1.
A for Andromeda
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A for Andromeda is a British television science fiction drama serial first made and broadcast by the BBC in seven parts in 1961. The serial was the first major role for the actress Julie Christie, only one episode of the original production survives, along with a few short extracts from other episodes. A for Andromeda has been remade twice, first by the Italian state television RAI in 1972, a sequel, The Andromeda Breakthrough, was made by the BBC in 1962. The opening titles of each episode are prefaced by an interview in which Professor Ernst Reinhart looks back on the events of the serial. Britain,1970 – a new telescope, designed by the young scientists John Fleming. Shortly before its opening, the telescope picks up a signal from the distant Andromeda Nebula. Examining the signal, Fleming realises that the signal is a computer program, Fleming is permitted to use the computer facilities at the London Institute of Electronics, where he is aided by Christine. Using the computer to decode the message, Fleming realises that the contains a set of instructions for the construction of another more advanced computer. The message also contains another programme for the computer to run, Bridger meanwhile, has sold out to an international conglomerate called Intel, represented by the sinister Kaufmann. The British government decides to build the computer at an establishment at Thorness in Scotland. The computer is switched on and begins to output its first set of instructions, the team at Thorness is joined by the biologist Madeline Dawnay. The computer is outputting instructions for the creation of living cells, Fleming becomes nervous, worried that whatever life-form they are creating may not have humanitys best interests at heart. Dawney proceeds with the experiment, however, synthesising a primitive protoplasmic life-form, in the meantime, Bridgers leaking of Thorness secrets has been discovered. Bridger is confronted by Ministry of Defence agent Judy Adamson, fleeing he tumbles over a cliff to his death and it is now 1971 and the protoplasmic lifeform, now nicknamed Cyclops on account of its giant eye, continues to grow. Fleming has become more sceptical about the project, certain that the computer has its own agenda. He comes to realise that two terminals positioned either side of the main display have the ability to affect the brainwaves of those who stand near it. His warnings are not heeded, however, and Christine, mesmerised by Cyclops, following Christines death, the computer outputs a new set of instructions – this time for the creation of a complete human embryo. Fleming is horrified and demands that it be killed, the embryo rapidly grows to maturity, everyone is stunned when it is revealed to be a clone of the deceased Christine
2.
Science fiction
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Science fiction often explores the potential consequences of scientific and other innovations, and has been called a literature of ideas. Science fiction is difficult to define, as it includes a range of subgenres and themes. Author and editor Damon Knight summed up the difficulty, saying science fiction is what we point to when we say it, a definition echoed by author Mark C. Glassy, who argues that the definition of science fiction is like the definition of pornography, you do not know what it is, in 1970 or 1971William Atheling Jr. According to science fiction writer Robert A, rod Serlings definition is fantasy is the impossible made probable. Science fiction is the improbable made possible, Science fiction is largely based on writing rationally about alternative possible worlds or futures. Science fiction elements include, A time setting in the future, in alternative timelines, a spatial setting or scenes in outer space, on other worlds, or on subterranean earth. Characters that include aliens, mutants, androids, or humanoid robots, futuristic or plausible technology such as ray guns, teleportation machines, and humanoid computers. Scientific principles that are new or that contradict accepted physical laws, for time travel, wormholes. New and different political or social systems, e. g. utopian, dystopian, post-scarcity, paranormal abilities such as mind control, telepathy, telekinesis Other universes or dimensions and travel between them. A product of the budding Age of Reason and the development of science itself. Isaac Asimov and Carl Sagan considered Keplers work the first science fiction story and it depicts a journey to the Moon and how the Earths motion is seen from there. Later, Edgar Allan Poe wrote a story about a flight to the moon, more examples appeared throughout the 19th century. Wells The War of the Worlds describes an invasion of late Victorian England by Martians using tripod fighting machines equipped with advanced weaponry and it is a seminal depiction of an alien invasion of Earth. In the late 19th century, the scientific romance was used in Britain to describe much of this fiction. This produced additional offshoots, such as the 1884 novella Flatland, the term would continue to be used into the early 20th century for writers such as Olaf Stapledon. In the early 20th century, pulp magazines helped develop a new generation of mainly American SF writers, influenced by Hugo Gernsback, the founder of Amazing Stories magazine. In 1912 Edgar Rice Burroughs published A Princess of Mars, the first of his series of Barsoom novels, situated on Mars
3.
Gene Roddenberry
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Eugene Wesley Gene Roddenberry was an American television screenwriter and producer. He is best remembered for creating the original Star Trek television series, born in El Paso, Texas, Roddenberry grew up in Los Angeles, where his father was a police officer. Roddenberry flew 89 combat missions in the Army Air Forces during World War II, later, he followed in his fathers footsteps and joined the Los Angeles Police Department, where he also began to write scripts for television. As a freelance writer, Roddenberry wrote scripts for Highway Patrol, Have Gun–Will Travel, in 1964, Roddenberry created Star Trek, which premiered in 1966 and ran for three seasons before being canceled. He then worked on projects, including a string of failed television pilots. The syndication of Star Trek led to its popularity, this, in turn, resulted in the Star Trek feature films, on which Roddenberry continued to produce. He continued to consult on the series until his death in 1991, years after his death, Roddenberry was one of the first humans to have his ashes carried into earth orbit. The popularity of the Star Trek universe and films has inspired films, books, comic books, video games, and fan films set in the Star Trek universe. Roddenberry was born on August 19,1921, in his parents rented home in El Paso, Texas, the family moved to Los Angeles in 1923 after Genes father passed the Civil Service test and was given a police commission there. During his childhood, Roddenberry was interested in reading, especially magazines, and was a fan of stories such as John Carter of Mars, Tarzan. Roddenberry majored in science at Los Angeles City College, where he began dating Eileen-Anita Rexroat. He obtained a license through the United States Army Air Corps-sponsored Civilian Pilot Training Program. He enlisted with the USAAC on December 18,1941, and he graduated from the USAAC on August 5,1942, when he was commissioned as a second lieutenant. He was posted to Bellows Field, Oahu, to join the 394th Bomb Squadron, 5th Bombardment Group, of the Thirteenth Air Force, which flew the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress. On August 2,1943, while flying out of Espiritu Santo, the plane Roddenberry was piloting overshot the runway by 500 feet and impacted trees, crushing the nose, the official report absolved Roddenberry of any responsibility. Roddenberry spent the remainder of his career in the United States. He was involved in a plane crash, this time as a passenger. He was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross and the Air Medal, in 1945, Roddenberry began flying for Pan American World Airways, including routes from New York to Johannesburg or Calcutta, the two longest Pan Am routes at the time
4.
Kevin Sorbo
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Kevin David Sorbo is an American actor. He is best known for his roles in two television series, as Hercules in Hercules, The Legendary Journeys, and as Captain Dylan Hunt in Andromeda. Kevin Sorbo was born in Mound, Minnesota, where he attended Mound Westonka High School and he is the son of Ardis, a nurse, and Lynn Sorbo, a junior high school mathematics and biology teacher. His father is of Norwegian descent, while his mother has English, German and he was raised in a Lutheran family. Sorbo attended Minnesota State University Moorhead, where he majored in marketing and advertising. To help make tuition, he began to work as a model for print, Sorbo started his acting career in 1986 making guest appearances in several television series such as 1st & Ten, Murder She Wrote and The Commish. He worked in commercials, and in 1993 he began a series of international TV ads for Jim Beam bourbon whiskey. In 1994, he got his breakthrough leading role of Hercules in a series of television pilots first of which was titled Hercules and the Amazon Women. These pilots led to him starring in the adventure series Hercules, The Legendary Journeys. He also directed a few episodes of the series, in between the years playing Hercules, he played his first leading film role in Kull the Conqueror. After Hercules came to an end, Sorbo played the role of Captain Dylan Hunt in the science-fiction drama series Andromeda from 2000 to 2005. In 2006, he played a role on the final season of The O. C. and guest-starred in the sitcom Two. In 2007, he starred in the direct-to-video film Walking Tall, The Payback and he reprised his role in the second sequel, Walking Tall, Lone Justice which released later that year. He appeared in the 2008 spoof film Meet the Spartans, which was a box success despite being universally negatively reviewed by critics. He starred in the Albert Pyun directed science fiction vampire film Tales of an Ancient Empire and he served as Executive Producer and star of the movie Abels Field in 2012. In 2012, Sorbo appeared in an episode of Celebrity Ghost Stories to recount an experience he had while in Minnesota shortly after he graduated from college. He and his girlfriend claimed to have seen the ghost of the Bride of White Rock Lake – a woman who died on her wedding day. Sorbo voiced one of the protagonists, Prometheus, in the Wii video game The Conduit
5.
Lexa Doig
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Alexandra Lecciones Lexa Doig is a Canadian actress. She portrayed the role in the 2000–05 Canadian-American science fiction-adventure television series Andromeda. She also portrayed the lead role of Rowan in the science fiction-horror movie Jason X. Doig was born in Toronto, Ontario, Canada and she is the younger child of Gloria B. As a child, Doig studied rhythmic gymnastics and, as a teenager, at the age of six, she wrote and directed her first school play, Strawberry Shortcake, giving the lead role to her best friend. She developed a strong interest in acting and became inspired to become an actor at age 9 after she watched a production of Porgy and Bess. She chose to drop out from her year in high school to pursue an acting career as occupation. The initial media exposure led to her co-hosting the Canadian game show Video & Arcade Top 10, while auditioning for television and film roles, she worked on theatre productions of Romeo and Juliet and Arsenic and Old Lace. Her first television acting role was as Second Girl on The Hidden Room in 1993 and her first recurring role was in the TV series TekWar in 1994 where she portrayed the role of Cowgirl. Her first movie role was in Jungleground and she was considered for the role of Anne Lindsay in Highlander the series and Renee Palmer in Earth, Final Conflict. Doig got her first big break with a role in the movie No Alibi in 2000. In 2001, she played the lead role of “Dr. Rowan LaFontaine” in the horror film Jason X. In a recurring role as Dr. Carolyn Lam, Doig appeared in 11 episodes of the ninth and tenth seasons of Stargate SG-1 between 2005–2007, in 2010, Doig appeared in six episodes in the remake of V as the alien physician Dr. Leah Pearlman. In 2012, she playing the role of Liber8 terrorist Sonya Valentine in the Canadian science fiction TV series Continuum. In 2017, Doig appears in a role in the fifth season of Arrow as Talia al Ghul. Lexa Doig dated actor Michael Shanks after they met on the set of Andromeda, where the former starred and they married on August 2,2003, and they worked together again in the 2003 episode Day of Judgment, Day of Wrath of the same TV series. The couple were castmates in the two seasons of Stargate SG-1. They have two children, in addition to Shanks child by a previous relationship, Doig divides her time between Vancouver, where she works, and Toronto, where she grew up
6.
