1.
Seven Years' War
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The Seven Years War was a war fought between 1754 and 1763, the main conflict occurring in the seven-year period from 1756 to 1763. It involved every European great power of the time except the Ottoman Empire and spanned five continents, affecting Europe, the Americas, West Africa, India, and the Philippines. The conflict split Europe into two coalitions, led by the Kingdom of Great Britain on one side and the Kingdom of France on the other. Meanwhile, in India, the Mughal Empire, with the support of the French, faced with this sudden turn of events, Britain aligned herself with Prussia, in a series of political manoeuvres known as the Diplomatic Revolution. Conflict between Great Britain and France broke out in 1754–1756 when the British attacked disputed French positions in North America, meanwhile, rising power Prussia was struggling with Austria for dominance within and outside the Holy Roman Empire in central Europe. In 1756, the major powers switched partners, realizing that war was imminent, Prussia preemptively struck Saxony and quickly overran it. The result caused uproar across Europe, because of Austrias alliance with France to recapture Silesia, which had been lost in a previous war, Prussia formed an alliance with Britain. Reluctantly, by following the diet, most of the states of the empire joined Austrias cause. The Anglo-Prussian alliance was joined by smaller German states, Sweden, seeking to re-gain Pomerania joined the coalition, seeing its chance when virtually all of Europe opposed Prussia. Spain, bound by the Pacte de Famille, intervened on behalf of France, the Russian Empire was originally aligned with Austria, fearing Prussias ambition on the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, but switched sides upon the succession of Tsar Peter III in 1762. Naples, Sicily, and Savoy, although sided with the Franco-Spanish alliance, like Sweden, Russia concluded a separate peace with Prussia. The war ended with the Treaty of Paris between France, Spain and Great Britain and the Treaty of Hubertusburg between Saxony, Austria and Prussia, in 1763. The Native American tribes were excluded from the settlement, a subsequent conflict, Prussia emerged as a new European great power. Although Austria failed to retrieve the territory of Silesia from Prussia its military prowess was noted by the other powers. The involvement of Portugal, Spain and Sweden did not return them to their status as great powers. France was deprived of many of its colonies and had saddled itself with heavy war debts that its inefficient financial system could barely handle. Spain lost Florida but gained French Louisiana and regained control of its colonies, e. g. Cuba and the Philippines, France and Spain avenged their defeat in 1778 when the American Revolutionary War broke out, with hopes of destroying Britains dominance once and for all. The Seven Years War was perhaps the first true world war, having taken place almost 160 years before World War I and it was characterized in Europe by sieges and the arson of towns as well as open battles with heavy losses
2.
Henry Timberlake
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Henry Timberlake was a colonial Anglo-American officer, journalist, and cartographer. He was born in Virginia and died in England and he is best known for his work as an emissary from the British colonies to the Overhill Cherokee during the 1761–1762 Timberlake Expedition. Timberlakes account of his journeys to the Cherokee, published as his memoirs in 1765, Henry Timberlake was born in Hanover County, Virginia to Francis and Sarah Austin Timberlake. The Dictionary of American Biography states that Timberlake was born in 1730, Timberlake was a third-generation American, his grandfather had emigrated from England. Although he inherited a fortune when his father died, Timberlake still had to support himself. In 1756, at the outset of the French and Indian War and it had embarked on a campaign to expel French and Native American raiders from the western part of the colony. Shortly thereafter, he applied for a commission in the Virginia regiment—then commanded by George Washington—but was denied due to a lack of vacancies, in 1758, Timberlake successfully applied for a commission in Colonel William Byrds recently formed 2nd Virginia Regiment. Commissioned as an Ensign, Timberlake accompanied the regiment on its march to Fort Duquesne, in 1759, he took part in several minor operations in the present-day Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania area, mostly overseeing the construction of defensive works. In 1760, British relations with the Cherokee, which had been friendly for several decades. In early 1760, the Cherokee laid siege to Fort Loudoun, the garrison held out until August of that year, but was forced to surrender due to lack of provisions. A relief column under Archibald Montgomerie failed to reach the fort after burning the Cherokee Lower Towns and being stopped at the Battle of Echoee. In 1761, Jeffrey Amherst, the British commander in North America, responded with an invasion force, sending James Grant against the Middle Towns. While Byrd proceeded to destroy the Cherokee Middle towns in North Carolina, Timberlake accompanied Stephen to Long Island of the Holston, where they began building a base known as Fort Robinson, and made preparations for a march south. On November 19,1761, as Fort Robinson was nearing completion, a 400-man Cherokee force led by Chief Kanagatucko arrived at the camp and asked for peace, Kanagatucko asked for an officer to accompany him to the Overhill towns as proof that hostilities had ended. Stephen was reluctant to allow it, but granted the request when Timberlake volunteered, Timberlake was accompanied by Sergeant Thomas Sumter, an interpreter named John McCormack, and an unnamed servant. The group purchased a canoe and ten days worth of provisions with money Sumter had borrowed, the plan was to follow the Holston River to its confluence with the French Broad River, and then proceed to the Little Tennessee River, where the Overhill towns were situated. Timberlakes party left Long Island on November 28,1761, the Holston Rivers unusually low water levels almost immediately stalled the journey, as the party was forced to drag their canoe over exposed shoals and sandbars. The party ran out of provisions after several days, but McCormack managed to shoot a bear, around December 7, the party explored a stalactite-filled cave situated approximately 50 feet above the river
3.
