1.
Ephraim Moses Lilien
–
Ephraim Moses Lilien was an art nouveau illustrator and printmaker particularly noted for his art on Jewish themes. He is sometimes called the first Zionist artist, Ephraim Moses Lilien was born in Drohobycz, Galicia in 1874. In 1889-1893 Lilien learned painting and graphic techniques at the Academy of Arts in Kraków and he studied under Polish painter Jan Matejko from 1890 to 1892. As a member of the Zionist Movement, Lilien traveled to Ottoman Palestine several times between 1906 and 1918 and he accompanied Boris Schatz to Jerusalem to help establish the Bezalel Art School. In the first two decades of the century, Liliens work served as a model for the Bezalel group, Lilien is known for his famous photographic portrait of Theodor Herzl. He often used Herzl as a model, considering his features a representation of the New Jew. In 1896, he received an award for photography from the avantgarde magazine Jugend, in 1923, an exhibition of his work opened in New York. Lilien died in Badenweiler, Germany in 1925, a street in the Nayot neighborhood of Jerusalem is named for him. Ephraim Lilien collection at the Israel Museum, Moses Art of Ephraim Moses Lilien at Europeana. Retrieved Illustrations in Lieder des Ghetto Ephraim Moses Lilien Collection at the Leo Baeck Institute, New York
Ephraim Moses Lilien
–
Ephraim Moshe Lilien
Ephraim Moses Lilien
–
Portrait of Theodor Herzl
Ephraim Moses Lilien
–
"Sunflower" (Sonnenblume), Jugend, Berlin, 1893
Ephraim Moses Lilien
–
Ex libris Stefan Zweig c. 1900
2.
William-Adolphe Bouguereau
–
William-Adolphe Bouguereau was a French academic painter and traditionalist. In his realistic genre paintings he used mythological themes, making modern interpretations of classical subjects, during his life he enjoyed significant popularity in France and the United States, was given numerous official honors, and received top prices for his work. As the quintessential salon painter of his generation, he was reviled by the Impressionist avant-garde, by the early twentieth century, Bouguereau and his art fell out of favor with the public, due in part to changing tastes. In the 1980s, a revival of interest in figure painting led to a rediscovery of Bouguereau, throughout the course of his life, Bouguereau executed 822 known finished paintings, although the whereabouts of many are still unknown. William-Adolphe Bouguereau was born in La Rochelle, France, on November 30,1825, into a family of wine, the son of Théodore Bouguereau and Marie Bonnin, known as Adeline, William was brought up a Catholic. He had a brother, Alfred, and a younger sister, Marie. The family moved to Saint-Martin-de-Ré in 1832, another sibling was born in 1834, Kitty. At 12 the boy went to Mortagne to stay with his uncle Eugène, a priest, in 1839 he was sent to study the priesthood at a Catholic college in Pons. Here he was taught to draw and paint by Louis Sage who had studied under Ingres, William reluctantly left his studies to return to his family, now residing in Bordeaux. Here the boy met a local artist, Charles Marionneau, William also worked as a shop assistant, hand-colouring lithographs and making small paintings that were reproduced using chromolithography. He was soon the best pupil in his class and decided to become an artist in Paris, to fund the move, he sold portraits -33 oils in three months. All were unsigned and only one has been traced and he arrived in Paris aged 20 in March 1846. Bouguereau became a student at the École des Beaux-Arts, to supplement his formal training in drawing, he attended anatomical dissections and studied historical costumes and archeology. He was admitted to the studio of François-Édouard Picot, where he studied painting in the academic style and he also studied classical literature, which influenced his subject choice for the rest of his career. In April 1848 the young artist entered the Prix de Rome contest, soon after work began there were riots in Paris and Bouguereau enrolled in the National Guard. After an unsuccessful attempt to win the prize, he entered again in 1849, following 106 days of competition he again failed to win. His third attempt commenced in April 1850 and five months later he heard he had won a joint first prize, along with other category winners, William set off for Rome in December and finally arrived at the Villa Medici in January 1851. He explored the city, making sketches and watercolours as he went and he walked to Naples and on to Capri, Amalfi and Pompeii
William-Adolphe Bouguereau
–
Portrait of the Artist (1879)
William-Adolphe Bouguereau
–
Égalité devant la mort (Equality Before Death), 1848, oil on canvas, 141 × 269 cm (55.5 × 105.9 in),
Musée d'Orsay, Paris. Equality is Bouguereau's first major painting, produced after two years at the École des Beaux-Arts de Paris at the age of 23.
William-Adolphe Bouguereau
–
The Wave (1896)
William-Adolphe Bouguereau
–
The Birth of Venus (1879)
3.
Art
–
In their most general form these activities include the production of works of art, the criticism of art, the study of the history of art, and the aesthetic dissemination of art. The oldest documented forms of art are visual arts, which include creation of images or objects in fields including painting, sculpture, printmaking, photography, and other visual media. Music, theatre, film, dance, and other performing arts, as well as literature, until the 17th century, art referred to any skill or mastery and was not differentiated from crafts or sciences. Art may be characterized in terms of mimesis, expression, communication of emotion, during the Romantic period, art came to be seen as a special faculty of the human mind to be classified with religion and science. Though the definition of what art is disputed and has changed over time, general descriptions mention an idea of imaginative or technical skill stemming from human agency. The nature of art, and related such as creativity. One early sense of the definition of art is related to the older Latin meaning. English words derived from this meaning include artifact, artificial, artifice, medical arts, however, there are many other colloquial uses of the word, all with some relation to its etymology. Several dialogues in Plato tackle questions about art, Socrates says that poetry is inspired by the muses, and is not rational. He speaks approvingly of this, and other forms of divine madness in the Phaedrus, and yet in the Republic wants to outlaw Homers great poetic art, in Ion, Socrates gives no hint of the disapproval of Homer that he expresses in the Republic. For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, the forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is an imitation of men worse than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation—through narrative or character, through change or no change, Aristotle believed that imitation is natural to mankind and constitutes one of mankinds advantages over animals. The second, and more recent, sense of the art as an abbreviation for creative art or fine art emerged in the early 17th century. The creative arts are a collection of disciplines which produce artworks that are compelled by a drive and convey a message, mood. Art is something that stimulates an individuals thoughts, emotions, beliefs, works of art can be explicitly made for this purpose or interpreted on the basis of images or objects. Often, if the skill is being used in a common or practical way, likewise, if the skill is being used in a commercial or industrial way, it may be considered commercial art instead of fine art. On the other hand, crafts and design are considered applied art
Art
–
Clockwise from upper left: a
self-portrait by
Vincent van Gogh; a female ancestor figure by a
Chokwe artist; detail from the
Birth of Venus by
Sandro Botticelli; and an Okinawan
Shisa lion.
Art
–
Works of art can tell stories or simply express an aesthetic truth or feeling. Panorama of a section of A Thousand Li of Mountains and Rivers, a 12th-century painting by Song dynasty artist
Wang Ximeng.
Art
–
20th-century Rwandan bottle. Artistic works may serve practical functions, in addition to their decorative value.
Art
–
Venus of Willendorf, circa 24,000–22,000
BP
4.
Byzantine Empire
–
It survived the fragmentation and fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD and continued to exist for an additional thousand years until it fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. During most of its existence, the empire was the most powerful economic, cultural, several signal events from the 4th to 6th centuries mark the period of transition during which the Roman Empires Greek East and Latin West divided. Constantine I reorganised the empire, made Constantinople the new capital, under Theodosius I, Christianity became the Empires official state religion and other religious practices were proscribed. Finally, under the reign of Heraclius, the Empires military, the borders of the Empire evolved significantly over its existence, as it went through several cycles of decline and recovery. During the reign of Maurice, the Empires eastern frontier was expanded, in a matter of years the Empire lost its richest provinces, Egypt and Syria, to the Arabs. This battle opened the way for the Turks to settle in Anatolia, the Empire recovered again during the Komnenian restoration, such that by the 12th century Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest European city. Despite the eventual recovery of Constantinople in 1261, the Byzantine Empire remained only one of several small states in the area for the final two centuries of its existence. Its remaining territories were annexed by the Ottomans over the 15th century. The Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 finally ended the Byzantine Empire, the term comes from Byzantium, the name of the city of Constantinople before it became Constantines capital. This older name of the city would rarely be used from this point onward except in historical or poetic contexts. The publication in 1648 of the Byzantine du Louvre, and in 1680 of Du Canges Historia Byzantina further popularised the use of Byzantine among French authors, however, it was not until the mid-19th century that the term came into general use in the Western world. The Byzantine Empire was known to its inhabitants as the Roman Empire, the Empire of the Romans, Romania, the Roman Republic, Graikia, and also as Rhōmais. The inhabitants called themselves Romaioi and Graikoi, and even as late as the 19th century Greeks typically referred to modern Greek as Romaika and Graikika. The authority of the Byzantine emperor as the legitimate Roman emperor was challenged by the coronation of Charlemagne as Imperator Augustus by Pope Leo III in the year 800. No such distinction existed in the Islamic and Slavic worlds, where the Empire was more seen as the continuation of the Roman Empire. In the Islamic world, the Roman Empire was known primarily as Rûm, the Roman army succeeded in conquering many territories covering the entire Mediterranean region and coastal regions in southwestern Europe and north Africa. These territories were home to different cultural groups, both urban populations and rural populations. The West also suffered heavily from the instability of the 3rd century AD
Byzantine Empire
–
Tremissis with the image of
Justinian the Great (r. 527–565) (see
Byzantine insignia)
Byzantine Empire
–
Byzantine
lamellar armour klivanium (Κλιβάνιον) - a predecessor of Ottoman krug
mirror armour
Byzantine Empire
–
The Baptism of Constantine painted by
Raphael 's pupils (1520–1524,
fresco, Vatican City,
Apostolic Palace);
Eusebius of Caesarea records that (as
was common among converts of early Christianity) Constantine delayed receiving
baptism until shortly before his death
Byzantine Empire
–
Restored section of the Theodosian Walls.