Laura Bertram
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Laura Maureen Bertram is a Canadian actress best known for her role in Andromeda as Trance Gemini. Bertram was born in Toronto, Ontario, and lives in Vancouver and she earned her degree in history from the University of Guelph. She has two sisters named Heather and Jennifer, who are former actresses. In 1997, Bertram was an instructor at Kilcoo Camp. She also used to sing in the Canadian Childrens Opera Chorus and her credits include the TV series Ready or Not, Are You Afraid of the Dark. Seasons of Love, and Andromeda as Trance Gemini, and the movies Night of the Twisters and she was a series regular on Season 2 of Robson Arms. Bertram is a school teacher, in addition, she also teaches young actors at Biz Studio in Vancouver. Laura Bertram at the Internet Movie Database
7.
Steve Bacic
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Steve Bacic is a Croatian-born Canadian actor. He is known for playing the character Telemachus Rhade on the Sci-Fi series Gene Roddenberrys Andromeda, after being a guest star in season 1-3, he joined the cast early in season four. In total, he was in 44 of the 110 Andromeda episodes, beginning in 2013, he co-starred as Jason in Hallmark Movies & Mysteries channel Garage Sale Mysteries series of TV films. Bacic was born in Lisičić, a village in Croatia and raised in Windsor, Ontario and he has stated that acting was really his second choice - he really wanted to be a professional athlete and become either a coach or a physical therapist. After graduating from university with a degree in kinesiology, he spent some time at a factory job and, at one point, had his own auto refurbishing business. In his mid-twenties, a trip with friends led to settling into Vancouver, Canada. He later took acting classes and met rising stars like Ethan Hawke in the process and he did a little work with Hawke and others in their movies and real auditions and a few modeling gigs followed. He went in to read for a bit part in the 5th season of 21 Jump Street but instead landed the lead guest-starring role - a first for a Canadian for the series. His film appearances include The 6th Day, Threshold, X2 and the Hallmark Channel film The Colt, Bacic also played Prince Barin in the 2007 Flash Gordon TV series. His TV series The Guard premiered January 22,2008 on GlobalTV in Canada and he plays Miro Da Silva, one of the four leads. The series is a series about the Canadian Coast Guard. He has been cast as Dark Archer in the season of Smallville in episode 10 called Disciple. He plays Goran on the HBO show Big Love, season 4 and he is married with 3 children and enjoys sports, including basketball and snowboarding. |- |2016 |A Christmas to Remember |Brad |Hallmark channel |- Steve Bacics official site Steve Bacic at the Internet Movie Database
8.
Brandy Ledford
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Brandy Lee Ledford is an American actress, model and Penthouse magazines 1992 Pet of the Year. She played the role of Desiree on Modern Family, starred as Dawn Masterton on Baywatch Hawaii, Ledford was born in Denver, Colorado. In the early 1990s, she was married to snowboarder Damian Sanders and she was also married to actor Martin Cummins, with whom she shares a child. Ledford is a devout, non-denominational Christian who believes in acceptance, tolerance and love for all
9.
Majel Barrett
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Majel Barrett-Roddenberry was an American actress and producer. She became the wife of Star Trek creator Gene Roddenberry. Roddenberry and she were married in Japan on August 6,1969 and they had one son together, Eugene Rod Roddenberry, Jr. born in 1974. Majel began taking acting classes as a child and she attended Shaker Heights High School, graduating in 1950 before going on to the University of Miami in Coral Gables, Florida, then had some stage roles and came to Hollywood. Her father, William Hudec, was a Cleveland police officer and he was killed in the line of duty in 1955 while Majel was touring with an off-Broadway road company. She was briefly seen in Will Success Spoil Rock Hunter, in an ad parody at the beginning of the film, and had roles in a few movies, including Love in a Goldfish Bowl, Sylvia, A Guide for the Married Man, and Track of Thunder. She worked at the Desilu Studios on several TV shows, including Bonanza, The Untouchables, The Lucy Show and she received training in comedy from Lucille Ball. In 1960, she played Gwen Rutherford on Leave It to Beaver and she first appeared in Star Treks initial pilot, The Cage, as the USS Enterprises brunette unnamed first officer, Number One. William Shatner corroborated this in Star Trek Memories, and added that viewers at test screenings hated the character. Shatner noted that viewers felt she was pushy and annoying. Her role in subsequent episodes of Star Trek was altered to that of blonde Nurse Christine Chapel and her first appearance as Chapel in film dailies prompted NBC executive Jerry Stanley to yodel Well, well--look whos back. In an early scene in Star Trek, The Motion Picture, viewers are informed that she has now become Doctor Chapel, a role which she reprised briefly in Star Trek IV, The Voyage Home. Barrett provided several voices for Star Trek, The Animated Series, including those of Nurse Chapel and an officer named MRess. Her character often vexed the captain of the Enterprise, Jean-Luc Picard, Barrett later appeared as Ambassador Troi in several episodes of Star Trek, Deep Space Nine, where in stark contrast, she developed a strong relationship with Constable Odo. She reprised her role as a shipboard computers voice in two episodes of the prequel series Star Trek, Enterprise, thus making her the actor to have a role in all six televised Star Trek series. She also lent her voice to various games and software related to the franchise. The iconic association of her voice to interactions with computers led to Googles Assistant project being initially codenamed Google Majel, Barrett had also made a point of attending a major Star Trek convention each year in an effort to inspire fans and keep the franchise alive. Barrett is also one of six actors to lend their voices to the CD-ROM Star Trek, Captains Chair, sean Rossall, a Roddenberry family spokesman, stated that she had already completed the voiceover work, around December 4,2008
10.
Tribune Entertainment
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Tribune Studios, formerly Tribune Entertainment, is a television production and syndication company owned and operated by Tribune Broadcasting. The company was started as Tribune Entertainment in the mid-1980s, many programs offered from Tribune Entertainment have been broadcast on the companys television stations. Throughout the companys existence, Tribune Entertainment mainly produced first-run syndicated programs, Tribune Entertainment was founded in 1980. The first programs that Tribune distributed for syndication were the news program U. S. In 1982, Tribune picked-up newspaper film critics Roger Ebert and Gene Siskel under the name of At the Movies before losing the hosts four year later to Buena Vista Television. In 1985, another long-running program that Tribune had distributed was the syndicated musical Soul Train, just 9 years after it moved to WGN-TV, from syndication, which debuted in 1971. In 1989, Tribune signed comedienne Joan Rivers to host the syndicated talk program, The Joan Rivers Show. On March 1,1991, Tribune had its Geraldo show as the first US program in the USSR under the recent Glasnost policy. In January 1994, Tribune Entertainment started a music initiative across broadcast television, concert touring, direct marketing, home video distribution, pay-per-view. Under the initiative programming would start in the fall 1994 with a syndicated country music television and companion radio program then home video releases. Tribune announced as a part of initiative to operate Road performance clubs. In July 1995, Tribune sold 22 episodes of Road, their country music show. In July 2003, the company purchased syndication rights to 34 DreamWorks feature films to use on Tribune stations starting in August 2006, the films would be also sold to other stations via barter or sale while supervising marketing for the films. On December 18,2007, Tribune Entertainment announced it would exit the program distribution business, in 2008, it sold its Tribune Studios for $125 million to Hudson Capital, LLC. Both programs filmed pilot programs and Bill Cunninghams show aired during a long test on Tribune stations. On March 19,2013, Tribune appointed Warner Bros. executive Matt Cherniss as president/general manager of a production division called Tribune Studios. Tribune Studios will produce programs primarily for the companys 23 television stations and WGN America, the initial programs produced by the company starting with the 2012-13 season will include The Bill Cunningham Show, The Arsenio Hall Show and The Test. Tribune Studios first original drama, since its revival, for its sister company WGN America was Manhattan which aired from 2014 to 2015 for 2 seasons, and T. S. and Octagon Entertainment Productions
11.
