1.
Friction
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Friction is the force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, and material elements sliding against each other. There are several types of friction, Dry friction resists relative lateral motion of two surfaces in contact. Dry friction is subdivided into static friction between non-moving surfaces, and kinetic friction between moving surfaces, fluid friction describes the friction between layers of a viscous fluid that are moving relative to each other. Lubricated friction is a case of fluid friction where a lubricant fluid separates two solid surfaces, skin friction is a component of drag, the force resisting the motion of a fluid across the surface of a body. Internal friction is the force resisting motion between the making up a solid material while it undergoes deformation. When surfaces in contact move relative to other, the friction between the two surfaces converts kinetic energy into thermal energy. This property can have consequences, as illustrated by the use of friction created by rubbing pieces of wood together to start a fire. Kinetic energy is converted to thermal energy whenever motion with friction occurs, another important consequence of many types of friction can be wear, which may lead to performance degradation and/or damage to components. Friction is a component of the science of tribology, Friction is not itself a fundamental force. Dry friction arises from a combination of adhesion, surface roughness, surface deformation. The complexity of interactions makes the calculation of friction from first principles impractical and necessitates the use of empirical methods for analysis. Friction is a non-conservative force - work done against friction is path dependent, in the presence of friction, some energy is always lost in the form of heat. Thus mechanical energy is not conserved, the Greeks, including Aristotle, Vitruvius, and Pliny the Elder, were interested in the cause and mitigation of friction. They were aware of differences between static and kinetic friction with Themistius stating in 350 A. D. that it is easier to further the motion of a moving body than to move a body at rest. The classic laws of sliding friction were discovered by Leonardo da Vinci in 1493, a pioneer in tribology and these laws were rediscovered by Guillaume Amontons in 1699. Amontons presented the nature of friction in terms of surface irregularities, the understanding of friction was further developed by Charles-Augustin de Coulomb. Coulomb further considered the influence of sliding velocity, temperature and humidity, the distinction between static and dynamic friction is made in Coulombs friction law, although this distinction was already drawn by Johann Andreas von Segner in 1758. Leslie was equally skeptical about the role of adhesion proposed by Desaguliers, in Leslies view, friction should be seen as a time-dependent process of flattening, pressing down asperities, which creates new obstacles in what were cavities before
2.
Granular material
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A granular material is a conglomeration of discrete solid, macroscopic particles characterized by a loss of energy whenever the particles interact. The constituents that compose granular material must be large enough such that they are not subject to thermal motion fluctuations, thus, the lower size limit for grains in granular material is about 1 µm. Some examples of materials are snow, nuts, coal, sand, rice, coffee, corn flakes, fertilizer. Powders are a class of granular material due to their small particle size. Granular materials are important in applications as diverse as pharmaceutical industry, agriculture. Research into granular materials is thus directly applicable and goes back at least to Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, according to material scientist Patrick Richard, Granular materials are ubiquitous in nature and are the second-most manipulated material in industry. In some sense, granular materials do not constitute a phase of matter but have characteristics reminiscent of solids, liquids. However, in each of these states granular materials also exhibit properties which are unique, Granular materials also exhibit a wide range of pattern forming behaviors when excited. As such granular materials under excitation can be thought of as an example of a complex system, when the average energy of the individual grains is low and the grains are fairly stationary relative to each other, the granular material acts like a solid. In general, stress in a solid is not distributed uniformly but is conducted away along so-called force chains which are networks of grains resting on one another. Between these chains are regions of low stress whose grains are shielded for the effects of the grains above by vaulting and arching, if the granular material is driven harder such that contacts between the grains become highly infrequent, the material enters a gaseous state. Correspondingly, one can define a granular temperature equal to the mean square of grain velocity fluctuations that is analogous to thermodynamic temperature. Unlike conventional gases, granular materials will tend to cluster and clump due to the nature of the collisions between grains and this clustering has some interesting consequences. This effect, known as the granular Maxwells demon, does not violate any thermodynamics principles since energy is constantly being lost from the system in the process. Granular systems are known to exhibit jamming and undergo a transition which is thought of as a thermodynamic phase transition to a jammed state. The Lubachevsky-Stillinger algorithm of jamming allows one to produce simulated jammed granular configurations, excited granular matter is a rich pattern-forming system. Some of the pattern-forming behaviours seen in granular materials are, The un-mixing or segregation of unlike grains under vibration, Some larger materials get stuck while going down the circle and therefore stay on the top. The formation of surface patterns in vibrated granular layers and these patterns include but are not limited to stripes, squares and hexagons
3.
Strike and dip
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Strike and dip refer to the orientation or attitude of a geologic feature. The strike line of a bed, fault, or other feature, is a line representing the intersection of that feature with a horizontal plane. On a geologic map, this is represented with a straight line segment oriented parallel to the strike line. One technique is to take the strike so the dip is 90° to the right of the strike. The map symbol is a line attached and at right angles to the strike symbol pointing in the direction which the planar surface is dipping down. The angle of dip is generally included on a map without the degree sign. Beds that are dipping vertically are shown with the dip symbol on both sides of the strike, and beds that are flat are shown like the vertical beds, both vertical and flat beds do not have a number written with them. Another way of representing strike and dip is by dip and dip direction, the dip direction is the azimuth of the direction the dip as projected to the horizontal, which is 90° off the strike angle. For example, a bed dipping 30° to the South, would have an East-West strike, but would be written as 30/180 using the dip and dip direction method. Strike and dip are determined in the field with a compass, compass-clinometers which measure dip and dip direction in a single operation are often called stratum or Klar compasses after a German professor. Smartphone apps are also now available, that use of the internal accelerometer to provide orientation measurements. Combined with the GPS functionality of devices, this allows readings to be recorded. Any planar feature can be described by strike and dip and this includes sedimentary bedding, faults and fractures, cuestas, igneous dikes and sills, metamorphic foliation and any other planar feature in the Earth. Linear features are measured very similar methods, where plunge is the dip angle. Apparent dip is the name of any dip measured in a plane that is not perpendicular to the strike line. True dip can be calculated from apparent dip using trigonometry if you know the strike, Geologic cross sections use apparent dip when they are drawn at some angle not perpendicular to strike. New York, J. Wiley and Sons, tarbuck, Edward J. Lutgens, Frederick K. 0-13-092025-8 Earth, An Introduction to Physical Geology. Upper Saddle River, N. J. Pearson Prentice Hall, digital Cartographic Standard for Geologic Map Symbolization
4.
Cone
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A cone is a three-dimensional geometric shape that tapers smoothly from a flat base to a point called the apex or vertex. A cone is formed by a set of segments, half-lines, or lines connecting a common point. If the enclosed points are included in the base, the cone is a solid object, otherwise it is a two-dimensional object in three-dimensional space. In the case of an object, the boundary formed by these lines or partial lines is called the lateral surface, if the lateral surface is unbounded. In the case of line segments, the cone does not extend beyond the base, while in the case of half-lines, in the case of lines, the cone extends infinitely far in both directions from the apex, in which case it is sometimes called a double cone. Either half of a cone on one side of the apex is called a nappe. The axis of a cone is the line, passing through the apex. If the base is right circular the intersection of a plane with this surface is a conic section, in general, however, the base may be any shape and the apex may lie anywhere. Contrasted with right cones are oblique cones, in which the axis passes through the centre of the base non-perpendicularly, a cone with a polygonal base is called a pyramid. Depending on the context, cone may also mean specifically a convex cone or a projective cone, cones can also be generalized to higher dimensions. The perimeter of the base of a cone is called the directrix, the base radius of a circular cone is the radius of its base, often this is simply called the radius of the cone. The aperture of a circular cone is the maximum angle between two generatrix lines, if the generatrix makes an angle θ to the axis, the aperture is 2θ. A cone with a region including its apex cut off by a plane is called a cone, if the truncation plane is parallel to the cones base. An elliptical cone is a cone with an elliptical base, a generalized cone is the surface created by the set of lines passing through a vertex and every point on a boundary. The slant height of a circular cone is the distance from any point on the circle to the apex of the cone. It is given by r 2 + h 2, where r is the radius of the cirf the cone and this application is primarily useful in determining the slant height of a cone when given other information regarding the radius or height. The volume V of any conic solid is one third of the product of the area of the base A B and the height h V =13 A B h. In modern mathematics, this formula can easily be computed using calculus – it is, up to scaling, the integral ∫ x 2 d x =13 x 3
5.
Density
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The density, or more precisely, the volumetric mass density, of a substance is its mass per unit volume. The symbol most often used for density is ρ, although the Latin letter D can also be used. Mathematically, density is defined as mass divided by volume, ρ = m V, where ρ is the density, m is the mass, and V is the volume. In some cases, density is defined as its weight per unit volume. For a pure substance the density has the numerical value as its mass concentration. Different materials usually have different densities, and density may be relevant to buoyancy, purity, osmium and iridium are the densest known elements at standard conditions for temperature and pressure but certain chemical compounds may be denser. Thus a relative density less than one means that the floats in water. The density of a material varies with temperature and pressure and this variation is typically small for solids and liquids but much greater for gases. Increasing the pressure on an object decreases the volume of the object, increasing the temperature of a substance decreases its density by increasing its volume. In most materials, heating the bottom of a results in convection of the heat from the bottom to the top. This causes it to rise relative to more dense unheated material, the reciprocal of the density of a substance is occasionally called its specific volume, a term sometimes used in thermodynamics. Density is a property in that increasing the amount of a substance does not increase its density. Archimedes knew that the irregularly shaped wreath could be crushed into a cube whose volume could be calculated easily and compared with the mass, upon this discovery, he leapt from his bath and ran naked through the streets shouting, Eureka. As a result, the term eureka entered common parlance and is used today to indicate a moment of enlightenment, the story first appeared in written form in Vitruvius books of architecture, two centuries after it supposedly took place. Some scholars have doubted the accuracy of this tale, saying among other things that the method would have required precise measurements that would have been difficult to make at the time, from the equation for density, mass density has units of mass divided by volume. As there are units of mass and volume covering many different magnitudes there are a large number of units for mass density in use. The SI unit of kilogram per metre and the cgs unit of gram per cubic centimetre are probably the most commonly used units for density.1,000 kg/m3 equals 1 g/cm3. In industry, other larger or smaller units of mass and or volume are often more practical, see below for a list of some of the most common units of density
6.
Surface area
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The surface area of a solid object is a measure of the total area that the surface of the object occupies. Smooth surfaces, such as a sphere, are assigned surface area using their representation as parametric surfaces and this definition of surface area is based on methods of infinitesimal calculus and involves partial derivatives and double integration. A general definition of area was sought by Henri Lebesgue. Their work led to the development of measure theory, which studies various notions of surface area for irregular objects of any dimension. An important example is the Minkowski content of a surface, while the areas of many simple surfaces have been known since antiquity, a rigorous mathematical definition of area requires a great deal of care. This should provide a function S ↦ A which assigns a real number to a certain class of surfaces that satisfies several natural requirements. The most fundamental property of the area is its additivity. More rigorously, if a surface S is a union of many pieces S1, …, Sr which do not overlap except at their boundaries. Surface areas of polygonal shapes must agree with their geometrically defined area. Since surface area is a notion, areas of congruent surfaces must be the same and the area must depend only on the shape of the surface. This means that surface area is invariant under the group of Euclidean motions and these properties uniquely characterize surface area for a wide class of geometric surfaces called piecewise smooth. Such surfaces consist of many pieces that can be represented in the parametric form S D, r → = r →, ∈ D with a continuously differentiable function r →. The area of a piece is defined by the formula A = ∬ D | r → u × r → v | d u d v. Thus the area of SD is obtained by integrating the length of the vector r → u × r → v to the surface over the appropriate region D in the parametric uv plane. The area of the surface is then obtained by adding together the areas of the pieces. The main formula can be specialized to different classes of surfaces, giving, in particular, formulas for areas of graphs z = f and surfaces of revolution. It was demonstrated by Hermann Schwarz that already for the cylinder, various approaches to a general definition of surface area were developed in the late nineteenth and the early twentieth century by Henri Lebesgue and Hermann Minkowski. While for piecewise smooth surfaces there is a natural notion of surface area, if a surface is very irregular, or rough
7.