Cherokee
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The Cherokee language is part of the Iroquoian language group. The Cherokee were one of the first, if not the first, article 8 in the 1817 treaty with the Cherokee stated Cherokees may wish to become citizens of the United States. The Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma has around 300,000 tribal members, in addition, numerous groups claiming Cherokee lineage, some of which are state-recognized, have members who are among those 819, 000-plus people claiming Cherokee ancestry on the US census. Of the three federally recognized Cherokee tribes, the Cherokee Nation and the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians have headquarters in Tahlequah, the UKB are mostly descendants of Old Settlers, Cherokee who migrated to Arkansas and Oklahoma about 1817. They are related to the Cherokee who were relocated there in the 1830s under the Indian Removal Act. The Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians is on the Qualla Boundary in western North Carolina, the Cherokee refer to themselves as Ani-Yunwiya, which means Principal People. Many theories—though none proven—abound about the origin of the name Cherokee and it may have originally been derived from the Choctaw word Cha-la-kee, which means people who live in the mountains, or Choctaw Chi-luk-ik-bi, meaning people who live in the cave country. The earliest Spanish rendering of the name Cherokee, from 1755, is Tchalaquei, Another theory is that Cherokee derives from a Lower Creek word, Cvlakke. The Iroquois in New York have historically called the Cherokee Oyata’geronoñ, Tsalagi is sometimes misused as a name for the people, Tsalagi is actually the Cherokee word for the Cherokee language. There are two theories of Cherokee origins. Another theory is that the Cherokee had been in the Southeast for thousands of years, researchers in the 19th century recorded conversations with elders who recounted an oral tradition of the Cherokee peoples migrating south from the Great Lakes region in ancient times. They may have moved south into Muscogee Creek territory and settled at the sites of mounds built by the Mississippian culture, in the 19th century, European-American settlers mistakenly attributed several Mississippian culture sites to the Cherokee, including Moundville and Etowah Mounds. However, the Cherokee did not reach this part of Georgia until the late 18th century, pre-contact Cherokee are considered to be part of the later Pisgah Phase of Southern Appalachia, which lasted from circa 1000 to 1500. During the late Archaic and Woodland Period, Indians in the region began to cultivate plants such as elder, lambsquarters, pigweed, sunflowers. People created new art forms such as shell gorgets, adopted new technologies, during the Mississippian Culture-period, local women developed a new variety of maize called eastern flint corn. It closely resembled modern corn and produced larger crops, the successful cultivation of corn surpluses allowed the rise of larger, more complex chiefdoms with several villages and concentrated populations during this period. Corn became celebrated among numerous peoples in ceremonies, especially the Green Corn Ceremony. Much of what is known about pre-18th-century Native American cultures has come from records of Spanish expeditions, the earliest ones of the mid-16th-century encountered people of the Mississippian culture, the ancestors to later tribes in the Southeast such as the Muscogee and Catawba
4.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
5.
South Carolina
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South Carolina /ˌsaʊθ kærəˈlaɪnə/ is a state in the southeastern region of the United States. The state is bordered to the north by North Carolina, to the south and west by Georgia across the Savannah River, South Carolina became the eighth state to ratify the U. S. Constitution, doing so on May 23,1788. South Carolina became the first state to vote to secede from the Union on December 20,1860, after the American Civil War, it was readmitted into the United States on June 25,1868. South Carolina is the 40th most extensive and the 23rd most populous U. S. state and its GDP as of 2013 was $183.6 billion, with an annual growth rate of 3. 13%. The capital and largest city is Columbia with a 2013 population of 133,358, South Carolina is named in honor of King Charles I of England, under whose reign the English colony was first formed, with Carolus being Latin for Charles. There is evidence of activity in the area about 12000 years ago. Along the Savannah River were the Apalachee, Yuchi, and the Yamasee, further west were the Cherokee, and along the Catawba River, the Catawba. These tribes were village-dwellers, relying on agriculture as their food source. The Cherokee lived in wattle and daub houses made with wood and clay, about a dozen separate small tribes summered on the coast harvesting oysters and fish, and cultivating corn, peas and beans. Travelling inland as much as 50 miles mostly by canoe, they wintered on the plain, hunting deer and gathering nuts. The names of these survive in place names like Edisto Island, Kiawah Island. The Spanish were the first Europeans in the area, in 1521, founding San Miguel de Gualdape, established with 500 settlers, it was abandoned within a year by 150 survivors. In 1562 French settlers established a settlement at what is now the Charlesfort-Santa Elena archaeological site on Parris Island, three years later the Spanish built a fort on the same site, but withdrew following hostilities with the English navy. In 1629, King Charles I of England established the Province of Carolina an area covering what is now South and North Carolina, Georgia, in the 1670s, English planters from the Barbados established themselves near what is now Charleston. Settlers built rice plantations in the South Carolina Lowcountry, east of the Atlantic Seaboard fall line, settlers came from all over Europe. Plantation labor was done by African slaves who formed the majority of the population by 1720, another cash crop was the Indigo plant, a plant source of blue dye, developed by Eliza Lucas. Meanwhile, in Upstate South Carolina, west of the Fall Line, was settled by farmers and traders. Colonists overthrew the rule, seeing more direct representation
6.