Global Television Network
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Global Television Network is a privately owned Canadian English-language broadcast television network. It is currently Canadas second most-watched broadcast television network after CTV, Global is owned by Corus Entertainment — the media holdings of JR Shaw and other members of his family. Global has its origins in a television station of the same name, serving Southern Ontario. The Ontario station was purchased by the now-defunct CanWest Global Communications. The national entity was known as the CanWest Global System until adopting the Ontario stations branding in 1997. The network has its origins in NTV, a new network first proposed in 1966 by Hamilton media proprietor Ken Soble, financially backed by Power Corporation of Canada, Soble submitted a brief to the Board of Broadcast Governors in 1966 proposing a national satellite-fed network. Under the plan, Sobles company would launch Canadas first broadcast satellite, Soble had originally formulated the plan after failing in a bid to acquire CTV. As well, it failed to any plan for local news content on any of its individual stations beyond possibly the metropolitan Toronto, Montreal. He then put together another investment team to form Global Communications, by 1970, the Canadian Radio and Television Commission had put out a formal call for third stations in several major cities. Because Niagara Television and CHCH were no longer involved in the proposal, the network license was approved by the CRTC on July 21,1972. The group was granted a six-transmitter network in Southern Ontario, stretching from Windsor to Ottawa and they had also sought a seventh transmitter in Maxville that could reach Montreal, but were turned down because of a CRTC moratorium on new stations in the Montreal market. The transmitters would all be fed from a studio in Toronto. The group promised a high level of Canadian content and agreed not to accept local advertising, however, the OECA declined the offer, opting instead to expand the TVOntario network by launching its own transmitters. The new Global Television Network, with the callsign CKGN-TV, launched on January 6,1974 from studios located at a factory in the Don Mills neighbourhood in North York at 6 p. m. local time. Although the Ontario station has always been based in Toronto, its transmitter was licensed to Paris, Ontario. The station ran into a crisis within just three months. Due to the CRTC decision, it was forced to launch at midseason, as a result of the crisis, the station quickly lost access to its line of credit. Aspers company, CanWest Capital, owned CKND-TV in Winnipeg, which was carrying some of Globals programs under a syndication deal
12.
Syfy
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Syfy is an American basic cable and satellite television channel that is owned by the NBCUniversal Cable Entertainment Group division of NBCUniversal, a subsidiary of Comcast. The channel features science fiction, fantasy, horror, supernatural, paranormal, drama, as of February 2015, approximately 94.8 million American households receive Syfy. In March 1992, the concept was picked up by USA Networks, Star Treks creator Gene Roddenberry and author Isaac Asimov were among those on the initial advisory board, but both had died by the time the channel finally launched on September 24,1992. Rubenstein recalled, The first thing that was on the screen was Dedicated to the memories of Isaac Asimov, leonard Nimoy was master of ceremonies at the channels launch party, held at the Hayden Planetarium in Manhattan. Asimovs widow Janet and Roddenberrys widow Majel Barrett were both in attendance, the first program shown on the network was the film Star Wars. In 1994, Paramount was sold to Viacom, followed by Seagrams purchase of a stake in MCA from Matsushita (a. k. a Matsushita Electric Industrial Co. Ltd. the next year. In 1997, Viacom sold its stake in USA Networks to Universal, Three years later, Diller would sell these assets back to Universal, by then a subsidiary of Vivendi SA. Vivendis film and television production and cable television assets were merged with General Electrics NBC to form NBC Universal in 2004. A high definition version of the launched on October 3,2007 on DirecTV. In 2013, Syfy was awarded the James Randi Educational Foundations Pigasus Award, from 1992 to 1999, the networks first logo consisted of a planet with a ring, which made to look like Saturn, and it has SCI-FI CHANNEL written on it. The networks second logo ran from 1999 to 2002, which dropped the hyphen, the networks third and final logo ran from 2002 to 2009, and was designed by Lambie-Nairn. The logo made its debut on December 2,2002, with the launch of the Steven Spielberg miniseries Taken, the network also launched a new image campaign with the tagline If, which expresses the limitless possibilities of the imagination. Identification bumps depicted surreal situations such as a baby breathing fire, on March 16,2009, NBCUniversal announced that Sci Fi was rebranding as Syfy. The name change was greeted with initial negativity, with people deliberately mispronouncing Syfy as SIF-ee, SKIF-ee, the new name took effect on July 7,2009. Syfy has since added reality shows and edged further from strictly science fiction, fantasy, in Polish, Syfy does not suggest imagination or science fiction, but rather syphilis. Syfys programming includes original made-for-cable movies, miniseries, and series, in the past, the channel concentrated on classic science fiction shows. However, under NBCUniversal ownership, the channel has altered its programming to more mainstream audiences. In 2006, it began airing programs such as Law & Order, Special Victims Unit, ECW, the network had gained significant international attention for its successful original miniseries and subsequent four-season series Battlestar Galactica
13.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
14.
Science fiction on television
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Science fiction first appeared in television programming in the late 1930s, during what is called the Golden Age of Science Fiction. Special effects and other techniques allow creators to present a living visual image of an imaginary world not limited by the constraints of reality. The combination of initial cost and lower maintenance cost pushed producers into building these techniques into the basic concept of a series. The broad term special effects includes all the techniques here, visual effects involve photographic or digital manipulation of the onscreen image, usually done in post-production. Mechanical or physical effects involve props, pyrotechnics, and other methods used during principal photography itself. Some effects involved a combination of techniques, a ray gun might require a pyrotechnic during filming, stunts are another important category of physical effects. In general, all kinds of special effects must be planned during pre-production. Babylon 5 was the first series to use computer-generated imagery, or CGI, for all exterior space scenes, the technology has made this more practical, so that today models are rarely used. In the 1990s, CGI required expensive processors and customized applications, models have been an essential tool in science fiction television since the beginning, when Buck Rogers took flight in spark-scattering spaceships wheeling across a matte backdrop sky. The original Star Trek required an array of models, the USS Enterprise had to be built in several different scales for different needs. Gerry Anderson created a series of using puppets living in a universe of models and miniature sets. ALF depicted an alien living in a family, while Farscape included two puppets as regular characters, in Stargate SG-1, the Asgard characters are puppets in scenes where they are sitting, standing, or lying down. As animation is completely free of the constraints of gravity, momentum, in general, science fiction series are subject to the same financial constraints as other television shows. However, high production costs increase the risk, while limited audiences further complicate the business case for continuing production. Star Trek was the first television series to cost more than $100,000 per episode, while Star Trek and this enabled merchandising such as toy lines, animated cartoon adaptations, and other licensing. Creative settings also often call for broader story arcs than is found in mainstream television. Science fiction television producers will sometimes end a season with a cliffhanger episode to attract viewer interest. Dark Angel is one of many shows ending with a scene that left critical questions open when the series was cancelled
15.
Dylan Hunt (Andromeda character)
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This is a list of characters from the TV series Andromeda. Dylan Hunt, portrayed by Kevin Sorbo, is a member of the Intergalactic Systems Commonwealth High Guard, because of this, he is much stronger and faster than the average human. He then attended the High Guard Academy and graduated with honors and he served in Argosy Special Ops and commanded or served on the Crimson Eclipse. When he confronted Ferrin, he was shot in the side and he dated Sarah Riley for several years and they were going to get married until Dylan was presumed dead or lost at the Battle of Hephaistos. At the Battle of Hephaistos, Dylan was betrayed by his first officer and best man, the men and women of his crew abandoned ship and he killed Gaheris in self-defence. The starship Andromeda was pulled near a hole and experienced severe time dilation. While only seconds passed for Dylan and the Andromeda,303 years passed for the rest of the universe, though the Black Holes Avatar Marida tries to convince him to stay, she fails. Dylan was rescued when the Eureka Maru attempted to salvage the Andromeda and he convinced the crew of the Maru to join him and help him restore the now fallen Systems Commonwealth. He helped form a small Restored Systems Commonwealth, with about 50 member worlds, when he found out his father was a Paradine, he learned that he also had space-time manipulation powers, although it took him a while to learn how to use them. Bekas semi-rich mother Senator Talia Waterkurk, left the Maru crew when she was 7, her Uncle Sid also left when she was a child when he, Bekas older brother Raphael Valentine left the Maru some time before Ignatius death in CY10097. Some time after inheriting the Maru, Captain Beka Valentine meets Bobby Jensen and they date for a while and Bobby becomes Bekas only crew member, until he lies to her about the nature of cargo they picked up on Earth with the help of Seamus Harper. Beka breaks up with Bobby and hires Harper, later hiring Rev Bem, Vexpag, in CY10087 the Maru pulls the Andromeda Ascendant out of the Hephaistos black hole while under contract with Gerentex. The crew join Dylan Hunt to restore the Systems Commonwealth and Beka becomes Andromedas First Officer, at first Beka is skeptical about Dylans quest, taking advantage of the free food and housing provided by Andromeda. But after a couple years Beka finds herself believing in the dream of a Restored Systems Commonwealth, Beka is very loyal and protective of her crew, she would sooner die than let them down. When things go wrong Beka used to leaving the Andromeda behind. After being on Andromeda for five years, Beka’s ability to cope with risk-taking improves, although she doesn’t tolerate being lied to, Beka often deals in secrecy, whether it’s looking for the big score or looking for the Engine of Creation. Beka spent her life on the Eureka Maru, and although her friends and family have come and gone, Beka. Bekas strength and reflexes have been altered to make her reaction time faster and these alterations were passed down from her father, who was himself genetically altered
16.