Mechanics
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Mechanics is an area of science concerned with the behaviour of physical bodies when subjected to forces or displacements, and the subsequent effects of the bodies on their environment. The scientific discipline has its origins in Ancient Greece with the writings of Aristotle, during the early modern period, scientists such as Khayaam, Galileo, Kepler, and Newton, laid the foundation for what is now known as classical mechanics. It is a branch of physics that deals with particles that are either at rest or are moving with velocities significantly less than the speed of light. It can also be defined as a branch of science which deals with the motion of, historically, classical mechanics came first, while quantum mechanics is a comparatively recent invention. Classical mechanics originated with Isaac Newtons laws of motion in Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, both are commonly held to constitute the most certain knowledge that exists about physical nature. Classical mechanics has especially often been viewed as a model for other so-called exact sciences, essential in this respect is the relentless use of mathematics in theories, as well as the decisive role played by experiment in generating and testing them. Quantum mechanics is of a scope, as it encompasses classical mechanics as a sub-discipline which applies under certain restricted circumstances. According to the principle, there is no contradiction or conflict between the two subjects, each simply pertains to specific situations. The correspondence principle states that the behavior of systems described by quantum theories reproduces classical physics in the limit of quantum numbers. Quantum mechanics has superseded classical mechanics at the level and is indispensable for the explanation and prediction of processes at the molecular, atomic. However, for macroscopic processes classical mechanics is able to solve problems which are difficult in quantum mechanics and hence remains useful. Modern descriptions of such behavior begin with a definition of such quantities as displacement, time, velocity, acceleration, mass. Until about 400 years ago, however, motion was explained from a different point of view. He showed that the speed of falling objects increases steadily during the time of their fall and this acceleration is the same for heavy objects as for light ones, provided air friction is discounted. The English mathematician and physicist Isaac Newton improved this analysis by defining force and mass, for objects traveling at speeds close to the speed of light, Newton’s laws were superseded by Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity. For atomic and subatomic particles, Newton’s laws were superseded by quantum theory, for everyday phenomena, however, Newton’s three laws of motion remain the cornerstone of dynamics, which is the study of what causes motion. In analogy to the distinction between quantum and classical mechanics, Einsteins general and special theories of relativity have expanded the scope of Newton, the differences between relativistic and Newtonian mechanics become significant and even dominant as the velocity of a massive body approaches the speed of light. Relativistic corrections are also needed for quantum mechanics, although general relativity has not been integrated, the two theories remain incompatible, a hurdle which must be overcome in developing a theory of everything
8.
Inclined plane
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An inclined plane, also known as a ramp, is a flat supporting surface tilted at an angle, with one end higher than the other, used as an aid for raising or lowering a load. The inclined plane is one of the six simple machines defined by Renaissance scientists. Moving an object up an inclined plane requires less force than lifting it straight up, the mechanical advantage of an inclined plane, the factor by which the force is reduced, is equal to the ratio of the length of the sloped surface to the height it spans. The angle of friction, also called the angle of repose, is the maximum angle at which a load can rest motionless on an inclined plane due to friction. This angle is equal to the arctangent of the coefficient of static friction μs between the surfaces, two other simple machines are often considered to be derived from the inclined plane. The wedge can be considered a moving inclined plane or two inclined planes connected at the base, the screw consists of a narrow inclined plane wrapped around a cylinder. The term may refer to a specific implementation, a straight ramp cut into a steep hillside for transporting goods up. It may include cars on rails or pulled up by a cable system, Inclined planes are widely used in the form of loading ramps to load and unload goods on trucks, ships, and planes. Wheelchair ramps are used to people in wheelchairs to get over vertical obstacles without exceeding their strength. Escalators and slanted conveyor belts are also forms of inclined plane, in a funicular or cable railway a railroad car is pulled up a steep inclined plane using cables. Inclined planes also allow heavy objects, including humans, to be safely lowered down a vertical distance by using the normal force of the plane to reduce the gravitational force. Aircraft evacuation slides allow people to rapidly and safely reach the ground from the height of a passenger airliner, other inclined planes are built into permanent structures. Similarly, pedestrian paths and sidewalks have gentle ramps to limit their slope, Inclined planes are also used as entertainment for people to slide down in a controlled way, in playground slides, water slides, ski slopes and skateboard parks. Inclined planes have been used by people since prehistoric times to move heavy objects, the Egyptian pyramids were constructed using inclined planes, Siege ramps enabled ancient armies to surmount fortress walls. The ancient Greeks constructed a paved ramp 6 km long, the Diolkos, however the inclined plane was the last of the six classic simple machines to be recognised as a machine. This is probably because it is a passive, motionless device, although they understood its use in lifting heavy objects, the ancient Greek philosophers who defined the other five simple machines did not include the inclined plane as a machine. This view persisted among a few scientists, as late as 1826 Karl von Langsdorf wrote that an inclined plane. is no more a machine than is the slope of a mountain. The problem of calculating the required to push a weight up an inclined plane was attempted by Greek philosophers Heron of Alexandria and Pappus of Alexandria
9.
Inverse trigonometric functions
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In mathematics, the inverse trigonometric functions are the inverse functions of the trigonometric functions. Specifically, they are the inverses of the sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant, and cosecant functions, inverse trigonometric functions are widely used in engineering, navigation, physics, and geometry. There are several notations used for the trigonometric functions. The most common convention is to name inverse trigonometric functions using a prefix, e. g. arcsin, arccos, arctan. This convention is used throughout the article, when measuring in radians, an angle of θ radians will correspond to an arc whose length is rθ, where r is the radius of the circle. Similarly, in programming languages the inverse trigonometric functions are usually called asin, acos. The notations sin−1, cos−1, tan−1, etc, the confusion is somewhat ameliorated by the fact that each of the reciprocal trigonometric functions has its own name—for example, −1 = sec. Nevertheless, certain authors advise against using it for its ambiguity, since none of the six trigonometric functions are one-to-one, they are restricted in order to have inverse functions. There are multiple numbers y such that sin = x, for example, sin =0, when only one value is desired, the function may be restricted to its principal branch. With this restriction, for x in the domain the expression arcsin will evaluate only to a single value. These properties apply to all the trigonometric functions. The principal inverses are listed in the following table, if x is allowed to be a complex number, then the range of y applies only to its real part. Trigonometric functions of trigonometric functions are tabulated below. This is derived from the tangent addition formula tan = tan + tan 1 − tan tan , like the sine and cosine functions, the inverse trigonometric functions can be calculated using power series, as follows. For arcsine, the series can be derived by expanding its derivative,11 − z 2, as a binomial series, the series for arctangent can similarly be derived by expanding its derivative 11 + z 2 in a geometric series and applying the integral definition above. Arcsin = z + z 33 + z 55 + z 77 + ⋯ = ∑ n =0 ∞, for example, arccos x = π /2 − arcsin x, arccsc x = arcsin , and so on. Alternatively, this can be expressed, arctan z = ∑ n =0 ∞22 n 2. There are two cuts, from −i to the point at infinity, going down the imaginary axis and it works best for real numbers running from −1 to 1
10.
Isfjorden (Svalbard)
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Isfjorden is the second longest fjord in the Norwegian archipelago of Svalbard. It lies on the west side of Spitsbergen, an island in the Arctic Ocean about midway between Norway and the North Pole, and the largest in the archipelago. The mountain of Alkhornet stands on the side of the entrance to the fjord. A portion of Isfjorden is included in the parks of Norway as Nordre Isfjorden Land National Park. Around the fjord lie many of the largest settlements in Svalbard, Barentsburg, a Basque whaling ship from San Sebastian, under the command of Juan de Erauso and piloted by the Englishman Nicholas Woodcock, was the first to establish a temporary whaling station here in 1612. In 1613 French, Basque, and Dutch whaling ships resorted to Safehaven on the side of Isford or in Green Harbour on the south side of the fjord. All were either driven off by armed English ships or were forced to pay a fine of some sort, in 1614 the Dutch agreed to give Isfjorden to the English. The English continued to use Isfjorden as a base until at least the late 1650s. The Svenskehuset Tragedy occurred in 1872–73 at Cape Thordsen in Isfjorden, seventeen men died in Svenskehuset, now the oldest house on Spitsbergen. Today it is preserved as a heritage site. No Mans Land, A History of Spitsbergen from Its Discovery in 1596 to the Beginning of the Scientific Exploration of the Country, foraminifera from Isfjorden - illustrated catalogue
11.
Svalbard
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Svalbard is a Norwegian archipelago in the Arctic Ocean. Situated north of mainland Europe, it is midway between continental Norway and the North Pole. The islands of the range from 74° to 81° north latitude. The largest island is Spitsbergen, followed by Nordaustlandet and Edgeøya, administratively, the archipelago is not part of any Norwegian county, but forms an unincorporated area administered by a governor appointed by the Norwegian government. Since 2002, Svalbards main settlement, Longyearbyen, has had a local government. Other settlements include the Russian mining community of Barentsburg, the station of Ny-Ålesund. Svalbard is the northernmost settlement in the world with a permanent civilian population, other settlements are farther north, but are populated only by rotating groups of researchers. The islands were first taken into use as a base in the 17th and 18th centuries. Coal mining started at the beginning of the 20th century, the Svalbard Treaty of 1920 recognizes Norwegian sovereignty, and the 1925 Svalbard Act made Svalbard a full part of the Kingdom of Norway. They also established Svalbard as an economic zone and a demilitarized zone. The Norwegian Store Norske and the Russian Arktikugol remain the mining companies in place. Research and tourism have become important supplementary industries, with the University Centre in Svalbard, no roads connect the settlements, instead snowmobiles, aircraft and boats serve inter-community transport. Svalbard Airport, Longyear serves as the main gateway, the archipelago features an Arctic climate, although with significantly higher temperatures than other areas at the same latitude. The flora take advantage of the period of midnight sun to compensate for the polar night. Svalbard is a ground for many seabirds, and also features polar bears, reindeer, the Arctic fox. Seven national parks and twenty-three nature reserves cover two-thirds of the archipelago, protecting the largely untouched, yet fragile, approximately 60% of the archipelago is covered with glaciers, and the islands feature many mountains and fjords. Svalbard and Jan Mayen are collectively assigned the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code SJ, both areas are administered by Norway, though they are separated by a distance of over 500 nautical miles and have very different administrative structures. The Svalbard Treaty of 1920 defines Svalbard as all islands, islets and skerries from 74° to 81° north latitude, the land area is 61,022 km2, and dominated by the island of Spitsbergen, which constitutes more than half the archipelago, followed by Nordaustlandet and Edgeøya
12.
Norway
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The Antarctic Peter I Island and the sub-Antarctic Bouvet Island are dependent territories and thus not considered part of the Kingdom. Norway also lays claim to a section of Antarctica known as Queen Maud Land, until 1814, the kingdom included the Faroe Islands, Greenland, and Iceland. It also included Isle of Man until 1266, Shetland and Orkney until 1468, Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometres and a population of 5,258,317. The country shares a long border with Sweden. Norway is bordered by Finland and Russia to the north-east, Norway has an extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea. King Harald V of the Dano-German House of Glücksburg is the current King of Norway, erna Solberg became Prime Minister in 2013, replacing Jens Stoltenberg. A constitutional monarchy, Norway divides state power between the Parliament, the Cabinet and the Supreme Court, as determined by the 1814 Constitution, the kingdom is established as a merger of several petty kingdoms. By the traditional count from the year 872, the kingdom has existed continuously for 1,144 years, Norway has both administrative and political subdivisions on two levels, counties and municipalities. The Sámi people have an amount of self-determination and influence over traditional territories through the Sámi Parliament. Norway maintains close ties with the European Union and the United States, the country maintains a combination of market economy and a Nordic welfare model with universal health care and a comprehensive social security system. Norway has extensive reserves of petroleum, natural gas, minerals, lumber, seafood, the petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the countrys gross domestic product. On a per-capita basis, Norway is the worlds largest producer of oil, the country has the fourth-highest per capita income in the world on the World Bank and IMF lists. On the CIAs GDP per capita list which includes territories and some regions, from 2001 to 2006, and then again from 2009 to 2017, Norway had the highest Human Development Index ranking in the world. It also has the highest inequality-adjusted ranking, Norway ranks first on the World Happiness Report, the OECD Better Life Index, the Index of Public Integrity and the Democracy Index. Norway has two names, Noreg in Nynorsk and Norge in Bokmål. The name Norway comes from the Old English word Norðrveg mentioned in 880, meaning way or way leading to the north. In contrasting with suðrvegar southern way for Germany, and austrvegr eastern way for the Baltic, the Anglo-Saxon of Britain also referred to the kingdom of Norway in 880 as Norðmanna land. This was the area of Harald Fairhair, the first king of Norway, and because of him
13.
