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Anemophily

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Wind-pollination (anemophily) syndrome

The flowers of wind-pollinated flowering plants, such as this saw-tooth oak (Quercus acutissima), are less showy than insect-pollinated flowers.

Anemophilous plants, such as this pine (Pinus) produce large quantities of pollen, which is carried on the wind.

Anemophily or wind pollination is a form of pollination whereby pollen is distributed by wind.^[1] Almost all gymnosperms are anemophilous, as are many plants in the order Poales, including grasses, sedges and rushes.^[1] Other common anemophilous plants are oaks, sweet chestnuts, alders and members of the family Juglandaceae (hickory or walnut family).

1 Syndrome
2 Allergies
3 References
4 External links

Syndrome[edit]

Features of the wind-pollination syndrome include a lack of scent production, a lack of showy floral parts (resulting in inconspicuous flowers), reduced production of nectar, and the production of enormous numbers of pollen grains,^[2] this distinguishes them from entomophilous and zoophilous species (whose pollen is spread by insects and vertebrates respectively).

Anemophilous pollen grains are light and non-sticky, so that they can be transported by air currents, they are typically 20–60 micrometres (0.0008–0.0024 in) in diameter, although the pollen grains of Pinus species can be much larger and much less dense.^[1] Anemophilous plants possess well-exposed stamens so that the pollens are exposed to wind currents and also have large and feathery stigma to easily trap airborne pollen grains. Pollen from anemophilous plants tends to be smaller and lighter than pollen from entomophilous ones, with very low nutritional value to insects. However, insects sometimes gather pollen from staminate anemophilous flowers at times when higher-protein pollens from entomophilous flowers are scarce. Anemophilous pollens may also be inadvertently captured by bees' electrostatic field, this may explain why, though bees are not observed to visit ragweed flowers, its pollen is often found in honey made during the ragweed floral bloom. Other flowers that are generally anemophilous are observed to be actively worked by bees, with solitary bees often visiting grass flowers, and the larger honeybees and bumblebees frequently gathering pollen from corn tassels and other grains.

Anemophily is an adaptation that helps to separate the male and female reproductive systems of a single plant, reducing the effects of inbreeding,^[3] it often accompanies dioecy – the presence of male and female reproductive structures on separate plants.

Allergies[edit]

Almost all pollens that are allergens are from anemophilous species.^[4] Grasses (Poaceae) are the most important producers of aeroallergens in most temperate regions, with lowland or meadow species producing more pollen than upland or moorland species.^[4]

References[edit]

^ ^a ^b ^c A. K. Shukla; M. R. Vijayaraghavan; Bharti Chaudhry (1998). "Abiotic pollination". Biology Of Pollen. APH Publishing. pp. 67–69. ISBN 9788170249245.
^ Dave Moore (2001). "Insects of palm flowers and fruits". In F.W. Howard; D. Moore; R.M. Giblin-Davis; R.G. Abad. Insects on Palms. CAB International. pp. 233–266. ISBN 9780851997056.
^ J. D. Ackerman (2000). "Abiotic pollen and pollination: ecological, functional, and evolutionary perspectives". Plant Systematics and Evolution. 222 (1–4): 167–185. doi:10.1007/BF00984101.
^ ^a ^b Jean Emberlin (2009). "Grass, tree, and weed pollen". In A. Barry Kay; Allen P. Kaplan; Jean Bousquet; Patrick G. Holt. The Scientific Basis of Allergy. Allergy and Allergic Diseases. 1 (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. pp. 942–962. ISBN 9781444300925.

External links[edit]

Media related to Wind pollination at Wikimedia Commons

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anemophily&oldid=850052606"

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RELATED RESEARCH TOPICS

1. Pollination syndrome – These traits include flower shape, size, colour, odour, reward type and amount, nectar composition, timing of flowering, etc. For example, tubular red flowers with copious nectar often attract birds, foul smelling flowers attract carrion flies or beetles, the classical pollination syndromes as they are currently defined were developed in the 19th century by the Italian botanist Federico Delpino. These do not attract animal pollinators, nevertheless, they often have suites of shared traits. Flowers may be small and inconspicuous, as well as green and they produce enormous numbers of relatively small pollen grains. Their stigmas may be large and feathery to catch the pollen grains, anemophilous, or wind pollinated flowers, are usually small and inconspicuous, and do not possess a scent or produce nectar. The anthers may produce a number of pollen grains, while the stamens are generally long. Water-pollinated plants are aquatic and pollen is released into the water, water currents therefore act as a pollen vector in a similar way to wind currents. Their flowers tend to be small and inconspicuous with lots of pollen grains and large, however, this is relatively uncommon and most aquatic plants are insect-pollinated, with flowers that emerge into the air. Bee-pollinated flowers can be variable in their size, shape. They can be open and bowl-shaped or more complex and non-radially symmetric, as is the case with many peas, some bee flowers tend to be yellow or blue, often with ultraviolet nectar guides and scent. Nectar, pollen, or both are offered as rewards in varying amounts, the sugar in the nectar tends to be sucrose-dominated. A few bees collect oil from special glands on the flower, there are diverse types of bees, forming large groups that are quite distinctive in size, tongue length and behaviour, thus generalization about bees is difficult. Some plants can only be pollinated by bees because their anthers release pollen internally, bees are the only animals that perform this behaviour. Bumblebees sonicate, but honeybees do not, wasps are also responsible for the pollination of several plants species, being important pollen vectors, and in some cases, even more efficient pollinators than bees. Butterfly-pollinated flowers tend to be large and showy, pink or lavender in colour, frequently have a landing area, since butterflies do not digest pollen, more nectar is offered than pollen. The flowers have simple nectar guides with the usually hidden in narrow tubes or spurs. Among the more important moth pollinators are the hawk moths and their behaviour is similar to hummingbirds, they hover in front of flowers with rapid wingbeats. So moth-pollinated flowers tend to be white, night-opening, large and showy with tubular corollas, a lot of nectar is produced to fuel the high metabolic rates needed to power their flight

2. Quercus acutissima – Quercus acutissima, the sawtooth oak, is an Asian species of oak native to China, Korea, Japan, Indochina and the Himalayas. It is widely planted in many lands and has naturalized in parts of North America. Quercus acutissima is closely related to the Turkey oak, classified with it in Quercus sect, cerris, a section of the genus characterised by shoot buds surrounded by soft bristles, bristle-tipped leaf lobes, and acorns that mature in about 18 months. Quercus acutissima is a deciduous tree growing to 25–30 metres tall with a trunk up to 1.5 metres in diameter. The bark is gray and deeply furrowed. The leaves are 8–20 centimetres long and 3–6 centimetres wide, with 14-20 small saw-tooth like triangular lobes on each side and it is closely related to Quercus cerris, classified with it in Quercus sect. Cerris, a section of the genus characterised by shoot buds surrounded by soft bristles, bristle-tipped leaf lobes, the acorns are very bitter, but are eaten by jays and pigeons, squirrels usually only eat them when other food sources have run out. The sap of the tree can leak out of the trunk, beetles, stag beetles, butterflies, and Vespa mandarinia japonica gather to reach this sap. Sawtooth oak is planted in eastern North America and is naturalized in scattered locations. Sawtooth oak trees grow at a faster rate which helps it compete against other native trees. The wood has many of the characteristics of other oaks, but is prone to crack and split

3. Pine – A pine is any conifer in the genus Pinus, /ˈpiːnuːs/, of the family Pinaceae. Pinus is the genus in the subfamily Pinoideae. The Plant List compiled by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and Missouri Botanical Garden accepts 126 species names of pines as current, together with 35 unresolved species, the modern English name pine derives from Latin pinus, which some have traced to the Indo-European base *pīt- ‘resin’. Before the 19th century, pines were often referred to as firs, the genus is divided into three subgenera, which can be distinguished by cone, seed, and leaf characters, Pinus subg. Pinus, the yellow, or hard pine group, generally harder wood. Ducampopinus, the foxtail or pinyon group Pinus subg, strobus, the white, or soft pine group, generally with softer wood and five needles per fascicle Most regions of the Northern Hemisphere host some native species of pines. One species crosses the equator in Sumatra to 2°S, in North America, various species occur in regions at latitudes from as far north as 66°N to as far south as 12°N. Various species have been introduced to temperate and subtropical regions of both hemispheres, where they are grown as timber or cultivated as ornamental plants in parks, a number of such introduced species have become invasive and threaten native ecosystems. Pine trees are evergreen, coniferous trees growing 3–80 m tall. The smallest are Siberian dwarf pine and Potosi pinyon, and the tallest is a 81.79 m tall ponderosa pine located in southern Oregons Rogue River-Siskiyou National Forest, the bark of most pines is thick and scaly, but some species have thin, flaky bark. The branches are produced in regular pseudo whorls, actually a very tight spiral, the spiral growth of branches, needles, and cone scales are arranged in Fibonacci number ratios. The new spring shoots are sometimes called candles, they are covered in brown or whitish bud scales and point upward at first, then turn green. These candles offer foresters a means to evaluate fertility of the soil, pines are long-lived, and typically reach ages of 100–1,000 years, some even more. The longest-lived is the Great Basin bristlecone pine, Pinus longaeva, one individual of this species, dubbed Methuselah, is one of the worlds oldest living organisms at around 4,600 years old. This tree can be found in the White Mountains of California, an older tree, now cut down, was dated at 4,900 years old. It was discovered in a grove beneath Wheeler Peak and it is now known as Prometheus after the Greek immortal, pines have four types of leaf, Seed leaves on seedlings, born in a whorl of 4–24. Juvenile leaves, which follow immediately on seedlings and young plants, 2–6 cm long, single, green or often blue-green and these are produced for six months to five years, rarely longer. Scale leaves, similar to bud scales, small, brown and non-photosynthetic, needles, the adult leaves, are green and bundled in clusters called fascicles

4. Pollination – Pollination is the process by which pollen is transferred to the female reproductive organs of a plant, thereby enabling fertilization to take place. Like all living organisms, seed plants have a major goal. The reproductive unit is the seed, and pollination is a step in the production of seeds in all spermatophytes. The process is different in angiosperms from what it is in gymnosperms. In angiosperms, after the grain has landed on the stigma. Sperm cells from the pollen grain then move along the tube, enter the egg cell through the micropyle and fertilise it. A successful angiosperm pollen grain containing the gametes is transported to the stigma. Its two gametes travel down the tube to where the containing the female gametes are held within the carpel. One nucleus fuses with the bodies to produce the endosperm tissues. In gymnosperms, the ovule is not contained in a carpel, details of the process vary according to the division of gymnosperms in question. Two main modes of fertilization are found in gymnosperms, the study of pollination brings together many disciplines, such as botany, horticulture, entomology, and ecology. The pollination process as an interaction between flower and pollen vector was first addressed in the 18th century by Christian Konrad Sprengel and it is important in horticulture and agriculture, because fruiting is dependent on fertilization, the result of pollination. The study of pollination by insects is known as anthecology, pollen germination has three stages, hydration, activation and pollen tube emergence. The pollen grain is severely dehydrated so that its mass is reduced enabling it to be easily transported from flower to flower. Germination only takes place after rehydration, ensuring that premature germination does not take place in the anther, hydration allows the plasma membrane of the pollen grain to reform into its normal bilayer organization providing an effective osmotic membrane. Activation involves the development of actin filaments throughout the cytoplasm of the cell, hydration and activation continue as the pollen tube begins to grow. In conifers, the structures are borne on cones. The cones are either pollen cones or ovulate cones, but some species are monoecious, a pollen cone contains hundreds of microsporangia carried on reproductive structures called sporophylls