5.
Europe
–
Europe is a continent that comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia. Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, yet the non-oceanic borders of Europe—a concept dating back to classical antiquity—are arbitrary. Europe covers about 10,180,000 square kilometres, or 2% of the Earths surface, politically, Europe is divided into about fifty sovereign states of which the Russian Federation is the largest and most populous, spanning 39% of the continent and comprising 15% of its population. Europe had a population of about 740 million as of 2015. Further from the sea, seasonal differences are more noticeable than close to the coast, Europe, in particular ancient Greece, was the birthplace of Western civilization. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, during the period, marked the end of ancient history. Renaissance humanism, exploration, art, and science led to the modern era, from the Age of Discovery onwards, Europe played a predominant role in global affairs. Between the 16th and 20th centuries, European powers controlled at times the Americas, most of Africa, Oceania. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain at the end of the 18th century, gave rise to economic, cultural, and social change in Western Europe. During the Cold War, Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the west and the Warsaw Pact in the east, until the revolutions of 1989 and fall of the Berlin Wall. In 1955, the Council of Europe was formed following a speech by Sir Winston Churchill and it includes all states except for Belarus, Kazakhstan and Vatican City. Further European integration by some states led to the formation of the European Union, the EU originated in Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. The European Anthem is Ode to Joy and states celebrate peace, in classical Greek mythology, Europa is the name of either a Phoenician princess or of a queen of Crete. The name contains the elements εὐρύς, wide, broad and ὤψ eye, broad has been an epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion and the poetry devoted to it. For the second part also the divine attributes of grey-eyed Athena or ox-eyed Hera. The same naming motive according to cartographic convention appears in Greek Ανατολή, Martin Litchfield West stated that phonologically, the match between Europas name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor. Next to these there is also a Proto-Indo-European root *h1regʷos, meaning darkness. Most major world languages use words derived from Eurṓpē or Europa to refer to the continent, in some Turkic languages the originally Persian name Frangistan is used casually in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as Avrupa or Evropa
Europe
–
Reconstruction of
Herodotus ' world map
Europe
Europe
–
A medieval
T and O map from 1472 showing the three continents as domains of the sons of
Noah — Asia to Sem (
Shem), Europe to Iafeth (
Japheth), and Africa to Cham (
Ham)
Europe
–
Early modern depiction of
Europa regina ('Queen Europe') and the mythical
Europa of the 8th century BC.
6.
Living creatures (Bible)
–
The living creatures, living beings, or Hayyoth are a class of heavenly beings described in Ezekiels vision of the heavenly chariot in the first and tenth chapters of the Book of Ezekiel. References to the creatures recur in texts of Second Temple Judaism, in rabbinical literature, and in the Book of Daniel. Ezekiels vision of the four living creatures in Ezekiel chapter 1 are identified as cherubim in chapter 10 who are Gods throne bearers, Cherubim as minor guardian deities of temple or palace thresholds are known all over the Ancient East. Each of Ezekiels cherubim have four faces, that of a man, a lion, an ox, however, their human shape appearances set them apart from the griffin-like cherubs of Babylonia and Assyria. In their ability to move, Ezekiels cherubim do not need to turn and this description of movement differs from the seraphim in Isaiahs vision who have an extra set of wings for their ability to fly. In Daniel, four living creatures surround the throne upon which the Ancient of Days sits Daniel 7. This white throne is also referenced in the judgement in Revelation 20. The four beasts differ from the four beasts in Ezekiel chapter 1 and Revelation 4, 6–8 in that there are a lion, a calf, an eagle and a man faced creature. The beasts have four wings, just as the beasts in Ezekiel have four wings, the first beast has its wings removed, it is stood upright, and it is given the mind of a man. This beast which is given authority to rule, closely matches the description of the Dragon, the beast out of the sea in Revelation chapter 13, the final beast, is a mechanical beast with large iron teeth. It crushes and devours its victims, and tramples underfoot whatever is left and this beast most resembles the winepress spoken of in Revelation 14, 18-20. In Revelation 4, 6–8, four living beings are seen in Johns vision and these appear as a lion, an ox, a man, and an eagle, much as in Ezekiel but in a different order. They have six wings, whereas Ezekiels four living creatures are described as only having four, in verse 6, they are said to have eyes all over, front and back which suggests that they are alert and knowledgeable, that nothing escapes their notice. The description parallels the wheels that are beside the creatures in Ezek 1.18,10.12. The Hebrew word for wheel was used in later Jewish literature to indicate a member of the angelic orders. The term eyes can also be used as a metaphor for stars, in Revelation, these four beasts surround the one on the red throne, which is contrasted with the white throne in Daniel Daniel 7,9 and Revelation Revelation 20, 11-15. Comparing the living creatures in Ezekiel with Revelations is a prominent apocalyptic study in Western Christianity, an example is the 18th Century works of Jonathan Edwards recorded interpretation of 1722/23. The four living creatures that John of Patmos sees in the Book of Revelation, is the reworking of the living creatures in the visions of Ezekiel
Living creatures (Bible)
–
Ezekiel's "chariot vision", by
Matthaeus Merian (1593-1650).
7.
Ophanim
–
The ophanim or ofanim, also called galgalim, refer to the wheels seen in Ezekiels vision of the chariot in Ezekiel 1, 15-21. One of the Dead Sea scrolls construes them as angels, late sections of the Book of Enoch portray them as a class of beings who never sleep. These wheels have been associated with Daniel 7,9 of the four, eye-covered wheels, the four wheels move with the Cherubim because the spirit of the Cherubim is in them. The late Second Book of Enoch also referred to them as the many-eyed ones, for some the Ophanim are also related to or equated to the Thrones, since the Throne of God is usually depicted as being moved by wheels, in the vision of Daniel 7,9. However the Thrones, are a form of celestial spiritual being. The cherubim carry, by moving the Ophanim, the throne of God and these Angelic Princes are often also called Ofanim, Wheels of Galgallin. It is said that they were the wheels of the Lords Heavenly Chariot. The four wheels had rims and they had spokes, and their rims were full of round about. They are also referred to as many-eyed ones. Rosemary Ellen Guiley states that, The thrones, also known as ophanim and they are characterized by peace and submission, God rests upon them. Thrones are depicted as great wheels containing many eyes, and reside in the area of the cosmos where material form begins to take shape and they chant glorias to God and remain forever in his presence. They mete out justice and maintain the cosmic harmony of all universal laws. Maimonides lists Ophanim as occupying the second of ten ranks of angels in his exposition of the Jewish angelic hierarchy, Ophanim are mentioned in the kel adon prayer, often sung by the congregation, as part of the traditional Shabbat morning service. In the Jewish angelic hierarchy thrones and wheels are different and this is also true in the Kabbalistic angelic hierarchy. De Coelesti Hierarchia refers to the Thrones as the third Order of the first sphere, the other two superior orders being the Cherubim and Seraphim. It is mentioned that The name of the most glorious and exalted Thrones denotes that which is exempt from and untainted by any base and earthly thing, and the super mundane ascent up the steep. The heavenly Seraphim and Cherubim as well as the Ophanim still continue to aid humans in spiritual evolution and his successor Elijah Muhammad also identified them with contemporary sightings of flying saucers
Ophanim
–
One traditional depiction of the
chariot vision, based on the description in Ezekiel.
Ophanim
–
First Sphere
8.