Sediment
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For sediment in beverages, see dregs. For example, sand and silt can be carried in suspension in water and on reaching the sea be deposited by sedimentation. Sediments are most often transported by water, but also wind, beach sands and river channel deposits are examples of fluvial transport and deposition, though sediment also often settles out of slow-moving or standing water in lakes and oceans. Desert sand dunes and loess are examples of transport and deposition. Glacial moraine deposits and till are ice-transported sediments, sediment can be classified based on its grain size and/or its composition. Sediment size is measured on a log base 2 scale, called the Phi scale, composition of sediment can be measured in terms of, parent rock lithology mineral composition chemical make-up. This leads to an ambiguity in which clay can be used as both a size-range and a composition, sediment is transported based on the strength of the flow that carries it and its own size, volume, density, and shape. Stronger flows will increase the lift and drag on the particle, causing it to rise, rivers and streams carry sediment in their flows. This sediment can be in a variety of locations within the flow and these relationships are shown in the following table for the Rouse number, which is a ratio of sediment fall velocity to upwards velocity. If the upwards velocity is less than the settling velocity, but still high enough for the sediment to move, it will move along the bed as bed load by rolling, sliding. If the upwards velocity is higher than the velocity, the sediment will be transported high in the flow as wash load. As there are generally a range of different particle sizes in the flow, sediment motion can create self-organized structures such as ripples, dunes, antidunes on the river or stream bed. These bedforms are often preserved in rocks and can be used to estimate the direction. Overland flow can erode soil particles and transport them downslope, the erosion associated with overland flow may occur through different methods depending on meteorological and flow conditions. If the initial impact of rain droplets dislodges soil, the phenomenon is called rainsplash erosion, if overland flow is directly responsible for sediment entrainment but does not form gullies, it is called sheet erosion. If the flow and the substrate permit channelization, gullies may form, glaciers carry a wide range of sediment sizes, and deposit it in moraines. The overall balance between sediment in transport and sediment being deposited on the bed is given by the Exner equation and this expression states that the rate of increase in bed elevation due to deposition is proportional to the amount of sediment that falls out of the flow. This can be localized, and simply due to obstacles, examples are scour holes behind boulders, where flow accelerates
14.
Chute (gravity)
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A chute is a vertical or inclined plane, channel, or passage through which objects are moved by means of gravity. A chute, also known as a race, flume, cat, akin to these, man-made chutes, such as the timber slide and log flume, were used in the logging industry to facilitate the downstream transportation of timber along rivers. These are no longer in common use, man-made chutes may also be a feature of spillways on some dams. Some types of supply and irrigation systems are gravity fed. These include aqueducts, puquios, and acequias, chutes are in common use in tall buildings to allow the rapid transport of items from the upper floors to a central location on one of the lower floors or basement. Chutes may be round, square or rectangular at the top and/or the bottom, laundry chutes in hotels are placed on each floor to allow the expedient transfer and collection of dirty laundry to the hotels laundry facility without having to use elevators or stairs. In stories, laundry chutes are used as means for the protagonist to quickly escape. These chutes are generally aluminized steel and welded together to avoid any extruding parts that may rip or damage the materials. Home laundry chutes may be less common than previously due to building codes or concern regarding fireblocking, however, construction including cabinets, doors, lids, and locks may make both risks significantly less than with simple stairwells. Garbage chutes are common in high-rise apartment buildings and are used to all the buildings garbage in the one place. Often the bottom end of the chute is placed directly above a waste receptacle. This makes garbage collection more efficient, mail chutes are used in some buildings to collect the occupants mail. A notable example is the Asia Insurance Building, escape chutes are used and proposed for use in evacuation of mining equipment and high-rise buildings. Construction chutes are used to remove rubble and similar demolition materials safely from taller buildings and these temporary structures typically consist of a chain of cylindrical or conical plastic tubes, each fitted into the top of the one below and tied together, usually with chains. Together they form a flexible tube, which is hung down the side of the building. The lower end of tube is placed over a skip or other receptacle. Heavy duty steel chutes may also be used when the debris being deposited is heavy duty, an elevator is not a chute since it does not operate by means of gravity. Goust, a hamlet in southwestern France, is notable for its mountainside chute that is used to transport coffins, chutes are also found in, Hopper cars Hopper barges
15.
Silo
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A silo is a structure for storing bulk materials. Silos are used in agriculture to store grain or fermented feed known as silage, Silos are more commonly used for bulk storage of grain, coal, cement, carbon black, woodchips, food products and sawdust. Three types of silos are in use today, tower silos, bunker silos. There are different types of cement silos such as the low-level mobile silo and the static upright cement silo, the low-level silos are fully mobile with capacities from 10 to 75 tons. They are simple to transport and are easy to set up on site and these mobile silos generally come equipped with an electronic weighing system with digital display and printer. This allows any quantity of cement or powder discharged from the silo to be controlled, the static upright silos have capacities from 20 to 80 tons. These are considered an option for the storage of cement or other powders. Cement silos can be used in conjunction with bin-fed batching plants, Cement can be stored in different types of Silos like Horizontal Mobile Silos, Concrete Silos, Steel Panel Silos etc. depending upon the requirement of the end user. While Mobile Silos come in a small storage capacity of approximately 90MT of Cement. A majority of Silos that store more than 5000 MT of Cement are constructed from Concrete, a good compromise between cost, construction time and ease of operation is Steel Panel Silos. Storage silos are cylindrical structures, typically 10 to 90 ft in diameter and 30 to 275 ft in height with the slipform and Jumpform concrete silos being the diameter and taller silos. They can be made of many materials, wood staves, concrete staves, cast concrete, and steel panels have all been used, and have varying cost, durability, and airtightness tradeoffs. Silos storing grain, cement and woodchips are typically unloaded with air slides or augers, Silos can be unloaded into rail cars, trucks or conveyors. Bottom silo unloaders are utilized at times but have problems with difficulty of repair, an advantage of tower silos is that the silage tends to pack well due to its own weight, except in the top few feet. However, this may be a disadvantage for items like chopped wood, the tower silo was invented by Franklin Hiram King. In bumper crop times, the grain is stored in piles without silos or bins. Concrete stave silos are constructed from small precast concrete blocks with ridged grooves along each edge that lock them together into a high strength shell. Concrete is much stronger in compression than tension, so the silo is reinforced with steel hoops encircling the tower and compressing the staves into a tight ring
16.
Conveyor belt
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A conveyor belt is the carrying medium of a belt conveyor system. A belt conveyor system is one of many types of conveyor systems, a belt conveyor system consists of two or more pulleys, with an endless loop of carrying medium—the conveyor belt—that rotates about them. One or both of the pulleys are powered, moving the belt and the material on the belt forward, the powered pulley is called the drive pulley while the unpowered pulley is called the idler pulley. Today there are different types of belts that have been created for conveying different kinds of material available in PVC. The belt consists of one or more layers of material, many belts in general material handling have two layers. An under layer of material to provide strength and shape called a carcass. The carcass is often a woven fabric having a warp & weft, the most common carcass materials are polyester, nylon and cotton. The cover is often various rubber or plastic compounds specified by use of the belt, covers can be made from more exotic materials for unusual applications such as silicone for heat or gum rubber when traction is essential. A conveyor belt can be a slide and be controlled by the force of gravity, material flowing over the belt may be weighed in transit using a beltweigher. Belts with regularly spaced partitions, known as elevator belts, are used for transporting loose materials up steep inclines, Belt Conveyors are used in self-unloading bulk freighters and in live bottom trucks. Belt conveyor technology is used in conveyor transport such as moving sidewalks or escalators. Stores often have conveyor belts at the counter to move shopping items. Ski areas also use conveyor belts to transport skiers up the hill, some of the major global conveyor belt manufacturers and service providers are Fenner plc, Kale Conveyor, Terra Nova Technologies, ThyssenKrupp, HESE Maschinenfabrik GmbH and Tenova Takraf. Conveyors are durable and reliable components used in automated distribution and warehousing, in combination with computer controlled pallet handling equipment this allows for more efficient retail, wholesale, and manufacturing distribution. Rubber conveyor belts are used to convey items with irregular bottom surfaces. Belt conveyors are generally similar in construction consisting of a metal frame with rollers at either end of a flat metal bed. The belt is looped around each of the rollers and when one of the rollers is powered the belting slides across the metal frame bed. In heavy use applications the beds which the belting is pulled over are replaced with rollers, the rollers allow weight to be conveyed as they reduce the amount of friction generated from the heavier loading on the belting
17.
Scree
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Scree is a collection of broken rock fragments at the base of crags, mountain cliffs, volcanoes or valley shoulders that has accumulated through periodic rockfall from adjacent cliff faces. Landforms associated with these materials are called talus deposits. Talus deposits typically have a concave form, while the maximum inclination corresponds to the angle of repose of the mean debris size. The term scree comes from the Old Norse term for landslide, skriða, formation of scree or talus deposits the results of physical and chemical weathering and erosion acting on a rock face. During the day, water can flow into joints and discontinuities in the rock wall, if the temperature drops enough, for example in the evening, this water may freeze. Since water expands by 9% when it freezes, it can generate forces that either create new cracks or wedge blocks into an unstable position. Special boundary conditions may be required for this to happen, the efficiency of freeze/thaw processes in scree production is debated by scientists. Many researchers believe that ice formation in large open crack systems cannot generate high pressures, many argue that frost heaving, like that known to act in soil in permafrost areas, may play an important role in cliff degradation in cold places. For example, Lech dl Dragon, in the Sella Group of the Dolomites, derives from the waters of a glacier. The melting process of the glacier is slowed by the protective layer of scree. Eventually a rock slope may be covered by its own scree. The slope is then said to be mantled with debris, fellfield Lava stringer Mass wasting Weathering
18.
Slope stability
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Slope stability is the potential of soil covered slopes to withstand and undergo movement. Stability is determined by the balance of stress and shear strength. A previously stable slope may be affected by preparatory factors. Triggering factors of a failure can be climatic events which can then make a slope actively unstable. Mass movements can be caused by increase in stress, such as loading, lateral pressure. Alternatively, shear strength may be decreased by weathering, changes in water pressure. Slope stability investigation, analysis, and design mitigation is typically completed by geologists, engineering geologists, as seen in Figure 1, earthen slopes can develop a cut-spherical weakness area. The probability of this happening can be calculated in advance using a simple 2-D circular analysis package, a primary difficulty with analysis is locating the most-probable slip plane for any given situation. Many landslides have only been analyzed after the fact, more recently slope stability radar technology has been employed, particularly in the mining industry, to gather real time data and assist in pro-actively determining the likelihood of slope failure. Real life failures in naturally deposited mixed soils are not necessarily circular, nevertheless, failures in pure clay can be quite close to circular. This is combined with increased soil weight due to the added groundwater, a shrinkage crack at the top of the slip may also fill with rain water, pushing the slip forward. At the other extreme, slab-shaped slips on hillsides can remove a layer of soil from the top of the underlying bedrock, again, this is usually initiated by heavy rain, sometimes combined with increased loading from new buildings or removal of support at the toe. Stability can thus be improved by installing drainage paths to reduce the destabilising forces. Once the slip has occurred, however, a weakness along the slip circle remains, Slope stability issues can be seen with almost any walk down a ravine in an urban setting. An example is shown in Figure 3, where a river is eroding the toe of a slope, and there is a swimming pool near the top of the slope. If the toe is eroded too far, or the swimming pool begins to leak, the forces driving a slope failure will exceed those resisting failure, if the forces available to resist movement are greater than the forces driving movement, the slope is considered stable. A factor of safety is calculated by dividing the forces resisting movement by the forces driving movement, discontinuity layout optimization Mass wasting Mohr-Coulomb theory Slope stability analysis Slope stability radar Coduto, Donald P. Geotechnical Engineering, Principles and Practices. ISBN 0-13-576380-0 Fredlund, D. G. H. Rahardjo, unsaturated Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice
19.