5. Pollen – Pollen is a fine to coarse powdery substance comprising pollen grains which are male microgametophytes of seed plants, which produce male gametes. If pollen lands on a compatible pistil or female cone, it germinates, individual pollen grains are small enough to require magnification to see detail. The study of pollen is called palynology and is useful in paleoecology, paleontology, archaeology. Pollen in plants is used for transferring haploid male genetic material from the anther of a flower to the stigma of another in cross-pollination. In a case of self-pollination, this takes place from the anther of a flower to the stigma of the same flower. Pollen itself is not the male gamete, each pollen grain contains vegetative cells and a generative cell. In flowering plants the vegetative tube cell produces the pollen tube, pollen is produced in the microsporangia in the male cone of a conifer or other gymnosperm or in the anthers of an angiosperm flower. Pollen grains come in a variety of shapes, sizes. Pollen grains of pines, firs, and spruces are winged, the smallest pollen grain, that of the forget-me-not, is around 6 µm in diameter. Wind-borne pollen grains can be as large as about 90–100 µm, in angiosperms, during flower development the anther is composed of a mass of cells that appear undifferentiated, except for a partially differentiated dermis. As the flower develops, four groups of cells form within the anther. The fertile sporogenous cells are surrounded by layers of cells that grow into the wall of the pollen sac. Some of the cells grow into nutritive cells that supply nutrition for the microspores that form by meiotic division from the sporogenous cells, in a process called microsporogenesis, four haploid microspores are produced from each diploid sporogenous cell, after meiotic division. After the formation of the four microspores, which are contained by callose walls, the exine is what is preserved in the fossil record. Two basic types of microsporogenesis are recognised, simultaneous and successive, in simultaneous microsporogenesis meiotic steps I and II are completed prior to cytokinesis, whereas in successive microsporogenesis cytokinesis follows. While there may be a continuum with intermediate forms, the type of microsporogenesis has systematic significance, the predominant form amongst the monocots is successive, but there are important exceptions. During microgametogenesis, the unicellular microspores undergo mitosis and develop into mature microgametophytes containing the gametes, in some flowering plants, germination of the pollen grain may begin even before it leaves the microsporangium, with the generative cell forming the two sperm cells. Except in the case of submerged aquatic plants, the mature pollen grain has a double wall

6. Wind – Wind is the flow of gases on a large scale. On the surface of the Earth, wind consists of the movement of air. Winds are commonly classified by their scale, their speed, the types of forces that cause them, the regions in which they occur. The strongest observed winds on a planet in the Solar System occur on Neptune, Winds have various aspects, an important one being its velocity, another the density of the gas involved, another its energy content or wind energy. In meteorology, winds are referred to according to their strength. Short bursts of high speed wind are termed gusts, strong winds of intermediate duration are termed squalls. Long-duration winds have various names associated with their strength, such as breeze, gale, storm. The two main causes of large-scale atmospheric circulation are the differential heating between the equator and the poles, and the rotation of the planet, within the tropics, thermal low circulations over terrain and high plateaus can drive monsoon circulations. In coastal areas the sea breeze/land breeze cycle can define local winds, in areas that have variable terrain, mountain, Wind powers the voyages of sailing ships across Earths oceans. Hot air balloons use the wind to take trips, and powered flight uses it to increase lift. Areas of wind caused by various weather phenomena can lead to dangerous situations for aircraft. When winds become strong, trees and man-made structures are damaged or destroyed, Winds can shape landforms, via a variety of aeolian processes such as the formation of fertile soils, such as loess, and by erosion. Wind also affects the spread of wildfires, Winds can disperse seeds from various plants, enabling the survival and dispersal of those plant species, as well as flying insect populations. When combined with temperatures, wind has a negative impact on livestock. Wind affects animals food stores, as well as their hunting, Wind is caused by differences in the atmospheric pressure. When a difference in atmospheric pressure exists, air moves from the higher to the pressure area. On a rotating planet, air will also be deflected by the Coriolis effect, globally, the two major driving factors of large-scale wind patterns are the differential heating between the equator and the poles and the rotation of the planet. Outside the tropics and aloft from frictional effects of the surface, near the Earths surface, friction causes the wind to be slower than it would be otherwise

7. Gymnosperm – The gymnosperms are a group of seed-producing plants that includes conifers, cycads, Ginkgo, and gnetophytes. The term gymnosperm comes from the Greek composite word γυμνόσπερμος, meaning naked seeds and their naked condition stands in contrast to the seeds and ovules of flowering plants, which are enclosed within an ovary. Gymnosperm seeds develop either on the surface of scales or leaves, often modified to form cones, the gymnosperms and angiosperms together compose the spermatophytes or seed plants. By far the largest group of living gymnosperms are the conifers, followed by cycads, gnetophytes, in early classification schemes, the gymnosperms were regarded as a natural group. There is conflicting evidence on the question of whether the living gymnosperms form a clade, for the most recent classification on extant gymnosperms see Christenhusz et al. There are 12 families,83 known genera with a total of ca 1080 known species, subclass Cycadidae Order Cycadales Family Cycadaceae, Cycas Family Zamiaceae, Dioon, Bowenia, Macrozamia, Lepidozamia, Encephalartos, Stangeria, Ceratozamia, Microcycas, Zamia. It is widely accepted that the gymnosperms originated in the late Carboniferous period and this appears to have been the result of a whole genome duplication event around 319 million years ago. Early characteristics of seed plants were evident in fossil progymnosperms of the late Devonian period around 383 million years ago, the scorpionflies likely engaged in pollination mutualisms with gymnosperms, long before the similar and independent coevolution of nectar-feeding insects on angiosperms. Evidence has also found that mid-Mesozoic gymnosperms were pollinated by Kalligrammatid lacewings. Conifers are by far the most abundant extant group of gymnosperms with six to eight families, with a total of 65-70 genera, conifers are woody plants and most are evergreens. The leaves of many conifers are long, thin and needle-like, other species, including most Cupressaceae and some Podocarpaceae, have flat, agathis in Araucariaceae and Nageia in Podocarpaceae have broad, flat strap-shaped leaves. Cycads are the next most abundant group of gymnosperms, with two or three families,11 genera, and approximately 338 species, the other extant groups are the 95-100 species of Gnetales and one species of Ginkgo. Pine, fir, spruce, and cedar are all examples of conifers that are used for lumber, some other common uses for gymnosperms are soap, varnish, nail polish, food, gum, and perfumes. Gymnosperms, like all plants, have a sporophyte-dominant life cycle. Two spore types, microspores and megaspores, are produced in pollen cones or ovulate cones. Gametophytes, as with all plants, develop within the spore wall. Pollen grains mature from microspores, and ultimately produce sperm cells, megagametophytes develop from megaspores and are retained within the ovule. During pollination, pollen grains are transferred between plants, from pollen cone to the ovule, being transferred by wind or insects

8. Poales – The Poales are a large order of flowering plants in the monocotyledons, and includes families of plants such as the grasses, bromeliads, and sedges. Sixteen plant families are recognized by botanists to be part of Poales. The flowers are small, enclosed by bracts, and arranged in inflorescences. The flowers of species are wind pollinated, the seeds usually contain starch. It did not include the Bromeliaceae and Mayaceae, but had the additional families Prioniaceae, Sparganiaceae, the morphology-based Cronquist system did not include an order named Poales, assigning these families to the orders Bromeliales, Cyperales, Hydatellales, Juncales, Restionales and Typhales. The earliest known fossils include pollen and fruits, major lineages within the Poales have been referred to as bromeliad, cyperid, xyrid, graminid, and restiid clades. A phylogenetic analysis resolved most relationships within the order but found support for the monophyly of the cyperid clade. The relationship between Centrolepidaceae and Restoniaceae within the clade remains unclear, the first may actually be embedded in the latter. Within the order, by far the most important family economically is the family of grasses, which includes barley, maize, millet, rice, many Bromeliaceae are used as ornamental plants. Bremer, K. Gondwanan Evolution of the Grass Alliance of Families, judd, W. S. C. S. Campbell, E. A. Kellogg, P. F. Stevens, M. J. Donoghue. Plant Systematics, A Phylogenetic Approach, 2nd edition, linder, H. Peter, Rudall, Paula J. Evolutionary History of the Poales. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, flora of the Southeastern United States,48

9. Poaceae – Poaceae or Gramineae is a large and nearly ubiquitous family of monocotyledonous flowering plants known as grasses. Poaceae includes the cereal grasses, bamboos and the grasses of natural grassland and cultivated lawns, Grasses have stems that are hollow except at the nodes and narrow alternate leaves borne in two ranks. The lower part of each leaf encloses the stem, forming a leaf-sheath, with ca 780 genera and around 12,000 species, Poaceae are the fifth-largest plant family, following the Asteraceae, Orchidaceae, Fabaceae and Rubiaceae. Grasslands such as savannah and prairie grasses are dominant are estimated to constitute 40. 5% of the land area of the Earth, excluding Greenland. Grasses are also an important part of the vegetation in many habitats, including wetlands, forests. Though commonly called grasses, seagrasses, rushes, and sedges fall outside this family, the rushes and sedges are related to the Poaceae, being members of the order Poales, but the seagrasses are members of order Alismatales. The name Poaceae was given by John Hendley Barnhart in 1895, based on the tribe Poeae described in 1814 by Robert Brown, the term is derived from the Ancient Greek πόα. Grasses include some of the most versatile plant life-forms, a cladogram shows subfamilies and approximate species numbers in brackets, Before 2005, fossil findings indicated that grasses evolved around 55 million years ago. Recent findings of grass-like phytoliths in Cretaceous dinosaur coprolites have pushed this back to 66 million years ago. In 2011, revised dating of the origins of the rice tribe Oryzeae suggested a date as early as 107 to 129 Mya, a multituberculate mammal with grass-eating adaptations seems to suggest that grasses were already around at 120 mya. This separation occurred within the short time span of about 4 million years. Grass leaves are always alternate and distichous, and have parallel veins. Each leaf is differentiated into a lower sheath hugging the stem, the leaf blades of many grasses are hardened with silica phytoliths, which discourage grazing animals, some, such as sword grass, are sharp enough to cut human skin. A membranous appendage or fringe of hairs called the ligule lies at the junction between sheath and blade, preventing water or insects from penetrating into the sheath, flowers of Poaceae are characteristically arranged in spikelets, each having one or more florets. The spikelets are further grouped into panicles or spikes, the part of the spikelet that bears the florets is called the rachilla. A spikelet consists of two bracts at the base, called glumes, followed by one or more florets, a floret consists of the flower surrounded by two bracts, one external—the lemma—and one internal—the palea. The flowers are usually hermaphroditic—maize being an important exception—and anemophilous or wind-pollinated, the perianth is reduced to two scales, called lodicules, that expand and contract to spread the lemma and palea, these are generally interpreted to be modified sepals. This complex structure can be seen in the image on the right, the fruit of grasses is a caryopsis, in which the seed coat is fused to the fruit wall

10. Cyperaceae – The Cyperaceae are a family of monocotyledonous graminoid flowering plants known as sedges, which superficially resemble grasses and rushes. The family is large, with some 5,500 known species described in about 90 genera and these species are widely distributed, with the centers of diversity for the group occurring in tropical Asia and tropical South America. While sedges may be growing in almost all environments, many are associated with wetlands. Ecological communities dominated by sedges are known as sedgelands, features distinguishing members of the sedge family from grasses or rushes are stems with triangular cross-sections and leaves that are spirally arranged in three ranks. Some well-known sedges include the chestnut and the papyrus sedge. This family also includes cotton-grass, spike-rush, sawgrass, nutsedge or nutgrass, and white star sedge