North Carolina
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North Carolina is a state in the southeastern region of the United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west, Virginia to the north, North Carolina is the 28th most extensive and the 9th most populous of the U. S. states. The state is divided into 100 counties, the most populous municipality is Charlotte, which is the second largest banking center in the United States after New York City. The state has a range of elevations, from sea level on the coast to 6,684 feet at Mount Mitchell. The climate of the plains is strongly influenced by the Atlantic Ocean. Most of the falls in the humid subtropical climate zone. More than 300 miles from the coast, the western, mountainous part of the state has a highland climate. North Carolina is bordered by South Carolina on the south, Georgia on the southwest, Tennessee on the west, Virginia on the north, the United States Census Bureau places North Carolina in the South Atlantic division of the southern region. So many ships have been lost off Cape Hatteras that the area is known as the Graveyard of the Atlantic, the most famous of these is the Queen Annes Revenge, which went aground in Beaufort Inlet in 1718. The coastal plain transitions to the Piedmont region along the Atlantic Seaboard fall line, the Piedmont region of central North Carolina is the states most populous region, containing the six largest cities in the state by population. It consists of rolling countryside frequently broken by hills or low mountain ridges. The Piedmont ranges from about 300 feet in elevation in the east to about 1,500 feet in the west, the western section of the state is part of the Appalachian Mountain range. Among the subranges of the Appalachians located in the state are the Great Smoky Mountains, Blue Ridge Mountains, the Black Mountains are the highest in the eastern United States, and culminate in Mount Mitchell at 6,684 feet, the highest point east of the Mississippi River. North Carolina has 17 major river basins, the five basins west of the Blue Ridge Mountains flow to the Gulf of Mexico, while the remainder flow to the Atlantic Ocean. Of the 17 basins,11 originate within the state of North Carolina, but only four are contained entirely within the states border – the Cape Fear, the Neuse, the White Oak, and the Tar-Pamlico basin. Elevation above sea level is most responsible for temperature change across the state, the climate is also influenced by the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf Stream, especially in the coastal plain. These influences tend to cause warmer winter temperatures along the coast, the coastal plain averages around 1 inch of snow or ice annually, and in many years, there may be no snow or ice at all. North Carolina experiences severe weather in summer and winter, with summer bringing threat of hurricanes, tropical storms, heavy rain
7.
Tennessee
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Tennessee is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. Tennessee is the 36th largest and the 17th most populous of the 50 United States, Tennessee is bordered by Kentucky and Virginia to the north, North Carolina to the east, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi to the south, and Arkansas and Missouri to the west. The Appalachian Mountains dominate the eastern part of the state, Tennessees capital and second largest city is Nashville, which has a population of 654,610. Memphis is the states largest city, with a population of 655,770, the state of Tennessee is rooted in the Watauga Association, a 1772 frontier pact generally regarded as the first constitutional government west of the Appalachians. What is now Tennessee was initially part of North Carolina, Tennessee was admitted to the Union as the 16th state on June 1,1796. Tennessee was the last state to leave the Union and join the Confederacy at the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861, occupied by Union forces from 1862, it was the first state to be readmitted to the Union at the end of the war. Tennessee furnished more soldiers for the Confederate Army than any other state besides Virginia and this sharply reduced competition in politics in the state until after passage of civil rights legislation in the mid-20th century. This city was established to house the Manhattan Projects uranium enrichment facilities, helping to build the worlds first atomic bomb, Tennessees major industries include agriculture, manufacturing, and tourism. Poultry, soybeans, and cattle are the primary agricultural products, and major manufacturing exports include chemicals, transportation equipment. In the early 18th century, British traders encountered a Cherokee town named Tanasi in present-day Monroe County, the town was located on a river of the same name, and appears on maps as early as 1725. The meaning and origin of the word are uncertain, some accounts suggest it is a Cherokee modification of an earlier Yuchi word. It has been said to mean meeting place, winding river, according to ethnographer James Mooney, the name can not be analyzed and its meaning is lost. The modern spelling, Tennessee, is attributed to James Glen, the governor of South Carolina, the spelling was popularized by the publication of Henry Timberlakes Draught of the Cherokee Country in 1765. In 1788, North Carolina created Tennessee County, the county to be established in what is now Middle Tennessee. When a constitutional convention met in 1796 to organize a new out of the Southwest Territory. Other sources differ on the origin of the nickname, according to the Columbia Encyclopedia. Tennessee ties Missouri as the state bordering the most other states, the state is trisected by the Tennessee River. The highest point in the state is Clingmans Dome at 6,643 feet, Clingmans Dome, which lies on Tennessees eastern border, is the highest point on the Appalachian Trail, and is the third highest peak in the United States east of the Mississippi River
8.