Mountaineering
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The term mountaineering describes the sport of mountain climbing, including ski mountaineering. Hiking in the mountains can also be a form of mountaineering when it involves scrambling, or short stretches of the more basic grades of rock climbing. All require experience, athletic ability, and technical knowledge to maintain safety, mountaineering is often called Alpinism, especially in European languages, which implies climbing with difficulty such high and often snow and ice-covered mountains as the Alps. A mountaineer with such great skill is called an Alpinist, historically, many cultures have harbored superstitions about mountains, which they often regarded as sacred due to their proximity with heaven, such as Mount Olympus for the Ancient Greeks. In 1492 Antoine de Ville, lord of Domjulien and Beaupré, was the first to ascend the Mont Aiguille, in France, with a team, using ladders. It appears to be the first recorded climb of any technical difficulty, in 1573 Francesco De Marchi and Francesco Di Domenico ascended Corno Grande, the highest peak in the Apennine Mountains. During the Enlightenment, as a product of the new spirit of curiosity for the natural world, in 1741 Richard Pococke and William Windham made a historic visit to Chamonix. By the early 19th century many of the peaks were reached, including the Grossglockner in 1800, the Ortler in 1804, the Jungfrau in 1811, the Finsteraarhorn in 1812. In 1808 Marie Paradis became the first female to climb Mont Blanc and this inaugurated what became known as the Golden age of alpinism, with the first mountaineering club - the Alpine Club - being founded in 1857. Well-known guides of the era include Christian Almer, Jakob Anderegg, Melchior Anderegg, J. J. Bennen, Michel Croz, in the early years of the golden age, scientific pursuits were intermixed with the sport, such as by the physicist John Tyndall. In the later years, it shifted to a more competitive orientation as pure sportsmen came to dominate the London-based Alpine Club and this ascent is generally regarded as marking the end of the mountaineering golden age. By this point the sport of mountaineering had largely reached its modern form, with a body of professional guides, equipment, mountaineering in the Americas became popular in the 1800s. In North America, Pikes Peak in the Colorado Rockies was first climbed by Edwin James, though lower than Pikes Peak, the heavily glaciated Fremont Peak in Wyoming was thought to be the tallest mountain in the Rockies when it was first climbed by John C. Frémont and two others in 1842, pico de Orizaba, the tallest peak in Mexico and third tallest in North America, was first climbed by U. S. military personnel which included William F. Raynolds and a half dozen other climbers in 1848. Heavily glaciated and more technical climbs in North American were not achieved until the late 19th, in 1897 Mount Saint Elias on the Alaska-Yukon border was summitted by the Duke of the Abruzzi and party. But it was not until 1913 that Mount Mckinley, the tallest peak in North America was successfully climbed by Hudson Stuck, Mount Logan, the tallest peak in Canada was first summitted by a half dozen climbers in 1925 in an expedition that took more than two months. In 1879-1880 the exploration of the highest Andes in South America began when English mountaineer Edward Whymper climbed Chimborazo, the summit of Aconcagua was finally reached on January 14,1897 by Swiss mountaineer Matthias Zurbriggen during an expedition led by Edward FitzGerald that began in December 1896. The Andes of Bolivia were first explored by Sir William Martin Conway in 1898 and it took until the late 19th century for European explorers to penetrate Africa
20.
Avalanche
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An avalanche is a rapid flow of snow down a sloping surface. Avalanches are typically triggered in a zone from a mechanical failure in the snowpack when the forces on the snow exceed its strength. After initiation, avalanches usually accelerate rapidly and grow in mass, if the avalanche moves fast enough some of the snow may mix with the air forming a powder snow avalanche, which is a type of gravity current. Slides of rocks or debris, behaving in a way to snow, are also referred to as avalanches. The remainder of this article refers to snow avalanches, the load on the snowpack may be only due to gravity, in which case failure may result either from weakening in the snowpack or increased load due to precipitation. Avalanches that occur in this way are known as spontaneous avalanches, Avalanches can also be triggered by other loads such as skiers, snowmobilers, animals or explosives. Seismic activity may trigger the failure in the snowpack and avalanches. A popular myth is that avalanches can be triggered by loud noise or shouting, Avalanches are not rare or random events and are endemic to any mountain range that accumulates a standing snowpack. Avalanches are most common during winter or spring but glacier movements may cause ice, there is no universally accepted classification of avalanches—different classifications are useful for different purposes. Avalanches can be described by their size, their potential, their initiation mechanism, their composition. Most avalanches occur spontaneously during storms under increased load due to snowfall, the second largest cause of natural avalanches is metamorphic changes in the snowpack such as melting due to solar radiation. Other natural causes include rain, earthquakes, rockfall and icefall, artificial triggers of avalanches include skiers, snowmobiles, and controlled explosive work. Avalanche initiation can start at a point with only an amount of snow moving initially. A snowpack will fail when the load exceeds the strength, the load is straightforward, it is the weight of the snow. However, the strength of the snowpack is much more difficult to determine and is extremely heterogenous and it varies in detail with properties of the snow grains, size, density, morphology, temperature, water content, and the properties of the bonds between the grains. These properties may all metamorphose in time according to the humidity, water vapour flux, temperature. The top of the snowpack is also influenced by incoming radiation. One of the aims of research is to develop and validate computer models that can describe the evolution of the seasonal snowpack over time
21.
Wood ash
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Wood ash is the residue powder left after the combustion of wood, such as burning wood in a home fireplace or an industrial power plant. It is used traditionally by gardeners as a source of potash. Many studies have been conducted regarding the composition of wood ash. Some quote calcium carbonate as the constituent, others find no carbonate at all. Some show as much as twelve percent iron oxide while others show none, a comprehensive set of analyses of wood ash composition from many tree species has been carried out by Emil Wolff, among others. Several factors have a impact on the composition, Fly ash, Some studies include the solids escaping via the flue during combustion. Temperature of combustion produces two direct effects, Dissociation, Conversion of carbonates, sulfides, etc. to oxides results in no carbon, sulfur, carbonates, Some metallic oxides even dissociate to their elemental state and/or vaporize completely at wood fire temperatures. Volatilization, In studies in which the fly ash is not measured, experimental process, If the ashes are exposed to the environment between combustion and the analysis, oxides may convert back to carbonates by reacting with carbon dioxide in the air. Type, age, and growing environment of the wood stock affect the composition of the wood, typically between 0.43 and 1.82 percent of the mass of burned wood results in ash. Also the conditions of the affect the composition and amount of the residue ash. Much wood ash contains calcium carbonate as its major component, representing 25 or even 45 percent, less than 10 percent is potash, and less than 1 percent phosphate, there are trace elements of iron, manganese, zinc, copper and some heavy metals. However, these numbers vary, as temperature is an important variable in determining wood ash composition. All of these are, primarily, in the form of oxides, wood ash can be used as an organic fertilizer used to enrich agricultural soil nutrition. In this role, wood ash serves a source of potassium and calcium carbonate, wood ash can also be used as an amendment for organic hydroponic solutions, generally replacing inorganic compounds containing calcium, potassium, magnesium and phosphorus. Because wood ash has a high content, it can be used as an odor control agent. Wood ash has a long history of being used in ceramic glazes, particularly in the Chinese, Japanese and Korean traditions. It acts as a flux, reducing the melting point of the glaze, potassium hydroxide can be made directly from wood ash and in this form, is known as caustic potash or lye. Because of this property, wood ash has also traditionally used to make wood-ash soap
22.
Asphalt
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Asphalt, also known as bitumen is a sticky, black and highly viscous liquid or semi-solid form of petroleum. It may be found in deposits or may be a refined product. Until the 20th century, the term asphaltum was also used, the word is derived from the Ancient Greek ἄσφαλτος ásphaltos. The primary use of asphalt/bitumen is in construction, where it is used as the glue or binder mixed with aggregate particles to create asphalt concrete. Its other main uses are for bituminous waterproofing products, including production of roofing felt, the terms asphalt and bitumen are often used interchangeably to mean both natural and manufactured forms of the substance. In American English, asphalt is the carefully refined residue from the process of selected crude oils. Outside the United States, the product is often called bitumen, geologists often prefer the term bitumen. Common usage often refers to forms of asphalt/bitumen as tar. Naturally occurring asphalt/bitumen is sometimes specified by the crude bitumen. Its viscosity is similar to that of cold molasses while the material obtained from the distillation of crude oil boiling at 525 °C is sometimes referred to as refined bitumen. The Canadian province of Alberta has most of the reserves of natural bitumen, covering 142,000 square kilometres. Additionally, most natural bitumens contain organosulfur compounds, resulting in a sulfur content of up to 4%. Nickel and vanadium are found in the <10 ppm level, as is typical of some petroleum, the substance is soluble in carbon disulfide. It is commonly modelled as a colloid, with asphaltenes as the dispersed phase, and it is almost impossible to separate and identify all the different molecules of asphalt, because the number of molecules with different chemical structure is extremely large. Asphalt/bitumen can sometimes be confused with tar, which is a visually similar black. During the early and mid-20th century when town gas was produced, coal tar was a readily available byproduct, the addition of tar to macadam roads led to the word tarmac, which is now used in common parlance to refer to road-making materials. However, since the 1970s, when natural gas succeeded town gas, other examples of this confusion include the La Brea Tar Pits and the Canadian oil sands, both of which actually contain natural bitumen rather than tar. Pitch is another term used at times to refer to asphalt/bitumen
23.
Bark (botany)
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Bark is the outermost layers of stems and roots of woody plants. Plants with bark include trees, woody vines, and shrubs, Bark refers to all the tissues outside of the vascular cambium and is a nontechnical term. It overlays the wood and consists of the bark and the outer bark. The inner bark, which in older stems is living tissue, the outer bark in older stems includes the dead tissue on the surface of the stems, along with parts of the innermost periderm and all the tissues on the outer side of the periderm. The outer bark on trees which lies external to the last formed periderm is also called the rhytidome, Bark has been used to make cloth, canoes, and ropes and used as a surface for paintings and map making. A number of plants are grown for their attractive or interesting bark colorations. What is commonly called bark includes a number of different tissues, Cork is an external, secondary tissue that is impermeable to water and gases, and is also called the phellem. The cork is produced by the cork cambium which is a layer of active cells which serve as a lateral meristem for the periderm. The cork cambium, which is called the phellogen, is normally only one cell layer thick. The phelloderm, which is not always present in all barks, is a layer of cells formed by, together, the phellem, phellogen and phelloderm constitute the periderm. Cork cell walls contain suberin, a substance which protects the stem against water loss, the invasion of insects into the stem. The cambium tissues, i. e. Phloem is a nutrient-conducting tissue composed of sieve tubes or sieve cells mixed with parenchyma, the cortex is the primary tissue of stems and roots. In stems the cortex is between the layer and the phloem, in roots the inner layer is not phloem. From the outside to the inside of a woody stem. The bark includes through, and is composed of periderm and phloem, as the stem ages and grows, changes occur that transform the surface of the stem into the bark. The epidermis is a layer of cells that cover the plant body, including the stems, leaves, flowers and fruits, in old stems the epidermal layer, cortex, and primary phloem become separated from the inner tissues by thicker formations of cork. Due to the cork layer these cells die because they do not receive water. This dead layer is the rough corky bark that forms around tree trunks, often a secondary covering called the periderm forms on small woody stems and many non woody plants, which is composed of cork, the cork cambium, and the phelloderm
24.