11. Juncaceae – Juncaceae is a family of flowering plants, commonly known as the rush family. It consists of eight genera and about 464 known species of slow-growing and they often grow on infertile soils in a wide range of moisture conditions. The best-known and largest genus is Juncus, most of the Juncus species grow exclusively in wetland habitats. A few rushes, such as Juncus bufonius are annuals, the leaves are evergreen and well-developed in a basal aggregation on an erect stem. Only in the genus Distichia are the leaves distichous, the rushes of the genus Juncus have flat, hairless leaves or cylindrical leaves. The leaves of the wood-rushes of the genus Luzula are always flat, the plants are hermaphroditic or, rarely, dioecious. The small flowers are arranged in inflorescences of loose cymes, and this family typically has reduced perianth segments called tepals. These are usually arranged in two whorls, each containing three thin, papery tepals and they are not bright or flashy in appearance, and their color can vary from greenish to whitish, brown, purple, black, or hyaline. The three stigmas are in the center of the flowers, as is characteristic of monocots, all of the flower parts appear in multiples of three. The fruit is usually a nonfleshy, three-sectioned dehiscent capsule containing many seeds, the dried pith of plants of this family were used to make a type of candle known as a rushlight. The soft rush is called igusa in Japanese and is used to weave the soft surface cover of tatami mats, in medieval Europe, loose fresh rushes would be strewn on earthen floors in dwellings for cleanliness and insulation. Particularly favored for such a purpose was Acorus calamus, but despite its vernacular name sweet rush, it is a plant from a different monocot order. Information and pictures Rush, the name for species of juncus

12. Oak – An oak is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus of the beech family, Fagaceae. There are approximately 600 extant species of oaks, the common name oak also appears in the names of species in related genera, notably Lithocarpus, as well as in those of unrelated species such as Grevillea robusta and the Casuarinaceae. North America contains the largest number of oak species, with approximately 90 occurring in the United States, the second greatest center of oak diversity is China, which contains approximately 100 species. Oaks have spirally arranged leaves, with lobate margins in many species, also, the acorns contain tannic acid, as do the leaves, which helps to guard from fungi and insects. Many deciduous species are marcescent, not dropping dead leaves until spring, in spring, a single oak tree produces both male flowers and small female flowers. The fruit is a nut called an acorn, borne in a structure known as a cupule, each acorn contains one seed and takes 6–18 months to mature. The live oaks are distinguished for being evergreen, but are not actually a distinct group, the oak tree is a flowering plant. Oaks may be divided into two genera and a number of sections, The genus Quercus is divided into the following sections, Quercus, the white oaks of Europe, Asia and North America. Styles are short, acorns mature in 6 months and taste sweet or slightly bitter, the leaves mostly lack a bristle on their lobe tips, which are usually rounded. The type species is Quercus robur, Mesobalanus, Hungarian oak and its relatives of Europe and Asia. Styles long, acorns mature in about 6 months and taste bitter, the section Mesobalanus is closely related to section Quercus and sometimes included in it. Cerris, the Turkey oak and its relatives of Europe and Asia, styles long, acorn mature in 18 months and taste very bitter. The inside of the shell is hairless. Its leaves typically have sharp tips, with bristles at the lobe tip. Protobalanus, the live oak and its relatives, in southwest United States. Styles short, acorns mature in 18 months and taste very bitter, the inside of the acorn shell appears woolly. Leaves typically have sharp tips, with bristles at the lobe tip. Lobatae, the red oaks of North America, Central America, styles long, acorns mature in 18 months and taste very bitter

13. Castanea sativa – Castanea sativa, or sweet chestnut, is a species of flowering plant in the family Fagaceae, native to Europe and Asia Minor, and widely cultivated throughout the temperate world. A substantial, long-lived deciduous tree, it produces a seed, the chestnut. The tree is called the chestnut, or sweet chestnut to distinguish it from the horse chestnut Aesculus hippocastanum. Other common names include Spanish chestnut, Portuguese chestnut and marron, the Latin sativa means cultivated by humans. Some selected varieties are smaller and more compact in growth yielding earlier in life with different ripening time, the Marigoule, the Marisol, C. sativa attains a height of 20–35 m with a trunk often 2 m in diameter. The bark often has a pattern with deep furrows or fissures running spirally in both directions up the trunk. The oblong-lanceolate, boldly toothed leaves are 16–28 cm long and 5–9 cm broad, the flowers of both sexes are borne in 10–20 cm long, upright catkins, the male flowers in the upper part and female flowers in the lower part. In the northern hemisphere, they appear in late June to July, and by autumn, the female flowers eventually form a spiky sheath that deters predators from the seed. Some cultivars produce only one large nut per cupule, rather than the two to four nuts of edible, though smaller, size. The tree requires a climate and adequate moisture for good growth. Its year-growth is sensitive to spring and early autumn frosts. Under forest conditions, it will tolerate moderate shade well and it can live to more than 2,000 years of age in natural conditions, see the poetically-named hundred-horse chestnut in eastern Sicily for example. The leaves provide food for animals, including Lepidoptera such as the case-bearer moth Coleophora anatipennella. Sativa is found across the Mediterranean region, from the Caspian Sea to the Atlantic Ocean and it is thought to have survived in several refuges during the last ice age in southern Europe, Northeast Turkey and the Caucasus. It then spread North and West throughout mainland Europe, and is thought to have arrived in Italy from Asia Minor with the Greeks, the species is widely distributed throughout Southern Europe where it cover more than 1700.000 ha. It is often cultivated in coppices and orchards and more rarely found in forests stand. The species is cultivated for its edible seeds and for its wood. As early as Roman times, it was introduced into more northerly regions, today, centuries-old specimens may be found in Great Britain and the whole of central, western and southern Europe

14. Alder – Alder is the common name of a genus of flowering plants belonging to the birch family Betulaceae. The common name alder evolved from Old English alor, which in turn is derived from Proto-Germanic root aliso, the generic name Alnus is the equivalent Latin name. With a few exceptions, alders are deciduous, and the leaves are alternate, simple and these trees differ from the birches in that the female catkins are woody and do not disintegrate at maturity, opening to release the seeds in a similar manner to many conifer cones. The largest species are red alder on the west coast of North America, by contrast, the widespread Alnus viridis is rarely more than a 5-m-tall shrub. Alders are commonly found near streams, rivers, and wetlands, Alder leaves and sometimes catkins are used as food by numerous butterflies and moths. A. glutinosa and A. viridis are classed as environmental weeds in New Zealand, Alder leaves and especially the roots are important to the ecosystem because they enrich the soil with nitrogen and other nutrients. Alder is particularly noted for its important symbiotic relationship with Frankia alni and this bacterium is found in root nodules, which may be as large as a human fist, with many small lobes, and light brown in colour. The bacterium absorbs nitrogen from the air and makes it available to the tree, Alder, in turn, provides the bacterium with sugars, which it produces through photosynthesis. Because of its abundance, red alder delivers large amounts of nitrogen to enrich forest soils, red alder stands have been found to supply between 120 and 290 pounds of nitrogen per acre annually to the soil. From Alaska to Oregon, Sitka alder characteristically pioneer fresh, gravelly sites at the foot of retreating glaciers, alders are common among the first species to colonize disturbed areas from floods, windstorms, fires, landslides, etc. Alder groves themselves often serve as natural firebreaks since these trees are much less flammable than conifers. Their foliage and leaf litter does not carry a fire well, in addition, the light weight of alder seeds allows for easy dispersal by the wind. Although it outgrows coastal Douglas-fir for the first 25 years, it is shade intolerant. Red alder is the Pacific Northwests largest alder and the most plentiful, alders largely help create conditions favorable for giant conifers that replace them. Alder root nodules Alder roots are parasitized by northern groundcone, the catkins of some alder species have a degree of edibility, and may be rich in protein. Reported to have a bitter and unpleasant taste, they are useful for survival purposes. The wood of certain species is often used to smoke various food items such as coffee, salmon. Most of the pilings that form the foundation of Venice were made from alder trees, Alder bark contains the anti-inflammatory salicin, which is metabolized into salicylic acid in the body

15. Juglandaceae – The Juglandaceae are a family, known as the walnut family, of trees, or sometimes shrubs, in the order Fagales. Various members of family are native to the Americas, Eurasia. Members of the family have large, aromatic leaves that are usually alternate. The leaves are compound or ternate, and usually 20–100 cm long. The trees are wind-pollinated, and the flowers are arranged in catkins. The nine or ten genera in the family have a total of ca 50 species, and include the commercially important nut-producing trees walnut, pecan, the Persian walnut, Juglans regia, is one of the major nut crops of the world. Walnut, hickory, and gaulin are also valuable timber trees, the known living genera are grouped into subfamilies, tribes, and subtribes as follows, Subfamily Rhoipteleoideae Reveal Rhoiptelea Diels & Hand. -Mazz. 1932 Subfamily Engelhardioideae Iljinskaya 1990 Alfaroa Standl,1856 Subfamily Juglandoideae Eaton 1836 Tribe Platycaryeae Nakai 1933 Platycarya Siebold & Zucc. Stone & P. S. Manos 2001 Carya Nutt, hickory nuts and walnuts grow within an outer husk, these fruits are sometimes considered to be drupes or drupaceous nuts, rather than true botanical nuts. Tryma is a term for such nut-like drupes. These odd nuts fall into two different types, in the genus, it is a pseudodrupe and in the hickory genus

16. Nectar – Common nectar-consuming pollinators include mosquitoes, hoverflies, wasps, bees, butterflies and moths, hummingbirds, and bats. M. scutellata and the honey bee. Nectar is an important item, the sugar source for honey. It is also useful in agriculture and horticulture because the adult stages of some predatory insects feed on nectar, for example, the social wasp species Apoica flavissima relies on nectar as a primary food source. In turn, these wasps then hunt agricultural pest insects as food for their young, for example, thread-waisted wasps are known for hunting caterpillars that are destructive to crops. Caterpillars however, do eventually become butterflies and moths, which are important pollinators. Nectar secretion increases as the flower is visited by pollinators, after pollination, the nectar is frequently reabsorbed into the plant. Nectar is derived from Greek nektar, the drink of the gods. The current meaning, sweet liquid in flowers, is first recorded in AD1600, floral nectaries are generally located at the base of the perianth, so pollinators are made to brush the flowers reproductive structures, the stamen and pistil, while accessing the nectar. A septal nectary is nectar-producing tissue that is found in the wall of a plant ovary, septal nectaries function as a way of attracting pollinators. Plants that rely on insects, birds, or bats for pollination often have septal nectaries, aside from attracting pollinators, septal nectaries have also been known to attract plant protectors. Some plants, like Ruellia radicans, have nectaries that continue to secrete nectar even after the petals have been shed and this attracts ants which will in turn protect the developing fruits of the plant from seed predators and herbivores in exchange for nectar. Extrafloral nectaries are nectar-secreting plant glands that develop outside of flowers and are not involved in pollination and they are highly diverse in form, location, size, and mechanism. They have been described in virtually all above-ground plant parts—including leaves, petioles, stipules, cotyledons, fruits and they range from single-celled trichomes to complex cup-like structures that may or may not be vascularized. In contrast to floral nectaries, nectar produced outside the flower generally have a defensive function, the nectar attracts predatory insects which will eat both the nectar and any plant-eating insects around, thus functioning as bodyguards. Foraging predatory insects show a preference for plants with extrafloral nectaries, particularly species of ants and wasps. Among passion flowers, for example, extrafloral nectaries prevent herbivores by attracting ants, in many carnivorous plants, extrafloral nectaries are also used to attract insect prey. Extrafloral nectaries were originally believed to simply be excretory in nature and their defensive functions were first recognized by the Italian botanist Federico Delpino in his important monograph Funzione mirmecofila nel regno vegetale