Kingdom of Great Britain
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The Kingdom of Great Britain, officially Great Britain, was a sovereign state in western Europe from 1 May 1707 to 31 December 1800. It did not include Ireland, which remained a separate realm, the unitary state was governed by a single parliament and government that was based in Westminster. Also after the accession of George I to the throne of Great Britain in 1714, the early years of the unified kingdom were marked by Jacobite risings which ended in defeat for the Stuart cause at Culloden in 1746. On 1 January 1801, the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland were merged to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922, five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom, the name Britain descends from the Latin name for the island of Great Britain, Britannia or Brittānia, the land of the Britons via the Old French Bretaigne and Middle English Bretayne, Breteyne. The term Great Britain was first used officially in 1474, in the instrument drawing up the proposal for a marriage between Edward IV of Englands daughter Cecily and James III of Scotlands son James. The Treaty of Union and the subsequent Acts of Union state that England and Scotland were to be United into one Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain. However, both the Acts and the Treaty also refer numerous times to the United Kingdom and the longer form, other publications refer to the country as the United Kingdom after 1707 as well. The websites of the UK parliament, the Scottish Parliament, the BBC, additionally, the term United Kingdom was found in informal use during the 18th century to describe the state. The new state created in 1707 included the island of Great Britain, the kingdoms of England and Scotland, both in existence from the 9th century, were separate states until 1707. However, they had come into a union in 1603. Each of the three kingdoms maintained its own parliament and laws and this disposition changed dramatically when the Acts of Union 1707 came into force, with a single unified Crown of Great Britain and a single unified parliament. Ireland remained formally separate, with its own parliament, until the Acts of Union 1800, legislative power was vested in the Parliament of Great Britain, which replaced both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. In practice it was a continuation of the English parliament, sitting at the location in Westminster. Newly created peers in the Peerage of Great Britain were given the right to sit in the Lords. Despite the end of a parliament for Scotland, it retained its own laws. As a result of Poynings Law of 1495, the Parliament of Ireland was subordinate to the Parliament of England, the Act was repealed by the Repeal of Act for Securing Dependence of Ireland Act 1782. The same year, the Irish constitution of 1782 produced a period of legislative freedom, the 18th century saw England, and after 1707 Great Britain, rise to become the worlds dominant colonial power, with France its main rival on the imperial stage
9.
Oconostota
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Oconostota was a skiagusta of Chota and the First Beloved Man of the Cherokee from 1775 to 1781. His Cherokee name, according to Mooney, was Aganstata, which he translated as groundhog-sausage and it appears as Oconastota on his grave marker at the site of Chota. Chota had been the town of Overhill Cherokee for a time. Oconostota may have been a son of Moytoy of Tellico, and was born around 1704, the identity of Oconostotas first wife is a mystery, although she was of the Paint Clan. Their daughter, Nionne Ollie, married his cousin Attakullakulla, his predecessor as First Beloved Man, Some sources claim Nionne Ollie was a Natchez refugee who was adopted as the daughter of Oconostotas wife Some Natchez or Natchers lived in the Upper South prior to relocating farther south. Oconostota first appears in records in 1736. He was a prominent warrior among the Cherokee, and was called The Great Warrior of Chota and he may have been influenced by the German utopian Christian Priber, who lived with the Cherokee from about 1735 to 1739. He eventually transferred his allegiance from the French to the British, over the next 12 years the Cherokee fought both with and against the British, but as more and more American settlers encroached on Cherokee land, the Cherokee threw their suopport behind the British. Oconostota became the First Beloved Man of the Cherokee following the death of his cousin Attakullakulla, many histories state that Oconostota went to England in either 1730 or 1762, but he was not a member of either delegation. Oconostota was believed to have died in either 1782 or 1783 and he was buried with his hands on his chest holding a broadsword pointing down his body. During the archaeological digs at the site of Chota prior to the Tellico Reservoir impoundment and they were identified by a pair of reading glasses which he owned which were buried with him. Oconostotas remains were re-interred at Chota in the portion raised by TVA, a gravestone now marks the site. The Principal Chiefs of the Cherokee Nation, Chronicles of Oklahoma 15,3 253-270, Oconostota, Journal of Cherokee Studies 3,4, 221-238
10.
Archibald Montgomerie, 11th Earl of Eglinton
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Archibald Montgomerie, 11th Earl of Eglinton was a Scottish General, and Member of Parliament in the British Parliament. He was also the Clan Chief of the Clan Montgomery, Montgomerie fought in the Seven Years War, where he served with George Washington. He also was the patron for the poet, Robert Burns, Archibald Montgomerie was born on 18 May 1726, to Alexander Montgomerie, 9th Earl of Eglinton and the 9th Earls third wife, Susanna Kennedy. Montgomerie was one of the 9th Earls 20 children, Montgomerie was educated at Eton during his teenage years. He then went to Winchester College, at age 13, Montgomerie joined the army. After joining the army, Montgomerie received a commission as a Cornet and he served as a Cornet, from 1739 until 1740. He received this commission in the Scots Greys, at the outbreak of the Seven Years War, Montgomerie raised the Montgomeries Highlanders. He was elected Lieutenant-Colonel of the regiment, on 4 January 1757, the regiment traveled to the American Colonies, in 1757. Montgomerie was put under the command of General Amherst, Montgomerie and his regiment fought with George Washington, and Henry Bouquet at the expedition against Fort Duquesne, in 1758. In 1760, he commanded an expedition against the Cherokee during the Anglo-Cherokee War, Montgomeries expedition, which included 1,200 men, was successful in its mission. Montgomerie had several Cherokee villages destroyed, including Estatoe and he defeated the Cherokees, in 1760, at the Battle of Etchocy, and again defeated the Cherokees, in 1761, at the Battle of War-Womans Creek. Between 1767 and 1795, Montgomerie was the colonel of the 51st Regiment of Foot, during his service with the 51st, Montgomerie fought in the French Revolutionary Wars. Montgomerie rose through the ranks of the British Military, and became a Major General and he was Deputy Vice-Admiral of Irvine in 1777, within the Port of Irvine from Kelly Bridge to the Troon Point. He subsequently became a Lieutenant General, in 1777, in 1793, Montgomerie was commissioned a Full General. From 1795 until 1796, Montgomerie was the Colonel of the Royal Scots Greys, Montgomerie stood as a Whig in 1761, and found himself elected to two seats. He chose to give up Wigtown Burghs, to sit in the seat for Ayrshire and he served in the House of Commons from 1761 until 1768. In 1761, Montgomerie became an Equerry for Queen Charlotte and he was appointed Governor of Dumbarton Castle in 1764 and Deputy Ranger of St. Jamess Park and Deputy Ranger of Hyde Park in 1766. The 10th Earl died, in the morning hours, on 25 October 1769
11.