Cherubim
–
A cherub is one of the unearthly beings who directly attend to God according to Abrahamic religions. The numerous depictions of cherubim assign to them many different roles, angelic status is not attributed to cherubim in the Old Testament, only in later sources like De Coelesti Hierarchia are they identified as a hierarchical rank of angels. Different sources give conflicting information as to the appearance of cherubim. An early, traditional Jewish notion supposes that cherubim had youthful, in the Book of Ezekiel and Christian icons, the cherub is depicted as having a number of wing pairs, and four faces, that of a lion, an ox, a human, and an eagle. In Christian tradition, cherubim have become associated with the putto, one of these is the Babylonian lamassu, a protective spirit with a sphinx-like form, possessing the wings of an eagle, the body of a lion, and the head of a king. This was adopted largely in Phoenicia and he thus concludes that cherubim had an intercessory role. This conclusion, based on sources, is still drawn upon in relatively recent commentaries and articles. Friedrich Delitzch connected the Hebrew word cherubim with the Assyrian terms kirubu and karabu, karppe states that the name Cherubim is Babylonian, and that it does not mean powerful, but, however, propitious. However, while the shedu were popular in Mesopotamia, archaeological remains from the Levant suggest that they were rare in the immediate vicinity of the Israelites. In particular, in a reminiscent of Ezekiels dream, the Megiddo Ivories depict an unknown king being carried on his throne by hybrid winged-creatures. The cherubim are the most frequently occurring heavenly creature in the Hebrew Bible, despite these many references, the role of the cherubim is never explicitly elucidated. Other than in the book of Ezekiel, the Bible describes cherubim with one face, one pair of wings, in Exodus 25, 18-22, Yahweh tells Moses to make multiple images of cherubim at specific points around the Ark of the Covenant. In Isaiah 37,16, Hezekiah prays, addressing Yahweh as enthroned above the cherubim, Cherubim feature at some length in the Book of Ezekiel. While they first appear in one, in which they are transporting the throne of Yahweh by the river Chebar. In Ezekiel 1, 5-11 they are described as having the likeness of a man, and having four faces, that of a man, a lion, and ox, and an eagle. The four faces represent the four domains of Gods rule, the man represents humanity, the lion, wild animals, the ox, domestic animals, and the eagle, birds. These faces peer out from the center of an array of four wings, under their wings are human hands, their legs are described as straight, and their feet like those of a calf, and shone like polished brass. Between the creatures glowing coals that moved between them could be seen, their fire went up and down, and lightning burst forth from it, the cherubs also moved like flashes of lightning
Cherubim
–
A cherub, according to traditional Christian
iconography.
Cherubim
–
A pair of
shedu, protecting a doorway (the body of the creatures extending into the distance)
Cherubim
–
James Jacques Joseph Tissot - The Ark Passes Over the Jordan
Cherubim
–
One traditional depiction of the cherubim and chariot vision, based on the description by
Ezekiel
9.
Funerary art
–
Funerary art is any work of art forming, or placed in, a repository for the remains of the dead. The term also encompasses cenotaphs, tomb-like monuments which do not contain human remains, and communal memorials to the dead, funerary art may serve many cultural functions. The deposit of objects with an apparent aesthetic intention is found in almost all cultures—Hindu culture, an important factor in the development of traditions of funerary art is the division between what was intended to be visible to visitors or the public after completion of the funeral ceremonies. A similar division can be seen in grand East Asian tombs, in other cultures, nearly all the art connected with the burial, except for limited grave goods, was intended for later viewing by the public or at least those admitted by the custodians. In these cultures, traditions such as the sarcophagus and tomb monument of the Greek and Roman empires. The mausoleum intended for visiting was the grandest type of tomb in the classical world, Tomb is a general term for any repository for human remains, while grave goods are other objects which have been placed within the tomb. Such objects may include the personal possessions of the deceased, objects created for the burial. Knowledge of many cultures is drawn largely from these sources. A tumulus, mound, kurgan, or long barrow covered important burials in many cultures, a mausoleum is a building erected mainly as a tomb, taking its name from the Mausoleum of Mausolus at Halicarnassus. Stele is a term for erect stones that are often what are now called gravestones, ship burials are mostly found in coastal Europe, while chariot burials are found widely across Eurasia. Catacombs, of which the most famous examples are those in Rome, a large group of burials with traces remaining above ground can be called a necropolis, if there are no such visible structures, it is a grave field. A cenotaph is a memorial without a burial, particularly influential in this regard was John Weevers Ancient Funerall Monuments, the first full-length book to be dedicated to the subject of tomb memorials and epitaphs. Others, however, have found this distinction rather pedantic, related genres of commemorative art for the dead take many forms, such as the moai figures of Easter Island, apparently a type of sculpted ancestor portrait, though hardly individualized. These are common in cultures as diverse as Ancient Rome and China, many cultures have psychopomp figures, such as the Greek Hermes and Etruscan Charun, who help conduct the spirits of the dead into the afterlife. Most of humanitys oldest known archaeological constructions are tombs, mostly megalithic, the earliest instances date to within a few centuries of each other, yet show a wide diversity of form and purpose. Tombs in the Iberian peninsula have been dated through thermoluminescence to c.4510 BCE, and some burials at the Carnac stones in Brittany also date back to the fifth millennium BCE. The commemorative value of burial sites are indicated by the fact that, at some stage, they became elevated. This effect was achieved by encapsulating a single corpse in a basic pit, surrounded by an elaborate ditch
Funerary art
–
Tomb of
Philippe Pot, governor of
Burgundy under
Louis XI
Funerary art
–
Korean tomb mound of King
Sejong the Great, d. 1450
Funerary art
–
Türbe of
Roxelana (d. 1558),
Süleymaniye Mosque,
Istanbul
Funerary art
–
The
Poulnabrone dolmen in Ireland covered at least 22 bodies of the
Neolithic period
10.
Toga
–
The toga, a distinctive garment of Ancient Rome, was a roughly semicircular cloth, between 12 and 20 feet in length, draped over the shoulders and around the body. It was usually woven from wool, and was worn over a tunic. In Roman historical tradition, it is said to have been the favoured dress of Romulus, Romes founder, as Roman women gradually adopted the stola, the toga was recognised as formal wear for Roman citizen men. Women engaged in prostitution might have provided the main exception to this rule, the type of toga worn reflected a citizens rank in the civil hierarchy. Various laws and customs restricted its use to citizens, who were required to wear it for public festivals, from its probable beginnings as a simple, practical work-garment, the toga became more voluminous, complex and costly, increasingly unsuited to anything but formal and ceremonial use. When circumstances allowed, those otherwise entitled or obliged to wear it opted for more comfortable and it gradually fell out of use, firstly among citizens of the lower class, then those of the middle class. Eventually, it was only by the highest classes for ceremonial occasions. The toga was an approximately semi-circular woolen cloth, usually white, worn draped over the shoulders and around the body and it was considered formal wear, and was generally reserved for citizens. Toga virilis also known as toga alba or toga pura, A plain white toga, worn on occasions by adult male commoners. It represented adult male citizenship and its attendant rights, freedoms, toga praetexta, a white toga with a broad purple stripe on its border, worn over a tunic with two broad, vertical purple stripes. It was formal costume for, Curule magistrates in their functions, and traditionally. Freeborn boys, and some girls, before they came of age. It marked their protection by law from sexual predation and immoral or immodest influence, a praetexta was thought effective against malignant magic, as were a boys bulla, and a girls lunula. Some priesthoods, including the Pontifices, Tresviri Epulones, the augurs, toga candida, Bright toga, a toga rubbed with chalk to a dazzling white, worn by candidates for public office. Thus Persius speaks of a cretata ambitio, chalked ambition, toga candida is the etymological source of the word candidate. It was worn mainly by mourners, but could also be worn in times of danger or public anxiety. It was sometimes used as a protest of sorts—when Cicero was exiled, mourners with a toga praetexta could turn it inside out, to conceal the stripe, or wear a toga pura. Toga picta, Dyed solid purple, embroidered with gold, and worn over a similarly decorated tunica palmata, during the Empire, it was worn by consuls and emperors
Toga
–
Marcus Aurelius wearing a toga
Toga
–
A toga
Toga
–
The toga picta may have had an Etruscan origin, as in this portrayal of a cloaked figure identified as Vel Saties (from the
François Tomb,
Vulci. Circa 350 BCE).
11.
Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore
–
The Basilica is located at 34 Piazza dellEsquilino, some five blocks southwest of Stazione Termini. Pursuant to the Lateran Treaty of 1929 between the Holy See and Italy, the Basilica is within Italian territory and not the territory of the Vatican City State and they prayed that she might make known to them how they were to dispose of their property in her honour. On 5 August, at the height of the Roman summer, in obedience to a vision of the Virgin Mary which they had the same night, the couple built a basilica in honour of Mary on the very spot which was covered with snow. From the fact that no mention whatever is made of this alleged miracle until a few hundred years later and it would seem that the legend has no historical basis. The legend is first reported only after AD1000 and it may be implied in what the Liber Pontificalis, of the early 13th century, says of Pope Liberius, He built the basilica of his own name near the Macellum of Livia. Its prevalence in the 15th century is shown in the painting of the Miracle of the Snow by Masolino da Panicale. The feast was originally called Dedicatio Sanctae Mariae, and was celebrated only in Rome until inserted for the first time into the General Roman Calendar, with ad Nives added to its name, in 1568. A congregation appointed by Pope Benedict XIV in 1741 proposed that the reading of the legend be struck from the Office, no action was taken on the proposal until 1969, when the reading of the legend was removed and the feast was called In dedicatione Basilicae S. Mariae. The legend is commemorated by dropping white rose petals from the dome during the celebration of the Mass. The earliest building on the site was the Liberian Basilica or Santa Maria Liberiana, Liberiana is still included in some versions of the basilicas formal name, and Liberian Basilica may be used as a contemporary as well as historical name. This building was replaced under Pope Sixtus III by the present structure dedicated to Mary. No Catholic church can be honoured with the title of basilica unless by apostolic grant or from immemorial custom, St. Mary Major is one of the only four that hold the title of major basilica. The other three are the Basilicas of St. John in the Lateran, St. Peters, along with all of the other four Major Basilicas, St. Mary Major is also styled a Papal basilica. St. Mary Major was associated with the Patriarchate of Antioch, Philip Neri on 25 February 1552. It is agreed that the present church was built under Pope Sixtus III, the dedicatory inscription on the triumphal arch, Sixtus Episcopus plebi Dei, is an indication of that Popes role in the construction. The church retains the core of its structure, despite several additional construction projects. Santa Maria Maggiore, one of the first churches built in honour of the Virgin Mary, was erected in the aftermath of the Council of Ephesus of 431. Pope Sixtus III built it to commemorate this decision and these fines enabled the papacy to carry out through the 5th century an ambitious building program, including Santa Maria Maggiore
Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore
–
The Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore is the largest church in Rome dedicated to the
Blessed Virgin Mary
Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore
–
The
Blessed Virgin Mary overlooking
Pope Liberius as the
Pontiff scraped the foundation of the basilica into the snow. By Italian artist
Masolino da Panicale. circa 15th-century.