17. Entomophily – Entomophily or insect pollination is a form of pollination whereby pollen of plants, especially but not only of flowering plants, is distributed by insects. Insect pollinators such as bees have adaptations for their role, such as lapping or sucking mouthparts to take in nectar and this required the coevolution of insects and flowering plants in the development of pollination behaviour by the insects and pollination mechanisms by the flowers, benefiting both groups. Many plants, including flowering plants such as grasses, are pollinated by other mechanisms. Before that, insect involvement in pollination was limited to pollination assistants, insects which inadvertently carried the pollen between plants merely by their movements, the real relationship between plants and insects began in the Early Cretaceous, with beetle-pollinated gymnosperms. The morphology of the first fossil basal angiosperms is similar to plants that are also fertilised by beetles. It seems likely that beetles led the way in insect pollination, among the twelve living families of basal angiosperms, six are predominantly pollinated by flies, five by beetles and only one by bees. Nevertheless, traits such as sapromyophily have evolved independently in several unrelated angiosperm families, wind and water pollination require the production of vast quantities of pollen because of the chancy nature of its deposition. If they are not to be reliant on the wind or water and they particularly need pollinators to consistently choose flowers of the same species, so they have evolved different lures to encourage specific pollinators to maintain fidelity to the same species. The attractions offered are mainly nectar, pollen, fragrances and oils, the ideal pollinating insect is hairy, and spends time exploring the flower so that it comes into contact with the reproductive structures. Many insects are pollinators, particularly bees, Lepidoptera, wasps, flies, ants, on the other hand, some plants are generalists, being pollinated by insects in several orders. Entomophilous plant species have evolved mechanisms to make themselves more appealing to insects, e. g. brightly coloured or scented flowers, nectar, or appealing shapes. Pollen grains of plants are generally larger than the fine pollens of anemophilous plants. This is energetically costly, but in contrast, entomophilous plants have to bear the costs of producing nectar. Butterflies and moths have hairy bodies and long proboscides which can probe deep into tubular flowers, butterflies mostly fly by day and are particularly attracted to pink, mauve and purple flowers. The flowers are large and scented, and the stamens are so-positioned that pollen is deposited on the insects while they feed on the nectar. Moths are mostly nocturnal and are attracted by night-blooming plants, the flowers of these are often tubular, pale in colour and fragrant only at night. Hawkmoths tend to larger flowers and hover as they feed. Other moths land on the smaller flowers, which may be aggregated into flowerheads

18. Zoophily – These plant animal relationships are often mutually beneficial because of the food source provided in exchange for pollination. Zoophilous species include Arctium, Acaena, and Galium aparine Pollination is defined as the transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma, there are many vectors for pollination, including abiotic, and biotic. There are different benefits and costs associated with any vector type, for instance, using animal pollination is beneficial because the process is more directed and often results in pollination. At the same time it is costly for the plant to produce rewards, such as nectar, not producing such rewards is one benefit of using abiotic pollinators, but a cost associated with this approach is that the pollen may be distributed somewhat randomly. In general, pollination by vertebrates occurs when the animal reaches inside the flowers for nectar, while feeding on the nectar, the animal rubs or touches the stamens and is covered in pollen. Some of this pollen will be deposited on the stigma of the flower it visits. Most bat species that pollinate flowers inhabit Africa, Southeast Asia, many flowers are dependent on bats for pollination, such as the flowers which produce mangoes, bananas, and guavas. Bat pollination is a process in tropical communities with 500 tropical plant species completely, or partially. Also, it has noted that outcrossing by bats increases genetic diversity and is important in tropical communities. Plants pollinated by bats often have white or pale nocturnal flowers that are large, many of these flowers have large amounts of nectar, and emit a smell that attracts bats, such as a strong fruity or musky odor. Bats use certain chemical cues to locate food sources and they are attracted to odors that contain esters, alcohols, aldehydes, and aliphatic acids. The banana bat is a species found only on the Pacific coast of Mexico. It has a small geographic range and is distinguishable by its extremely long nose. The long snout and tongue, one recorded as measuring 76mm. This bat species is small, with the head and body length ranging from 70 to 79mm, the wild banana flower is elongated with a purple color. Non-flying mammals have been found to feed on the nectar of species of plant. Though some of these mammals are pollinators, others do not carry or transfer pollen to be considered pollinators. This group of non-flying pollinators is mainly composed of marsupials, primates, well-documented studies of non-flying mammal pollination now involve at least 59 species of mammal distributed among 19 families and six orders

19. Insect – Insects are a class of hexapod invertebrates within the arthropod phylum that have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body, three pairs of jointed legs, compound eyes and one pair of antennae. They are the most diverse group of animals on the planet, including more than a million described species, the number of extant species is estimated at between six and ten million, and potentially represent over 90% of the differing animal life forms on Earth. Insects may be found in all environments, although only a small number of species reside in the oceans. The life cycles of insects vary but most hatch from eggs, insect growth is constrained by the inelastic exoskeleton and development involves a series of molts. The immature stages can differ from the adults in structure, habit and habitat, Insects that undergo 3-stage metamorphosis lack a pupal stage and adults develop through a series of nymphal stages. The higher level relationship of the Hexapoda is unclear, fossilized insects of enormous size have been found from the Paleozoic Era, including giant dragonflies with wingspans of 55 to 70 cm. The most diverse insect groups appear to have coevolved with flowering plants, adult insects typically move about by walking, flying or sometimes swimming. As it allows for rapid yet stable movement, many insects adopt a tripedal gait in which they walk with their legs touching the ground in alternating triangles, Insects are the only invertebrates to have evolved flight. Many insects spend at least part of their lives under water, with adaptations that include gills. Some species, such as water striders, are capable of walking on the surface of water, Insects are mostly solitary, but some, such as certain bees, ants and termites, are social and live in large, well-organized colonies. Some insects, such as earwigs, show maternal care, guarding their eggs, Insects can communicate with each other in a variety of ways. Male moths can sense the pheromones of female moths over great distances, other species communicate with sounds, crickets stridulate, or rub their wings together, to attract a mate and repel other males. Lampyridae in the beetle order communicate with light, humans regard certain insects as pests, and attempt to control them using insecticides and a host of other techniques. Some insects damage crops by feeding on sap, leaves or fruits, a few parasitic species are pathogenic. Some insects perform complex ecological roles, blow-flies, for example, help consume carrion, Many other insects are considered ecologically beneficial as predators and a few provide direct economic benefit. Silkworms and bees have been used extensively by humans for the production of silk and honey, in some cultures, people eat the larvae or adults of certain insects. Insect first appears documented in English in 1601 in Hollands translation of Pliny, translations of Aristotles term also form the usual word for insect in Welsh, Serbo-Croatian, Russian, etc. The evolutionary relationship of insects to other animal groups remains unclear, in the Pancrustacea theory, insects, together with Entognatha, Remipedia, and Cephalocarida, make up a natural clade labeled Miracrustacea

20. Vertebrate – Vertebrates /ˈvɜːrtᵻbrᵻts/ comprise all species of animals within the subphylum Vertebrata /-ɑː/. Vertebrates represent the majority of the phylum Chordata, with currently about 66,000 species described. Vertebrates include the fish and the jawed vertebrates, which include the cartilaginous fish. A bony fish known as the lobe-finned fishes is included with tetrapods, which are further divided into amphibians, reptiles, mammals. Extant vertebrates range in size from the frog species Paedophryne amauensis, at as little as 7.7 mm, to the blue whale, vertebrates make up less than five percent of all described animal species, the rest are invertebrates, which lack vertebral columns. The vertebrates traditionally include the hagfish, which do not have proper vertebrae due to their loss in evolution, though their closest living relatives, hagfish do, however, possess a cranium. For this reason, the vertebrate subphylum is sometimes referred to as Craniata when discussing morphology, molecular analysis since 1992 has suggested that hagfish are most closely related to lampreys, and so also are vertebrates in a monophyletic sense. Others consider them a group of vertebrates in the common taxon of craniata. The word origin of vertebrate derives from the Latin word vertebratus, the Proto-Indo-European language origins are still unclear. Vertebrate is derived from the vertebra, which refers to any of the bones or segments of the spinal column. All vertebrates are built along the basic body plan, a stiff rod running through the length of the animal, with a hollow tube of nervous tissue above it. In all vertebrates, the mouth is found at, or right below, the remaining part of the body continuing after the anus forms a tail with vertebrae and spinal cord, but no gut. However, a few vertebrates have secondarily lost this anatomy, retaining the notochord into adulthood, such as the sturgeon, jawed vertebrates are typified by paired appendages, but this trait is not required in order for an animal to be a vertebrate. All basal vertebrates breathe with gills, the gills are carried right behind the head, bordering the posterior margins of a series of openings from the pharynx to the exterior. Each gill is supported by a cartilagenous or bony gill arch, the bony fish have three pairs of arches, cartilaginous fish have five to seven pairs, while the primitive jawless fish have seven. The vertebrate ancestor no doubt had more arches than this, as some of their relatives have more than 50 pairs of gills. In amphibians and some primitive fishes, the larvae bear external gills. These are reduced in adulthood, their function taken over by the gills proper in fishes, some amphibians retain the external larval gills in adulthood, the complex internal gill system as seen in fish apparently being irrevocably lost very early in the evolution of tetrapods

21. Stamen – The stamen is the pollen-producing reproductive organ of a flower. Collectively the stamens form the androecium, a stamen typically consists of a stalk called the filament and an anther which contains microsporangia. Most commonly anthers are two-lobed and are attached to the filament either at the base or in the area of the anther. The sterile tissue between the lobes is called the connective, a pollen grain develops from a microspore in the microsporangium and contains the male gametophyte. The stamens in a flower are called the androecium. The androecium can consist of as few a one-half stamen as in Canna species or as many as 3,482 stamens which have been counted in Carnegiea gigantea, the androecium in various species of plants forms a great variety of patterns, some of them highly complex. It surrounds the gynoecium and is surrounded by the perianth, a few members of the family Triuridaceae, particularly Lacandonia schismatica, are exceptional in that their gynoecia surround their androecia. Stamen is the Latin word meaning thread, depending on the species of plant, some or all of the stamens in a flower may be attached to the petals or to the floral axis. They also may be free-standing or fused to one another in different ways, including fusion of some. The filaments may be fused and the free, or the filaments free. Rather than there being two locules, one locule of a stamen may fail to develop, or alternatively the two locules may merge late in development to give a single locule, a typical anther contains four microsporangia. The microsporangia form sacs or pockets in the anther, the two separate locules on each side of an anther may fuse into a single locule. Each microsporangium is lined with a tissue layer called the tapetum. These undergo meiosis to form haploid spores, the spores may remain attached to each other in a tetrad or separate after meiosis. Each microspore then divides mitotically to form an immature microgametophyte called a pollen grain, the pollen is eventually released when the anther forms openings. These may consist of longitudinal slits, pores, as in the family, or by valves. More commonly, mature pollen grains separate and are dispensed by wind or water, pollinating insects, pollen of angiosperms must be transported to the stigma, the receptive surface of the carpel, of a compatible flower, for successful pollination to occur. After arriving, the pollen grain typically completes its development and it may grow a pollen tube and undergoing mitosis to produce two sperm nuclei