Bran
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Bran, also known as millers bran, is the hard outer layers of cereal grain. It consists of the combined aleurone and pericarp, along with germ, it is an integral part of whole grains, and is often produced as a byproduct of milling in the production of refined grains. When bran is removed from grains, the grains lose a portion of their nutritional value, bran is present in and may be in any cereal grain, including rice, corn, wheat, oats, barley, rye and millet. Bran is not the same as chaff, coarser scaly material surrounding the grain, bran is particularly rich in dietary fiber and essential fatty acids and contains significant quantities of starch, protein, vitamins, and dietary minerals. It is also a source of acid, an antinutrient that prevents nutrient absorption. The high oil content of bran makes it subject to rancidification, bran is often heat-treated to increase its longevity. Rice bran is a byproduct of the milling process. A major rice bran fraction contains 12%-13% oil and highly unsaponifiable components and this fraction contains tocotrienols, gamma-oryzanol and beta-sitosterol, all these constituents may contribute to the lowering of the plasma levels of the various parameters of the lipid profile. Rice bran also contains a level of dietary fibres. In addition, it also contains ferulic acid, which is also a component of the structure of nonlignified cell walls, however, some research suggests there are levels of inorganic arsenic present in rice bran. One study found the levels to be 20% higher than in drinking water, other types of bran contain less arsenic than rice bran, and are just as nutrient-rich. Bran is often used to enrich breads and breakfast cereals, especially for the benefit of those wishing to increase their intake of dietary fiber, bran may also be used for pickling as in the tsukemono of Japan. In Romania and Moldova, the wheat bran is usually used when preparing borș soup. Rice bran in particular finds many uses in Japan, where it is known as nuka, besides using it for pickling, Japanese people also add it to the water when boiling bamboo shoots, and use it for dish washing. In Kitakyushu City, it is called jinda and used for stewing fish, rice bran and rice bran oil are also widely used in Japan as a natural beauty treatment. In Myanmar, rice bran, called phwei-bya, is mixed with ash, rice bran is also stuck to commercial ice blocks to hinder them from melting. It is also burned for fuel for mills in the rice growing regions of the Irrawaddy delta. Bran oil may be extracted for use by itself for industrial purposes, or as a cooking oil
25.
Chalk
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Chalk is a soft, white, porous, sedimentary carbonate rock, a form of limestone composed of the mineral calcite. Calcite is a salt called calcium carbonate or CaCO3. It forms under reasonably deep marine conditions from the accumulation of minute calcite shells shed from micro-organisms called coccolithophores. Flint is very common as bands parallel to the bedding or as embedded in chalk. It is probably derived from sponge spicules or other organisms as water is expelled upwards during compaction. Flint is often deposited around larger fossils such as Echinoidea which may be silicified, Chalk as seen in Cretaceous deposits of Western Europe is unusual among sedimentary limestones in the thickness of the beds. Most cliffs of chalk have very few obvious bedding planes unlike most thick sequences of such as the Carboniferous Limestone or the Jurassic oolitic limestones. This presumably indicates very stable conditions over tens of millions of years, Chalk has greater resistance to weathering and slumping than the clays with which it is usually associated, thus forming tall steep cliffs where chalk ridges meet the sea. Chalk hills, known as chalk downland, usually form where bands of chalk reach the surface at an angle, because chalk is well jointed it can hold a large volume of ground water, providing a natural reservoir that releases water slowly through dry seasons. Chalk is mined from chalk deposits both above ground and underground, Chalk mining boomed during the Industrial Revolution, due to the need for chalk products such as quicklime and bricks. Abandoned chalk mines remain a popular tourist attraction due to their massive expanse, the Chalk Group is a European stratigraphic unit deposited during the late Cretaceous Period. It forms the famous White Cliffs of Dover in Kent, England, the Champagne region of France is mostly underlain by chalk deposits, which contain artificial caves used for wine storage. Some of the highest chalk cliffs in the occur at Jasmund National Park in Germany. Ninety million years ago what is now the chalk downland of Northern Europe was ooze accumulating at the bottom of a great sea. Chalk was one of the earliest rocks made up of particles to be studied under the electron microscope. Their shells were made of calcite extracted from the rich sea-water, as they died, a substantial layer gradually built up over millions of years and, through the weight of overlying sediments, eventually became consolidated into rock. Later earth movements related to the formation of the Alps raised these former sea-floor deposits above sea level, the chemical composition of chalk is calcium carbonate, with minor amounts of silt and clay. It is formed in the sea by plankton, which fall to the sea floor and are then consolidated and compressed during diagenesis into chalk rock
26.
Clay
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Clay is a fine-grained natural rock or soil material that combines one or more clay minerals with traces of metal oxides and organic matter. Geologic clay deposits are composed of phyllosilicate minerals containing variable amounts of water trapped in the mineral structure. Clays are plastic due to water content and become hard, brittle. Depending on the content in which it is found, clay can appear in various colours from white to dull grey or brown to deep orange-red. Although many naturally occurring deposits include both silts and clay, clays are distinguished from other fine-grained soils by differences in size, silts, which are fine-grained soils that do not include clay minerals, tend to have larger particle sizes than clays. There is, however, some overlap in size and other physical properties. The distinction between silt and clay varies by discipline, geologists and soil scientists usually consider the separation to occur at a particle size of 2 µm, sedimentologists often use 4–5 μm, and colloid chemists use 1 μm. Geotechnical engineers distinguish between silts and clays based on the plasticity properties of the soil, as measured by the soils Atterberg limits, ISO14688 grades clay particles as being smaller than 2 μm and silt particles as being larger. These solvents, usually acidic, migrate through the rock after leaching through upper weathered layers. In addition to the process, some clay minerals are formed through hydrothermal activity. There are two types of deposits, primary and secondary. Primary clays form as residual deposits in soil and remain at the site of formation, secondary clays are clays that have been transported from their original location by water erosion and deposited in a new sedimentary deposit. Clay deposits are associated with very low energy depositional environments such as large lakes. Depending on the source, there are three or four main groups of clays, kaolinite, montmorillonite-smectite, illite, and chlorite. Chlorites are not always considered to be a clay, sometimes being classified as a group within the phyllosilicates. There are approximately 30 different types of clays in these categories. Varve is clay with visible annual layers, which are formed by deposition of those layers and are marked by differences in erosion. This type of deposit is common in glacial lakes
27.
Clover
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Clover or trefoil are common names for plants of the genus Trifolium, consisting of about 300 species of plants in the leguminous pea family Fabaceae. They are small annual, biennial, or short-lived perennial herbaceous plants. The leaves are trifoliate, with adnate to the leaf-stalk, and heads or dense spikes of small red, purple, white, or yellow flowers. Other closely related genera often called clovers include Melilotus and Medicago, several species of clover are extensively cultivated as fodder plants. The most widely cultivated clovers are white clover Trifolium repens and red clover Trifolium pratense, in many areas, particularly on acidic soil, clover is short-lived because of a combination of insect pests, diseases and nutrient balance, this is known as clover sickness. When crop rotations are managed so that clover does not recur at intervals shorter than eight years, clover sickness in more recent times may also be linked to pollinator decline, clovers are most efficiently pollinated by bumblebees, which have declined as a result of agricultural intensification. Honeybees can also pollinate clover, and beekeepers are often in demand from farmers with clover pastures. Farmers reap the benefits of increased reseeding that occurs with increased bee activity, beekeepers benefit from the clover bloom, as clover is one of the main nectar sources for honeybees. Trifolium repens, white or Dutch clover, is a perennial abundant in meadows, the flowers are white or pinkish, becoming brown and deflexed as the corolla fades. Trifolium hybridum, alsike or Swedish clover, is a perennial which was introduced early in the 19th century and has now become naturalized in Britain, the flowers are white or rosy, and resemble those of the last species. Trifolium medium, meadow or zigzag clover, a perennial with straggling flexuous stems, clovers occasionally have four leaflets, instead of the usual three. These four-leaf clovers, like other rarities, are considered lucky, clovers can also have five, six, or more leaflets, but these are rarer. The record for most leaflets is 56, set on 10 May 2009 and this beat the 21-leaf clover, a record set in June 2008 by the same discoverer, who had also held the prior Guinness World Record of 18. A common idiom is to be in clover, meaning to live a life of ease, comfort. The cloverleaf interchange is named for the resemblance to the leaflets of a clover when viewed from the air, quattrofolium Edibility of clover, Edible parts and visual identification of wild clover
28.
Coconut
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The coconut tree is a member of the family Arecaceae and the only species of the genus Cocos. The term coconut can refer to the coconut palm or the seed, or the fruit. The spelling cocoanut is a form of the word. The term is derived from the 16th-century Portuguese and Spanish word coco meaning head or skull, coconuts are known for their great versatility, as evidenced by many traditional uses, ranging from food to cosmetics. They form a part of the diets of many people in the tropics and subtropics. Coconuts are distinct from other fruits for their quantity of water. When mature, they can be used as seed nuts or processed to give oil from the kernel, charcoal from the hard shell, the endosperm is initially in its nuclear phase suspended within the coconut water. As development continues, cellular layers of endosperm deposit along the walls of the coconut, when dried, the coconut flesh is called copra. The oil and milk derived from it are used in cooking and frying, as well as in soaps. The husks and leaves can be used as material to make a variety of products for furnishing and decorating, the coconut also has cultural and religious significance in certain societies, particularly in India, where it is used in Hindu rituals. Cocos nucifera is a palm, growing up to 30 m tall, with pinnate leaves 4–6 m long. Coconuts are generally classified into two types, tall and dwarf. On fertile soil, a coconut palm tree can yield up to 75 fruits per year. Given proper care and growing conditions, coconut palms produce their first fruit in six to ten years, botanically, the coconut fruit is a drupe, not a true nut. Like other fruits, it has three layers, the exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp, the exocarp and mesocarp make up the husk of the coconuts. Coconuts sold in the shops of nontropical countries often have had the exocarp removed, the mesocarp is composed of a fiber, called coir, which has many traditional and commercial uses. The shell has three germination pores or eyes that are visible on its outside surface once the husk is removed. A full-sized coconut weighs about 1.44 kg and it takes around 6,000 full-grown coconuts to produce a tonne of copra
29.
Coffee bean
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A coffee seed, commonly called coffee bean, is a seed of the coffee plant, and is the source for coffee. It is the pit inside the red or purple fruit often referred to as a cherry, just like ordinary cherries, the coffee fruit is also a so-called stone fruit. Even though the coffee beans are seeds, they are referred to as beans because of their resemblance to true beans, the fruits – coffee cherries or coffee berries – most commonly contain two stones with their flat sides together. A small percentage of cherries contain a seed, instead of the usual two. The peaberry occurs only between 10 and 15% of the time, and it is a common belief that they have more flavour than normal coffee beans. Like Brazil nuts and white rice, coffee beans consist mostly of endosperm, the two most economically important varieties of coffee plant are the Arabica and the Robusta, 75–80% of the coffee produced worldwide is Arabica and 20% is Robusta. Arabica beans consist of 0. 8–1. 4% caffeine and Robusta beans consist of 1. 7–4% caffeine, according to popular legend, the coffee plant was discovered in Ethiopia by a goatherd named Kaldi. Significant dates The first coffee plant was found in the mountains of Yemen, then by 1500, it was exported to the rest of the world through the port of Mokha in Yemen. Roasted beans first sold on retail market –1865 Important spray-drying techniques developed in 1950s Distribution South America is now responsible for about 45% of the worlds total coffee exports, most of this coffee is grown in Brazil. The United States imports more coffee than any other nation, the per capita consumption of coffee in the United States in 2011 was 4.24 kg, and the value of coffee imported exceeded $8 billion. As of 2015, Americans consumed approximately 400 million cups of coffee per day, Coffee plants grow within a defined area between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, termed the bean belt or coffee belt. The Oxford English Dictionary suggests that the European languages generally appear to have gotten the name from Turkish kahveh, about 1600, another common theory is that the name derives from Kaffa Province, Ethiopia, where the species may have originated. The coffea tree averages from 5–10 m in height, as the tree gets older, it branches less and less and bears more leaves and fruits. Coffea plants are grown in several feet apart. Some farmers plant fruit trees around them or plant the coffee on the sides of hills, ideally, Arabica coffee beans are grown at temperatures between 15 and 24 °C and Robusta at 24–30 °C and receive between 15 and 30 cm of rainfall per year. Heavy rain is needed in the beginning of the season when the fruit is developing and this selective picking gives the growers reason to give their coffee a certain specification called operation cherry red. In rare circumstances, the Asian palm civet eats coffee berries and excretes the beans and these beans are called kopi luwak, and can be processed further into a rare and expensive coffee. Two methods are used to process coffee berries
30.
