three distinct tribes of indigenous peoples of the Americas, the Taíno, the Guanajatabey, and the Ciboney people. The ancestors of the Ciboney migrated from the mainland of South America, the Taíno arrived from Hispanola sometime in the 3rd century A. D. When Columbus arrived they were the dominant culture in Cuba, having a population of 150,000. The name Cuba comes from the native Taíno language and it is derived from either coabana meaning great place, or from cubao meaning where fertile land is abundant. The Taíno were farmers, while the Ciboney were farmers as well as fishers and hunter-gatherers, Columbus claimed the island for the new Kingdom of Spain and named it Isla Juana after Juan, Prince of Asturias. In 1511, the first Spanish settlement was founded by Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar at Baracoa, other towns soon followed, including San Cristobal de la Habana, founded in 1515, which later became the capital
22.
Fidel Castro
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Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz was a Cuban revolutionary and politician who governed the Republic of Cuba as Prime Minister from 1959 to 1976 and then as President from 1976 to 2008. Politically a Marxist–Leninist and Cuban nationalist, he served as the First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba from 1961 until 2011. Under his administration, Cuba became a one-party socialist state, industry and business were nationalized, born in Birán, Oriente as the son of a wealthy Spanish farmer, Castro adopted leftist anti-imperialist politics while studying law at the University of Havana. After a years imprisonment, he traveled to Mexico where he formed a revolutionary group, returning to Cuba, Castro took a key role in the Cuban Revolution by leading the Movement in a guerrilla war against Batistas forces from the Sierra Maestra. After Batistas overthrow in 1959, Castro assumed military and political power as Cubas Prime Minister, adopting a Marxist–Leninist model of development, Castro converted Cuba into a one-party, socialist state under Communist Party rule, the first in the Western Hemisphere. Policies introducing central economic planning and expanding healthcare and education were accompanied by control of the press. These actions, coupled with Castros leadership of the Non-Aligned Movement from 1979 to 1983 and Cubas medical internationalism, following the Soviet Unions dissolution in 1991, Castro led Cuba into its Special Period and embraced environmentalist and anti-globalization ideas. In the 2000s he forged alliances in the Latin American pink tide—namely with Hugo Chávezs Venezuela—and signed Cuba up to the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas, in 2006 he transferred his responsibilities to Vice-President Raúl Castro, who was elected to the presidency by the National Assembly in 2008. Castro is a world figure. His supporters view him as a champion of socialism and anti-imperialism whose revolutionary regime advanced economic, critics view him as a dictator whose administration oversaw human-rights abuses, the exodus of a large number of Cubans, and the impoverishment of the countrys economy. He was decorated with various awards and significantly influenced various individuals. In 1960 Castro was bestowed with the Grand Slam Silver Trophy in the prestigious Ernest Hemingway International Billfishing Tournament after he caught a sailfish, Castro was born out of wedlock at his fathers farm on August 13,1926. His father, Ángel Castro y Argiz, was a migrant to Cuba from Galicia, aged six, Castro was sent to live with his teacher in Santiago de Cuba, before being baptized into the Roman Catholic Church at the age of eight. Being baptized enabled Castro to attend the La Salle boarding school in Santiago, in 1945 he transferred to the more prestigious Jesuit-run El Colegio de Belén in Havana. Although Castro took an interest in history, geography and debating at Belén, he did not excel academically, in 1945, Castro began studying law at the University of Havana. Admitting he was illiterate, he became embroiled in student activism. In 1947, Castro joined the Party of the Cuban People, a charismatic figure, Chibás advocated social justice, honest government, and political freedom, while his party exposed corruption and demanded reform. Though Chibás came third in the 1948 general election, Castro remained committed to working on his behalf, in later years anti-Castro dissidents accused him of committing gang-related assassinations at the time, but these remain unproven
23.