22. Stigma (botany) – The stigma is the receptive tip of a carpel, or of several fused carpels, in the gynoecium of a flower. The stigma, together with the style and ovary comprises the pistil, the stigma forms the distal portion of the style or stylodia. The stigma is composed of stigmatic papillae, the cells which are receptive to pollen and these may be restricted to the apex of the style or, especially in wind pollinated species, cover a wide surface. The stigma receives pollen and it is on the stigma that the pollen grain germinates, often sticky, the stigma is adapted in various ways to catch and trap pollen with various hairs, flaps, or sculpturings. The pollen may be captured from the air, from visiting insects or other animals, Stigma can vary from long and slender to globe shaped to feathery. Pollen is typically highly desiccated when it leaves an anther, Stigma have been shown to assist in the rehydration of pollen and in promoting germination of the pollen tube. Stigma also ensure proper adhesion of the species of pollen. The stigma is often split into lobes, e. g. trifid, the shape of the stigma may vary considerably, The style is a narrow upward extension of the ovary, connecting it to the stigmatic papillae. It may be absent in plants in the case the stigma is referred to as sessile. Styles are generally tube-like — either long or short, the style can be open with a central canal which may be filled with mucilage. Alternatively the style may be closed and this forms a nutrient rich tract for pollen tube growth. Where there are more than one carpels to the pistil, each may have a separate style-like stylodium, in Irises and others in the Iridaceae family, the style divides into three petal-like, style branches, almost to the base of the style and is called tribrachiate. These are flaps of tissue, running from the tube above the sepal. The stigma is a rim or edge on the underside of the branch, style branches also appear on Dietes, Pardanthopsis and most species of Moraea. In Crocuses, there are three divided style branches, creating a tube, hesperantha has a spreading style branch. Alternatively the style may be lobed rather than branched, gladiolus has a bi-lobed style branch. Freesia, Lapeirousia, Romulea, Savannosiphon and Watsonia have bifuracated and recurved style branches, may be terminal, subapical, lateral, gynobasic, or subgynobasic. Terminal style position refers to attachment at the apex of the ovary and is the commonest pattern, in the subapical pattern the style arises to the side slightly below the apex

23. Protein – Proteins are large biomolecules, or macromolecules, consisting of one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, responding to stimuli, a linear chain of amino acid residues is called a polypeptide. A protein contains at least one long polypeptide, short polypeptides, containing less than 20–30 residues, are rarely considered to be proteins and are commonly called peptides, or sometimes oligopeptides. The individual amino acid residues are bonded together by peptide bonds, the sequence of amino acid residues in a protein is defined by the sequence of a gene, which is encoded in the genetic code. In general, the code specifies 20 standard amino acids, however. Sometimes proteins have non-peptide groups attached, which can be called prosthetic groups or cofactors, proteins can also work together to achieve a particular function, and they often associate to form stable protein complexes. Once formed, proteins only exist for a period of time and are then degraded and recycled by the cells machinery through the process of protein turnover. A proteins lifespan is measured in terms of its half-life and covers a wide range and they can exist for minutes or years with an average lifespan of 1–2 days in mammalian cells. Abnormal and or misfolded proteins are degraded more rapidly due to being targeted for destruction or due to being unstable. Like other biological macromolecules such as polysaccharides and nucleic acids, proteins are essential parts of organisms, many proteins are enzymes that catalyse biochemical reactions and are vital to metabolism. Proteins also have structural or mechanical functions, such as actin and myosin in muscle and the proteins in the cytoskeleton, other proteins are important in cell signaling, immune responses, cell adhesion, and the cell cycle. In animals, proteins are needed in the diet to provide the essential amino acids that cannot be synthesized, digestion breaks the proteins down for use in the metabolism. Methods commonly used to study structure and function include immunohistochemistry, site-directed mutagenesis, X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance. Most proteins consist of linear polymers built from series of up to 20 different L-α-amino acids, all proteinogenic amino acids possess common structural features, including an α-carbon to which an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a variable side chain are bonded. Only proline differs from this structure as it contains an unusual ring to the N-end amine group. The amino acids in a chain are linked by peptide bonds. Once linked in the chain, an individual amino acid is called a residue, and the linked series of carbon, nitrogen. The peptide bond has two forms that contribute some double-bond character and inhibit rotation around its axis, so that the alpha carbons are roughly coplanar

24. Bee – Bees are flying insects closely related to wasps and ants, known for their role in pollination and, in the case of the best-known bee species, the European honey bee, for producing honey and beeswax. Bees are a lineage within the superfamily Apoidea, presently considered as a clade Anthophila. There are nearly 20,000 known species of bees in seven to nine recognized families, though many are undescribed and they are found on every continent except Antarctica, in every habitat on the planet that contains insect-pollinated flowering plants. Some species including honey bees, bumblebees, and stingless bees live socially in colonies, Bees are adapted for feeding on nectar and pollen, the former primarily as an energy source and the latter primarily for protein and other nutrients. Most pollen is used as food for larvae, Bee pollination is important both ecologically and commercially, the decline in wild bees has increased the value of pollination by commercially managed hives of honey bees. The most common bees in the Northern Hemisphere are the Halictidae, or sweat bees, vertebrate predators of bees include birds such as bee-eaters, insect predators include beewolves and dragonflies. Human beekeeping or apiculture has been practised for millennia, since at least the times of Ancient Egypt, apart from honey and pollination, honey bees produce beeswax, royal jelly and propolis. Bees have appeared in mythology and folklore, again since ancient times, and they feature in works of literature as varied as Virgils Georgics, Beatrix Potters The Tale of Mrs Tittlemouse, yeatss poem The Lake Isle of Innisfree. Bee larvae are included in the Javanese dish botok tawon, where they are steamed with shredded coconut. The ancestors of bees were wasps in the family Crabronidae, which were predators of other insects. The switch from insect prey to pollen may have resulted from the consumption of insects which were flower visitors and were partially covered with pollen when they were fed to the wasp larvae. This same evolutionary scenario may have occurred within the vespoid wasps, until recently, the oldest non-compression bee fossil had been found in New Jersey amber, Cretotrigona prisca of Cretaceous age, a corbiculate bee. A bee fossil from the early Cretaceous, Melittosphex burmensis, is considered an extinct lineage of pollen-collecting Apoidea sister to the modern bees. Derived features of its place it clearly within the bees. By the Eocene there was considerable diversity among eusocial bee lineages. The highly eusocial corbiculate Apidae appeared roughly 87 Mya, and the Allodapini around 53 Mya, the Colletidae appear as fossils only from the late Oligocene to early Miocene. The Melittidae are known from Palaeomacropis eocenicus in the Early Eocene, the Megachilidae are known from trace fossils from the Middle Eocene. The Andrenidae are known from the Eocene-Oligocene boundary, around 34 Mya, the Halictidae first appear in the Early Eocene with species found in amber

25. Electrostatics – Electrostatics is a branch of physics that deals with the phenomena and properties of stationary or slow-moving electric charges. Since classical physics, it has known that some materials such as amber attract lightweight particles after rubbing. The Greek word for amber, ήλεκτρον, or electron, was the source of the word electricity, Electrostatic phenomena arise from the forces that electric charges exert on each other. Such forces are described by Coulombs law, Electrostatics involves the buildup of charge on the surface of objects due to contact with other surfaces. This is because the charges that transfer are trapped there for a long enough for their effects to be observed. We begin with the magnitude of the force between two point charges q and Q. It is convenient to one of these charges, q, as a test charge. As we develop the theory, more source charges will be added.854187817 ×10 −12 C2 N −1 m −2, the SI units of ε0 are equivalently A2s4 kg−1m−3 or C2N−1m−2 or F m−1. Coulombs constant is, k e ≈14 π ε0 ≈8.987551787 ×109 N m 2 C −2. A single proton has a charge of e, and the electron has a charge of −e and these physical constants are currently defined so that ε0 and k0 are exactly defined, and e is a measured quantity. Electric field lines are useful for visualizing the electric field, field lines begin on positive charge and terminate on negative charge. Electric field lines are parallel to the direction of the field. The electric field, E →, is a field that can be defined everywhere. It is convenient to place a hypothetical test charge at a point, by Coulombs Law, this test charge will experience a force that can be used to define the electric field as follow F → = q E →. For a single point charge at the origin, the magnitude of electric field is E = k e Q / R2. The fact that the force can be calculated by summing all the contributions due to individual source particles is an example of the superposition principle. If the charge is distributed over a surface or along a line, the Divergence Theorem allows Gausss Law to be written in differential form, ∇ → ⋅ E → = ρ ε0. Where ∇ → ⋅ is the divergence operator, the definition of electrostatic potential, combined with the differential form of Gausss law, provides a relationship between the potential Φ and the charge density ρ, ∇2 ϕ = − ρ ε0

26. Ragweed – Ragweeds are flowering plants in the genus Ambrosia in the aster family, Asteraceae. Several species have been introduced to the Old World and some have naturalized and have become invasive species, ragweed species are expected to continue spreading across Europe in the near future in response to on-going climate change. Other common names include bursages and burrobrushes, the genus name is from the Greek ambrosia, the food of the gods. Ragweed pollen is notorious for causing allergic reactions in humans, specifically allergic rhinitis, up to half of all cases of pollen-related allergic rhinitis in North America are caused by ragweeds. Ragweeds are annual and perennial herbs and shrubs, Species may grow just a few centimeters tall or well exceed four meters in height. The stems are erect, decumbent or prostrate, and many grow from rhizomes, the leaves may be arranged alternately, oppositely, or both. The leaf blades come in shapes, sometimes divided pinnately or palmately into lobes. The edges are smooth or toothed, some are hairy, and most are glandular. Ragweeds are monoecious, most producing inflorescences that contain both staminate and pistillate flowers, inflorescences are often in the form of a spike or raceme made up mostly of staminate flowers with some pistillate clusters around the base. Staminate flower heads have stamens surrounded by whitish or purplish florets, pistillate flower heads have fruit-yielding ovules surrounded by many phyllaries and fewer, smaller florets. The pistillate flowers are pollinated, and the fruits develop. They are burs, sometimes adorned with knobs, wings, or spines, many Ambrosia species occur in desert and semi-desert areas, and many are ruderal species that grow in disturbed habitat types. Ragweed pollen is a common allergen, a single plant may produce about a billion grains of pollen per season, and the pollen is transported on the wind. It causes about half of all cases of pollen-associated allergic rhinitis in North America, common culprits are common ragweed and great ragweed. Ragweed pollen can remain airborne for days and travel great distances and it can even be carried 300 to 400 miles out to sea. Ragweeds native to the Americas have been introduced to Europe starting in the century and especially during World War I. The major allergenic compound in the pollen has been identified as Amb a 1 and it also contains other allergenic components, such as profilin and calcium-binding proteins. Foods commonly involved include beans, celery, cumin, hazelnuts, kiwifruit, parsley, potatoes, bananas, melons, cucumbers, and zucchini

27. Honey – Honey /ˈhʌni/ is a sugary food substance produced and stored by certain social hymenopteran insects. It is produced from the secretions of plants or insects, such as floral nectar or aphid honeydew, through regurgitation, enzymatic activity. The variety of honey produced by bees is the most well-known, due to its worldwide commercial production. Honey gets its sweetness from the monosaccharides fructose and glucose, and has about the relative sweetness as granulated sugar. It has attractive properties for baking and a distinctive flavor that leads some people to prefer it to sugar. Most microorganisms do not grow in honey, so sealed honey does not spoil, however, honey sometimes contains dormant endospores of the bacterium Clostridium botulinum, which can be dangerous to babies, as it may result in botulism. People who have an immune system should not eat honey because of the risk of bacterial or fungal infection. Although some evidence indicates honey may be effective in treating diseases and other conditions, such as wounds and burns. Providing 64 calories in a serving of one tablespoon equivalent to 1272 kj per 100 g. Honey is generally safe, but may have various, potential adverse effects or interactions with excessive consumption, existing disease conditions, or drugs. Honey use and production have a long and varied history as an ancient activity, depicted in Valencia, in cold weather or when other food sources are scarce, adult and larval bees use stored honey as food. By contriving for bee swarms to nest in man-made hives, people have been able to semidomesticate the insects, Bee digestive enzymes - invertase, amylase, and diastase - and gastric acid hydrolyze sucrose to a mixture of glucose and fructose. The bees work together as a group with the regurgitation and digestion for as long as 20 minutes until the product reaches storage quality. It is then placed in honeycomb cells left unsealed while still high in content and natural yeasts. The bees then cap the cells with wax to seal them, as removed from the hive by a beekeeper, honey has a long shelf life and will not ferment if properly sealed. Another source of honey is from a number of species, such as the wasps Brachygastra lecheguana and Brachygastra mellifica. These species are known to feed on nectar and produce honey, Honey is collected from wild bee colonies, or from domesticated beehives. The honey is stored in honeycombs, wild bee nests are sometimes located by following a honeyguide bird