Vancouver
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Vancouver is a coastal seaport city in Canada, located in the Lower Mainland region of British Columbia. As the most populous city in the province, the 2016 census recorded 631,486 people in the city, the Greater Vancouver area had a population of 2,463,431 in 2016, making it the third largest metropolitan area in Canada. Vancouver has the highest population density in Canada with over 5,400 people per square kilometre. With over 250,000 residents, Vancouver municipality is the fourth most densely populated city in North America behind New York City, San Francisco, and Mexico City according to the 2011 census. In that census, Vancouver was one of the most ethnically and linguistically diverse cities in Canada, Vancouver is classed as a Beta global city. In 2014, following thirty years in California, the annual TED conference made Vancouver its indefinite home, several matches of the 2015 FIFA Womens World Cup were played in Vancouver, including the final at BC Place Stadium. From that first enterprise, other stores and some hotels quickly appeared along the waterfront to the west, Gastown became formally laid out as a registered townsite dubbed Granville, B. I. As of 2014, Port Metro Vancouver is the third largest port by tonnage in the Americas, 27th in the world, the busiest and largest in Canada, and the most diversified port in North America. While forestry remains its largest industry, Vancouver is well known as an urban centre surrounded by nature, archaeological records indicate the presence of Aboriginal people in the Vancouver area from 8,000 to 10,000 years ago. The city is located in the territories of the Squamish, Musqueam. They had villages in various parts of present-day Vancouver, such as Stanley Park, False Creek, Kitsilano, Point Grey, the city takes its name from George Vancouver, who explored the inner harbour of Burrard Inlet in 1792 and gave various places British names. The explorer and North West Company trader Simon Fraser and his became the first known Europeans to set foot on the site of the present-day city. In 1808, they travelled from the east down the Fraser River, perhaps as far as Point Grey. The Fraser Gold Rush of 1858 brought over 25,000 men, mainly from California, to nearby New Westminster on the Fraser River, on their way to the Fraser Canyon, a sawmill established at Moodyville in 1863, began the citys long relationship with logging. It was quickly followed by mills owned by Captain Edward Stamp on the shore of the inlet. This mill, known as the Hastings Mill, became the nucleus around which Vancouver formed, the mills central role in the city waned after the arrival of the Canadian Pacific Railway in the 1880s. It nevertheless remained important to the economy until it closed in the 1920s. The settlement which came to be called Gastown grew up quickly around the original makeshift tavern established by Gassy Jack Deighton in 1867 on the edge of the Hastings Mill property
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British Columbia
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British Columbia is the westernmost province of Canada, with a population of more than four million people located between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains. British Columbia is also a component of the Pacific Northwest and the Cascadia bioregion, along with the U. S. states of Idaho, Oregon, Washington and Alaska. The first British settlement in the area was Fort Victoria, established in 1843, subsequently, on the mainland, the Colony of British Columbia was founded by Richard Clement Moody and the Royal Engineers, Columbia Detachment, in response to the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush. Port Moody is named after him, in 1866, Vancouver Island became part of the colony of British Columbia, and Victoria became the united colonys capital. In 1871, British Columbia became the province of Canada. Its Latin motto is Splendor sine occasu, the capital of British Columbia remains Victoria, the fifteenth-largest metropolitan region in Canada, named for the Queen who created the original European colonies. The largest city is Vancouver, the third-largest metropolitan area in Canada, the largest in Western Canada, in October 2013, British Columbia had an estimated population of 4,606,371. British Columbia evolved from British possessions that were established in what is now British Columbia by 1871, First Nations, the original inhabitants of the land, have a history of at least 10,000 years in the area. Today there are few treaties and the question of Aboriginal Title, notably, the Tsilhqotin Nation has established Aboriginal title to a portion of their territory, as a result of the recent Supreme Court of Canada decision. BCs economy is diverse, with service producing industries accounting for the largest portion of the provinces GDP and it is the endpoint of transcontinental railways, and the site of major Pacific ports that enable international trade. Though less than 5% of its vast 944,735 km2 land is arable and its climate encourages outdoor recreation and tourism, though its economic mainstay has long been resource extraction, principally logging, farming, and mining. Vancouver, the provinces largest city and metropolitan area, also serves as the headquarters of many western-based natural resource companies and it also benefits from a strong housing market and a per capita income well above the national average. The Northern Interior region has a climate with very cold winters. The climate of Vancouver is by far the mildest winter climate of the major Canadian cities, the provinces name was chosen by Queen Victoria, when the Colony of British Columbia, i. e. the Mainland, became a British colony in 1858. The current southern border of British Columbia was established by the 1846 Oregon Treaty, British Columbias land area is 944,735 square kilometres. British Columbias rugged coastline stretches for more than 27,000 kilometres and it is the only province in Canada that borders the Pacific Ocean. British Columbias capital is Victoria, located at the tip of Vancouver Island. Only a narrow strip of the Island, from Campbell River to Victoria, is significantly populated, much of the western part of Vancouver Island and the rest of the coast is covered by thick, tall and sometimes impenetrable temperate rainforest
18.
Tribune Broadcasting
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Tribune Broadcasting is an American media company which operates as a subsidiary of Tribune Media, a media conglomerate based in Chicago, Illinois. Tribune Broadcastings development originated with the June 1924 purchase of Chicago, the new owners changed the stations call letters to WGN, to match the Tribunes slogan, Worlds Greatest Newspaper. The Tribune would launch a station in Chicago, WGN-TV, in April 1948 as a dual affiliate of CBS. WGN-TV and WPIX are the stations that Tribune has owned since their inceptions. Tribune also operated local cable television systems from 1977 to 1985. From January 1995 to September 2006, Tribune Broadcasting was a partner in The WB Television Network, on July 2,1996, Tribune acquired Renaissance Broadcasting, which owned Fox- and WB-affiliated stations in several large and mid-sized markets. In April 2007, Tribunes broadcasting interests were included in the sale of the company to Chicago investor Sam Zell. The deal was completed on December 20,2007, on December 8,2008, Tribune announced that it would voluntarily restructure its debt obligations, as part of its filing for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in the United States Bankruptcy Court. As the company had sufficient funds to do so, Tribune continued to operate its newspaper publishing and broadcasting, the Federal Communications Commission approved the acquisition on December 20, and the sale was completed one week later on December 27. Tribune Entertainment was Tribunes television production, syndication and advertising sales subsidiary, founded in 1981, this subsidiary produced and/or distributed several first-run syndicated programs including most notably Geraldo, Soul Train and the U. S. Farm Report, Tribune Entertainments production and syndication divisions were shut down in December 2007, on March 19,2013, Tribune Company announced its return to television production with the formation of Tribune Studios. The new company will produce programs primarily for Tribune Broadcastings television stations and WGN America, as of April 2015, Tribune Broadcasting currently owns 39 television stations located in 33 markets. 31 of its stations are affiliated with each of the current post-1986 broadcast networks,14 are affiliated with Fox,12 with The CW, in addition, the company owns five CBS affiliates, two ABC affiliates, two NBC affiliates and one independent station. WGN Radio is the sole remaining radio station, and serves as the flagship station for a regional distribution service known as the Tribune Radio Network. Its primary features are farm reports from longtime WGN agriculture broadcasters Orion Samuelson, WGN also maintains a second online-only service known as WGN. FM. Stations are listed alphabetically by state and city of license, note, – Indicates a station that was built and signed-on by Tribune. – Indicates a station owned by Renaissance Broadcasting prior to its acquisition by Tribune in 1997, KDVR and WCCT were divested by Renaissance years prior, only to be acquired by Tribune in future acquisitions. – Indicates a station owned by Local TV LLC prior to its acquisition by Tribune in 2013, – Indicates a station owned by Dreamcatcher Broadcasting, LLC, Tribune operates these stations through shared services agreements
19.
Sinclair Broadcast Group
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Sinclair Broadcast Group is an American telecommunications company that is owned by the family of company founder Julian Sinclair Smith. Sinclair also owns or operates four stations, all located in the Pacific Northwest. Among other non-broadcast properties, Sinclair also owns the Ring of Honor professional wrestling promotion and it Owns a Broadcasting Network, Comet. Smith currently heading the company as its Chairman, President and Chief Executive Officer, the company, founded by Julian Sinclair Smith, originated in 1971 as the Chesapeake Television Corporation. Its founding television station property was WBFF in Baltimore, Maryland, a subsidiary of Chesapeake Television Corporation, the Commercial Radio Institute, later founded WPTT in Pittsburgh, in 1978, and WTTE in Columbus, Ohio, in 1984. All three stations originally were independents, though WBFF and WTTE became charter affiliates of the Fox Broadcasting Company at its launch in 1986, smiths son David D. Smith began taking a more active role in the company in the 1980s. In 1985, the Chesapeake Television Corporation changed its name to the Sinclair Broadcast Group, in 2001, the FCC levied a $40,000 fine against Sinclair for illegally controlling Glencairn. Sinclair became a listed company in 1995, while the Smith family retained a controlling interest. However, the companys seemingly recovered its financial fortunes enough, as it would begin a string of acquisitions involving television stations. On May 21,2011, it was announced that Sinclair had purchased the professional wrestling promotion Ring of Honor and it also announced that the company was in talks to purchase Columbus, Ohio CW affiliate WWHO from LIN TV. Sinclair would also supply working capital to the stations in consideration of service fees, the group deal was officially completed on January 1,2012 after the FCC approved it on December 21,2011. On November 2,2011, it was announced that Sinclair would purchase all eight stations owned by Freedom Communications in a move for Freedom to eliminate its debt. Sinclair took over the operations of the Freedom stations on December 1,2011 through time brokerage agreements, the deal was granted approval by the FCC on March 13,2012 and was consummated on April 1. On May 15,2012, Sinclair renewed its agreement for its 19 Fox affiliates for five years through 2017. The agreement included the option for Sinclair to purchase Baltimore MyNetworkTV affiliate WUTB from Fox Television Stations at any point between July 1,2012 and March 31,2013. Of these stations, WLFL and WTVZ are both former Fox charter affiliates, having disaffiliated with the network in 1998 to become affiliates of The WB.5 million, concurrently, Sinclair announced that it would also acquire Tampa station WTTA outright from Bay Television, for $40 million. Sinclair also sold two stations, WSTR-TV and KMYS, to Deerfield Media, a company owned by Stephen P. Mumblow, Sinclair continues to operate these two stations under shared services agreements. Sinclair also gave Deerfield Media the option to purchase WJTC and WPMI at a later date, on November 26,2012, Sinclair exercised its option on WUTB through its recently formed LMA partner Deerfield Media
20.