James Grant (British Army officer, born 1720)
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James Grant, Laird of Ballindalloch was a major general in the British Army during the American War of Independence. He served as Governor of East Florida from 1763 to 1771, Grant was born on the family estate of Ballindalloch in Banffshire in the Northeast of Scotland. He began his career by purchasing a commission as captain in the Royal Scots on 24 October 1744. The regiment was shipped to the Continent and Grant fought with them in the Battle of Fontenoy, by 1757, Grant was a major of the 77th Regiment of Foot, fighting in the French and Indian War. In 1758, he led part of the regiment in an expedition led by General John Forbes, on this expedition, he became acquainted with others who would also play larger parts in the American Revolutionary War, George Washington, Francis Marion, and Hugh Mercer, among others. He also gained a contempt for the colonial or militia troops that would colour his later views, in September, Grant was assigned to lead an advance part of around 800 men to determine the French strength at Fort Duquesne. The force was made up of militia, but he took along a number of officers from the regulars. He then decided to split his force hoping to encourage a French attack that he could surprise, having no wilderness experience, he was ambushed himself by Indians and French on 14 September 1758. At this engagement, the Battle of Fort Duquesne, the British force was repelled with 342 men killed, wounded or captured, the prisoners consisted of Major Grant and 18 of his men. He was paroled soon after, and tried to blame his defeat on the failure of the militia to follow orders. In 1761, he commanded an expedition against the Cherokee during the Anglo-Cherokee War, after being briefly stationed at Fort Ticonderoga, his regiment was moved to the Caribbean Theatre of the Seven Years War. They fought at the Siege of Havana, held by Spanish forces, when the war was over, the regiment was disbanded in America in 1763. With the Treaty of Paris, Britain gained control of Florida from the Spanish and they divided it into two colonies, and James Grant was named governor of East Florida in 1764. He moved to his capital at St. Augustine, established the Florida-Georgia border, stopped Indian raids with the Treaty of Fort Picolata, Grants ventures were ultimately profitable, but most attempts failed to produce results. He encouraged new agriculture, setting up trade in cotton, indigo, timber and he personally gained and developed several plantations as grants. Then, in 1771, illness forced him to return to England, patrick Tonyn replaced him as governor. Grant appointed Dr. David Yeats, the Secretary of the Colony, Yeats letters to Grant concerning the properties have long interested Florida colonial historians. Back home in Scotland, Grant was elected to Parliament in 1773 as an MP for Tain Burghs, in the period leading up to the American Revolutionary War, he became one of the most outspoken of the anti-American members
12.
Anglo-Cherokee War
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The Anglo–Cherokee War, was also known from the Anglo-European perspective as the Cherokee War, the Cherokee Uprising, or the Cherokee Rebellion. The war was a conflict between British forces in North America and Cherokee Indian tribes during the French and Indian War, the British and the Cherokee had been allies at the start of the war, but each party had suspected the other of betrayals. Tensions between British-American settlers and the Cherokee increased during the 1750s, culminating in open hostilities in 1758 and this action ensured the defeat of the Yamasee. The Cherokee then remained allies of the British until the French, at the 1754 outbreak of the war, the Cherokee were allies of the British, taking part in campaigns against Fort Duquesne and the Shawnee of the Ohio Country. In 1755, a band of Cherokee 130-strong under Ostenaco of Tamali took up residence in a town at the mouth of the Ohio River at the behest of the Iroquois. For several years, French agents from Fort Toulouse had been visiting the Overhill Cherokee on the Hiwassee and Tellico Rivers, the strongest pro-French Cherokee leaders were Mankiller of Talikwa, Old Caesar of Chatuga, and Raven of Ayuhwasi. The First Beloved Man of the nation, Kanagatoga, was very pro-French, as was his nephew, Kunagadoga, who succeeded him at his death in 1760. The former site of the Coosa Chiefdom was reoccupied in 1759 by a Muscogee contingent under Big Mortar in support of the pro-French Cherokee then residing in Great Tellico and this was a step toward his planned alliance of Muscogee, Cherokee, Shawnee, Chickasaw, and Catawba. Although such an alliance did not come into being until the days of Dragging Canoe, Big Mortar still rose to leading chief of the Muscogee after the French and Indian War. The Anglo–Cherokee War broke out in 1758 when Virginia militia attacked Moytoy of Citico in retaliation for the theft of horses by the Cherokee. These events ushered in a war which didnt end until 1761, the Cherokee were led by Aganstata of Chota, Attakullakulla of Tanasi, Ostenaco of Tomotley, Wauhatchie of the Lower Towns, and Round O of the Middle Towns. During the second year of the French and Indian War, the British had sought Cherokee assistance against the French, once the forts were built, the Cherokee raised close to 700 warriors to fight in western Virginia Colony under Ostenaco. Oconostota and Attakullakulla led another group to attack Fort Toulouse. In 1758, the Cherokee participated in the taking of Fort Duquesne However, while traveling through Virginia, on their way home, several Cherokee were murdered by Virginians. The Cherokee had been promised supplies, but misunderstood where they were to get them from, after taking some horses they believed were rightly theirs, several Virginians killed and scalped between 30 and 40 of them. Later, the Virginians claimed the scalps as those of Shawnees, while some Cherokee leaders still called for peace, others led retaliatory raids on outlying pioneer settlements. The Cherokee finally declared war against the British in 1759. A number of Muskogee under Big Mortar moved up to Coosawatie and these people had long been French allies in support of the Cherokee pro-French faction centered in Great Tellico
13.