28. Honeybee – A honey bee is any bee member of the genus Apis, primarily distinguished by the production and storage of honey and the construction of perennial, colonial nests from wax. Currently, only seven species of bee are recognized, with a total of 44 subspecies, though historically. The best known honey bee is the Western honey bee which has been domesticated for honey production, Honey bees represent only a small fraction of the roughly 20,000 known species of bees. Some other types of related bees produce and store honey, including the stingless honey bees, the study of bees including honey bees is known as melittology. The genus name Apis is Latin for bee, nonetheless, compounds gradually solidify in the orthography of natural languages in ways that do not always comply with prescription. Honey bees appear to have their center of origin in South and Southeast Asia, notably, living representatives of the earliest lineages to diverge have their center of origin there. The first Apis bees appear in the record at the Eocene–Oligocene boundary. The origin of these prehistoric honey bees does not necessarily indicate Europe as the place of origin of the genus, few fossil deposits are known from South Asia, the suspected region of honey bee origin, and fewer still have been thoroughly studied. No Apis species existed in the New World during human times before the introduction of A. mellifera by Europeans, only one fossil species is documented from the New World, Apis nearctica, known from a single 14-million-year-old specimen from Nevada. The close relatives of modern honey bees – e. g. bumblebees and stingless bees – are also social to some degree, most species have historically been cultured or at least exploited for honey and beeswax by humans indigenous to their native ranges. Only two of these species have been domesticated, one at least since the time of the building of the Egyptian pyramids. Honey bees are the extant members of the tribe Apini. Todays honey bees constitute three clades, the chromosome counts of female bees for the three clades are, Micrapis 2N =16, Megapis 2N =16, and Apis 2N =32. Drones of all species have 1N chromosome counts, the genome of Apis has been mapped. Drones are produced from unfertilized eggs, so represent only the DNA of the queen that laid the eggs, workers and queens result from fertilized eggs, so have both a mother and a father. Arrhenotokous parthenogenesis, a form of parthenogenesis, controls sex differentiation. The sex allele is polymorphic, and so long as two different variants are present, a female bee results, if both sex alleles are identical, diploid drones are produced. Honey bees detect and destroy diploid drones after the eggs hatch, queens typically mate with multiple drones on more than one mating flight

29. Bumblebee – A bumblebee is a member of the genus Bombus, part of Apidae, one of the bee families. This genus is the extant group in the tribe Bombini. Over 250 species of bumblebee are known and they are found primarily in higher altitudes or latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere, although they are also found in South America where a few lowland tropical species have been identified. European bumblebees have also introduced to New Zealand and Tasmania. The brood parasitic or cuckoo bumblebees have sometimes been classified as a subgenus or genus, Psithyrus, many bumblebees are social insects that form colonies with a single queen. The colonies are smaller than those of honeybees, growing to as few as 50 individuals in a nest, female bumblebees can sting repeatedly, but generally ignore humans and other animals. Bumblebees have round bodies covered in soft hair called pile, making them appear and they have aposematic coloration, often consisting of contrasting bands of colour, and different species of bumblebee in a region often resemble each other in mutually protective Müllerian mimicry. Harmless insects such as hoverflies often derive protection from resembling bumblebees, in Batesian mimicry, nest-making bumblebees can be distinguished from similarly large, fuzzy cuckoo bees by the form of the female hind leg. Like their relatives the honeybees, bumblebees feed on nectar, using their long tongues to lap up the liquid. Bumblebees gather nectar to add to the stores in the nest and they forage using colour and spatial relationships to identify flowers to feed from. Some bumblebees rob nectar, making a hole near the base of a flower to access the nectar while avoiding pollen transfer, Bumblebees are important agricultural pollinators, so their decline in Europe, North America, and Asia is a cause for concern. The decline has been caused by loss, the mechanisation of agriculture. The word bumblebee is a compound of bumble + bee — bumble meaning to hum, buzz, drone, the generic name Bombus, assigned by Pierre André Latreille in 1802, is derived from the Latin word for a buzzing or humming sound. However the OED also states that the term humblebee predates it, having first been used in 1450 in Fysshynge wyth Angle, the latter term was used in A Midsummer Nights Dream by William Shakespeare, The honie-bags steale from the humble Bees. An old provincial name, dumbledor, also denoted a buzzing insect such as a bumblebee or cockchafer, dumble probably imitating the sound of these insects, while dor meant beetle. However, bumblebee remained in use, for example in The Tale of Mrs. Tittlemouse by Beatrix Potter, Suddenly round a corner, since World War II humblebee has fallen into near-total disuse. The bumblebee tribe Bombini is one of four groups of bees in the Apidae, the others being the Apini, Euglossini. The corbiculate bees are a monophyletic group and it is now thought that the Apini and Euglossini are closely related, while the primitively eusocial Bombini are close to the Meliponini, which have somewhat more advanced eusocial behaviour

30. Maize – Maize, also known as corn, is a large grain plant first domesticated by indigenous peoples in Mexico about 10,000 years ago. The six major types of corn are dent corn, flint corn, pod corn, popcorn, flour corn, the leafy stalk of the plant produces separate pollen and ovuliferous inflorescences or ears, which are fruits, yielding kernels or seeds. Maize kernels are used in cooking as a starch. Most historians believe maize was domesticated in the Tehuacan Valley of Mexico, recent research modified this view somewhat, scholars now indicate the adjacent Balsas River Valley of south-central Mexico as the center of domestication. The Olmec and Mayans cultivated maize in numerous varieties throughout Mesoamerica, cooked and its believed that beginning about 2500 BC, the crop spread through much of the Americas. The region developed a network based on surplus and varieties of maize crops. Nevertheless, recent data indicates that the spread of maize took place even earlier, according to Piperno, A large corpus of data indicates that it was dispersed into lower Central America by 7600 BP and had moved into the inter-Andean valleys of Colombia between 7000 and 6000 BP. Since then, even earlier dates have been published, the study also demonstrated that the oldest surviving maize types are those of the Mexican highlands. Later, maize spread from this region over the Americas along two major paths and this is consistent with a model based on the archaeological record suggesting that maize diversified in the highlands of Mexico before spreading to the lowlands. Before they were domesticated, maize plants only grew small,25 millimetres long corn cobs, Maize is the most widely grown grain crop throughout the Americas, with 361 million metric tons grown in the United States in 2014. Approximately 40% of the crop—130 million tons—is used for corn ethanol, genetically modified maize made up 85% of the maize planted in the United States in 2009. After the arrival of Europeans in 1492, Spanish settlers consumed maize and explorers and traders carried it back to Europe, Spanish settlers far preferred wheat bread to maize, cassava, or potatoes. Maize flour could not be substituted for wheat for bread, since in Christian belief only wheat could undergo transubstantiation. At another level, Spaniards worried that by eating indigenous foods, which they did not consider nutritious, that not only would they weaken, despite these worries, Spaniards did consume maize and archeological evidence from Florida sites indicate they cultivated it as well. Maize spread to the rest of the world because of its ability to grow in diverse climates and it was cultivated in Spain just a few decades after Columbuss voyages and then spread to Italy, West Africa and elsewhere. The word maize derives from the Spanish form of the indigenous Taíno word for the plant and it is known by other names around the world. The word corn outside North America, Australia, and New Zealand refers to any cereal crop, in the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, corn primarily means maize, this usage started as a shortening of Indian corn. Indian corn primarily means maize, but can more specifically to multicolored flint corn used for decoration

31. Adaptation – In biology, an adaptation, also called an adaptive trait, is a trait with a current functional role in the life of an organism that is maintained and evolved by means of natural selection. Adaptation refers to both the current state of being adapted and to the evolutionary process that leads to the adaptation. Adaptations enhance the fitness and survival of individuals, organisms face a succession of environmental challenges as they grow and develop and are equipped with an adaptive plasticity as the phenotype of traits develop in response to the imposed conditions. The developmental norm of reaction for any given trait is essential to the correction of adaptation as it affords a kind of insurance or resilience to varying environments. Adaptation is, first of all, a process, to rather be with the animal, an internal parasite can illustrate the distinction, such a parasite may have a very simple bodily structure, but nevertheless the organism is highly adapted to its specific environment. From this we see that adaptation is not just a matter of visible traits, in such parasites critical adaptations take place in the life cycle, however, as a practical term, adaptation often refers to a product, those features of a species which result from the process. Many aspects of an animal or plant can be correctly called adaptations, by using the term adaptation for the evolutionary process, and adaptive trait for the bodily part or function, one may distinguish the two different senses of the word. Adaptation is one of the two processes that explain the diverse species found in biology, such as the different species of Darwins finches. The other process is speciation, caused by geographical isolation or some other mechanism, a favorite example used today to study the interplay of adaptation and speciation is the evolution of cichlid fish in African lakes, where the question of reproductive isolation is much more complex. Adaptation is not always a simple matter where the ideal phenotype evolves for an external environment. An organism must be viable at all stages of its development and this places constraints on the evolution of development, behavior and structure of organisms. However, it is not clear what relatively small should mean, the origin of eukaryotic symbiosis exemplifies a more dramatic example. All adaptations help organisms survive in their ecological niches, the adaptive traits may be structural, behavioral or physiological. Structural adaptations are features of an organism. Behavioral adaptations are composed of inherited behavior chains and/or the ability to learn, behaviors may be inherited in detail, examples, searching for food, mating, vocalizations. Adaptation, then, affects all aspects of the life of an organism, the following definitions are mainly due to Theodosius Dobzhansky. Adaptation is the process whereby an organism becomes better able to live in its habitat or habitats. Adaptedness is the state of being adapted, the degree to which an organism is able to live, an adaptive trait is an aspect of the developmental pattern of the organism which enables or enhances the probability of that organism surviving and reproducing

32. Dioecy – Dioecy is a characteristic of a species, meaning that it has distinct male and female individual organisms or colonies, meaning that a colony contains only either male or female individuals. Dioecy is one method that excludes self-fertilization and promotes allogamy, flowering plants have several other methods of excluding self-fertilization, called Self-incompatibility. In zoology, dioecious species may be opposed to hermaphroditic species, meaning that an individual is of one sex. Dioecy may also describe colonies, such as the colonies of Siphonophorae, Dioecious colonies contain members of only one sex, whereas monoecious colonies contain members of both sexes. Dioecious species have the male and female structures on separate plants. The meaning of male and female in the context of plants is different from that used in animal groups and this issue is discussed below in the Alternation of generations section. About 6 percent of species are entirely dioecious and about 7% of angiosperm genera contain some dioecious species. Examples of dioecious plant species include ginkgos, willows, cannabis, more examples of dioecious plants can be found in the Wikipedia category, Dioecious plants. Dioecy occurs in a variety of plant families. However it is common in woody plants and heterotrophic species. There are several alternatives to dioecy for sexual reproductive structure organization in plants including bisexual flowers and these are described at Plant reproductive morphology. Land plants have alternation of generations, for which the sporophyte produces spores rather than gametes. Strictly speaking, the sporophytes of plants do not have either male or female reproductive organs. The gametophytes of flowering plants are of a sex, the male gametophytes are contained within the pollen. The sporophyte generation is called dioecious when each sporophyte has only one kind of spore-producing organ whose spores ultimately give rise to all male gametes or all female gametes. Slightly different terms, dioicous and monoicous, may be used for the gametophyte generation, the definition avoids reference to male and female reproductive structures, which are rare in fungi. An individual of a fungal species not only requires a partner for mating. A monoecious fungal species can perform roles, but may not be self-compatible