Jimmy Carter
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James Earl Jimmy Carter Jr. is an American politician who served as the 39th President of the United States from 1977 to 1981. In 2002, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his work with the Carter Center, Carter was a Democrat who was raised in rural Georgia. He was a farmer who served two terms as a Georgia State Senator from 1963 to 1967, and one as the Governor of Georgia from 1971 to 1975. He was elected President in 1976, defeating incumbent President Gerald Ford in a close election. On his second day in office, Carter pardoned all evaders of the Vietnam War drafts, during Carters term as President, two new cabinet-level departments, the Department of Energy and the Department of Education, were established. He established an energy policy that included conservation, price control. In foreign affairs, Carter pursued the Camp David Accords, the Panama Canal Treaties, the round of Strategic Arms Limitation Talks. On the economic front he confronted persistent stagflation, a combination of inflation, high unemployment. The end of his tenure was marked by the 1979–1981 Iran hostage crisis, the 1979 energy crisis, the Three Mile Island nuclear accident. In response to the Soviet move he ended détente, escalated the Cold War, Carter won the 1980 primary with 51. 13% of the vote but lost the general election in an electoral landslide to Republican nominee Ronald Reagan, who won 44 of 50 states. His presidency has drawn medium-low responses from historians, with many considering him to have accomplished more with his post-presidency work and he set up the Carter Center in 1982 as his base for advancing human rights. He has also traveled extensively to conduct negotiations, observe elections. Additionally, Carter is a key figure in the Habitat for Humanity project, since surpassing Herbert Hoover in September 2012, he has been the longest-retired president in American history. He is also the first president to mark the 40th anniversary of his election and inauguration, in reference to current political views, he has criticized some of Israels actions and policies in regards to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict and has advocated for a two-state solution. James Earl Carter, Jr. was born on October 1,1924, at the Wise Sanitarium in Plains and he is a descendant of English immigrant Thomas Carter, who settled in Virginia in 1635. Numerous generations of Carters lived as farmers in Georgia. Carter is also a descendant of Thomas Cornell, an ancestor of Cornell Universitys founder and of Richard Nixon, Plains was a boomtown of 600 people at the time of Carters birth. His father, James Earl Carter, Sr. was a local businessman who ran a general store and had begun to invest in farmland
24.
Israel
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Israel, officially the State of Israel, is a country in the Middle East, on the southeastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea and the northern shore of the Red Sea. The country contains geographically diverse features within its small area. Israels economy and technology center is Tel Aviv, while its seat of government and proclaimed capital is Jerusalem, in 1947, the United Nations adopted a Partition Plan for Mandatory Palestine recommending the creation of independent Arab and Jewish states and an internationalized Jerusalem. The plan was accepted by the Jewish Agency for Palestine, next year, the Jewish Agency declared the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel, to be known as the State of Israel. Israel has since fought several wars with neighboring Arab states, in the course of which it has occupied territories including the West Bank, Golan Heights and it extended its laws to the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem, but not the West Bank. Israels occupation of the Palestinian territories is the worlds longest military occupation in modern times, efforts to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict have not resulted in peace. However, peace treaties between Israel and both Egypt and Jordan have successfully been signed, the population of Israel, as defined by the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, was estimated in 2017 to be 8,671,100 people. It is the worlds only Jewish-majority state, with 74. 8% being designated as Jewish, the countrys second largest group of citizens are Arabs, at 20. 8%. The great majority of Israeli Arabs are Sunni Muslims, including significant numbers of semi-settled Negev Bedouins, other minorities include Arameans, Armenians, Assyrians, Black Hebrew Israelites, Circassians, Maronites and Samaritans. Israel also hosts a significant population of foreign workers and asylum seekers from Africa and Asia, including illegal migrants from Sudan, Eritrea. In its Basic Laws, Israel defines itself as a Jewish, Israel is a representative democracy with a parliamentary system, proportional representation and universal suffrage. The prime minister is head of government and the Knesset is the legislature, Israel is a developed country and an OECD member, with the 35th-largest economy in the world by nominal gross domestic product as of 2016. The country benefits from a skilled workforce and is among the most educated countries in the world with one of the highest percentage of its citizens holding a tertiary education degree. The country has the highest standard of living in the Middle East and the third highest in Asia, in the early weeks of independence, the government chose the term Israeli to denote a citizen of Israel, with the formal announcement made by Minister of Foreign Affairs Moshe Sharett. The names Land of Israel and Children of Israel have historically used to refer to the biblical Kingdom of Israel. The name Israel in these phrases refers to the patriarch Jacob who, jacobs twelve sons became the ancestors of the Israelites, also known as the Twelve Tribes of Israel or Children of Israel. The earliest known artifact to mention the word Israel as a collective is the Merneptah Stele of ancient Egypt. The area is known as the Holy Land, being holy for all Abrahamic religions including Judaism, Christianity, Islam
25.