Siege of Fort Loudoun
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During the French and Indian War the Cherokee were sought after as allies by the British and Provincial Colonial Governments to help contest the frontiers against the French and their Indian allies. An alliance was formed and both sides initially fulfilled each others expectations, the Cherokee provided warriors and in return the British and Provincials provided supplies and protection of the warriors homelands. However, the alliance unravelled and soon incidents by both sides provoked the Anglo-Cherokee War in 1758, once the forts were built, the Cherokee raised 400 warriors to fight in western Virginia Colony under Ostenaco. Oconostota and Attakullakulla led another group to attack Fort Toulouse. The Virginians in particular were desperate for Cherokee assistance against the French and it was named after General John Campbell, 4th Earl of Loudoun, the British Commander in Chief in North America. It was sited on the side of the Little Tennessee River on high ground about five miles below the Cherokee capitol town of Chota. The elongated diamond-shaped fort was designed by a German engineer, William Gerald de Brahm, who departed before completion on Christmas Day 1756. The earthen walls topped with wooden palisades 15 feet high and 100 feet long on each side, the moat was some 50 feet wide and there was a ravelin covering the front gate. When completed, operational and garrisoned by 90 regulars and 120 provincial troops in the summer of 1757 the troops moved to the fort. The fort remained dependent on white settlements nearly 200 miles east over the Appalachian Mountains for much of their supplies, the alliance between the Cherokee and the British began to unravel with the British expedition under General Forbes against Fort Dusquesne in 1758. The Cherokee felt their efforts were unappreciated, kanagatucko, then the leading chief of the Cherokee, ordered his warriors home. Later, a contingent of Cherokee warriors under Moytoy accompanied Virginian troops on a campaign against the Shawnee of the Ohio Country, during the expedition, the enemy proved elusive. After several weeks, the Tuscarora contingent left, while that of the Cherokee stayed, suspicious of the truth, the British soldiers disarmed and briefly detained them, and then chose to send them home. Some Cherokees, who had not been involved in the treachery, were bitter over this treatment, Virginia settlers got angry and banded together to pursue the Cherokee, attacking them and killing, scalping and mutilating 20 of the Indians, later collecting the bounty offered for enemy scalps. Although Dinwiddie, the lieutenant governor of Virginia, apologized other Virginians called them horse thieves, some Cherokees retaliated and the situation spun out of control. The new governor of South Carolina, William Henry Lyttelton, declared war on the Cherokee in 1759, the governor embargoed all shipments of gunpowder to the Cherokee and raised an army of 1,100 provincial troops which marched to confront the Lower Towns of the Cherokee. Desperate for ammunition for their fall and winter hunts, the nation sent a delegation of moderate chiefs to negotiate. The thirty-two chiefs were taken prisoner, as hostages, and, escorted by the army, were sent to Fort Prince George
14.