33. Allergen – An allergen is a type of antigen that produces an abnormally vigorous immune response in which the immune system fights off a perceived threat that would otherwise be harmless to the body. In technical terms, an allergen is a capable of stimulating a type-I hypersensitivity reaction in atopic individuals through Immunoglobulin E responses. Most humans mount significant Immunoglobulin E responses only as a defense against parasitic infections, however, some individuals may respond to many common environmental antigens. This hereditary predisposition is called atopy, in atopic individuals, non-parasitic antigens stimulate inappropriate IgE production, leading to type I hypersensitivity. Sensitivities vary widely from one person to another, a very broad range of substances can be allergens to sensitive individuals. Allergens can be found in a variety of sources, such as dust mite excretion, pollen, Food allergies are not as common as food sensitivity, but some foods such as peanuts, nuts, seafood and shellfish are the cause of serious allergies in many people. Officially, the United States Food and Drug Administration does recognize eight foods as being common for reactions in a large segment of the sensitive population. These include peanuts, tree nuts, eggs, milk, shellfish, fish, wheat and their derivatives, see the FDA website for complete details. Canada recognizes all eight of the allergens recognized by the US, and also recognizes sesame seeds, the European Union additionally recognizes celery. Various trees and wood products such as paper, cardboard, MDF etc. can also cause mild to severe allergy symptoms through touch or inhalation of sawdust such as asthma, other common causes of serious allergy are wasp, fire ant and bee stings, penicillin, and latex. An extremely serious form of a reaction is called anaphylaxis. This depends on the kind of tree or grass, for instance, some trees such as oak, elm, and maple pollinate in the spring, while grasses such as Bermuda, timothy and orchard pollinate in the summer. Grass allergy is generally linked to hay fever because their symptoms, symptoms include rhinitis, which causes sneezing and a runny nose, as well as allergic conjunctivitis, which includes watering and itchy eyes. Also an initial tickle on the roof of the mouth or in the back of the throat may be experienced, also, depending on the season, the symptoms may be more severe and people may experience coughing, wheezing, and irritability. A few people even become depressed, lose their appetite, or have problems sleeping, moreover, since the sinuses may also become congested, some people experience headaches. The immune system also has influence on seasonal allergies, since it reacts differently to diverse allergens like pollen. When an allergen enters the body of an individual that is predisposed to allergies, it triggers an immune reaction and these allergen antibodies migrate to mast cells lining the nose, eyes and lungs. Some symptoms that differentiate allergies from a cold include, No fever, mucous secretions are runny and clear

34. Moorland – Moorland nowadays generally means uncultivated hill land, but includes low-lying wetlands. It is closely related to heath although experts disagree on precisely what distinguishes the types of vegetation, generally, moor refers to highland, high rainfall zones, whereas heath refers to lowland zones which are more likely to be the result of human activity. Most of the worlds moorlands are very diverse ecosystems, in the extensive moorlands of the tropics biodiversity can be extremely high. Moorland also bears a relationship to tundra, appearing as the tundra retreats, the boundary between tundra and moorland constantly shifts with climate change. Heathland and moorland are the most extensive areas of vegetation in the British Isles. The eastern British moorlands are similar to heaths but are differentiated by having a covering of peat, on western moors the peat layer may be several metres thick. There is uncertainty about how many moors were created by human activity, how much the deforestation was caused by climatic changes and how much by human activity is uncertain. A variety of habitat types are found in different world regions of moorland. The wildlife and vegetation forms often lead to high endemism because of the severe soil, for example, in Englands Exmoor is found the rare horse breed the Exmoor Pony, which has adapted to the harsh conditions of that environment. In Europe, the fauna consists of bird species such as red grouse, hen harrier, merlin, golden plover, curlew, skylark, meadow pipit, whinchat, ring ouzel. Other species dominate in moorlands elsewhere, reptiles are few due to the cooler conditions. In Europe, only the common viper is frequent, though in other regions moorlands are commonly home to dozens of reptile species, amphibians such as frogs are well represented in moorlands. When moorland is overgrazed, woody vegetation is often lost, being replaced by coarse, unpalatable grasses and bracken, some hill sheep breeds, such as Scottish Blackface and the Lonk, thrive on the austere conditions of heather moors. Burning of moorland has been practised for a number of reasons and this is recorded in Britain in the fourteenth century. Uncontrolled burning frequently caused problems, and was forbidden by statute in 1607, with the rise of sheep and grouse management in the nineteenth century it again became common practice. Heather is burnt at about 10 or 12 years old when it will regenerate easily, left longer, the woodier stems will burn more aggressively and will hinder regrowth. Burning of moorland vegetation needs to be carefully controlled as the peat itself can catch fire. In addition, uncontrolled burning of heather can promote alternative bracken, as a result, burning is now a controversial practice, Rackham calls it second-best land management

35. International Standard Book Number – The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker

36. John Wiley & Sons – Founded in 1807, Wiley is also known for publishing For Dummies. As of 2015, the company had 4,900 employees, Wiley was established in 1807 when Charles Wiley opened a print shop in Manhattan. Wiley later shifted its focus to scientific, technical, and engineering subject areas, Charles Wileys son John took over the business when his father died in 1826. The firm was successively named Wiley, Lane & Co. then Wiley & Putnam, the company acquired its present name in 1876, when Johns second son William H. Wiley joined his brother Charles in the business. Through the 20th century, the company expanded its activities, the sciences. Since the establishment of the Nobel Prize in 1901, Wiley and its companies have published the works of more than 450 Nobel Laureates. Wiley in December 2010 opened an office in Dubai, to build on its business in the Middle East more effectively, the company has had an office in Beijing, China, since 2001, and China is now its sixth-largest market for STEM content. Wiley established publishing operations in India in 2006, and has established a presence in North Africa through sales contracts with academic institutions in Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt. On April 16,2012, the announced the establishment of Wiley Brasil Editora LTDA in São Paulo, Brazil. Wileys scientific, technical, and medical business was expanded by the acquisition of Blackwell Publishing in February 2007. Through a backfile initiative completed in 2007,8.2 million pages of content have been made available online. Other major journals published include Angewandte Chemie, Advanced Materials, Hepatology, International Finance, launched commercially in 1999, Wiley InterScience provided online access to Wiley journals, major reference works, and books, including backfile content. Journals previously from Blackwell Publishing were available online from Blackwell Synergy until they were integrated into Wiley InterScience on June 30,2008, in December 2007, Wiley also began distributing its technical titles through the Safari Books Online e-reference service. On February 17,2012, Wiley announced the acquisition of Inscape Holdings Inc. which provides DISC assessments and training for interpersonal business skills. On August 13,2012, Wiley announced it entered into an agreement to sell all of its travel assets, including all of its interests in the Frommers brand. On October 2,2012, Wiley announced it would acquire Deltak edu, LLC, Deltak is expected to contribute solid growth to both Wileys Global Education business and Wiley overall. Seventh-generation members Jesse and Nate Wiley work in the companys Professional/Trade and Scientific, Technical, Medical, and Scholarly businesses, respectively. Wiley has been owned since 1962, and listed on the New York Stock Exchange since 1995, its stock is traded under the symbols NYSE, JW. A and NYSE

37. Ornithophily – Ornithophily or bird pollination is the pollination of flowering plants by birds. This coevolutionary association is derived from insect pollination and is well developed in some parts of the world, especially in the tropics. The association involves several distinctive plant adaptations forming a pollination syndrome, the plants typically have colourful, often red, flowers with long tubular structures holding ample nectar and orientations of the stamen and stigma that ensure contact with the pollinator. Birds involved in ornithophily tend to be specialist nectarivores with brushy tongues, long bills, bird pollination is considered as a costly strategy for plants and it evolves only where there are particular benefits for the plant. High altitude ecosystems that lack insect pollinators, those in dry regions or isolated islands tend to favour the evolution of ornithophily in plants. Plants adaptations can be grouped into mechanisms that attract birds, those that exclude insects, protect against nectar theft, the ovules of bird flowers also tend to have adaptations that protect them from damage. Most bird pollinated flowers are red and have a lot of nectar and they also tend to be unscented. Flowers with generalist pollinators tend to have dilute nectar but those that have specialist pollinators such as hummingbirds or sunbirds tend to have more concentrated nectar. The nectar of ornithophilous flowers vary in the composition, with hexoses being high in passerine pollinated species while those that are insect pollinated tend to be sucrose rich. Hummingbird pollinated flowers however tend to be sucrose rich, many plants of the family Loranthaceae have explosive flowers that shower pollen on a bird that forages near it. They are associated mainly with flowerpeckers in the Dicaeidae family, in Australia, some species of Banksia have flowers that open in response to bird actions thereby reducing the wastage of pollen. In tropical dry forests in southern India, ornithophilous flowers were found to bloom mainly in the hot dry season, as many as 129 species of North American plants have evolved ornithophilous associations. Nearly a fourth of the 900 species of the genus Salvia are bird pollinated in the South African region, the rats tail babiana is a species of plant that produces a strong stalk within the inflorescence that serves as a perch for the malachite sunbird as it visits the flower. Heliconias have special sticky threads that help in the adhesion of pollen to smooth structures such as the bill of a hummingbird, some African orchids of the genus Disa have pollinaria that stick to the feet of visiting sunbirds. Plants need to protect against nectar being taken by non-pollinators, the main families of specialized nectar feeding birds that are involved in ornithophily are the hummingbirds, sunbirds, and the honey-eaters. Other important bird groups include those in the families the Icteridae, the honeycreepers, white-eyes, birds may obtain nectar either by perching or by hovering with the latter mainly found in the hummingbirds and sunbirds. Starlings and their relatives will completely avoid sucrose, nectar feeding birds typically have a mechanism to quickly excrete excess water. They may have to drink four to five times their body mass of liquid during the day to obtain enough energy, hummingbirds are capable of excreting nitrogenous wastes as ammonia since they can afford more water loss than birds that feed on low-moisture food sources

Pollination syndrome [videos]

Pollination syndromes are suites of flower traits that have evolved in response to natural selection imposed by …

Baltimore (Euphydryas phaeton) nectaring at daisy (Argyranthemum)

Plantago media, pollinated by wind or insects

Sunflower pollinated by butterflies and bees

Hesperoyucca whipplei (moth-pollinated)

Pine [videos]

A pine is any conifer in the genus Pinus, , of the family Pinaceae. Pinus is the sole genus in the subfamily Pinoideae. …

Japanese red pine (Pinus densiflora), North Korea

Pine Forest in Vagamon, Southern Western Ghats, Kerala (India)

A Khasi pine in Benguet, Philippines

Huangshan pine (Pinus hwangshanensis), Anhui, China

Pollination [videos]

Pollination is the process by which pollen is transferred to the female reproductive organs of a plant, thereby …

Carpenter bee with pollen collected from Night-blooming cereus

Tip of a tulip stamen covered with pollen grains.