Museo di Capodimonte.
Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore
–
Map by Giacomo Lauro and Antonio Tempesta depicting Saint Mary Major among the
Seven Pilgrim Churches of Rome in 1599, in view of the
Holy Year of 1600.
Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore
–
The Piazza and Church of Santa Maria Maggiore, by
Giovanni Paolo Pannini
12.
Catacomb of Priscilla
–
The Catacomb of Priscilla on the Via Salaria in Rome, Italy, are situated in what was a quarry in Roman times. This quarry was used for Christian burials from the late 2nd century through the 4th century. This catacomb, according to tradition, is named after the wife of the Consul Manius Acilius Glabrio, some of the walls and ceilings display fine decorations illustrating Biblical scenes. The modern entrance to the catacomb is on the Via Salaria through the cloister of the monastery of the Benedictines of Priscilla. Particularly notable is the Greek Chapel, a chamber with an arch which contains 3rd century frescoes generally interpreted to be Old and New Testament scenes. Above the apse is a Last Judgment, near this are figures of the Madonna and Child and the Prophet Isaiah, also dating from the early 3rd century. The Priscilla catacombs may contain the oldest known Marian paintings, from the third century. Mary is shown with Jesus on her lap, and the catacombs may have a depiction of the Annunciation, on account of the fact that seven early popes and many martyrs were buried in the cemetery, it was known as the Queen of the Catacombs in antiquity. Two popes were buried in the Catacomb of Priscilla, Pope Marcellinus, alleged relics of Popes Sylvester I, Stephen I, and Dionysius were exhumed and enshrined beneath the high altar of San Martino ai Monti, in the Esquiline area of Rome. Pope Sylvester I was likely buried in San Martino ai Monti. Other sources describe a combination of Sylvester I and Vigilius in an altar in St. Peters. The bones of Saints Praxedes and Pudentiana were contained in the catacomb until they were translated, in the 9th century and it is also in this catacomb that the relics of saint Philomena were found
Catacomb of Priscilla
–
Perhaps the world's oldest-known
image of Mary depicting her nursing the Infant Jesus. 3rd century, Catacomb of Priscilla,
Rome.
Catacomb of Priscilla
–
External video
13.
Sarcophagi
–
A sarcophagus is a box-like funeral receptacle for a corpse, most commonly carved in stone, and usually displayed above ground, though it may also be buried. The word sarcophagus comes from the Greek σάρξ sarx meaning flesh, since lithos is Greek for stone, lithos sarcophagos means, flesh-eating stone. The word also came to refer to a kind of limestone that was thought to decompose the flesh of corpses trapped within it. Sarcophagi were most often designed to remain above ground, in Ancient Egypt, a sarcophagus acted like an outer shell. They are made of clay in shades of brown to pink. Added to the basin-like main sarcophagus is a broad, rectangular frame, often covered with a white slip and then painted. The huge Lycian Tomb of Payava, now in the British Museum, is a tomb monument of about 360 BC designed for an open-air placing. However, there are many important Early Christian sarcophagi from the 3rd to 4th centuries, most Roman examples were designed to be placed against a wall and are decorated on three of the sides only. More plain sarcophagi were placed in crypts, of which the most famous include the Habsburg Imperial Crypt in Vienna. The term tends to be often used to describe Medieval, Renaissance. They continued to be popular into the 1950s, at time the popularity of flat memorials made them obsolete. Nonetheless, a 1952 catalog from the industry still included 8 pages of them, broken down into Georgian and Classical detail, a Gothic and Renaissance adaptation. Shown on the right are sarcophagi from the late 19th century located in Laurel Hill Cemetery in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the one in the back, the Warner Monument created by Alexander Milne Calder, features the spirit or soul of the deceased being released. In Sulawesi, Indonesia, waruga are a form of sarcophagus. Mont Allen, Sarcophagus, in The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome, edited by Michael Gagarin, R. R. R. Smith, Sculptured for Eternity, Treasures of Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine Art from Istanbul Archaeological Museum. Ewald, Living with Myths, The Imagery of Roman Sarcophagi, egyptian sarcophagi sarcaphagi in the Istanbul Archaeological Museum Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Sarcophagus
Sarcophagi
–
Stone sarcophagus of
Pharaoh Merenptah.
Sarcophagi
–
Constantinople Christian sarcophagus with
XI monogram, circa AD 400
Sarcophagi
–
Roman-era sarcophagi at
Worms, Germany.
Sarcophagi
–
The limestone relief on this
Roman sarcophagus, c. AD 190, depicts the Triumph of
Dionysus.
Walters Art Museum,
Baltimore, Maryland.
14.
Reliquaries
–
A reliquary is a container for relics. These may be the purported or actual physical remains of saints, such as bones, pieces of clothing, the authenticity of any given relic is often a matter of debate, for that reason, some churches require documentation of the relics provenance. Relics have long been important to Buddhists, Christians, Hindus, in these cultures, reliquaries are often presented in shrines, churches, or temples to which the faithful make pilgrimages in order to gain blessings. Relics are venerated in the Oriental Orthodox, Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic, reliquaries provide a means of protecting and displaying relics. While frequently taking the form of caskets, they range in size from simple pendants or rings to very elaborate ossuaries, ivory was widely used in the Middle Ages for reliquaries, its pure white color an indication of the holy status of its contents. These objects constituted a form of artistic production across Europe. Many were designed with portability in mind, often being exhibited in public or carried in procession on the saints feast day or on holy days. Pilgrimages often centered on the veneration of relics, the faithful often venerate relics by bowing before the reliquary or kissing it. Those churches which observe the veneration of relics make a distinction between the honor given to the saints and the worship that is due to God alone. The feretrum was a form of reliquary or shrine containing the sacred effigies. In the late Middle Ages the craze for relics, many now fraudulent, became extreme, 16th-century reformers such as Martin Luther opposed the use of relics since many had no proof of historic authenticity, and they objected to the cult of saints. Nonetheless, the use and manufacture of reliquaries continues to this day, especially in Roman Catholic, post-Reformation reliquaries have tended to take the form of glass-sided caskets to display relics such as the bodies of saints. The earliest reliquaries were essentially boxes, either simply box-shaped or based on an architectural design and these latter are known by the French term chasse, and typical examples from the 12th to 14th century have wooden frameworks with gilt-copper plaques nailed on, decorated in champlevé enamel. Limoges was the largest centre of production, NB the English usage differs from that of the French châsse, relics of the True Cross became very popular from the 9th century onwards and were housed in magnificent gold and silver cross-shaped reliquaries, decorated with enamels and precious stones. Similarly, the bones of saints were often housed in reliquaries that recalled the shape of the body part. A philatory is a transparent reliquary designed to contain and exhibit the bones and this style of reliquary has a viewing portal by which to view the relic contained inside. During the later Middle Ages, the form, mostly used for consecrated hosts, was sometimes used for reliquaries. These housed the relic in a crystal or glass capsule mounted on a column above a base
Reliquaries
–
Reliquaries holding relics of the
Buddha from a
stupa in
Kanishka,
Peshawar, Pakistan, now in
Mandalay, Burma. Teresa Merrigan, 2005
Reliquaries
–
A view inside the shrine of Saint
Boniface of Dokkum in the
hermit-church of
Warfhuizen in the
Netherlands. The little folded paper on the left contains a bone-fragment of Saint
Benedict of Nursia, the folded paper on the right a piece of the
habit of Saint
Bernard of Clairvaux. The large bone in the middle (about 5 cm. in length) is the actual relic of Saint Boniface.
Reliquaries
–
Relic of the Precious Blood,
Bruges. Made from pure gold and precious stones.
Reliquaries
–
Franco-Flemish Gothic philatory for a finger bone, late 15th century (
Walters Art Museum)
15.