Fort Dobbs (North Carolina)
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Fort Dobbs was an 18th-century fort in the Yadkin–Pee Dee River Basin region of the Province of North Carolina, near what is now Statesville in Iredell County. Fort Dobbs primary structure was a blockhouse with log walls, surrounded by a palisade and it was intended to provide protection against Cherokee, Catawba, Shawnee, Delaware and French raids into North Carolina. The forts name honored Arthur Dobbs, the colonial Governor of North Carolina from 1754 to 1765, when in use, it was the only fort on the frontier between South Carolina and Virginia. Between 1756 and 1760, the blockhouse was garrisoned by a number of soldiers, many of whom were sent to fight in Pennsylvania. On February 27,1760, the fort was the site of an engagement between Cherokee warriors and provincial soldiers that ended in a victory for the provincials, Fort Dobbs was abandoned after 1766, and disappeared from the landscape. Archaeological work in the 20th century and historical research in 2005 and 2006 led to the discovery of the exact location. In 1747, approximately 100 men of age to serve in the colonial militia lived in North Carolina west of present-day Hillsborough. By 1754, six western counties—Orange, Granville, Johnston, Cumberland, Anson, the new frontier settlements required regular protection, as the settlers in the area attributed many crimes and forms of harassment to denizens of nearby Catawba and Cherokee towns. Furthermore, Governor Dobbs was concerned for his own investments, as he owned more than 200,000 acres of land on the Rocky River, approximately 15 miles south of the Fourth Creek Meeting House. The North Carolina Legislature set aside a sum of £10,000 for the construction of the fort in 1755, the total cost of the fort was only £1,000. Dobbs likely had a role in designing the fort, as he had designed at least one other fort in North Carolina, as well as a number of structures in Ireland. The land on which the fort was to be located was a part of a 560-acre tract owned first by one James Oliphant, then by a Fergus Sloan. Part of the tract was used for the Fourth Creek Congregation Meeting House in 1755. After construction was completed, Fort Dobbs was the military installation on the colonial frontier between Virginia and South Carolina. By June 1756, Waddell had substantially completed construction on the fort, the commissioners generally found the defenses of the rest of the North Carolina frontier to be inadequate. In 1756, the North Carolina General Assembly petitioned King George II for assistance, Catawba raiding parties even struck as far as the largest western settlement, Salisbury, breaking into a session of court held by Peter Henley, Royal Chief Justice of the Province of North Carolina. In 1759, Waddell ordered six swivel guns for use by North Carolinas military, oral tradition in Iredell County holds that two such swivel guns were mounted at Fort Dobbs, but evidence of the exact quantity present at the fort has not been conclusively established. Between 1756 and 1760, Fort Dobbs was used as a base of operations for Waddells company of provincials, Dobbs also employed Waddell and the fort to conduct diplomacy with the provinces native neighbors
15.
Battle of Echoee
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The Battle of Echoee, or Etchoe Pass, was a battle on June 27,1760, between the British and colonial force under Archibald Montgomerie and a force of Cherokee warriors under Seroweh. The encounter took place near the municipality of Otto, in Macon County. A third fort, built by Virginia, across the Little Tennessee near Chota was left unmanned, Ostenaco, a Cherokee leader, with 100 warriors joined Major Andrew Lewis with 200 Virginia Provincial troops in the depths of winter in February 1756. After six weeks, the expedition was out of supplies and had eaten their horses, the Cherokee, irritated by the performance of the Provincials decided to begin walking back towards Chota. The following year, the Cherokee joined a British army which was being put together in Pennsylvania under British General John Forbes, the Forbes campaign was plagued with logistical problems. Having promised goods to the various Indian warriors for their assistance, provisions were promised to the warriors traveling home, many with their families. These goods were supposed to be obtained at forts which were located along their way back to their homelands, on their way back, the Cherokee took some stray horses in Virginia to replace those they had lost. Virginia settlers got angry and banded together, pursuing the Cherokee, attacking them and killing, scalping and mutilating 20 of the Indians, although Dinwiddie, the lieutenant governor of Virginia, apologized some Virginians considered them horse thieves. Some Cherokees and Moytoy of Citico retaliated for the murders of Cherokee warriors at the hands of their colonial allies, the colonists actions and Cherokee reactions began a domino effect that ended with the murders of Cherokee hostages at Fort Prince George near Keowee. These events ushered in a war which didnt end until 1761, the Cherokee were led by Standing Turkey, Aganstata of Chota, Attakullakulla of Tanasi, Ostenaco of Tomotley, Wauhatchie of the Lower Towns, and Round O of the Middle Towns. The Cherokee sought allies among the other Indian tribes and help from the French but received no practical aid, the new governor of South Carolina, William Henry Lyttelton, declared war on the Cherokee in 1759. Desperate for ammunition for their fall and winter hunts, the Cherokee sent a delegation of moderate chiefs to negotiate. The thirty-two chiefs were taken prisoner, as hostages, and, escorted by the army, were sent to Fort Prince George. Three of the chiefs were released conditionally because Lyttelton thought this would ensure peace, Lyttelton returned to Charleston, but the Cherokee were now quite angry, and continued to attack frontier settlements into 1760. In February 1760, they attacked Fort Prince George in an attempt to rescue their hostages and his replacement killed all of the hostages and fended off the attack. The Cherokee also attacked Fort Ninety Six, but it withstood the siege, Fort Loudoun was also put under siege, and several lesser posts in the South Carolina back-country quickly fell to Cherokee raids. Governor Lyttelton appealed for help to Jeffrey Amherst, the British commander in North America. Amherst sent Archibald Montgomerie with an army of 1,300 to 1,500 troops including 400 in four companies of the Royal Scots and his second in command was Major James Grant
16.