1948 Palestine war
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However, Jordanian operations were limited to specific and clearly defined objectives. Egypt, Syria and Iraq by contrast, attempted an invasion of the territory of the newly created State of Israel with the intention of expunging it. Transjordan took control of the remainder of the Palestinian mandate, which it annexed, with Jordan occupying the West Bank and Egypt occupying Gaza, no state was created for the Palestinian Arabs. Dramatic demographic changes accompanied the war in the country, around 700,000 Palestinian Arabs fled or were expelled from the area that became Israel, and they became Palestinian refugees. Due to the war, around 10,000 Jews fled or were expelled from their homes in Palestine and these Jewish refugees were absorbed into Israel in the One Million Plan. Israelis usually mark the anniversary of their independence on the 5th of Iyar of the Hebrew Calendar, the Yishuv managed to clandestinely amass arms and military equipment abroad for transfer to Palestine once the British blockade was lifted. In Western Europe, Haganah agents amassed fifty 65mm French mountain guns, twelve 120mm mortars, ten H-35 light tanks, the airborne arms smuggling missions from Czechoslovakia were codenamed Operation Balak. The airborne smuggling missions were carried out by mostly American aviators – Jews and non-Jews – led by ex-U. S, air Transport Command flight engineer Al Schwimmer. Schwimmer’s operation also included recruiting and training fighter pilots such as Lou Lenart and this was an attempt to resolve the Arab-Jewish conflict by partitioning Palestine into Independent Arab and Jewish States and the Special International Regime for the City of Jerusalem. Each state would comprise three sections, the Arab state would also have an enclave at Jaffa in order to have a port on the Mediterranean. With about 32% of the population, the Jews were allocated 56% of the territory and it contained 499,000 Jews and 438,000 Arabs and a majority of it was in the Negev desert. The Palestinian Arabs were allocated 42% of the land, which had a population of 818,000 Palestinian Arabs and 10,000 Jews, the Jewish leadership accepted the partition plan as the indispensable minimum, glad to gain international recognition but sorry that they did not receive more. The Arabs rejected the partition, not because it was supposedly unfair and they upheld that the rule of Palestine should revert to its inhabitants, in accordance with the provisions of the Charter of the United Nations. According to Article 73b of the Charter, the UN should develop self-government of the peoples in a territory under its administration. In the immediate aftermath of the UNs approval of the partition plan, soon after, violence broke out and became more prevalent. Murders, reprisals, and counter-reprisals came fast upon each other, the sanguinary impasse persisted as no force intervened to put a stop to the escalating violence. During this period the Jewish and Arab communities of British Mandate clashed, while the British organized their withdrawal and intervened only on an occasional basis. In the first two months of the Civil War, around 1,000 people were killed and 2,000 people injured, and by the end of March, the figure had risen to 2,000 dead and 4,000 wounded
26.