Sacrifice of Isaac
–
The Binding of Isaac, also known as The Binding and the Akedah or Aqedah, is a story from the Hebrew Bible found in Genesis 22. In the biblical narrative, God asks Abraham to sacrifice his son, Isaac, on Moriah, Abraham begins to comply, Abraham then sees a ram and sacrifices it instead. This episode has been the focus of a deal of commentary in traditional Jewish, Christian. According to the Hebrew Bible, God commands Abraham to offer his son Isaac as a sacrifice, after Isaac is bound to an altar, a messenger from God stops Abraham at the last minute, saying now I know you fear God. Abraham looks up and sees a ram and sacrifices it instead of Isaac, the passage states that the event occurred at the mount of the LORD in the land of Moriah. The location believed to be the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, the majority of Jewish religious commentators argue that God was testing Abraham to see if he would actually kill his own son, as a test of his loyalty. However, a number of Jewish Biblical commentators from the medieval era, the early rabbinic midrash Genesis Rabbah imagines God as saying I never considered telling Abraham to slaughter Isaac. Rabbi Yona Ibn Janach wrote that God demanded only a symbolic sacrifice, rabbi Yosef Ibn Caspi wrote that Abrahams imagination led him astray, making him believe that he had been commanded to sacrifice his son. Ibn Caspi writes How could God command such a revolting thing, hertz interprets the Akedah as demonstrating to the Jews that human sacrifice is abhorrent. However, the actions and words of angels are generally understood to derive directly from Gods will, according to this view, Abraham failed to show compassion for his son, so God punished him by ostensibly failing to show compassion for Abrahams son. This is a flawed theory, since the Bible says that God agreed with Sarah. In The Binding of Isaac, Religious Murders & Kabbalah, Lippman Bodoff argues that Abraham never intended to sacrifice his son. Rabbi Ari Kahn elaborates this view as follows, Isaacs death was never a possibility — not as far as Abraham was concerned and this is precisely how the sages of the Talmud understood the Akeida. Citing the Prophet Jeremiah’s exhortation against child sacrifice, they state unequivocally that such behavior never crossed God’s mind, though readers of this parashah throughout the generations have been disturbed, even horrified, by the Akeida, there was no miscommunication between God and Abraham. The thought of actually killing Isaac never crossed their minds, others suggest that Abrahams apparent complicity with the sacrifice was actually his way of testing God. Abraham had previously argued with God to save lives in Sodom, by silently complying with Gods instructions to kill Isaac, Abraham was putting pressure on God to act in a moral way to preserve life. More evidence that Abraham thought that he would not actually sacrifice Isaac comes from Genesis 22,5, the boy and I will go up there, we will worship and we will return to you. By saying we, he meant that both he and Isaac would return, thus, he did not believe that Isaac would be sacrificed in the end
Sacrifice of Isaac
–
The Sacrifice of Isaac by
Caravaggio, in the
Baroque tenebrist manner
Sacrifice of Isaac
–
God commands Abraham to offer his son Isaac as a sacrifice,
Domenichino
Sacrifice of Isaac
–
Abraham and Isaac (oil on canvas),
Rembrandt, 1634
Sacrifice of Isaac
–
Mosaic on the floor of
Beit Alfa Synagogue depicting the Akedah
16.
Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus
–
The Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus is a marble Early Christian sarcophagus used for the burial of Junius Bassus, who died in 359. It has been described as probably the single most famous piece of early Christian relief sculpture, the base is approximately 4 x 8 x 4 feet. Junius Bassus was an important figure, a senator who was in charge of the government of the capital as praefectus urbi when he died at the age of 42 in 359 and his father had been Praetorian prefect, running the administration of a large part of the Western Empire. Bassus served under Constantius II, son of Constantine I, Bassus, as the inscription on the sarcophagus tells us, converted to Christianity shortly before his death - perhaps on his deathbed. Many still believed, like Tertullian, that it was not possible to be an emperor and a Christian, the style of the work has been greatly discussed by art historians, especially as its date is certain, which is unusual at this period. All are agreed that the workmanship is of the highest quality available at the time, some figures are portrayed frontally, but certainly not all, and they are not shown in a thoroughly Late Antique manner, the scenes are three-dimensional and have depth and background. Drapery hangs on recognizable human forms rather than being arranged in predetermined folds, heads are varied, the cast also lacks the effects created by light on polished or patinated highlights such as the heads of the figures, against the darker recessed surfaces and backgrounds. Ernst Kitzinger finds a far more definite reattachment to aesthetic ideals of the Graeco-Roman past than in the earlier Dogmatic Sarcophagus, the carvings are in high relief on three sides of the sarcophagus, allowing for its placement against a wall. The column and many parts of the figures are carved completely in the round, the arrangement of relief scenes in rows in a columnar framework is an introduction from Asia Minor at about this time. In the bottom row, Job on the dunghill, Adam and Eve, Christs entry into Jerusalem, Daniel in the lions den, Arrest or leading to execution of Paul. The other scenes may be the Three youths in the fiery furnace, the sides have more traditional Roman scenes of the Four Seasons represented by putti performing seasonal tasks such as harvesting grapes. The emphasis on scenes of judgement may have influenced by the career of Bassus as a magistrate. In all the three scenes where he appears Christ is a youthful, beardless figure with shortish hair, which is typical of Christian art at this period, the angel standing behind Abraham in the Sacrifice of Isaac is depicted similarly, and without wings. Christ appears in the centre of rows, in the top row as a law-giver or teacher between his chief followers, Peter and Paul, and on the bottom entering Jerusalem. Christ hands Peter a scroll, probably representing the Gospels, as emperors were often shown doing to their heirs, ministers or generals, before Pilate Christ also carries a scroll, like a philosopher. Pilate, perhaps worried by Jesuss reputation for miracles, is making the gesture Italians still use to ward off the evil eye, the putti in the Chronography also relate closely to those on the sides of the sarcophagus. The Old Testament scenes depicted were chosen as precursors of Christs sacrifice in the New Testament, Adam and Eve are shown covering their nakedness after the Fall of Man, which created the original sin and hence the need for Christ to be sacrificed for our sins. Adam and Eve themselves made no sacrifices, but behind Eve is a lamb, just to the right of the middle is Daniel in the lions den, saved by his faith, and on the left is Abraham about to sacrifice Isaac
Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus
–
Plaster cast of the Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus
17.
Hand of God (art)
–
The hand, sometimes including a portion of an arm, or ending about the wrist, is used to indicate the intervention in or approval of affairs on Earth by God, and sometimes as a subject in itself. It is a metaphor that is generally not intended to indicate that a hand was physically present or seen at any subject depicted. The Hand is seen appearing from above in a restricted number of narrative contexts, often in a blessing gesture. Here and elsewhere it often represents the bath Kol or voice of God, the hand may also relate to older traditions in various other religions in the Ancient Near East. In the art of the Amarna period in Egypt under Akhenaten, like the hamsa amulet, the hand is sometimes shown alone on buildings, although it does not seem to have existed as a portable amulet-type object in Christian use. It is found from the 4th century on in the Catacombs of Rome, including paintings of Moses receiving the Law and they are usually distinguished from references to a placement at the right hand of God. Later rabbinic literature also contains a number of references, there are three occasions in the gospels when the voice of God is heard, and the hand often represents this in visual art. Gertrud Schiller distinguishes three functions of the hand in Christian art, as symbol of either Gods presence or the voice of God, the hand of God, which encompasses God’s arm and fingers as well, is one of the most frequently employed anthropomorphisms of the Hebrew Bible. References to the hand of God occur numerous times in the Pentateuch alone, for example, when Stephen is filled with the holy spirit he looks to heaven and sees Jesus standing by the right hand of God. There are three occasions in the Gospels when the voice of God is heard, and the hand of God often represents this in visual art, anthropomorphic aggadot regarding the hand of God appear frequently in the corpus of rabbinic literature and expand upon anthropomorphic biblical narratives. In Christian art, the hand of God has traditionally been understood as a metaphor that is not intended to indicate that the deity was physically present or seen in any subject depicted. In the late antique and early periods, the representation of the full-bodied figure of God the Father would have been considered a grave violation of the Second Commandment. Gertrud Schiller distinguishes three functions of the hand in Christian art, as symbol of either Gods presence or the voice of God, the motif of the hand, with no body attached, provides a problem for the artist in how to terminate it. A cloud is mentioned as the source of the voice of God in the accounts of the Transfiguration of Jesus. Later examples in Jewish art are closer in form to Christian styles, in Christian art, the hand of God usually occupies the form of a blessing gesture, if they are not performing an action, though some just show an open hand. The normal blessing gesture is to point with the index and next finger, with the fingers curled back. There is also a more complicated Byzantine gesture which attempts to represent the Greek letter chi, Christs initial and this is formed by crossing the thumb and little finger inside the palm, with only the forefinger and next one extended, or a variant of this. Especially in these examples, the hand may show the sleeve of a garment, in blessing forms the hand often has a halo, which also may provide a convenient termination point
Hand of God (art)
–
The hand as an isolated motif.
Fresco from
Sant Climent de Taüll,
Catalonia.