Genesis II (film)
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Genesis II is a 1973 American television film pilot created and produced by Gene Roddenberry and directed by John Llewellyn Moxey. The film, which opens with the line, My name is Dylan Hunt and my story begins the day on which I died, is the story of a 20th-century man thrown forward in time, to a post-apocalyptic future, by an accident in suspended animation. In 1979, NASA scientist Dylan Hunt is working on Project Ganymede, as chief of the project he volunteers for the first multi-day test. He places himself in chemically induced hibernation deep inside Carlsbad Caverns, while there, the monitoring equipment is damaged and fails to awake him at the intended end of the test. He awakens instead in 2133, emerging into a chaotic post-apocalyptic world, an event called The Great Conflict destroyed the civilization of Hunts time. Various new civilizations have emerged in a struggle for control of available resources and those with the greatest military might and the will to use it have the greatest advantage. Hunt is accidentally found and rescued by an organization calling themselves PAX, PAX members are the descendants of the NASA personnel who worked and lived at the Carlsbad Installation in Dylans time. Members of PAX find Hunt still sealed in the hibernation chamber and they revive him, and are thrilled to meet a survivor from before the Conflict. An elaborate Subshuttle subterranean rapid transit system was constructed during the 1970s, the Subshuttles utilized a magnetic levitation rail system. They operated inside vactrain tunnels and ran at hundreds of miles per hour, the tunnel network was comprehensive enough to cover the entire globe. The PAX organization inherited the system and used it to dispatch their teams of troubleshooters. A totalitarian regime known as the Tyranians rule the area known as Arizona. The Tyranians are mutants who possess greater physical prowess than non-mutated humans and their leader discovers that Hunt has knowledge of nuclear power systems, and they offer him great rewards if he can repair their failing nuclear power generator. However, once he is in their power they attempt to force him to reactivate a nuclear missile system in their possession, with which they intend to destroy their enemies, Hunt is appalled by this small-scale replay of the events that must have led to the Conflict. He leads a revolt of the citizenry, sabotages the nuclear device. To Hunts dismay, the PAX leaders assert their pacifist nature and they also, however, see great good in him and value his knowledge of the past. They ask Hunt to join PAX permanently, but only if he can agree never to take human lives again, security Chief Yuloff states that the rationale of taking lives to justify the saving of lives was what allowed The Great Conflict to happen in the first place. The following are story concepts that were in development during the production of Genesis II that would have individual episodes had the network approved the series
21.
Planet Earth (film)
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Planet Earth is a science fiction television movie that was created by Gene Roddenberry, written by Roddenberry and Juanita Bartlett. It first aired on April 23,1974 on the ABC network and it was presented as a pilot for what was hoped to be a new weekly television series. The pilot focused on gender relations from an early 1970s perspective, Dylan Hunt, confronted with a post-apocalyptic matriarchal society, muses, Womens lib. Planet Earth was the attempt by Roddenberry to create a weekly series set on a post-apocalyptic future Earth. The previous pilot was Genesis II, and it featured many of the concepts, sets and props from Genesis II also found their way into Planet Earth. A third and final movie, Strange New World, was aired in 1975 and this movie also starred John Saxon as Captain Anthony Vico. In this movie a trio of astronauts returns to Earth after 180 years in suspended animation to locate the headquarters of PAX. None of these three pilots was ever developed into a series, however, some of the served as prototypes for the later TV series Andromeda. It is the year 2133, and Earth was devastated by a nuclear war decades earlier, a team from PAX is conducting a survey of central California. PAX is a society dedicated to restoring civilization and peace to the world. Returning to PAX headquarters, the team is attacked by a group of militaristic, mutant humans known as the Kreeg, whose commandant is played by character actor John Quade. After a struggle, the PAX team manages to escape in a subshuttle, one of the team, Pater Kimbridge, is severely wounded and, to save his life, requires a bioplastic prosthesis to repair the damaged pulmonary artery sheared away by the Kreegs rifle shot. Their search leads the team to the Confederacy of Ruth, a society of latter-day Amazons, as a ruse, a woman in the PAX group, Harper-Smythe, binds Hunt and enters the city with him. Once there, she meets Marg, the leader of the women, Harper-Smythe makes her way to a nearby farm and meets a woman who explains how the society operates. While captive, Hunt learns that the men are subjugated by a drug in their food, despite his efforts, he soon succumbs to the effects of the drug. Harper-Smythe arrives at the village in time to reclaim her property by challenging, unable to find Connor in the village, Marg invites Harper-Smythe to her farm where she can see her newcomer Dinks. Connor soon comes forward with an antidote for the drug and Hunt recovers, the three decide Harper-Smythe should swap Hunt for Connor, allowing the doctor to return to PAX. Marg agrees to the exchange and Connor and Harper-Smythe leave for PAX after first distributing the antidote in the Dink food supply and that evening, free of the influence of the drug, Hunt seduces Marg
22.
Galaxy
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A galaxy is a gravitationally bound system of stars, stellar remnants, interstellar gas, dust, and dark matter. The word galaxy is derived from the Greek galaxias, literally milky, Galaxies range in size from dwarfs with just a few billion stars to giants with one hundred trillion stars, each orbiting its galaxys center of mass. Galaxies are categorized according to their morphology as elliptical, spiral. Many galaxies are thought to have holes at their active centers. The Milky Ways central black hole, known as Sagittarius A*, has a four million times greater than the Sun. Recent estimates of the number of galaxies in the observable universe range from 200 billion to 2 trillion or more, most of the galaxies are 1,000 to 100,000 parsecs in diameter and separated by distances on the order of millions of parsecs. The space between galaxies is filled with a gas having an average density of less than one atom per cubic meter. The majority of galaxies are organized into groups, clusters. At the largest scale, these associations are generally arranged into sheets and filaments surrounded by immense voids. In Greek mythology, Zeus places his son born by a mortal woman, the infant Heracles, on Heras breast while she is asleep so that the baby will drink her divine milk and will thus become immortal. Hera wakes up while breastfeeding and then realizes she is nursing a baby, she pushes the baby away, some of her milk spills and. In the astronomical literature, the capitalized word Galaxy is often used to refer to our galaxy, the Milky Way, to distinguish it from the other galaxies in our universe. The English term Milky Way can be traced back to a story by Chaucer c. 1380, See yonder, lo, the Galaxyë Which men clepeth the Milky Wey, For hit is whyt. However, the word Universe was later understood to mean the entirety of existence, so this expression fell into disuse and the objects instead became known as galaxies. Tens of thousands of galaxies have been catalogued, but only a few have well-established names, such as the Andromeda Galaxy, the Magellanic Clouds, the Whirlpool Galaxy, and the Sombrero Galaxy. Astronomers work with numbers from certain catalogues, such as the Messier catalogue, the NGC, the IC, the CGCG, all of the well-known galaxies appear in one or more of these catalogues but each time under a different number. For example, Messier 109 is a galaxy having the number 109 in the catalogue of Messier, but also codes NGC3992, UGC6937, CGCG 269-023, MCG +09-20-044. One of the arguments to do so is that these impressive objects deserve better than uninspired codes, for instance, Bodifee and Berger propose the informal, descriptive name Callimorphus Ursae Majoris for the well-formed barred galaxy Messier 109 in Ursa Major
23.
Milky Way
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The Milky Way is the galaxy that contains our Solar System. The descriptive milky is derived from the appearance from Earth of the galaxy – a band of light seen in the night sky formed from stars that cannot be distinguished by the naked eye. The term Milky Way is a translation of the Latin via lactea, from Earth, the Milky Way appears as a band because its disk-shaped structure is viewed from within. Galileo Galilei first resolved the band of light into individual stars with his telescope in 1610, until the early 1920s, most astronomers thought that the Milky Way contained all the stars in the Universe. Following the 1920 Great Debate between the astronomers Harlow Shapley and Heber Curtis, observations by Edwin Hubble showed that the Milky Way is just one of many galaxies, the Milky Way is a barred spiral galaxy with a diameter between 100,000 light-years and 180,000 light-years. The Milky Way is estimated to contain 100–400 billion stars, there are probably at least 100 billion planets in the Milky Way. The Solar System is located within the disk, about 26,000 light-years from the Galactic Center, on the edge of one of the spiral-shaped concentrations of gas. The stars in the inner ≈10,000 light-years form a bulge, the very center is marked by an intense radio source, named Sagittarius A*, which is likely to be a supermassive black hole. Stars and gases at a range of distances from the Galactic Center orbit at approximately 220 kilometers per second. The constant rotation speed contradicts the laws of Keplerian dynamics and suggests much of the mass of the Milky Way does not emit or absorb electromagnetic radiation. This mass has been termed dark matter, the rotational period is about 240 million years at the position of the Sun. The Milky Way as a whole is moving at a velocity of approximately 600 km per second with respect to frames of reference. The oldest stars in the Milky Way are nearly as old as the Universe itself, the Milky Way has several satellite galaxies and is part of the Local Group of galaxies, which is a component of the Virgo Supercluster, which is itself a component of the Laniakea Supercluster. The Milky Way can be seen as a band of white light some 30 degrees wide arcing across the sky. Dark regions within the band, such as the Great Rift, the area of the sky obscured by the Milky Way is called the Zone of Avoidance. The Milky Way has a low surface brightness. Its visibility can be reduced by background light such as light pollution or stray light from the Moon. The sky needs to be darker than about 20.2 magnitude per square arcsecond in order for the Milky Way to be seen and it should be visible when the limiting magnitude is approximately +5.1 or better and shows a great deal of detail at +6.1
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Triangulum Galaxy
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The Triangulum Galaxy is a spiral galaxy approximately 3 million light-years from Earth in the constellation Triangulum. It is catalogued as Messier 33 or NGC598, and is informally referred to as the Pinwheel Galaxy. The Triangulum Galaxy is the third-largest member of the Local Group of galaxies, behind the Milky Way and it is one of the most distant permanent objects that can be viewed with the naked eye. It also has an H-II nucleus, the galaxy gets its name from the constellation Triangulum, which is where it can be spotted. The Triangulum Galaxy is sometimes referred to as the Pinwheel Galaxy by some amateur astronomy references. Under exceptionally good viewing conditions with no light pollution, the Triangulum Galaxy can be seen with the naked eye and it is one of the most distant permanent objects that can be viewed without the aid of a telescope. Being a diffuse object, its visibility is affected by small amounts of light pollution. It ranges from easily visible by direct vision in dark skies to a difficult averted vision object in rural or suburban skies, for this reason, Triangulum is one of the critical sky marks of the Bortle Dark-Sky Scale. The Triangulum Galaxy was probably discovered by the Italian astronomer Giovanni Battista Hodierna before 1654, in his work De systemate orbis cometici, deque admirandis coeli caracteribus, he listed it as a cloud-like nebulosity or obscuration and gave the cryptic description, near the Triangle hinc inde. This is in reference to the constellation of Triangulum as a pair of triangles, the magnitude of the object matches M33, so it is most likely a reference to the Triangulum galaxy. The galaxy was discovered by Charles Messier on the night of August 25–26,1764. It was published in his Catalog of Nebulae and Star Clusters as object number 33, when William Herschel compiled his extensive catalogue of nebulae, he was careful not to include most of the objects identified by Messier. However, M33 was an exception and he catalogued this object on September 11,1784 as H V-17, Herschel also catalogued the Triangulum Galaxys brightest and largest H II region as H III.150 separately from the galaxy itself, the nebula eventually obtained NGC number 604. As seen from Earth, NGC604 is located northeast of the central core. It is one of the largest H II regions known, with a diameter of nearly 1500 light-years, Herschel also noted 3 other smaller H II regions. It was among the first spiral nebulae identified as such by Lord Rosse in 1850, in 1922–23, John Charles Duncan and Max Wolf discovered variable stars in the nebulae. Edwin Hubble showed in 1926 that 35 of these stars were classical Cepheids, the results were consistent with the concept of spiral nebulae being independent galactic systems of gas and dust, rather than just nebulae in the Milky Way. With a diameter of about 60,000 light-years, the Triangulum galaxy is the third largest member of the Local Group of galaxies and it may be a gravitationally bound companion of the Andromeda Galaxy