Soil
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Soil is a mixture of minerals, organic matter, gases, liquids, and countless organisms that together support life on Earth. Soil is called the Skin of the Earth and interfaces with the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, the term pedolith, used commonly to refer to the soil, literally translates ground stone. Soil consists of a phase of minerals and organic matter, as well as a porous phase that holds gases. Accordingly, soils are often treated as a system of solids, liquids. Soil is a product of the influence of climate, relief, organisms, Soil continually undergoes development by way of numerous physical, chemical and biological processes, which include weathering with associated erosion. Given its complexity and strong internal connectedness soil has been considered as an ecosystem by soil ecologists. Most soils have a dry bulk density between 1.1 and 1.6 g/cm3, while the particle density is much higher. Little of the soil of planet Earth is older than the Pleistocene and none is older than the Cenozoic, Soil science has two basic branches of study, edaphology and pedology. Edaphology is concerned with the influence of soils on living things, pedology is focused on the formation, description, and classification of soils in their natural environment. In engineering terms, soil is referred to as regolith, or loose material that lies above the solid geology. Soil is commonly referred to as earth or dirt, technically, as soil resources serve as a basis for food security, the international community advocates its sustainable and responsible use through different types of soil governance. Soil is a component of the Earths ecosystem. The worlds ecosystems are impacted in far-reaching ways by the carried out in the soil, from ozone depletion and global warming, to rainforest destruction. Following the atmosphere, the soil is the next largest carbon reservoir on Earth, as the planet warms, soils will add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere due to its increased biological activity at higher temperatures. Thus, soil carbon losses likely have a positive feedback response to global warming. Since soil has a range of available niches and habitats. A gram of soil can contain billions of organisms, belonging to thousands of species, mostly microbial, Soil has a mean prokaryotic density of roughly 108 organisms per gram, whereas the ocean has no more than 107 procaryotic organisms per milliliter of seawater. Since plant roots need oxygen, ventilation is an important characteristic of soil and this ventilation can be accomplished via networks of interconnected soil pores, which also absorb and hold rainwater making it readily available for plant uptake
31.
Granite
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Granite is a common type of felsic intrusive igneous rock that is granular and phaneritic in texture. Granites can be white, pink, or gray in color. The word granite comes from the Latin granum, a grain, in reference to the structure of such a holocrystalline rock. By definition, granite is a rock with at least 20% quartz. The term granitic means granite-like and is applied to granite and a group of igneous rocks with similar textures and slight variations in composition. Occasionally some individual crystals are larger than the groundmass, in case the texture is known as porphyritic. A granitic rock with a texture is known as a granite porphyry. Granitoid is a general, descriptive field term for lighter-colored, coarse-grained igneous rocks, petrographic examination is required for identification of specific types of granitoids. The extrusive igneous rock equivalent of granite is rhyolite, Granite is nearly always massive, hard and tough, and therefore it has gained widespread use throughout human history, and more recently as a construction stone. The average density of granite is between 2.65 and 2.75 g/cm3, its compressive strength usually lies above 200 MPa, and its viscosity near STP is 3–6 •1019 Pa·s. The melting temperature of dry granite at ambient pressure is 1215–1260 °C, it is reduced in the presence of water. Granite has poor primary permeability, but strong secondary permeability, true granite according to modern petrologic convention contains both plagioclase and alkali feldspars. When a granitoid is devoid or nearly devoid of plagioclase, the rock is referred to as alkali feldspar granite, when a granitoid contains less than 10% orthoclase, it is called tonalite, pyroxene and amphibole are common in tonalite. A granite containing both muscovite and biotite micas is called a binary or two-mica granite, two-mica granites are typically high in potassium and low in plagioclase, and are usually S-type granites or A-type granites. A worldwide average of the composition of granite, by weight percent, based on 2485 analyses. Much of it was intruded during the Precambrian age, it is the most abundant basement rock that underlies the relatively thin veneer of the continents. Outcrops of granite tend to form tors and rounded massifs, granites sometimes occur in circular depressions surrounded by a range of hills, formed by the metamorphic aureole or hornfels. Granite often occurs as small, less than 100 km² stock masses
32.
Gravel
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Gravel /ˈɡrævəl/ is composed of unconsolidated rock fragments that have a general particle size range and include size classes from granule- to boulder-sized fragments. Gravel is categorized by the Udden-Wentworth scale into granular gravel and pebble gravel, one cubic metre of gravel typically weighs about 1,800 kg. Gravel is an important commercial product, with a number of applications, many roadways are surfaced with gravel, especially in rural areas where there is little traffic. Globally, far more roads are surfaced with gravel than with concrete or tarmac, both sand and small gravel are also important for the manufacture of concrete. Large gravel deposits are a geological feature, being formed as a result of the weathering. The action of rivers and waves tends to pile up gravel in large accumulations and this can sometimes result in gravel becoming compacted and concreted into the sedimentary rock called conglomerate. Where natural gravel deposits are insufficient for human purposes, gravel is often produced by quarrying and crushing hard-wearing rocks, such as sandstone, limestone, quarries where gravel is extracted are known as gravel pits. Southern England possesses particularly large concentrations of them due to the deposition of gravel in the region during the Ice Ages. As of 2006, the United States is the leading producer and consumer of gravel. The word gravel comes from the Breton language, adding the -el suffix in Breton denotes the component parts of something larger. Thus gravel means the stones which make up such a beach on the coast. Many dictionaries ignore the Breton language, citing Old French gravele or gravelle, Gravel often has the meaning a mixture of different size pieces of stone mixed with sand and possibly some clay. American English also allows small stones without sand mixed in also known as crushed stone, types of gravel include, Bank gravel, naturally deposited gravel intermixed with sand or clay found in and next to rivers and streams. Also known as Bank run or River run, bench gravel, a bed of gravel located on the side of a valley above the present stream bottom, indicating the former location of the stream bed when it was at a higher level. Creek rock, this is rounded, semi-polished stones, potentially of a wide range of types. It is also used as concrete aggregate and less often as a paving surface. Crushed stone, rock crushed and graded by screens and then mixed to a blend of stones and fines and it is widely used as a surfacing for roads and driveways, sometimes with tar applied over it. Crushed stone may be made from granite, limestone, dolomite, also known as crusher run, DGA QP, and shoulder stone
33.
Crushed stone
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Crushed stone or angular rock is a form of construction aggregate, typically produced by mining a suitable rock deposit and breaking the removed rock down to the desired size using crushers. It is distinct from gravel which is produced by processes of weathering and erosion. Angular crushed stone is the key material for road construction which depends on the interlocking of the individual stones angular faces for its strength. Crushed natural stone is used similarly without a binder for riprap, railroad track ballast. It may also be used with a binder in a material such as concrete, tarmac. Crushed stone is one of the most accessible resources, and is a major basic raw material used by construction, agriculture. Despite the low value of its products, the crushed stone industry is a major contributor to. The demand for crushed stone is determined mostly by the level of activity, and, therefore. Stone resources of the world are very large, high-purity limestone and dolomite suitable for specialty uses are limited in many geographic areas. Crushed stone substitutes for roadbuilding include sand and gravel, and slag, substitutes for crushed stone used as construction aggregates include sand and gravel, iron and steel slag, sintered or expanded clay or shale, and perlite or vermiculite. Crushed stone is a high-volume, low-value commodity, the industry is highly competitive and is characterized by many operations serving local or regional markets. Production costs are determined mainly by the cost of labor, equipment, energy and these costs vary depending on geographic location, the nature of the deposit, and the number and type of products produced. Crushed stone has one of the lowest average by weight values of all mineral commodities, the average unit price increased from US$1.58 per metric ton, f. o. b. plant, in 1970 to US$4.39 in 1990. However, the price in constant 1982 dollars fluctuated between US$3.48 and US$3.91 per metric ton for the same period. Increased productivity achieved through increased use of automation and more efficient equipment was mainly responsible for maintaining the prices at this level, transportation is a major factor in the delivered price of crushed stone. The cost of moving crushed stone from the plant to the market often equals or exceeds the price of the product at the plant. Because of the high cost of transportation and the quantities of bulk material that have to be shipped, crushed stone is usually marketed locally. The high cost of transportation is responsible for the dispersion of quarries
34.
Malt
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Malt is germinated cereal grains that have been dried in a process known as malting. The grains are made to germinate by soaking in water, and are then halted from germinating further by drying with hot air and it also develops other enzymes, such as proteases, which break down the proteins in the grain into forms that can be used by yeast. Depending on when the process is stopped one gets a preferred starch enzyme ratio. Malt also contains amounts of other sugars, such as sucrose and fructose. Further conversion to fermentable sugars is achieved during the mashing process, Malted grain that has been ground into a coarse meal is known as sweet meal. Various cereals are malted, though barley is the most common, a high-protein form of malted barley is often a label-listed ingredient in blended flours typically used in the manufacture of yeast breads and other baked goods. Malted grains have probably been used as an ingredient of beer since ancient times, for example in Egypt, Sumeria and China. In Persian countries a sweet paste made entirely from germinated wheat is called Samanū in Iran, Samanak, or Sümölök, a plate or bowl of Samanu is a traditional component of the Haft sin table symbolising affluence. Traditionally, women take a party for it during the night. In Tajikistan and Afghanistan they sing, Samanak dar Jūsh u mā Kafcha zanēm - Dīgarān dar Khwāb u mā Dafcha zanēm, in modern times, making samanu can be a family gathering. It originally comes from the Great Persian Empire, Mämmi, or Easter Porridge, is a traditional Finnish Lenten food. Cooked from rye malt and -flour, mämmi has a resemblance to Samanū. Today, this product is available in shops from February until Easter, a survey in 2013 showed that almost no one cooks mämmi at home in modern-day Finland. The cereal is spread out on the floor in a layer of 8 to 12 cm depth. The malting process starts with drying the grains to a content below 14%. When ready, the grain is immersed or steeped in water two or three times two or three days to allow the grain to absorb moisture and to start to sprout. When the grain has a content of around 46%, it is transferred to the malting or germination floor. The grain at this point is called green malt, the green malt is then dried and pre-toasted in an oven to the desired colour and specification
35.
Sand
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Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely divided rock and mineral particles. It is defined by size, being finer than gravel and coarser than silt, Sand can also refer to a textural class of soil or soil type, i. e. a soil containing more than 85% sand-sized particles by mass. The second most common type of sand is calcium carbonate, for example aragonite, for example, it is the primary form of sand apparent in areas where reefs have dominated the ecosystem for millions of years like the Caribbean. Sand is a non renewable resource over human timescales, and sand suitable for making concrete is in high demand, in terms of particle size as used by geologists, sand particles range in diameter from 0.0625 mm to 2 mm. An individual particle in this size is termed a sand grain. Sand grains are between gravel and silt, a 1953 engineering standard published by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials set the minimum sand size at 0.074 mm. A1938 specification of the United States Department of Agriculture was 0.05 mm. Sand feels gritty when rubbed between the fingers. ISO14688 grades sands as fine, medium and coarse with ranges 0.063 mm to 0.2 mm to 0.63 mm to 2.0 mm. In the United States, sand is commonly divided into five sub-categories based on size, very fine sand, fine sand, medium sand, coarse sand, and very coarse sand. These sizes are based on the Krumbein phi scale, where size in Φ = -log2D, on this scale, for sand the value of Φ varies from −1 to +4, with the divisions between sub-categories at whole numbers. The composition of sand is highly variable, depending on the local rock sources. The gypsum sand dunes of the White Sands National Monument in New Mexico are famous for their bright, arkose is a sand or sandstone with considerable feldspar content, derived from weathering and erosion of a granitic rock outcrop. Some sands contain magnetite, chlorite, glauconite or gypsum, Sands rich in magnetite are dark to black in color, as are sands derived from volcanic basalts and obsidian. Chlorite-glauconite bearing sands are typically green in color, as are sands derived from basaltic with a high olivine content, many sands, especially those found extensively in Southern Europe, have iron impurities within the quartz crystals of the sand, giving a deep yellow color. Sand deposits in some areas contain garnets and other resistant minerals, the study of individual grains can reveal much historical information as to the origin and kind of transport of the grain. Quartz sand that is weathered from granite or gneiss quartz crystals will be angular. It is called grus in geology or sharp sand in the trade where it is preferred for concrete. Sand that is transported long distances by water or wind will be rounded, people who collect sand as a hobby are known as arenophiles
36.