Honduras
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Honduras, officially the Republic of Honduras, is a republic in Central America. It has at times referred to as Spanish Honduras to differentiate it from British Honduras. Honduras was home to several important Mesoamerican cultures, most notably the Maya, the Spanish introduced Roman Catholicism and the now predominant Spanish language, along with numerous customs that have blended with the indigenous culture. Honduras has the worlds highest murder rate, Honduras spans about 112,492 km2 and has a population exceeding 8 million. Its northern portions are part of the Western Caribbean Zone, as reflected in the areas demographics and culture. Honduras is known for its natural resources, including minerals, coffee, tropical fruit, and sugar cane, as well as for its growing textiles industry. Honduras literally means depths in Spanish, the name could either refer to the bay of Trujillo as an anchorage, fondura in the Leonese dialect of Spanish, or to Columbuss alleged quote that Gracias a Dios que hemos salido de esas Honduras. It was not until the end of the 16th century that Honduras was used for the whole province, prior to 1580, Honduras only referred to the eastern part of the province, and Higueras referred to the western part. Another early name is Guaymuras, revived as the name for the dialogue in 2009 that took place in Honduras as opposed to Costa Rica. In pre-Columbian times, modern Honduras was part of the Mesoamerican cultural area, in the west, the Maya civilization flourished for hundreds of years. The dominant state within Hondurass borders was in Copán, Copán fell with the other Lowland centres during the conflagrations of the Terminal Classic in the 9th century. The Maya of this civilization survive in western Honduras as the Chorti, remains of other Pre-Columbian cultures are found throughout the country. On 30 July 1502 Columbus sent his brother Bartholomew to explore the islands and Bartholomew encountered a Mayan trading vessel from Yucatán, carrying well-dressed Maya and a rich cargo. Bartholomews men stole whatever cargo they wanted and kidnapped the elderly captain to serve as an interpreter in what was the first recorded encounter between the Spanish and the Maya. In March 1524, Gil González Dávila became the first Spaniard to enter Honduras as a conquistador, followed by Hernán Cortés, bringing forces down from Mexico. Much of the conquest was done in the two decades, first by groups loyal to Cristóbal de Olid, and then by those loyal of Francisco Montejo. In addition to Spanish resources, the conquerors relied heavily on armed forces from Mexico—Tlaxcalans, resistance to conquest was led in particular by Lempira, and many regions in the north never fell to the Spanish, notably the Miskito Kingdom. After the Spanish conquest, Honduras became part of Spains vast empire in the New World within the Kingdom of Guatemala, Trujillo and Gracias were the first city-capitals
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Guatemala
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With an estimated population of around 15.8 million, it is the most populated state in Central America. Guatemala is a democracy, its capital and largest city is Nueva Guatemala de la Asunción. The territory of modern Guatemala once formed the core of the Maya civilization, most of the country was conquered by the Spanish in the 16th century, becoming part of the viceroyalty of New Spain. Guatemala attained independence in 1821 as part of the Federal Republic of Central America, from the mid to late 19th century, Guatemala experienced chronic instability and civil strife. Beginning in the early 20th century, it was ruled by a series of dictators backed by the United Fruit Company, in 1944, authoritarian leader Jorge Ubico was overthrown by a pro-democratic military coup, initiating a decade-long revolution that led to sweeping social and economic reforms. A U. S. -backed military coup in 1954 ended the revolution, from 1960 to 1996, Guatemala endured a bloody civil war fought between the US-backed government and leftist rebels, including genocidal massacres of the Maya population perpetrated by the military. As of 2014, Guatemala ranks 31st of 33 Latin American and Caribbean countries in terms of the Human Development Index, Guatemalas abundance of biologically significant and unique ecosystems includes a large number of endemic species and contributes to Mesoamericas designation as a biodiversity hotspot. The country is known for its rich and distinct culture. The name Guatemala comes from the Nahuatl word Cuauhtēmallān, or place of many trees and this was the name the Tlaxcaltecan soldiers who accompanied Pedro de Alvarado during the Spanish Conquest gave to this territory. The first evidence of habitation in Guatemala dates back to 12,000 BC. Evidence, such as obsidian arrowheads found in parts of the country. There is archaeological proof that early Guatemalan settlers were hunters and gatherers, pollen samples from Petén and the Pacific coast indicate that maize cultivation had been developed by 3500 BC. Sites dating back to 6500 BC have been found in the Quiché region in