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Andromeda Galaxy
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The Andromeda Galaxy, also known as Messier 31, M31, or NGC224, is a spiral galaxy approximately 780 kiloparsecs from Earth. It is the nearest major galaxy to the Milky Way and was referred to as the Great Andromeda Nebula in older texts. It received its name from the area of the sky in which it appears, the constellation of Andromeda, which was named after the mythological princess Andromeda. Andromeda is approximately 220,000 light years across, and it is the largest galaxy of the Local Group, which contains the Milky Way, the Triangulum Galaxy. The mass of the Andromeda Galaxy is estimated to be 1. 5×1012 solar masses, the Milky Way and Andromeda galaxies are expected to collide in 4.5 billion years, eventually merging to form a giant elliptical galaxy or perhaps a large disc galaxy. Around the year 964, the Persian astronomer Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi described the Andromeda Galaxy, star charts of that period labeled it as the Little Cloud. In 1612, the German astronomer Simon Marius gave a description of the Andromeda Galaxy based on telescopic observations. In 1764, Charles Messier catalogued Andromeda as object M31 and incorrectly credited Marius as the discoverer despite it being visible to the naked eye, in 1785, the astronomer William Herschel noted a faint reddish hue in the core region of Andromeda. In 1850, William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse, saw, in 1864, William Huggins noted that the spectrum of Andromeda differs from a gaseous nebula. The spectra of Andromeda displays a continuum of frequencies, superimposed with dark lines that help identify the chemical composition of an object. Andromedas spectrum is similar to the spectra of individual stars. In 1885, a supernova was seen in Andromeda, the first, at the time Andromeda was considered to be a nearby object, so the cause was thought to be a much less luminous and unrelated event called a nova, and was named accordingly, Nova 1885. In 1887, Isaac Roberts took the first photographs of Andromeda, Roberts actually mistook Andromeda and similar spiral nebulae as solar systems being formed. In 1912, Vesto Slipher used spectroscopy to measure the velocity of Andromeda with respect to our solar system—the largest velocity yet measured. In 1917, Heber Curtis observed a nova within Andromeda, searching the photographic record,11 more novae were discovered. Curtis noticed that these novae were, on average,10 magnitudes fainter than those that occurred elsewhere in the sky, as a result, he was able to come up with a distance estimate of 500,000 light-years. He became a proponent of the island universes hypothesis, which held that spiral nebulae were actually independent galaxies. In 1920, the Great Debate between Harlow Shapley and Curtis took place, concerning the nature of the Milky Way, spiral nebulae, in 1922 Ernst Öpik presented a method to estimate the distance of Andromeda using the measured velocities of its stars
26.
Slipstream (science fiction)
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Slipstream is a science fiction term for a fictional method of faster-than-light space travel, similar to hyperspace travel, warp drive, or transfer points from David Brins Uplift series. Quantum slipstream was a starship drive used in two episodes of the science fiction television series Star Trek, Voyager and it first appeared in the season 4 finale, Hope and Fear. It works by focusing a quantum field through a deflector dish to generate changes in local space curvature. This creates a tunnel, which is projected ahead of the vessel. Once a ship has entered this tunnel, the forces inside propel it at incredible speed, however, in the episode Timeless, the technology proved to be dangerously unstable, resulting in the loss of all hands of the Voyager in an alternate timeline. A miscalculation caused Voyager to fall out of slipstream, resulting in the starships deadly crash-landing onto the surface of an ice planet on the outskirts of the Alpha Quadrant. Seven of Nine stated that she would continue studying it in hopes of someday reacquiring slipstream travel, quantum slipstream technology was one of the items requested in the Think Tank episode, despite Captain Janeways admission they never got it to work properly. Slipstream travel is used in the science fiction television series Andromeda. Slipstream is a series of strings connected between planetary systems by gravity, a Gravity Field Generator drastically reduces the mass of the ship and then a slipstream drive opens a slippoint which the ship enters. The pilot then navigates the series of slipstream tunnels until they exit via the desired slip point, usually one has to enter and exit slipstream several times before reaching their final destination. An A. I. attempting slipstream travel has a 50% chance of selecting the route at each intersection encountered. Owing to organic intuition, a pilot has a 99. 97% chance of guessing the correct route to take. While travellers approaching light speed will encounter time dilation, slipstream travel does not, due to the complex nature of slipstream probability and difficulty in mapping slipstream, only biological entities are capable of successfully navigating it. Exiting slipstream near the edge of a galaxy or in regions of space could be dangerous because it is difficult to find a slippoint in these areas. If a slippoint cannot be found, or a drive is damaged. In the episode World War Three the Slitheen family from Raxacoricofallapatorius uses a Slipstream drive as a form of travel, in the Microsoft video game series Halo, based in the 26th-century, slipspace is the general method of faster-than-light travel. According to The Halo Library, This. engine allowed ships to tunnel into. slipspace, Slipspace is a domain with alternate physical laws, allowing faster-than-light travel without relativistic side-effects. Faster-than-light travel is not instantaneous, short jumps routinely take up to two months, and long jumps can last six months or more
27.
Utopia
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A utopia is an imagined community or society that possesses highly desirable or nearly perfect qualities for its citizens. The opposite of a utopia is a dystopia and you could also say that utopia is a perfect place that has been made so there are no problems. The term has been used to describe intentional communities, the term utopia was coined from Greek by Sir Thomas More for his 1516 book Utopia, describing a fictional island society in the Atlantic Ocean. The word comes from Greek, οὐ and τόπος and means no-place, however, in standard usage, the words meaning has narrowed and now usually describes a non-existent society that is intended to be viewed as considerably better than contemporary society. Eutopia, derived from Greek εὖ and τόπος, means good place, in English, eutopia and utopia are homophonous, which may have given rise to the change in meaning. Chronologically, the first recorded utopian proposal is Platos Republic, part conversation, part fictional depiction, and part policy proposal, Republic would categorize citizens into a rigid class structure of golden, silver, bronze and iron socioeconomic classes. The golden citizens are trained in a rigorous 50-year-long educational program to be benign oligarchs, plato stressed this structure many times in both quotes by him and in his published works, such as the Republic. The wisdom of these rulers will supposedly eliminate poverty and deprivation through fairly distributed resources, the educational program for the rulers is the central notion of the proposal. It has few laws, no lawyers and rarely sends its citizens to war, during the 16th century, Thomas Mores book Utopia proposed an ideal society of the same name. Some maintain the position that Mores Utopia functions only on the level of a satire, but the homophonic prefix eu-, meaning good, also resonates in the word, with the implication that the perfectly good place is really no place. Ecological utopian society describes new ways in which society should relate to nature and these works perceive a widening gap between the modern Western way of living that destroys nature and a more traditional way of living before industrialization. Ecological utopias may advocate a society that is more sustainable, according to the Dutch philosopher Marius de Geus, ecological utopias could be inspirational sources for movements involving green politics. Particularly in the early 19th century, several ideas arose. These ideas are often grouped in a utopian socialist movement. A once common characteristic is a distribution of goods, frequently with the total abolition of money. Citizens only do work which they enjoy and which is for the good, leaving them with ample time for the cultivation of the arts. One classic example of such a utopia was Edward Bellamys Looking Backward, Another socialist utopia is William Morriss News from Nowhere, written partially in response to the top-down nature of Bellamys utopia, which Morris criticized. However, as the socialist movement developed, it moved away from utopianism, in a materialist utopian society, the economy is perfect, there is no inflation, and only perfect social and financial equality exists
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Friedrich Nietzsche
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He began his career as a classical philologist before turning to philosophy. He became the youngest ever to hold the Chair of Classical Philology at the University of Basel in 1869, Nietzsche resigned in 1879 due to health problems that plagued him most of his life, and he completed much of his core writing in the following decade. In 1889, at age 44, he suffered a collapse and he lived his remaining years in the care of his mother, and then with his sister Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche, and died in 1900. Nietzsches body of work touched widely on art, philology, history, religion, tragedy, culture, and science, and drew inspiration from figures such as Schopenhauer, Wagner. His writing spans philosophical polemics, poetry, cultural criticism, and fiction while displaying a fondness for aphorism, born on 15 October 1844, Nietzsche grew up in the small town of Röcken, near Leipzig, in the Prussian Province of Saxony. He was named after King Frederick William IV of Prussia, who turned forty-nine on the day of Nietzsches birth, Nietzsches parents, Carl Ludwig Nietzsche, a Lutheran pastor and former teacher, and Franziska Oehler, married in 1843, the year before their sons birth. They had two children, a daughter, Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche, born in 1846, and a second son, Ludwig Joseph. Nietzsches father died from an ailment in 1849, Ludwig Joseph died six months later. The family then moved to Naumburg, where they lived with Nietzsches maternal grandmother, after the death of Nietzsches grandmother in 1856, the family moved into their own house, now Nietzsche-Haus, a museum and Nietzsche study centre. Nietzsche attended a school and then, later, a private school, where he became friends with Gustav Krug, Rudolf Wagner. In 1854, he began to attend Domgymnasium in Naumburg, because his father had worked for the state the now-fatherless Nietzsche was offered a scholarship to study at the internationally recognized Schulpforta. He transferred and studied there from 1858 to 1864, becoming friends with Paul Deussen and he also found time to work on poems and musical compositions. Nietzsche led Germania, a music and literature club, during his summers in Naumburg. His end-of-semester exams in March 1864 showed a 1 in Religion and German, a 2a in Greek and Latin, a 2b in French, History, and Physics, while at Pforta, Nietzsche had a penchant for pursuing subjects that were considered unbecoming. The teacher who corrected the essay gave it a mark but commented that Nietzsche should concern himself in the future with healthier, more lucid. After graduation in September 1864, Nietzsche commenced studies in theology, for a short time he and Deussen became members of the Burschenschaft Frankonia. After one semester, he stopped his studies and lost his faith. In June 1865, at the age of 20, Nietzsche wrote to his sister Elisabeth, who was deeply religious, a letter regarding his loss of faith
29.