Hand of God (art)
–
Moses and the Burning Bush wing panel,
Dura Europos
Hand of God (art)
–
The Hand of God intervenes at the Sacrifice of Isaac,
Armenian,
Akdamar, 10th century
Hand of God (art)
–
Clothed hand clutching wreath,
San Clemente, Rome, 1140–43.
18.
Istanbul
–
Istanbul, historically known as Constantinople and Byzantium, is the most populous city in Turkey and the countrys economic, cultural, and historic center. Istanbul is a city in Eurasia, straddling the Bosphorus strait between the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea. Its commercial and historical center lies on the European side and about a third of its population lives on the Asian side, the city is the administrative center of the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality, both hosting a population of around 14.7 million residents. Istanbul is one of the worlds most populous cities and ranks as the worlds 7th-largest city proper, founded under the name of Byzantion on the Sarayburnu promontory around 660 BCE, the city developed to become one of the most significant in history. After its reestablishment as Constantinople in 330 CE, it served as a capital for almost 16 centuries, during the Roman and Byzantine, the Latin. Overlooked for the new capital Ankara during the period, the city has since regained much of its prominence. The population of the city has increased tenfold since the 1950s, as migrants from across Anatolia have moved in, arts, music, film, and cultural festivals were established at the end of the 20th century and continue to be hosted by the city today. Infrastructure improvements have produced a complex transportation network, considered a global city, Istanbul has one of the fastest-growing metropolitan economies in the world. It hosts the headquarters of many Turkish companies and media outlets and accounts for more than a quarter of the gross domestic product. Hoping to capitalize on its revitalization and rapid expansion, Istanbul has bid for the Summer Olympics five times in twenty years, the first known name of the city is Byzantium, the name given to it at its foundation by Megarean colonists around 660 BCE. The name is thought to be derived from a personal name, ancient Greek tradition refers to a legendary king of that name as the leader of the Greek colonists. Modern scholars have hypothesized that the name of Byzas was of local Thracian or Illyrian origin. He also attempted to promote the name Nova Roma and its Greek version Νέα Ῥώμη Nea Romē, the use of Constantinople to refer to the city during the Ottoman period is now considered politically incorrect, even if not historically inaccurate, by Turks. By the 19th century, the city had acquired other names used by foreigners or Turks. Europeans used Constantinople to refer to the whole of the city, pera was used to describe the area between the Golden Horn and the Bosphorus, but Turks also used the name Beyoğlu. The name İstanbul is commonly held to derive from the Medieval Greek phrase εἰς τὴν Πόλιν and this reflected its status as the only major city in the vicinity. The importance of Constantinople in the Ottoman world was reflected by its Ottoman name Der Saadet meaning the gate to Prosperity in Ottoman. An alternative view is that the name evolved directly from the name Constantinople, with the first, a Turkish folk etymology traces the name to Islam bol plenty of Islam because the city was called Islambol or Islambul as the capital of the Islamic Ottoman Empire
Istanbul
–
Clockwise from top: View of
Golden Horn between
Galata and
Seraglio Point including the
historic areas;
Maiden's Tower; a
nostalgic tram on
İstiklal Avenue;
Levent business district with
Dolmabahçe Palace;
Ortaköy Mosque in front of the
Bosphorus Bridge; and
Hagia Sophia.
Istanbul
–
Constantine I
Istanbul
–
Remains of a Byzantine column found at
Byzantium 's
acropolis, located today within the
Topkapı Palace complex
Istanbul
–
Created in 1422 by
Cristoforo Buondelmonti, this is the oldest surviving map of Constantinople.
19.
Theodosius I
–
Theodosius I, also known as Theodosius the Great, was Roman Emperor from AD379 to AD395. Theodosius was the last emperor to rule both the eastern and the western halves of the Roman Empire. On accepting his elevation, he campaigned against Goths and other barbarians who had invaded the empire. He failed to kill, expel, or entirely subjugate them and he fought two destructive civil wars, in which he defeated the usurpers Magnus Maximus and Eugenius at great cost to the power of the empire. He also issued decrees that effectively made Orthodox Nicene Christianity the official church of the Roman Empire. He neither prevented nor punished the destruction of prominent Hellenistic temples of antiquity, including the Temple of Apollo in Delphi. He dissolved the order of the Vestal Virgins in Rome, in 393, he banned the pagan rituals of the Olympics in Ancient Greece. Theodosius was born in Cauca, Gallaecia, Hispania or Italica, Baetica, Hispania, to a military officer. Theodosius learned his lessons by campaigning with his fathers staff in Britannia where he went to help quell the Great Conspiracy in 368. In about 373, he became governor of Upper Moesia and oversaw hostilities against the Sarmatians and he was military commander of Moesia, a Roman province on the lower Danube, in 374. However, shortly thereafter, and at about the time as the sudden disgrace and execution of his father. The reason for his retirement, and the relationship between it and his fathers death is unclear and it is possible that he was dismissed from his command by the emperor Valentinian I after the loss of two of Theodosius legions to the Sarmatians in late 374. The death of Valentinian I in 375 created political pandemonium, fearing further persecution on account of his family ties, Theodosius abruptly retired to his family estates in the province of Gallaecia where he adopted the life of a provincial aristocrat. In 378, after the disastrous Battle of Adrianople where Valens was killed, as Valens had no successor, Gratians appointment of Theodosius amounted to a de facto invitation for Theodosius to become co-Augustus of the East Roman Empire. After Gratian was killed in a rebellion in 383, Theodosius appointed his own son, Arcadius. By his first wife, the probably Spanish Aelia Flaccilla Augusta, he had two sons, Arcadius and Honorius and a daughter, Aelia Pulcheria, Arcadius was his heir in the East, both Aelia Flaccilla and Pulcheria died in 385. His second wife was Galla, daughter of the emperor Valentinian I, Theodosius and Galla had a son Gratian, born in 388 and who died young, and a daughter Aelia Galla Placidia. Placidia was the child who survived to adulthood and later became an Empress
Theodosius I
–
Theodosius
Theodosius I
–
Roman provinces along the Ister (Danube), showing
Dacia,
Moesia and
Thrace, with
Sarmatia to the north and
Germania to the northwest.
Theodosius I
–
Federico Barocci, "Saint Ambrose forces Emperor Theodosius I to make penance for the Thessaloniki massacre" (1603), left-side nave, Saint Ambrose Altar, Milan Cathedral/
Theodosius I
–
The administrative divisions of the
Roman Empire in 395, under Theodosius I.
20.
Victoria (mythology)
–
Victoria, in ancient Roman religion, was the personified goddess of victory. She is the Roman equivalent of the Greek goddess Nike, and was associated with Bellona and she was adapted from the Sabine agricultural goddess Vacuna and had a temple on the Palatine Hill. The goddess Vica Pota was also identified with Victoria. Victoria is often described as a daughter of Pallas and Styx, and as a sister of Zelus, Kratos, unlike the Greek Nike, the goddess Victoria was a major part of Roman society. Multiple temples were erected in her honor, when her statue was removed in 382 CE by Emperor Gratianus there was much anger in Rome. She was normally worshiped by triumphant generals returning from war, also unlike the Greek Nike, who was known for success in athletic games such as chariot races, Victoria was a symbol of victory over death and determined who would be successful during war. Victoria appears widely on Roman coins, jewelry, architecture, and she is often seen with or in a chariot, as in the late 18th-century sculpture representing Victory in a quadriga on the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin, Germany, Il Vittoriano in Rome has two. Nike or Victoria was the charioteer for Zeus in his battle to over take Mount Olympus and these represent the spirit of victory rather than the goddess herself. They continued to appear after Christianization of the Empire, and slowly mutated into Christian angels,12 Victoria Media related to Victoria at Wikimedia Commons
Victoria (mythology)
–
Victoria on top of the
Berlin Victory Column (cast by
Gladenbeck, Berlin)
Victoria (mythology)
–
Gold coin of
Constantine II depicting Victoria on the reverse
21.