the Highlands, archaeologists divide the pre-Columbian history of Mesoamerica into the Preclassic period, the Classic period, and the Postclassic period. Until recently, the Preclassic was regarded as a period, with small villages of farmers who lived in huts. This period is characterized by urbanisation, the emergence of independent city-states and this lasted until approximately 900 AD, when the Classic Maya civilization collapsed. The Maya abandoned many of the cities of the lowlands or were killed off by a drought-induced famine. The cause of the collapse is debated, but the Drought Theory is gaining currency, supported by such as lakebeds, ancient pollen. A series of prolonged droughts, among other such as overpopulation, in what is otherwise a seasonal desert is thought to have decimated the Maya
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Miami
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Miami is a seaport city at the southeastern corner of the U. S. state of Florida and its Atlantic coast. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, Miamis metro area is the eighth-most populous, Miami is a major center, and a leader in finance, commerce, culture, media, entertainment, the arts, and international trade. In 2012, Miami was classified as an Alpha−World City in the World Cities Study Groups inventory, in 2010, Miami ranked seventh in the United States in terms of finance, commerce, culture, entertainment, fashion, education, and other sectors. It ranked 33rd among global cities, in 2008, Forbes magazine ranked Miami Americas Cleanest City, for its year-round good air quality, vast green spaces, clean drinking water, clean streets, and citywide recycling programs. According to a 2009 UBS study of 73 world cities, Miami was ranked as the richest city in the United States, Miami is nicknamed the Capital of Latin America and is the largest city with a Cuban-American plurality. Miami has the third tallest skyline in the U. S. with over 300 high-rises, Downtown Miami is home to the largest concentration of international banks in the United States, and many large national and international companies. The Civic Center is a center for hospitals, research institutes, medical centers. For more than two decades, the Port of Miami, known as the Cruise Capital of the World, has been the number one cruise port in the world. It accommodates some of the worlds largest cruise ships and operations, Metropolitan Miami is the major tourism hub in the American South, number two in the U. S. after New York City and number 13 in the world, including the popular destination of Miami Beach. The Miami area was inhabited for thousands of years by indigenous Native American tribes, the Tequestas occupied the area for a thousand years before encountering Europeans. An Indian village of hundreds of people dating to 500–600 B. C. was located at the mouth of the Miami River, in 1566 the explorer, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, claimed it for Spain. A Spanish mission was constructed one year later in 1567, Spain and Great Britain successively controlled Florida, and Spain ceded it to the United States in 1821. In 1836, the US built Fort Dallas as part of its development of the Florida Territory and attempt to suppress, the Miami area subsequently became a site of fighting during the Second Seminole War. Miami is noted as the major city in the United States conceived by a woman, Julia Tuttle, a local citrus grower. The Miami area was known as Biscayne Bay Country in the early years of its growth. In the late 19th century, reports described the area as a promising wilderness, the area was also characterized as one of the finest building sites in Florida. The Great Freeze of 1894–95 hastened Miamis growth, as the crops of the Miami area were the ones in Florida that survived. Julia Tuttle subsequently convinced Henry Flagler, a tycoon, to expand his Florida East Coast Railway to the region
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Curtiss C-46 Commando
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The Curtiss C-46 Commando is a transport aircraft derived from the Curtiss CW-20 pressurised high-altitude airliner design. Early press reports used the name Condor III but the Commando name was in use by early 1942 in company publicity. It was used as a transport during World War II by the United States Army Air Forces and also the U. S. Navy/Marine Corps. The C-46 served in a role to its Douglas-built counterpart, the C-47 Skytrain. At the time of its mass-production, the C-46 was the second-largest, the type continued in U. S. Air Force service in a secondary role until 1968. The C-46 continues in operation as a cargo transport for Arctic. The prototype for what would become the C-46, the Curtiss CW-20, was designed in 1937 by George A, page Jr. the chief aircraft designer at Curtiss-Wright. The CW-20 was a private venture intended to compete with the four-engined Douglas DC-4, the CW-20 had a patented fuselage conventionally referred to as a figure-eight which enabled it to better withstand the pressure differential at high altitudes. This was done by having the sides of the fuselage creased at the level of