Snow
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Snowstorms organize and develop by feeding on sources of atmospheric moisture and cold air. Snowflakes nucleate around particles in the atmosphere by attracting supercooled water droplets, snowflakes take on a variety of shapes, basic among these are platelets, needles, columns and rime. As snow accumulates into a snowpack, it may blow into drifts, over time, accumulated snow metamorphoses, by sintering, sublimation and freeze-thaw. Where the climate is cold enough for year-to-year accumulation, a glacier may form, otherwise, snow typically melts seasonally, causing runoff into streams and rivers and recharging groundwater. Major snow-prone areas include the regions, the upper half of the Northern Hemisphere and mountainous regions worldwide with sufficient moisture. In the Southern Hemisphere, snow is confined primarily to mountainous areas, Snow affects ecosystems, as well, by providing an insulating layer during winter under which plants and animals are able to survive the cold. Snow develops in clouds that themselves are part of a weather system. The physics of snow crystal development in clouds results from a set of variables that include moisture content. The resulting shapes of the falling and fallen crystals can be classified into a number of shapes and combinations. Occasionally, some plate-like, dendritic and stellar-shaped snowflakes can form under clear sky with a cold temperature inversion present. Two additional and locally productive sources of snow are lake-effect storms and elevation effects, miid-latitude cyclones are low pressure areas which are capable of producing anything from cloudiness and mild snow storms to heavy blizzards. During a hemispheres fall, winter, and spring, the atmosphere over continents can be cold enough through the depth of the troposphere to cause snowfall, in the Northern Hemisphere, the northern side of the low pressure area produces the most snow. For the southern mid-latitudes, the side of a cyclone that produces the most snow is the southern side, a cold front, the leading edge of a cooler mass of air, can produce frontal snowsqualls—an intense frontal convective line, when temperature is near freezing at the surface. The strong convection that develops has enough moisture to produce whiteout conditions at places which line passes over as the wind causes intense blowing snow. This type of snowsquall generally lasts less than 30 minutes at any point along its path, in cases where there is a large amount of vertical growth and mixing the squall may develop embedded cumulonimbus clouds resulting in lightning and thunder which is dubbed thundersnow. A warm front can produce snow for a period, as warm, moist air overrides below-freezing air, often, snow transitions to rain in the warm sector behind the front. The same effect occurs over bodies of salt water, when it is termed ocean-effect or bay-effect snow. The effect is enhanced when the air mass is uplifted by the orographic influence of higher elevations on the downwind shores
37.
Urea
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Urea, also known as carbamide, is an organic compound with the chemical formula CO2. This amide has two groups joined by a carbonyl functional group. Urea serves an important role in the metabolism of nitrogen-containing compounds by animals and is the main nitrogen-containing substance in the urine of mammals and it is a colorless, odorless solid, highly soluble in water, and practically non-toxic. Dissolved in water, it is neither acidic nor alkaline, the body uses it in many processes, most notably nitrogen excretion. The liver forms it by combining two molecules with a carbon dioxide molecule in the urea cycle. Urea is widely used in fertilizers as a source of nitrogen and is an important raw material for the chemical industry, Friedrich Wöhlers discovery in 1828 that urea can be produced from inorganic starting materials was an important conceptual milestone in chemistry. More than 90% of world production of urea is destined for use as a nitrogen-release fertilizer. Urea has the highest nitrogen content of all solid nitrogenous fertilizers in common use, therefore, it has the lowest transportation costs per unit of nitrogen nutrient. The standard crop-nutrient rating of urea is 46-0-0, many soil bacteria possess the enzyme urease, which catalyzes conversion of urea to ammonia or ammonium ion and bicarbonate ion. Thus urea fertilizers rapidly transform to the form in soils. Ammonium and nitrate are readily absorbed by plants, and are the dominant sources of nitrogen for plant growth, Urea is also used in many multi-component solid fertilizer formulations. Urea is highly soluble in water and is also very suitable for use in fertilizer solutions. For fertilizer use, granules are preferred over prills because of their particle size distribution. The most common impurity of synthetic urea is biuret, which impairs plant growth, Urea is usually spread at rates of between 40 and 300 kg/ha but rates vary. Smaller applications incur lower losses due to leaching, during summer, urea is often spread just before or during rain to minimize losses from volatilization. Because of the nitrogen concentration in urea, it is very important to achieve an even spread. The application equipment must be calibrated and properly used. Drilling must not occur on contact with or close to seed, Urea dissolves in water for application as a spray or through irrigation systems
38.
Wheat
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Wheat is a cereal grain, originally from the Levant region but now cultivated worldwide. In 2016, world production of wheat was 749 million tonnes, making it the second most-produced cereal after maize, since 1960, world production of wheat and other grain crops has tripled and is expected to grow further through the middle of the 21st Century. This grain is grown on land area than any other commercial food. World trade in wheat is greater than for all other crops combined, globally, wheat is the leading source of vegetal protein in human food, having a protein content of about 13%, which is relatively high compared to other major cereals and staple foods. The archaeological record suggests that wheat was first cultivated in the regions of the Fertile Crescent around 9600 BCE. In a small part of the population, gluten – the major part of wheat protein – can trigger coeliac disease, non-coeliac gluten sensitivity, gluten ataxia. Cultivation and repeated harvesting and sowing of the grains of wild grasses led to the creation of domestic strains, in domesticated wheat, grains are larger, and the seeds remain attached to the ear by a toughened rachis during harvesting. In wild strains, a more fragile rachis allows the ear to easily shatter, as the traits that improve wheat as a food source also involve the loss of the plants natural seed dispersal mechanisms, highly domesticated strains of wheat cannot survive in the wild. Cultivation of wheat began to spread beyond the Fertile Crescent after about 8000 BCE, jared Diamond traces the spread of cultivated emmer wheat starting in the Fertile Crescent sometime before 8800 BCE. Archaeological analysis of wild emmer indicates that it was first cultivated in the southern Levant with finds dating back as far as 9600 BCE, Genetic analysis of wild einkorn wheat suggests that it was first grown in the Karacadag Mountains in southeastern Turkey. Dated archeological remains of wheat in settlement sites near this region, including those at Abu Hureyra in Syria. With the anomalous exception of two grains from Iraq ed-Dubb, the earliest carbon-14 date for einkorn wheat remains at Abu Hureyra is 7800 to 7500 years BCE. Remains of harvested emmer from several sites near the Karacadag Range have been dated to between 8600 and 8400 BCE, that is, in the Neolithic period and these remains were dated by Willem van Zeist and his assistant Johanna Bakker-Heeres to 8800 BCE. They also concluded that the settlers of Tell Aswad did not develop this form of emmer themselves, the cultivation of emmer reached Greece, Cyprus and India by 6500 BCE, Egypt shortly after 6000 BCE, and Germany and Spain by 5000 BCE. The early Egyptians were developers of bread and the use of the oven, by 3000 BCE, wheat had reached the British Isles and Scandinavia. A millennium later it reached China, the oldest evidence for hexaploid wheat has been confirmed through DNA analysis of wheat seeds, dating to around 6400-6200 BCE, recovered from Çatalhöyük. The first identifiable bread wheat with sufficient gluten for yeasted breads has been identified using DNA analysis in samples from a dating to approximately 1350 BCE at Assiros in Macedonia. From Asia, wheat continued to spread throughout Europe, in the British Isles, wheat straw was used for roofing in the Bronze Age, and was in common use until the late 19th century
39.
Antlion
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The greatest diversity occurs in the tropics, but a few species are found in cold-temperate locations, one such being the European Euroleon nostras. They most commonly occur in dry and sandy habitats where the larvae can excavate their pits. Antlions are poorly represented in the fossil record, Myrmeleontiformia is generally accepted to be a monophyletic group, and within the Myrmeleontoidea, the antlions closest living relatives are thought to be the owlflies. The predatory actions of the larvae have attracted attention throughout history, the exact meaning of the name antlion is uncertain. It has been thought to refer to ants forming a large percentage of the prey of the insect, in any case, the term seems to go back to classical antiquity. The antlion larva is called a doodlebug in North America because of the odd winding, spiralling trails it leaves in the sand while relocating. The scientific name of the type genus Myrmeleo – and thus, in most European and Middle Eastern languages, at least the larvae are known under the local term corresponding to antlion. Antlions can be small to very large neuropterans, with wingspans ranging from 2 to 15 cm. The African genus Palpares contains some of the largest examples, acanthaclisis occitanica is the largest European species, with an 11 cm wingspan, and most North American species approach this size. The adult has two pairs of long, narrow, multiveined, translucent wings and a long, slender abdomen, although they somewhat resemble dragonflies or damselflies, they belong to a different infraclass of winged insects. Antlion adults are easily distinguished from damselflies by their prominent, apically clubbed antennae which are about as long as the head and thorax combined. Also, the pattern of wing venation differs, and compared to damselflies, adult antlions are typically nocturnal, and rarely seen by day. Males of most species have a structure, a bristle-bearing knob known as a pilula axillaris. The abdomen in males is usually longer than in females and often has an extra lobe, the tip of the abdomen of females shows greater variation than that of males, depending perhaps on oviposition sites, and usually bears tufts of bristles for digging and a finger-like extension. The antlion larva is an animal with a robust, fusiform body, a very plump abdomen. The prothorax forms a mobile neck for the large, square, flattened head. The larva is clad in forward-pointing bristles which help it to itself and exert greater traction. Antlion larvae are unusual among insects in lacking an anus, all the metabolic waste generated during the larval stage is stored, some is used to spin the silk for the cocoon and the rest is eventually voided as meconium at the end of its pupal stage
40.
Vermileonidae
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The Brachyceran family Vermileonidae is a small family of uncertain affinities and unusual biology, containing fewer than 80 rare species in 10 genera. Historically the Vermileonids had been regarded as belonging to the family Rhagionidae and their biology and morphology is so markedly distinct from the main Rhagionidae sensu stricto, that the placement as a separate family has been widely accepted. The larvae of vermileonids are called wormlions which amounts to a translation of Vermileo. The mechanism is elegant in that in groups of insects, the larva creates the pit by flinging particles out. Much of the falls back, coming to rest at effectively the critical angle of repose. As soon as it is alerted by falling sand grains, the larva assists this process by vigorously flicking sand out from the center of the pit. This undermines the pit walls and causes them to collapse toward the center, the combined effect is to bring the prey down to within grasp of the larva, which then can inject venom and digestive fluids. Unlike the pit-digging Myrmeleontidae, vermileonid larvae do not travel round and round while digging the pit trap, instead, they simply lie at the centre with the rear end buried, and dig their heads repeatedly into the sand, flinging it out by vigorously straightening their fore ends. Finally, they cover themselves with a layer of sand while lying across the bottom of the cone. Actually, because its skin is coated with sand, and it is very small, however, if it is sufficiently teased after being dug out, it may begin to lash about powerfully, flinging itself away with enough force to escape its tormentor. It does not, however, hook its mouthparts into its end to achieve an efficient leap such as some fruit fly. The 10th and 11th segments of the larva each carries a row of long hooklets that it uses in anchoring itself. The fifth segment has a ventral pseudopod that helps to hold prey, not having sickle jaws like an antlion, the larva grasps prey by lashing forward and catching the victim by bending the head down to catch it between its two fang-like jaws and its pseudopod. Like antlion larvae, vermileonid larvae are found in sandy habitats, often semideserts, usually in the shelter of rocks or bushes. The adults are slender, fragile flies, vaguely reminiscent of small crane flies, the adults generally visit flowers for nectar, but adults of some species may not feed at all. Most vermileonid species are found in the regions of the western parts of Africa, from the Cape to Morocco. The infraorder Vermileonomorpha is often included within the Tabanomorpha, though the most recent classifications place them as its sister taxon, I, Papp, L. og Darvas, B. Contributions to a Manual of Palaearctic Diptera, dor, R. Rosenstein, S. & Scharf, I
41.