Dylan Hunt
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Dylan Hunt is the name of two fictional characters created for television by Gene Roddenberry. Both characters are men who move forward in time by hundreds of years. Each either begins or joins a crusade by a force of explorer/adventurers to restore civilization. The first Gene Roddenberry projects to feature Dylan Hunt appeared in the 1970s, in the 1973 made-for-TV film Genesis II, which introduced the character and was intended as a pilot for a potential series, Hunt was played by Alex Cord. Hunt was a NASA scientist who became trapped in suspended animation in 1979, CBS, the network that aired Genesis II, rejected Roddenberrys proposed series in favor of the short-lived Planet of the Apes, which also involved time travel and a post-apocalyptic society. Because CBS did not pick up Genesis II, Roddenbery pitched the idea to ABC. In 1974 ABC aired Planet Earth, a sequel and second pilot as a TV movie. This time, the Hunt character was played by John Saxon, in 1975, Saxon starred in a third project entitled Strange New World, again aired on ABC. While this production was based on Roddenberrys Dylan Hunt premise. Saxons character was named Captain Anthony Vico, but the movie shared the time travel to a Dark Age premise of Genesis II. Following this trio of productions, the Dylan Hunt concept was revived by Roddenberrys widow, Majel Barrett Roddenberry, this time with great success, the most completely developed incarnation of Hunt is also the most recent. In the television series Gene Roddenberrys Andromeda, he is the captain of the starship Andromeda Ascendant, in this series he is played by Kevin Sorbo. PAX Team 21, a site discussing the 1970s Dylan Hunt projects
30.
Andromeda Ascendant
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The Andromeda Ascendant is a fictional starship in the television series Gene Roddenberrys Andromeda. In the series, the ship is said to have begun her life in the Newport News Orbital Shipyards above Earth, the backstory relates that construction proceeded without a hitch right through the delivery and installation of the Headwaters of Invention Mark VIII Slipstream engines in CY9772. The series gives Andromeda as the tenth Glorious Heritage-class heavy cruiser, High Guard ship of the line, in the High Guard, AIs are considered officers as part of their own crew. Fans of the series refer to the monitor and hologram manifestations as Core and Logic, in the series, the ship is equipped with a slipstream drive for FTL travel in which it uses an Exotic Matter Lens to focus and open a Slipstream Portal. This is a variation on the idea of captains being in love with their ships, implied for centuries, Andromeda Ascendants complete official designation is Shining Path to Truth and Knowledge AI model GRA112, serial number XMC-10284. AFC = After the Fall of the Commonwealth
31.
Artificial intelligence
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Artificial intelligence is intelligence exhibited by machines. Colloquially, the artificial intelligence is applied when a machine mimics cognitive functions that humans associate with other human minds, such as learning. As machines become increasingly capable, mental facilities once thought to require intelligence are removed from the definition, for instance, optical character recognition is no longer perceived as an example of artificial intelligence, having become a routine technology. AI research is divided into subfields that focus on specific problems or on specific approaches or on the use of a tool or towards satisfying particular applications. The central problems of AI research include reasoning, knowledge, planning, learning, natural language processing, perception, general intelligence is among the fields long-term goals. Approaches include statistical methods, computational intelligence, and traditional symbolic AI, Many tools are used in AI, including versions of search and mathematical optimization, logic, methods based on probability and economics. The AI field draws upon computer science, mathematics, psychology, linguistics, philosophy, neuroscience, the field was founded on the claim that human intelligence can be so precisely described that a machine can be made to simulate it. Some people also consider AI a danger to humanity if it progresses unabatedly, while thought-capable artificial beings appeared as storytelling devices in antiquity, the idea of actually trying to build a machine to perform useful reasoning may have begun with Ramon Llull. With his Calculus ratiocinator, Gottfried Leibniz extended the concept of the calculating machine, since the 19th century, artificial beings are common in fiction, as in Mary Shelleys Frankenstein or Karel Čapeks R. U. R. The study of mechanical or formal reasoning began with philosophers and mathematicians in antiquity, in the 19th century, George Boole refined those ideas into propositional logic and Gottlob Frege developed a notational system for mechanical reasoning. Around the 1940s, Alan Turings theory of computation suggested that a machine, by shuffling symbols as simple as 0 and 1 and this insight, that digital computers can simulate any process of formal reasoning, is known as the Church–Turing thesis. Along with concurrent discoveries in neurology, information theory and cybernetics, the first work that is now generally recognized as AI was McCullouch and Pitts 1943 formal design for Turing-complete artificial neurons. The field of AI research was born at a conference at Dartmouth College in 1956, attendees Allen Newell, Herbert Simon, John McCarthy, Marvin Minsky and Arthur Samuel became the founders and leaders of AI research. At the conference, Newell and Simon, together with programmer J. C, shaw, presented the first true artificial intelligence program, the Logic Theorist. This spurred tremendous research in the domain, computers were winning at checkers, solving problems in algebra, proving logical theorems. By the middle of the 1960s, research in the U. S. was heavily funded by the Department of Defense and laboratories had been established around the world. AIs founders were optimistic about the future, Herbert Simon predicted, machines will be capable, within twenty years, Marvin Minsky agreed, writing, within a generation. The problem of creating artificial intelligence will substantially be solved and they failed to recognize the difficulty of some of the remaining tasks
32.
Event horizon
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In general relativity, an event horizon is a boundary in spacetime beyond which events cannot affect an outside observer. In laymans terms, it is defined as the shell of points of no return, i. e. the points at which the gravitational pull becomes so great as to make escape impossible, an event horizon is most commonly associated with black holes. Light emitted from inside the event horizon can never reach the outside observer, likewise, any object approaching the horizon from the observers side appears to slow down and never quite pass through the horizon, with its image becoming more and more redshifted as time elapses. This means that the wavelength is getting longer as the object away from the observer. The traveling object, however, experiences no strange effects and does, in fact, more specific types of horizon include the related but distinct absolute and apparent horizons found around a black hole. Often, this is described as the boundary within which the black holes escape velocity is greater than the speed of light, the surface at the Schwarzschild radius acts as an event horizon in a non-rotating body that fits inside this radius. The Schwarzschild radius of an object is proportional to its mass, theoretically, any amount of matter will become a black hole if compressed into a space that fits within its corresponding Schwarzschild radius. For the mass of the Sun this radius is approximately 3 kilometers, in practice, however, neither the Earth nor the Sun has the necessary mass and therefore the necessary gravitational force, to overcome electron and neutron degeneracy pressure. The minimal mass required for a star to be able to collapse beyond these pressures is the Tolman-Oppenheimer-Volkoff limit, black hole event horizons are widely misunderstood. As with any mass in the Universe, matter must come within its scope for the possibility to exist of capture or consolidation with any other mass. Equally common is the idea that matter can be observed “falling into” a black hole, astronomers can only detect accretion disks around black holes, where material moves with such speed that friction creates high-energy radiation which can be detected. Furthermore, a distant observer will never see something cross the horizon. Instead, while approaching the hole, the object will seem to go ever more slowly, in cosmology, the event horizon of the observable universe is the largest comoving distance from which light emitted now can ever reach the observer in the future. This differs from the concept of particle horizon, which represents the largest comoving distance from which light emitted in the past could have reached the observer at a given time. For events beyond that distance, light has not had time to reach our location, how the particle horizon changes with time depends on the nature of the expansion of the Universe. If the expansion has certain characteristics, there are parts of the Universe that will never be observable, the boundary past which events cannot ever be observed is an event horizon, and it represents the maximum extent of the particle horizon. The criterion for determining whether a particle horizon for the Universe exists is as follows, define a comoving distance d p by d p = ∫0 t 0 c a d t. In this equation, a is the factor, c is the speed of light
33.