Melissodes desponsa covered in pollen

Hummingbirds typically feed on red flowers

Wind [videos]

Wind is the flow of gases on a large scale. On the surface of the Earth, wind consists of the bulk movement of air. In …

Wind (from the Tacuinum Sanitatis)

Cup-type anemometer with vertical axis, a sensor on a remote meteorological station

An occluded mesocyclone tornado (Oklahoma, May 1999)

EF0 damage example

Poales [videos]

The Poales are a large order of flowering plants in the monocotyledons, and includes families of plants such as the …

Common wheat (Triticum aestivum)

Billbergia pyramidalis of family Bromeliaceae

Image: Typha latifolia Finland

Image: Carex demissa detail

Poaceae [videos]

Poaceae or Gramineae is a large and nearly ubiquitous family of monocotyledonous flowering plants known as grasses. …

Flowering head of meadow foxtail (Alopecurus pratensis), with stamens exerted at anthesis

Blades of grass

Grass flowers

A kangaroo eating grass

Cyperaceae [videos]

The Cyperaceae are a family of monocotyledonous graminoid flowering plants known as sedges, which superficially …

Cyperus polystachyos flower head

Cyperus rotundus, Kerala

Broad-leaved cotton-grass (Eriophorum latifolium)

Carex serotina

Oak [videos]

An oak is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus (Latin "oak tree") of the beech family, Fagaceae. There are …

Foliage and acorns of Quercus robur

A hybrid white oak, possibly Quercus stellata × Q. muhlenbergii

Heart of oak beams of the frame of Saint-Girons church in Monein, France

Sherry maturing in oak barrels

Castanea sativa [videos]

Castanea sativa, or sweet chestnut, is a species of flowering plant in the family Fagaceae, native to Europe and Asia …

Sweet chestnut fruit

Castanea sativa - MHNT

Sweet chestnut a thousand years old in Levie (Corsica)

A sweet chestnut carved by English artist Steve Field to commemorate the English Civil War, and depicting Prince Rupert hiding from the Roundheads in the well at Wollescote Hall

Alder [videos]

Alder is the common name of a genus of flowering plants (Alnus) belonging to the birch family Betulaceae. The genus …

Alnus serrulata (tag alder) Male catkins on right, mature female catkins left Johnsonville, South Carolina

Alder trees by the Beaulieu River at Longwater Lawn, England

A Red Alder seed is a tiny samara like those of all alders

Speckled alder (Alnus incana subsp. rugosa)—leaves

Nectar [videos]

Nectar is a sugar-rich liquid produced by plants in glands called nectaries, either within the flowers with which it …

Nectar of camellia

An Australian painted lady feeding on a flower's nectar

Gymnadenia conopsea Flowers with Nectar-filled Spur

Extrafloral nectaries on a red stinkwood (Prunus africana) leaf

Entomophily [videos]

Entomophily or insect pollination is a form of pollination whereby pollen of plants, especially but not only of …

Bee pollinating a flower

Soldier beetle covered with pollen

Entomophily - The insect-pollinated flowers of angiosperms use a combination of cues such as bright colours and streaked patterns to advertise themselves to insects.

The insect-pollinated flowers of angiosperms use a combination of cues such as bright colours and streaked patterns to advertise themselves to insects.

Hummingbird moth on Clarkia

Stamen [videos]

The stamen (plural stamina or stamens) is the pollen-producing reproductive organ of a flower. Collectively the stamens …

Stamens of a Hippeastrum with white filaments and prominent anthers carrying pollen

Hippeastrum flowers showing stamens above the style (with its terminal stigma)

Cross section of a Lilium stamen, with four locules surrounded by the tapetum

Stamen with pollinia and its anther cap. Phalaenopsis orchid.

Ragweed [videos]

Ragweeds are flowering plants in the genus Ambrosia in the aster family, Asteraceae. They are distributed in the …

Ambrosia psilostachya

Ambrosia artemisiifolia pollen

Ambrosia dumosa

Ambrosia chamissonis

Honey [videos]

Honey is a sweet, viscous food substance produced by bees and some related insects. Bees produce honey from the sugary …

A jar of honey with a honey dipper and an American biscuit

Honey in honeycomb

A honey bee on calyx of goldenrod

Sealed frame of honey

Bumblebee [videos]

A bumblebee (also written bumble bee) is a member of the genus Bombus, part of Apidae, one of the bee families. This …

Buff-tailed bumblebee (Bombus terrestris)

A common carder bumblebee Bombus pascuorum extending its tongue towards a Heuchera inflorescence

Bumblebee - Cuckoo bumblebees, like this Bombus barbutellus, have similar aposematic (warning) coloration to nest-making bumblebees, and may also mimic their host species.

Cuckoo bumblebees, like this Bombus barbutellus, have similar aposematic (warning) coloration to nest-making bumblebees, and may also mimic their host species.

Nest of red-tailed bumblebee. Bombus lapidarius, showing wax pots full of honey

Maize [videos]

Maize (MAYZ; Zea mays subsp. mays, from Spanish: maíz after Taíno mahiz), also known as corn, is a cereal grain first …

Illustration depicting both male and female flowers of maize

Many small male flowers make up the male inflorescence, called the tassel.

Zea mays 'Ottofile giallo Tortonese - MHNT

Zea mays "strawberry"—MHNT

Adaptation [videos]

In biology, adaptation has three related meanings. Firstly it is the dynamic evolutionary process that fits organisms …

Some generalists, such as birds, have the flexibility to adapt to urban areas.

Pollinating insects are co-adapted with flowering plants.

A and B show real wasps; the rest are Batesian mimics: three hoverflies and one beetle.

An Indian peacock's train in full display

Inbreeding [videos]

Inbreeding is the production of offspring from the mating or breeding of individuals or organisms that are closely …

Image: Fruit flies

Heterozygous

White tiger in Gunma Safari Park

Image: Mangoustes rayées Banded Mongooses

Moorland [videos]

Moorland or moor is a type of habitat found in upland areas in temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands and …

Extensive moorland in the Desert of Wales

Heather moorland on the North York Moors mainly consisting of Calluna vulgaris

Moorland of Kilimanjaro

Oswaldtwistle Moor, part of the West Pennine Moors, in Lancashire, UK

Ornithophily [videos]

Ornithophily or bird pollination is the pollination of flowering plants by birds. This coevolutionary association is …

Hummingbird Phaethornis longirostris on an Etlingera inflorescence

A lesser violetear

Ruby-throated hummingbird (Archilochus colubris) at scarlet beebalm flowers (Monarda didyma)

Image: Erythrina Flower

Gymnosperm [videos]

The gymnosperms are a group of seed-producing plants (spermatophytes) that includes conifers (Pinophyta), cycads, …

Various gymnosperms.

Encephalartos sclavoi cone, about 30 cm long

Zamia integrifolia, a cycad native to Florida

Example of gymnosperm lifecycle

Insect [videos]

Insects or Insecta (from Latin insectum, a calque of Greek ἔντομον [éntomon], "cut into sections") are by far the …

Clockwise from top left: dance fly (Empis livida), long-nosed weevil (Rhinotia hemistictus), mole cricket (Gryllotalpa brachyptera), German wasp (Vespula germanica), emperor gum moth (Opodiphthera eucalypti), assassin bug (Harpactorinae)

Evolution has produced enormous variety in insects. Pictured are some of the possible shapes of antennae.

The different forms of the male (top) and female (bottom) tussock moth Orgyia recens is an example of sexual dimorphism in insects.

Most insects have compound eyes and two antennae.

Vertebrate [videos]

Vertebrates comprise all species of animals within the subphylum Vertebrata (chordates with backbones). Vertebrates …

Individual organisms from each major vertebrate group. Clockwise, starting from top left:

Fossilized skeleton of Diplodocus carnegii, showing an extreme example of the backbone that characterizes the vertebrates.

Gill arches bearing gills in a pike

The early vertebrate Haikouichthys

Stigma (botany) [videos]

The stigma (plural: stigmata) is the receptive tip of a carpel, or of several fused carpels, in the gynoecium of a …

Diagram of stigma

Stigma of a Tulipa species, with pollen

Corn stigma called "silk"

Capitate and simple

Protein [videos]

Proteins (or ) are large biomolecules, or macromolecules, consisting of one or more long chains of amino acid …

Protein - A representation of the 3D structure of the protein myoglobin showing turquoise α-helices. This protein was the first to have its structure solved by X-ray crystallography. Towards the right-center among the coils, a prosthetic group called a heme group (shown in gray) with a bound oxygen molecule (red).

A representation of the 3D structure of the protein myoglobin showing turquoise α-helices. This protein was the first to have its structure solved by X-ray crystallography. Towards the right-center among the coils, a prosthetic group called a heme group (shown in gray) with a bound oxygen molecule (red).

Proteins in different cellular compartments and structures tagged with green fluorescent protein (here, white)

Constituent amino-acids can be analyzed to predict secondary, tertiary and quaternary protein structure, in this case hemoglobin containing heme units

John Kendrew with model of myoglobin in progress

Juglandaceae [videos]

The Juglandaceae are a family, known as the walnut family, of trees, or sometimes shrubs, in the order Fagales. Various …

Juglans regia

Foliage and seed catkin of Platycarya strobilacea

Nut of Juglans regia

Image: Engelhardioideae Distribution

Pollen [videos]

Pollen is a fine to coarse powdery substance comprising pollen grains which are male microgametophytes of seed plants, …

Closeup image of a cactus flower and its stamens

Scanning electron microscope image of pollen grains from a variety of common plants: sunflower (Helianthus annuus), morning glory (Ipomoea purpurea), prairie hollyhock (Sidalcea malviflora), oriental lily (Lilium auratum), evening primrose (Oenothera fruticosa), and castor bean (Ricinus communis).

Triporate pollen of Oenothera speciosa

Quercus acutissima [videos]

Quercus acutissima, the sawtooth oak, is an Asian species of oak native to China (including Tibet), Korea, Japan, …

Image: Lasdon Arboretum Quercus acutissima IMG 1516

Acorns from Quercus acutissima

Image: Quercus acutissima Osaka Museum of Natural History DSC07722

Electrostatics [videos]

Electrostatics is a branch of physics that deals with study of the electric charges at rest. — Since classical physics, …

Paper strips attracted by a charged CD

Lightning over Oradea in Romania

Image: Electrostatic induction

Dioecy [videos]

Dioecy (Greek: διοικία "two households"; adjective form: dioecious) is a characteristic of a species, meaning that it …

Image: Physalia

Liverwort species are either dioecious (dioicous) as shown here or monoecious (monoicous), with both antheridia and archegonia on the same gametophyte

Allergen [videos]

An allergen is a type of antigen that produces an abnormally vigorous immune response in which the immune system fights …

SEM of miscellaneous plant pollens. Pollens are very common allergens.

The house dust mite, its feces and chitin are common allergens around the home

John Wiley & Sons [videos]

John Wiley & Sons, Inc., also referred to as Wiley (NYSE: JW.A), is a global publishing company that specializes in …

The Hoboken, New Jersey headquarters

The old logo of Sybex, a Wiley brand of computer books

Image: Wiley logo

Juncaceae [videos]

Juncaceae is a family of flowering plants, commonly known as the rush family. It consists of 8 genera and about 464 …

Juncus effusus

Zoophily [videos]

Zoophily is a form of pollination whereby pollen is transferred by animals, usually invertebrates but may include …

A Rufous Hummingbird (Selasphorus rufus) is attracted to brightly colored flowers and assists the pollination of the plant.

International Standard Book Number [videos]

The International Standard Book Number (ISBN) is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. — An ISBN is assigned to …

A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an EAN-13 bar code

The parts of a 10-digit ISBN and the corresponding EAN‑13 and barcode. Note the different check digits in each. The part of the EAN‑13 labeled "EAN" is the Bookland country code.

Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International [videos]

The Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International (CABI, sometimes also referred to as CAB International) is a …