John Chrysostom
–
John Chrysostom, c.349 –407, Archbishop of Constantinople, was an important Early Church Father. The epithet Χρυσόστομος means golden-mouthed in Greek and denotes his celebrated eloquence, Chrysostom was among the most prolific authors in the early Christian Church exceeded only by Augustine in the quantity of his surviving writings. He is honored as a saint in the Eastern Orthodox, Catholic, the Eastern Orthodox, together with the Byzantine Catholics, hold him in special regard as one of the Three Holy Hierarchs. The feast days of John Chrysostom in the Eastern Orthodox Church are 13 November and 27 January, in the Roman Catholic Church he is recognized as a Doctor of the Church and commemorated on 13 September. Other churches of the Western tradition, including some Anglican provinces and some Lutheran churches, however, certain Lutheran churches and Anglican provinces commemorate him on the traditional Eastern feast day of 27 January. The Coptic Church also recognizes him as a saint, John was born in Antioch in 349 to Greek parents from Syria. Different scholars describe his mother Anthusa as a pagan or as a Christian, Johns father died soon after his birth and he was raised by his mother. He was baptised in 368 or 373 and tonsured as a reader, as a result of his mothers influential connections in the city, John began his education under the pagan teacher Libanius. From Libanius, John acquired the skills for a career in rhetoric, as well as a love of the Greek language and literature. As he grew older, however, John became more committed to Christianity and went on to study theology under Diodore of Tarsus. According to the Christian historian Sozomen, Libanius was supposed to have said on his deathbed that John would have been his if the Christians had not taken him from us. John lived in asceticism and became a hermit in about 375. As a consequence of these practices, his stomach and kidneys were permanently damaged, John was ordained as a deacon in 381 by Saint Meletius of Antioch who was not then in communion with Alexandria and Rome. After the death of Meletius, John separated himself from the followers of Meletius, without joining Paulinus, but after the death of Paulinus he was ordained a presbyter in 386 by Evagrius, the successor of Paulinus. He was destined later to bring reconciliation between Flavian I of Antioch, Alexandria, and Rome, thus bringing those three sees into communion for the first time in nearly seventy years. The most valuable of his works from this period are his Homilies on various books of the Bible and he emphasised charitable giving and was concerned with the spiritual and temporal needs of the poor. He spoke against abuse of wealth and personal property, Do you wish to honour the body of Christ, do not ignore him when he is naked. Do not pay him homage in the temple clad in silk, only then to him outside where he is cold
John Chrysostom
–
A
Byzantine mosaic of John Chrysostom from the
Hagia Sophia.
John Chrysostom
–
A sculpture of John Chrysostom in
Saint Patrick's Cathedral, New York City
22.
Seraphim
–
A seraph is a type of celestial or heavenly being in Christianity and Judaism. The singular seraph is a back-formation from the seraphim, whereas in Hebrew the singular is saraph. Tradition places seraphim in the highest rank in the Christian angelic hierarchy, a seminal passage in the Book of Isaiah used the term to describe six-winged beings that fly around the Throne of God crying holy, holy, holy. This throne scene, with its invocation of holiness, profoundly influenced subsequent theology, literature. Its influence is seen in works depicting angels, heaven. Seraphim are mentioned as celestial beings in an influential Hellenistic work, the Book of Enoch, the word saraph/seraphim appears three times in the Torah and four times in the Book of Isaiah. In Isaiah 6, 2-6 the term is used to describe a type of celestial being or angel, the other five uses of the word refer to serpents. The vision in Isaiah Chapter 6 of seraphim in an idealised Jerusalem First Temple represents the sole instance in the Hebrew Bible of this word being used to describe celestial beings. I saw the Lord sitting upon a throne, high and lifted up, above him stood the Seraphim, each had six wings, with two he covered his face, and with two he covered his feet, and with two he flew. The seraphim cry continually to each other, Holy, holy, holy, is YHWH of hosts, one seraph then carries out an act of purification for the prophet by touching his lips with a live coal from the altar. The text literally describes the seraphim as winged celestial beings with a passion for doing Gods good work. Seraphim appear in the 2nd-century BC Book of Enoch where they are mentioned, in conjunction with cherubim and they are also called the Ikisat which, along with the cherubim and Paradise, are under the rule of Gabriel. In the Second Book of Enoch, two classes of beings are equated with the seraphim and cherubim, known as the phoenixes. Both are described as flying elements of the sun that reside in either the 4th or 6th heaven and they appear also in the Christian Gnostic text On the Origin of the World. The 12th-century scholar Maimonides placed the seraphim in the fifth of ten ranks of angels in his exposition of the Jewish angelic hierarchy, through this they ascend to God, and return to their place. Below them in the World of Yetzirah are the Hayot angels of Ezekiels vision, Seraphim are part of the angelarchy of modern Orthodox Judaism. Isaiahs vision is repeated several times in daily Jewish services, including at Kedushah prayer as part of the repetition of the Amidah, and in several other prayers as well. Conservative Judaism retains the traditional doctrines regarding angels and includes references to them in the liturgy, adherents of Reform Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism generally take images of angels as symbolic
Seraphim
–
St. Francis' vision of a seraph (fresco attributed to
Giotto)
Seraphim
–
Seraphs surround the divine throne in this illustration from the
Petites Heures de Jean de Berry, a 14th-century
illuminated manuscript, commissioned by
John, Duke of Berry.
Seraphim
–
First Sphere
23.
Pendentive
–
A pendentive is a constructive device permitting the placing of a circular dome over a square room or an elliptical dome over a rectangular room. The pendentives, which are segments of a sphere, taper to points at the bottom. In masonry the pendentives thus receive the weight of the dome, prior to the pendentives development, the device of corbelling or the use of the squinch in the corners of a room had been employed. Pendentives were commonly used in Orthodox, Renaissance, and Baroque churches, hagia Sophia Squinch Heinle, Erwin, Schlaich, Jörg, Kuppeln aller Zeiten, aller Kulturen, Stuttgart, ISBN 3-421-03062-6 Rasch, Jürgen, Die Kuppel in der römischen Architektur. Entwicklung, Formgebung, Konstruktion, Architectura,15, pp. 117–139
Pendentive
–
One pendentive of the Hagia Sophia main dome
Pendentive
–
The pendentives are shown in yellow.
Pendentive
–
Arches (left and right), dome (top) and pendentive (centre) in
Moscow Cathedral
Pendentive
–
Holy Trinity Church,
Fulnek,
Czech Republic
24.
Semi-dome
–
A semi-dome, also called a half-dome, is the term in architecture for half a dome, used to cover a semi-circular area. Semi-domes are a feature of apses in Ancient Roman and traditional church architecture. Islamic examples may use muqarnas decorative corbelling, while in Late Antique, Byzantine and medieval architecture the semi-dome is the classic location for a focal mosaic. In buildings like Hagia Sophia in Byzantine architecture, apsidal openings or exhedras from the central nave appear in several directions, the tetraconch, triconch and cross-in-square are other typically Eastern Christian church plans that produce several semi-domes. The buildings of Mimar Sinan and his pupil Sedefkar Mehmed Agha are the masterpieces of this style, mihrabs are another common location for semi-domes. In Western Europe the external appearance of a semi-dome is less often exploited than in Byzantine and Ottoman architecture, the Cincinnati Museum Center at Union Terminal in Cincinnati, OH features the largest semi-dome in the western hemisphere, measuring 180 feet wide and 106 feet high. Ancient Jewish art and archaeology in the diaspora, leiden, Brill,1998 Kim, Tae Won, John H. Christy & Jae C
Semi-dome
–
Typical Early Christian/Byzantine
apse with a hemispherical semi-dome decorated in
mosaic (
Basilica di Sant'Apollinare in Classe in
Ravenna).
Semi-dome
–
Looking up at the radiating semi-domes of
Hagia Sophia.
Semi-dome
–
Cross-section of Hagia Sophia, as first built
Semi-dome
–
Exterior of the
Sultan Ahmed Mosque
25.
Icon
–
An icon is a religious work of art, most commonly a painting, from Eastern Christianity and certain Eastern Catholic churches. The most common subjects include Christ, Mary, saints and/or angels, icons may also be cast in metal, carved in stone, embroidered on cloth, painted on wood, done in mosaic or fresco work, printed on paper or metal, etc. Comparable images from Western Christianity are generally not described as icons, Eastern Orthodox tradition holds that the creation of Christian images dates back to the very early days of Christianity, and there is has been a continuous tradition since then. The icons of later centuries can be linked, often closely, to images from the 5th century onwards, there was enormous destruction of images during the Byzantine Iconoclasm of 726-842, although this did settle for good the question of the appropriateness of images. Since then icons have had a continuity of style and subject. At the same time there has been change and development, Christian tradition dating from the 8th century identifies Luke the Evangelist as the first icon painter. Aside from the legend that Pilate had made an image of Christ and he relates that King Abgar of Edessa sent a letter to Jesus at Jerusalem, asking Jesus to come and heal him of an illness. In this version there is no image, further legends relate that the cloth remained in Edessa until the 10th century, when it was taken to Constantinople. It went missing in 1204 when Crusaders sacked Constantinople, but by then numerous copies had firmly established its iconic type. They crown these images, and set them up along with the images of the philosophers of the world that is to say, with the images of Pythagoras, and Plato, and Aristotle, and the rest. They have also other modes of honouring these images, after the manner of the Gentiles. And he called him and said, Lycomedes, what do you mean by this matter of the portrait, can it be one of thy gods that is painted here. For I see that you are living in heathen fashion. Later in the passage John says, But this that you have now done is childish and imperfect, at least some of the hierarchy of the Christian churches still strictly opposed icons in the early 4th century. At the Spanish non-ecumenical Synod of Elvira bishops concluded, Pictures are not to be placed in churches, so that they do not become objects of worship and adoration. to our religion. After the emperor Constantine I extended official toleration of Christianity within the Roman Empire in 313 and this period of Christianization probably saw the use of Christian images became very widespread among the faithful, though with great differences from pagan habits. Robin Lane Fox states By the early century, we know of the ownership of private icons of saints. 480-500, we can be sure that the inside of a saints shrine would be adorned with images and votive portraits, when Constantine himself apparently converted to Christianity, the majority of his subjects remained pagans
Icon
–
The Ladder of Divine Ascent icon showing monks ascending to
Jesus in Heaven, top right. 12th century,
Saint Catherine's Monastery
Icon
–
Russian icon of
Holy Trinity
Icon
–
The icon of
St Nicolas carved in stone. Between the 12 and 15th cc.