Black hole
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A black hole is a region of spacetime exhibiting such strong gravitational effects that nothing—not even particles and electromagnetic radiation such as light—can escape from inside it. The theory of relativity predicts that a sufficiently compact mass can deform spacetime to form a black hole. The boundary of the region from which no escape is possible is called the event horizon, although the event horizon has an enormous effect on the fate and circumstances of an object crossing it, no locally detectable features appear to be observed. In many ways a black hole acts like a black body. Moreover, quantum theory in curved spacetime predicts that event horizons emit Hawking radiation. This temperature is on the order of billionths of a kelvin for black holes of stellar mass, objects whose gravitational fields are too strong for light to escape were first considered in the 18th century by John Michell and Pierre-Simon Laplace. Black holes were considered a mathematical curiosity, it was during the 1960s that theoretical work showed they were a generic prediction of general relativity. The discovery of neutron stars sparked interest in gravitationally collapsed compact objects as a possible astrophysical reality, black holes of stellar mass are expected to form when very massive stars collapse at the end of their life cycle. After a black hole has formed, it can continue to grow by absorbing mass from its surroundings, by absorbing other stars and merging with other black holes, supermassive black holes of millions of solar masses may form. There is general consensus that supermassive black holes exist in the centers of most galaxies, despite its invisible interior, the presence of a black hole can be inferred through its interaction with other matter and with electromagnetic radiation such as visible light. Matter that falls onto a black hole can form an accretion disk heated by friction. If there are other stars orbiting a black hole, their orbits can be used to determine the black holes mass, such observations can be used to exclude possible alternatives such as neutron stars.3 million solar masses. On 15 June 2016, a detection of a gravitational wave event from colliding black holes was announced. The idea of a body so massive that light could not escape was briefly proposed by astronomical pioneer John Michell in a letter published in 1783-4. Michell correctly noted that such supermassive but non-radiating bodies might be detectable through their effects on nearby visible bodies. In 1915, Albert Einstein developed his theory of general relativity, only a few months later, Karl Schwarzschild found a solution to the Einstein field equations, which describes the gravitational field of a point mass and a spherical mass. A few months after Schwarzschild, Johannes Droste, a student of Hendrik Lorentz, independently gave the solution for the point mass. This solution had a peculiar behaviour at what is now called the Schwarzschild radius, the nature of this surface was not quite understood at the time
34.
Gravitational time dilation
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Gravitational time dilation is a form of time dilation, an actual difference of elapsed time between two events as measured by observers situated at varying distances from a gravitating mass. The weaker the gravitational potential, the time passes. Albert Einstein originally predicted this effect in his theory of relativity and this has been demonstrated by noting that atomic clocks at differing altitudes will eventually show different times. The effects detected in such Earth-bound experiments are small, with differences being measured in nanoseconds. Demonstrating larger effects would require greater distances from the Earth or a larger gravitational source, Gravitational time dilation was first described by Albert Einstein in 1907 as a consequence of special relativity in accelerated frames of reference. In general relativity, it is considered to be a difference in the passage of time at different positions as described by a metric tensor of spacetime. The existence of time dilation was first confirmed directly by the Pound–Rebka experiment in 1959. Clocks that are far from massive bodies run more quickly, for example, considered over the total lifetime of the earth, a clock set at the peak of Mount Everest would be about 39 hours ahead of a clock set at sea level. This is because gravitational time dilation is manifested in accelerated frames of reference or, by virtue of the equivalence principle, in the gravitational field of massive objects. According to general relativity, inertial mass and gravitational mass are the same, let us consider a family of observers along a straight vertical line, each of whom experiences a distinct constant g-force directed along this line. Let g be the dependence of g-force on height, a coordinate along the aforementioned line. For simplicity, in a Rindlers family of observers in a flat space-time, the dependence would be g = c 2 / with constant H, which yields T d = e ln − ln H = H + h H. On the other hand, when g is constant and g h is much smaller than c 2. See Ehrenfest paradox for application of the formula to a rotating reference frame in flat space-time. In comparison, a clock on the surface of the sun will accumulate around 66.4 fewer seconds in one year, in the Schwarzschild metric, free-falling objects can be in circular orbits if the orbital radius is larger than 32 r s. T0 = t f 1 −32 ⋅ r s r, according to the general theory of relativity, gravitational time dilation is copresent with the existence of an accelerated reference frame. An exception is the center of a distribution of matter. Additionally, all phenomena in similar circumstances undergo time dilation equally according to the equivalence principle used in the general theory of relativity
35.
Marine salvage
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Marine salvage is the process of recovering a ship and its cargo after a shipwreck or other maritime casualty. Salvage may encompass towing, re-floating a vessel, or effecting repairs to a ship, today, protecting the coastal environment from spillage of oil or other contaminants is a high priority. The legal significance of salvage is that a successful salvor is entitled to a reward, the amount of the award is determined subsequently at a hearing on the merits by a maritime court in accordance with Articles 13 and 14 of the International Salvage Convention of 1989. Originally, a successful salvage was one where at least some of the ship or cargo was saved, otherwise the principle of No Cure, in the 1970s, a number of marine casualties of single-skin-hull tankers led to serious oil spills. Such casualties were unattractive to salvors, so the Lloyds Open Form made provision that a salvor who acts to try to prevent environmental damage will be paid and this Lloyds initiative proved so advantageous that it was incorporated into the 1989 Convention. All vessels have a duty to give reasonable assistance to other ships in distress in order to save life. Any offer of salvage assistance may be refused, but if it is accepted a contract automatically arises to give the successful salvor the right to a reward under the 1989 Convention. Typically, the ship and the salvor will sign up to an LOF agreement so that the terms of salvage are clear, in the Early Modern Period, diving bells were often used for salvage work. In 1658, Albrecht von Treileben was contracted by King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden to salvage the warship Vasa, between 1663-1665 von Treilebens divers were successful in raising most of the cannon, working from a diving bell. In 1687, Sir William Phipps used a container to recover £200. The era of modern salvage operations was inaugurated with the development of the first surface supplied diving helmets by the inventors, Charles and John Deane and Augustus Siebe, in the 1830s. Royal George, a 100-gun first-rate ship of the line of the Royal Navy, sank undergoing routine maintenance work in 1782, using their new air-pumped diving helmets, they managed to recover about two dozen cannons. Following on from success, Colonel of the Royal Engineers Charles Pasley commenced the first large scale salvage operation in 1839. His plan was to break up the wreck of Royal George with gunpowder charges, pasleys diving salvage operation set many diving milestones, including the first recorded use of the buddy system in diving, when he ordered that his divers operate in pairs. In addition, the first emergency swimming ascent was made by a diver after his air line became tangled, Pasley recovered 12 more guns in 1839,11 more in 1840, and 6 in 1841. In 1842 he recovered only one iron 12-pounder because he ordered the divers to concentrate on removing the hull rather than search for guns. Other items recovered, in 1840, included the brass instruments, silk garments of satin weave of which the silk was perfect, and pieces of leather. By 1843 the whole of the keel and the timbers had been raised
36.
Civilization
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Historically, a civilization was a so-called advanced culture in contrast to more supposedly primitive cultures. As an uncountable noun, civilization also refers to the process of a society developing into a centralized, urbanized, stratified structure, Civilization concentrates power, extending human control over the rest of nature, including over other human beings. The earlier neolithic technology and lifestyle was established first in the Middle East, and later in the Yangtze and Yellow River basins in China, similar pre-civilized neolithic revolutions also began independently from 7,000 BCE in such places as northwestern South America and Mesoamerica. These were among the six civilizations worldwide that arose independently, Mesopotamia is the site of the earliest developments of the Neolithic Revolution from around 10,000 BCE, with civilizations developing from 6,500 years ago. Towards the end of the Neolithic period, various elitist Chalcolithic civilizations began to rise in various cradles from around 3300 BCE. Chalcolithic civilizations, as defined above, also developed in Pre-Columbian Americas and, despite an early start in Egypt, Axum and Kush, the English word civilization comes from the 16th-century French civilisé, from Latin civilis, related to civis and civitas. The fundamental treatise is Norbert Eliass The Civilizing Process, which traces social mores from medieval courtly society to the Early Modern period, in The Philosophy of Civilization, Albert Schweitzer outlines two opinions, one purely material and the other material and ethical. Adjectives like civility developed in the mid-16th century, the abstract noun civilization, meaning civilized condition, came in the 1760s, again from French. The word was therefore opposed to barbarism or rudeness, in the pursuit of progress characteristic of the Age of Enlightenment. In the late 1700s and early 1800s, during the French revolution, civilization was used in the singular, never in the plural and this is still the case in French. The use of civilizations as a noun was in occasional use in the 19th century. Only in this sense does it become possible to speak of a medieval civilization. Already in the 18th century, civilization was not always seen as an improvement, one historically important distinction between culture and civilization is from the writings of Rousseau, particularly his work about education, Emile. From this, a new approach was developed, especially in Germany, first by Johann Gottfried Herder and this sees cultures as natural organisms, not defined by conscious, rational, deliberative acts, but a kind of pre-rational folk spirit. Civilization, in contrast, though more rational and more successful in material progress, is unnatural and leads to vices of social life such as guile, hypocrisy, envy and avarice. In World War II, Leo Strauss, having fled Germany, argued in New York that this opinion of civilization was behind Nazism, Social scientists such as V. Gordon Childe have named a number of traits that distinguish a civilization from other kinds of society. Andrew Nikiforuk argues that civilizations relied on shackled human muscle and it took the energy of slaves to plant crops, clothe emperors, and build cities and considers slavery to be a common feature of pre-modern civilizations. All civilizations have depended on agriculture for subsistence, grain farms can result in accumulated storage and a surplus of food, particularly when people use intensive agricultural techniques such as artificial fertilization, irrigation and crop rotation