the floor that not only separated the two portions but shared in the stress of each, rather than just supporting itself. The main spar of the wing could pass through the section which was mainly intended for cargo without intruding on the passenger upper compartment. Engineering work involved a commitment from the company and incorporated an extensive amount of wind tunnel testing at the California Institute of Technology. The resultant design was a large but aerodynamically sleek airliner, incorporating the cockpit in a glazed dome. The engines featured a unique nacelle tunnel cowl where air was ducted in and expelled through the bottom of the cowl, reducing turbulent airflow, after a mockup was constructed in 1938, Curtiss-Wright exhibited the innovative project as a display in the 1939 New York Worlds Fair. The company approached many airlines in order to obtain their requirements for an advanced airliner, no firm orders resulted, although 25 letters of intent were received, sufficient to begin production. The design of a 24–34 passenger airliner proceeded to stage as the CW-20 at the St. Louis. Powered by two 1,700 hp R-2600-C14-BA2 Wright Twin Cyclones, the prototype, registered NX-19436 flew for the first time on 26 March 1940 with test pilot Edmund T. After testing, modifications were instituted, including the fitting of a single tail to improve stability at low speeds. The first prototype was purchased by the United States Army Air Forces to serve as a master for the series and was designated C-55, after military evaluation, the sole example was returned to Curtiss-Wright and subsequently re-sold to the British Overseas Airways Corporation
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External debt
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External debt is the total debt a country owes to foreign creditors, complemented by internal debt owed to domestic lenders. The debtors can be the government, corporations or citizens of that country, the debt includes money owed to private commercial banks, other governments, or international financial institutions such as the International Monetary Fund and World Bank. Note that the use of gross liability figures greatly distorts the ratio for countries which contain major money centers such as the United Kingdom due to Londons role as a financial capital, contrast with net international investment position. In this definition, the IMF defines the key elements as follows, Outstanding, principal and interest When the cost of borrowing is paid periodically, as commonly occurs, it is known as an interest payment. All other payments of economic value by the debtor to the creditor that reduce the amount outstanding are known as principal payments. However, the definition of external debt does not distinguish between principal payments or interest payments, or payments for both, also, the definition does not specify that the timing of the future payments of principal and/or interest need be known for a liability to be classified as debt. Residence To qualify as external debt, the debt liabilities must be owed by a resident to a nonresident, residence is determined by where the debtor and creditor have their centers of economic interest—typically, where they are ordinarily located—and not by their nationality. Current and not contingent Contingent liabilities are not included in the definition of external debt and these are defined as arrangements under which one or more conditions must be fulfilled before a financial transaction takes place. Generally, external debt is classified into four heads, public and publicly guaranteed debt, private non-guaranteed credits, central bank deposits, however, the exact treatment varies from country to country. External-debt-sustainability analysis is conducted in the context of medium-term scenarios. In these analysis, macroeconomic uncertainties, such as the outlook for the current account, high external debt is believed to be harmful for the economy. There are various indicators for determining a sustainable level of external debt, while each has its own advantage and peculiarity to deal with particular situations, there is no unanimous opinion amongst economists as to a sole indicator. These indicators are primarily in the nature of ratios—i. e, comparison between two heads and the relation thereon and thus facilitate the policy makers in their external debt management exercise. Examples of debt burden indicators include the Debt-to-GDP ratio, foreign debt to exports ratio and this set of indicators also covers the structure of the outstanding debt, including, Share of foreign debt, Short-term debt, and Concessional debt in the total debt stock. A second set of indicators focuses on the short-term liquidity requirements of the country with respect to its service obligations. These indicators are not only useful early-warning signs of service problems. The dynamic ratios show how the debt-burden ratios would change in the absence of repayments or new disbursements, an example of a dynamic ratio is the ratio of the average interest rate on outstanding debt to the growth rate of nominal GDP
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