Aeolian processes
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Aeolian processes, also spelled eolian or æolian, pertain to wind activity in the study of geology and weather and specifically to the winds ability to shape the surface of the Earth. Winds may erode, transport, and deposit materials and are effective agents in regions with sparse vegetation, a lack of soil moisture, although water is a much more powerful eroding force than wind, aeolian processes are important in arid environments such as deserts. The term is derived from the name of the Greek god Aeolus, wind erodes the Earths surface by deflation and by abrasion. Regions which experience intense and sustained erosion are called deflation zones, most aeolian deflation zones are composed of desert pavement, a sheet-like surface of rock fragments that remains after wind and water have removed the fine particles. Almost half of Earths desert surfaces are stony deflation zones, the rock mantle in desert pavements protects the underlying material from deflation. A dark, shiny stain, called desert varnish or rock varnish, is found on the surfaces of some desert rocks that have been exposed at the surface for a long period of time. Manganese, iron oxides, hydroxides, and clay minerals form most varnishes, deflation basins, called blowouts, are hollows formed by the removal of particles by wind. Blowouts are generally small, but may be up to kilometers in diameter. In parts of Antarctica wind-blown snowflakes that are technically sediments have also caused abrasion of exposed rocks, grinding by particles carried in the wind creates grooves or small depressions. Ventifacts are rocks which have cut, and sometimes polished. Sculpted landforms, called yardangs, are up to tens of meters high, the famous Great Sphinx of Giza in Egypt may be a modified yardang. Particles are transported by winds through suspension, saltation and creeping along the ground, small particles may be held in the atmosphere in suspension. Upward currents of air support the weight of suspended particles and hold them indefinitely in the surrounding air, typical winds near Earths surface suspend particles less than 0.2 millimeters in diameter and scatter them aloft as dust or haze. Saltation is downwind movement of particles in a series of jumps or skips, saltation normally lifts sand-size particles no more than one centimeter above the ground and proceeds at one-half to one-third the speed of the wind. A saltating grain may hit other grains that jump up to continue the saltation, the grain may also hit larger grains that are too heavy to hop, but that slowly creep forward as they are pushed by saltating grains. Surface creep accounts for as much as 25 percent of grain movement in a desert, aeolian turbidity currents are better known as dust storms. Air over deserts is cooled significantly when rain passes through it and this cooler and denser air sinks toward the desert surface. When it reaches the ground, the air is deflected forward, crops, people, villages, and possibly even climates are affected by dust storms
42.
Barchan
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A barchan or barkhan dune, is a crescent-shaped dune. The term was introduced in 1881 by Russian naturalist Alexander von Middendorf, for crescent-shaped sand dunes in Turkestan, barchans face the wind, appearing convex and are produced by wind action predominately from one direction. The upwind side is packed by the wind, and stands at about 15 degrees, barchans may be 9–30 m high and 370 m wide at the base measured perpendicular to the wind. Barchans usually occur as groups of isolated dunes and may form chains that extend across a plain in the direction of the prevailing wind, barchans and megabarchans may coalesce into ridges that extend for hundreds of kilometers. Dune collisions and changes in direction that spawn new barchans from the horns of the old govern the size distribution in a given field. As barchan dunes migrate, smaller dunes outpace larger dunes, catching-up the rear of the larger dune, the process appears superficially similar to waves of light, sound, or water that pass directly through each other, but the detailed mechanism is very different. The dunes emulate soliton behavior, but unlike solitons, which flow through a medium leaving it undisturbed, when the smaller dune catches up the larger dune, the winds begin to deposit sand on the rear dune while blowing sand off the front dune without replenishing it. Eventually, the dune has assumed dimensions similar to the former front dune which has now become a smaller, faster moving dune that pulls away with the wind. Barchan dunes have been observed on Mars, where the thin atmosphere produces winds strong enough to move sand and dust
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Bulk cargo
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Bulk cargo is commodity cargo that is transported unpackaged in large quantities. It refers to material in liquid or granular, particulate form, as a mass of relatively small solids, such as petroleum/crude oil, grain, coal. This cargo is usually dropped or poured, with a spout or shovel bucket, into a bulk carrier ships hold, railroad car/railway wagon, smaller quantities can be boxed and palletised. Bulk cargo is classified as liquid or dry, the Baltic Exchange is based in London and provides a range of indices benchmarking the cost of moving bulk commodities, dry and wet, along popular routes around the seas. Some of these indices are used to settle Freight Futures. The most famous of the Baltic indices is the Baltic Dry Indices and this is a derived function of the Baltic Capesize index, Baltic Panamax index, Baltic Supramax index and the Baltic Handysize index. The BDI has been used as a bellwether for the economy as it can be interpreted as an indicator of an increase or decrease in the amount of raw commodities countries are importing/exporting. Bauxite Bulk minerals Cements Chemicals Coals and cokes Agricultural products such as dry edibles Grains Iron, Bulk Cargoes, A Guide to Good Practice. UK, The North of England P&I Association, stability and Trim for the Ships Officer. Keever, John M. American Merchant Seamans Manual, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. New York and Geneva, United Nations, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. New York and Geneva, United Nations
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Concrete slump test
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The concrete slump test measures the consistency of fresh concrete before it sets. It is performed to check the workability of freshly made concrete and it can also be used as an indicator of an improperly mixed batch. The test is due to the simplicity of apparatus used. The slump test is used to ensure uniformity for different loads of concrete under field conditions. The test is carried out using a mould in the shape of a conical frustum known as a slump cone or Abrams cone. The tool typically has an diameter of 100 millimetres at the top. This cone is filled with concrete in three stages. Each time, each layer is tamped 25 times with a 2 ft -long bullet-nosed metal rod measuring 5/8 in in diameter, at the end of the third stage, the concrete is struck off flush with the top of the mould. The mould is carefully lifted vertically upwards, so as not to disturb the concrete cone, the slump of the concrete is measured by measuring the distance from the top of the slumped concrete to the level of the top of the slump cone. The slumped concrete takes various shapes, and according to the profile of slumped concrete, if a shear or collapse slump is achieved, a fresh sample should be taken and the test repeated. A collapse slump is an indication that the mix is too wet, only a true slump is of any use in the test. A collapse slump will generally mean that the mix is too wet or that it is a high workability mix and it is limited to concrete formed of aggregates of less than 38 mm. The slump test is referred to in several testing and building codes, in the United States, engineers use the ASTM standards and AASHTO specifications when referring to the concrete slump test. The American standards explicitly state that the cone should have a height of 12-in, a bottom diameter of 8-in. The ASTM standards also state in the procedure that when the cone is removed, it should be lifted up vertically, the concrete slump test is known as Standard Test Method for Slump of Hydraulic-Cement Concrete and carries the code or. In the United Kingdom, the standards specify a slump cone height of 300 mm, a diameter of 200 mm. The British Standards do not explicitly specify that the cone should only be lifted vertically, the slump test in the British standards was first and is now replaced by the European Standard. The test should be carried out by filling the cone in three equal layers with the mixture being tamped down 25 times for each layer
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Mass wasting
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Types of mass wasting include creep, slides, flows, topples, and falls, each with its own characteristic features, and taking place over timescales from seconds to years. Mass wasting occurs on both terrestrial and submarine slopes, and has observed on Earth, Mars, Venus. When the gravitational force acting on a slope exceeds its resisting force, the slope materials strength and cohesion and the amount of internal friction between material help maintain the slopes stability and are known collectively as the slopes shear strength. The steepest angle that a slope can maintain without losing its stability is known as its angle of repose. When a slope made of loose material possesses this angle, its shear strength perfectly counterbalances the force of gravity acting upon it. Mass wasting may occur at a slow rate, particularly in areas that are very dry or those areas that receive sufficient rainfall such that vegetation has stabilized the surface. It may also occur at high speed, such as in rockslides or landslides, with disastrous consequences. Factors that change the potential of mass wasting include, change in angle, weakening of material by weathering, increased water content, changes in vegetation cover. Volcano flanks can become over-steep resulting in instability and mass wasting and this is now a recognised part of the growth of all active volcanoes. The failure of the flank of Mount St Helens in 1980 showed how rapidly volcanic flanks can deform. Water can increase or decrease the stability of a slope depending on the amount present, small amounts of water can strengthen soils because the surface tension of water increases soil cohesion. This allows the soil to resist erosion better than if it were dry, if too much water is present the water may act to increase the pore pressure, reducing friction, and accelerating the erosion process and resulting in different types of mass wasting. A good example of this is to think of a sand castle, water must be mixed with sand in order for the castle to keep its shape. If too much water is added the sand away, if not enough water is added the sand falls. Water also increases the mass of the soil, this is important because an increase in mass means that there will be an increase in velocity if mass wasting is triggered. Types of mass movement are distinguished based on how the soil, soil creep is a long term process. The combination of movements of soil or rock in different directions over time are directed by gravity gradually downslope. The steeper the slope, the faster the creep, the creep makes trees and shrubs curve to maintain their perpendicularity, and they can trigger landslides if they lose their root footing
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Oceanic trench
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The oceanic trenches are linear oceanographic features which are topographic depressions of the sea floor, relatively narrow in width, but hemispheric-scale in length. They are the deepest parts of the ocean floor, a trench marks the position at which the flexed, subducting slab begins to descend beneath another lithospheric slab. Trenches are generally parallel to an island arc, and about 200 km from a volcanic arc. Oceanic trenches typically extend 3 to 4 km below the level of the surrounding oceanic floor, the greatest ocean depth to be sounded is in the Challenger Deep of the Mariana Trench, at a depth of 11,034 m below sea level. Oceanic lithosphere moves into trenches at a rate of about 3 km2/yr. Globally, there are over 50 major ocean trenches covering an area of 1.9 million km2 or about 0. 5% of the oceans and this applies to Cascadia, Makran, southern Lesser Antilles, and Calabrian trenches. Trenches are related to but distinguished from continental collision zones, where continental crust enters the subduction zone, when buoyant continental crust enters a trench, subduction eventually stops and the convergent plate margin becomes a collision zone. Trenches were not clearly defined until the late 1940s and 1950s, the bathymetry of the ocean was of no real interest until the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with the initial laying of Transatlantic telegraph cables on the seafloor between the continents. Even then the elongated bathymetric expression of trenches was not recognized until well into the 20th century, the term “trench” does not appear in Murray and Hjort’s classic oceanography book. Instead they applied the term “deep“ for the deepest parts of the ocean, the term was first used in a geologic context by Scofield two years after the war ended to describe a structurally controlled depression in the Rocky Mountains. Johnstone, in his 1923 textbook An Introduction to Oceanography, first used the term in its sense for any marked. His measurements revealed that trenches are sites of downwelling in the solid Earth, the concept of downwelling at trenches was characterized by Griggs in 1939 as the tectogene hypothesis, for which he developed an analogue model using a pair of rotating drums. World War II in the Pacific led to improvements of bathymetry in especially the western and northern Pacific. The rapid growth of deep sea research efforts, especially the use of echosounders in the 1950s and 1960s confirmed the morphological utility of the term. The important trenches were identified, sampled, and their greatest depths sonically plumbed, the heroic phase of trench exploration culminated in the 1960 descent of the Bathyscaphe Trieste, which set an unbeatable world record by diving to the bottom of the Challenger Deep. This has been termed trench rollback or hinge retreat and this is one explanation for the existence of back-arc basins. Slab rollback is a process which occurs during the subduction of two tectonic plates resulting in the motion of the trench. Forces acting perpendicular to the slab at depth are responsible for the migration of the slab in the mantle and ultimately the movement of the hinge