Radomysl Castle, Ukraine
Icon
–
Ceramic icons are rare.
Saint Arethas, Byzantine, 10th century.
26.
Michael (angel)
–
Michael is an archangel in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. In Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Anglican, and Lutheran traditions, he is called Saint Michael the Archangel, in the Oriental Orthodox and Eastern Orthodox traditions, he is called Taxiarch Archangel Michael or simply Archangel Michael. Michael is mentioned three times in the Book of Daniel, in the New Testament Michael leads Gods armies against Satans forces in the Book of Revelation, where during the war in heaven he defeats Satan. In the Epistle of Jude Michael is specifically referred to as the archangel Michael, by the 6th century, devotions to Archangel Michael were widespread both in the Eastern and Western Churches. Over time, teachings on Michael began to vary among Christian denominations, Michael is mentioned three times in the Hebrew Scriptures, all in the book of Daniel. The prophet Daniel experiences a vision after having undergone a period of fasting, Daniel 10, 13-21 describes Daniels vision of an angel who identifies Michael as the protector of Israel. At Daniel 12,1, Daniel is informed that Michael will arise during the time of the end, the Book of Revelation describes a war in heaven in which Michael, being stronger, defeats Satan. After the conflict, Satan is thrown to earth along with the fallen angels, in the Epistle of Jude 1,9, Michael is referred to as an archangel when he again confronts Satan. A reference to an archangel also appears in the First Epistle to the Thessalonians 4,16 and this archangel who heralds the second coming of Christ is not named, but is often associated with Michael. Michael, is one of the two mentioned in the Quran, alongside Jibreel. In the Quran, Michael is mentioned only, in Sura 2,98, Whoever is an enemy to God, and His angels and His messengers. Then, God is an enemy to the disbelievers, some Muslims believe that the reference in Sura 11,69 is Michael, one of the three angels who visited Abraham. Michaels enmity with Samael dates from the time when the latter was thrown down from heaven, Samael took hold of the wings of Michael, whom he wished to bring down with him in his fall, but Michael was saved by God. But appeal to Michael seems to have more common in ancient times. Thus Jeremiah is said to have addressed a prayer to him, the rabbis declare that Michael entered upon his role of defender at the time of the biblical patriarchs. Thus, according to Rabbi Eliezer ben Jacob, it was Michael who rescued Abraham from the furnace into which he had been thrown by Nimrod. It was Michael, the one that had escaped, who told Abraham that Lot had been taken captive, and he announced to Sarah that she would bear a son and he rescued Lot at the destruction of Sodom. It is said that Michael prevented Isaac from being sacrificed by his father by substituting a ram in his place, later Michael prevented Laban from harming Jacob
Michael (angel)
–
A 13th-century Byzantine icon from
Saint Catherine's Monastery
Michael (angel)
–
Guido Reni 's Michael (in
Santa Maria della Concezione church, Rome, 1636) tramples Satan. A mosaic of the same painting decorates St. Michael's Altar in
St. Peter's Basilica.
Michael (angel)
–
Michael archangel by anonymous painter
Michael (angel)
–
Michael in
Hebrew
27.
Loros
–
The loros was a long, narrow and embroidered scarf, embroidered with gold and heavily embellished with gems, which was wrapped around the torso and dropped over the left hand. It was one of the most important and distinctive parts of the most formal and ceremonial type of imperial Byzantine costume, worn only by the Imperial family and it developed out of the trabea triumphalis of the Roman consuls. There were different male and female versions, Byzantine sources speak of the loros costume as the loros dictated the rest of the imperial outfit. The slightly less formal, and more secular, imperial costume, the first representations of the loros are on coins from the reign of Justinian II. Until the 10th century, the loros was wrapped around the torso in a specific way. However, increasingly from the 11th century, the loros acquired a new design, the new loros had a loop that went round the neck and was pulled on over the head. By the Komnenian dynasty, the old loros was completely abandoned, by the 14th century the strip down the front may have been sewn onto the tunic beneath, and the loros may have been called a diadema instead. Despite the modifications, the loros was the most important part of the imperial costume up until the end of the empire in the 15th century, in earlier periods it was worn in triumphal processions. It was said to symbolize the winding-sheet of Christ, with the officials as the Twelve Apostles and it is also worn by archangels in Byzantine art, which spread to medieval art in the West, as they were regarded as the high officials of God. It seems the loros-costume was not worn at the coronation of the Emperor, although he was given it in the course of the ceremony, and when crowned by Christ in art always wears it. From the 13th century the loros began to be worn in imperial portraits of other Orthodox rulers, such those of Serbia, Georgia. In the Bulgarian Gospels of Tsar Ivan Alexander, the tsar, at first empresses wore essentially the same form as emperors, but from around the 9th century a new style appears. The hanging end was longer and much broader, and after reaching down to the ankles turned upwards to be folded over the left forearm, the wide end has the appearance in paintings of a round-topped shield tapering to a point, at an oblique angle. In the 13th century this shield shape is no longer seen, empresses also wore a wide jewelled superhumeral collar in matching styles to the loros, and perhaps attached to it. This was the garment of empresses and also worn on other occasions, and copied by other upper-class women. Byzantine Court Culture from 829 to 1204, parani, Maria G. Reconstructing the Reality of Images, Byzantine Material Culture and Religious Iconography (11th–15th Centuries
Loros
–
Emperor and Empress
Nicephorus III and
Maria of Alania (1074-81) with the old male and new female styles
Loros
–
John II Komnenos, d. 1143 (Dumbarton Oaks, Byzantine Collection, Washington, DC). Although the relief is anachronistic and the emperor wears simultaneously both the loros and the chlamys (the coat on top), something which was never the practice, the wrapping of the loros beneath is carved accurately.
Loros
Loros
28.
Late Antique
–
Late antiquity is a periodization used by historians to describe the time of transition from classical antiquity to the Middle Ages in mainland Europe, the Mediterranean world, and the Near East. The development of the periodization has generally been accredited to historian Peter Brown, precise boundaries for the period are a continuing matter of debate, but Brown proposes a period between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Generally, it can be thought of as from the end of the Roman Empires Crisis of the Third Century to, in the East, the early Islamic period, following the Muslim conquests in the mid–7th century. In the West the end was earlier, with the start of the Early Medieval period typically placed in the 6th century, beginning with Constantine the Great, Christianity was made legal in the Empire, and a new capital was founded at Constantinople. The resultant cultural fusion of Greco-Roman, Germanic and Christian traditions formed the foundations of the subsequent culture of Europe, the term Spätantike, literally late antiquity, has been used by German-speaking historians since its popularization by Alois Riegl in the early 20th century. Concurrently, some migrating Germanic tribes such as the Ostrogoths and Visigoths saw themselves as perpetuating the Roman tradition, Constantine confirmed the legalization of the religion through the so-called Edict of Milan in 313, jointly issued with his rival in the East, Licinius. Monasticism was not the only new Christian movement to appear in Late Antiquity, notable in this regard is the topic of the Fifty Bibles of Constantine. Within the recently legitimized Christian community of the 4th century, a division could be distinctly seen between the laity and an increasingly celibate male leadership. Celibate and detached, the clergy became an elite equal in prestige to urban notables. The Late Antique period also saw a transformation of the political and social basis of life in. The later Roman Empire was in a sense a network of cities, archaeology now supplements literary sources to document the transformation followed by collapse of cities in the Mediterranean basin. Burials within the urban precincts mark another stage in dissolution of traditional urbanistic discipline, overpowered by the attraction of saintly shrines, in Roman Britain, the typical 4th- and 5th-century layer of black earth within cities seems to be a result of increased gardening in formerly urban spaces. A similar though less marked decline in population occurred later in Constantinople. In Europe there was also a decline in urban populations. As a whole, the period of antiquity was accompanied by an overall population decline in almost all Europe. Long-distance markets disappeared, and there was a reversion to a degree of local production and consumption, rather than webs of commerce. The degree and extent of discontinuity in the cities of the Greek East is a moot subject among historians. In the western Mediterranean, the new cities known to be founded in Europe between the 5th and 8th centuries were the four or five Visigothic victory cities
Late Antique
–
The
Barberini ivory, a late
Leonid /
Justinian Byzantine ivory leaf from an imperial
diptych, from an imperial workshop in
Constantinople in the first half of the sixth century (
Louvre Museum)
Late Antique
–
Modern statue of
Constantine I at
York, where he was proclaimed
Augustus in 306.
Late Antique
–
The Favourites of the Emperor Honorius, 1883:
John William Waterhouse expresses the sense of moral decadence that coloured the 19th-century historical view of the 5th century.
Late Antique
–
View west along the Harbour Street towards the Library of Celsus in
Ephesus. The pillars on the left side of the street were part of the
colonnaded walkway apparent in cities of Late Antique
Asia Minor.
_-_Song_of_the_Angels_(1881).jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