Cherokee language
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Cherokee is an Iroquoian language spoken by the Cherokee people. It is the only Southern Iroquoian language and differs significantly from the other Iroquoian languages, Cherokee is a polysynthetic language and uses a unique syllabary writing system. Increasing numbers of Cherokee youth are renewing interest in the traditions, history, Cherokee is reportedly among the most difficult languages for native English speakers to acquire. This is in due to the polysynthetic nature of the language. Words are constructed to convey an assertion, its context, and a host of connotations about the speaker, the action, and the object of the action. The complexity of the Cherokee language is best exhibited in verbs, verbs must contain at minimum a pronominal prefix, a verb root, an aspect suffix, and a modal suffix. Cherokee is an Iroquoian language, and the only Southern Iroquoian language spoken today, linguists believe that the Cherokee people migrated to the southeast from the Great Lakes region about three thousand years ago, bringing with them their language. Some researchers have suggested the homeland of the proto-Iroquoian language resides in Appalachia, whyte contends, based on linguistic and molecular studies, that proto-Iroquoian speakers participated in cultural and economic exchanges along the north-south axis of the Appalachian Mountains. Before the development of the Cherokee syllabary in the 1820s, Cherokee was a language only. The Cherokee syllabary is a syllabary invented by Sequoyah to write the Cherokee language in the late 1810s and his creation of the syllabary is particularly noteworthy in that he could not previously read any script. Sequoyah had some contact with English literacy and the Roman alphabet through his proximity to Fort Loundon and he was exposed to English literacy through his white father. His limited understanding of the Roman alphabet, including the ability to recognize the letters of his name, when developing the written language, Sequoyah first experimented with logograms, but his system later developed into a syllabary. In his system, each represents a syllable rather than a single phoneme. Some symbols do resemble the Latin, Greek and even the Cyrillic scripts letters, around 1809, Sequoyah began work to create a system of writing for the Cherokee language. At first he sought to create a character for word in the language. He spent a year on this effort, leaving his fields unplanted, so that his friends and his wife is said to have burned his initial work, believing it to be witchcraft. He finally realized that this approach was impractical because it would require too many pictures to be remembered and he then tried making a symbol for every idea, but this also caused too many problems to be practical. Sequoyah did not succeed until he gave up trying to represent entire words, after approximately a month, he had a system of 86 characters, some of which were Latin letters he obtained from a spelling book
17.
Red coat (military uniform)
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Red coat or Redcoat is a historical item of military clothing used widely, though not exclusively worn, by most regiments of the British Army from the 17th to the 20th centuries. From the mid-17th century to the 19th century, the uniform of most British soldiers included a red coat or coatee. From 1873 onwards, the more vivid shade of scarlet was adopted for all ranks, having previously been worn only by officers, sergeants, the Red Coat has evolved from being the British infantrymans ordinary uniform to a garment retained only for ceremonial purposes. Its official adoption dates from February 1645, when the Parliament of England passed the New Model Army ordinance. The new English Army was formed of 22,000 men, divided into 12 foot regiments of 600 men each, one regiment of 1000 men. The infantry regiments wore coats of Venetian red with white facings, a contemporary comment on the New Model Army dated 7 May 1645 stated the men are Redcoats all, the whole army only are distinguished by the several facings of their coats. There had been many isolated instances of red military clothing pre-dating its general adoption by the New Model Army, the uniforms of the Yeoman of the Guard and the Yeomen Warders have traditionally been in Tudor red and gold. The Gentlemen Pensioners of James I had worn red with yellow feathers, at Edgehill, the first battle of the Civil War, the Kings people had worn red coats, as had at least two Parliamentary regiments. None of these constituted the national uniform that the red coat was later to become. However, in Ireland during the reign of Elizabeth, the soldiers of the queens Lord Lieutenant of Ireland were referred to as red coats by the native Irish from the colour of their uniforms and this is clear from both Irish and English primary sources. Note the Irish word is casóg but the word may be translated as coat, cloak, or even uniform and this is not an isolated reference. OSullivan alludes to two other encounters in which the Irish won the day against English red coats, the other relates to a rout by William Burke, Lord of Bealatury in 1599 of English recruits clad in red coats. English sources confirm that Crown troops in Ireland wore red coats/cloaks/uniforms/clothing, outside of Ireland, the English Red Coat made its first appearance on a European continental battlefield at the Battle of the Dunes in 1658. A Protectorate army had landed at Calais the previous year and every man had a new red coat. The English name from the battle comes from the major engagement carried out by the red-coats, to the surprise of continental observers they stormed sand-dunes 150 feet high fighting experienced Spanish soldiers from their summits with musket fire and push of pike. The adoption and continuing use of red by most British/English soldiers after the Restoration was the result of rather than policy. Red was by no means universal at first, with grey, There is no known basis for the myth that red coats were favoured because they did not show blood stains. Blood does in fact show on red clothing as a black stain, prior to 1707 colonels of regiments made their own arrangements for the manufacture of uniforms under their command
18.
North America
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North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean, and to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers, about 16. 5% of the land area. North America is the third largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 565 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7. 5% of the worlds population, North America was reached by its first human populations during the last glacial period, via crossing the Bering land bridge. The so-called Paleo-Indian period is taken to have lasted until about 10,000 years ago, the Classic stage spans roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. The Pre-Columbian era ended with the migrations and the arrival of European settlers during the Age of Discovery. Present-day cultural and ethnic patterns reflect different kind of interactions between European colonists, indigenous peoples, African slaves and their descendants, European influences are strongest in the northern parts of the continent while indigenous and African influences are relatively stronger in the south. Because of the history of colonialism, most North Americans speak English, Spanish or French, the Americas are usually accepted as having been named after the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci by the German cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann. Vespucci, who explored South America between 1497 and 1502, was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a different landmass previously unknown by Europeans. In 1507, Waldseemüller produced a map, in which he placed the word America on the continent of South America. He explained the rationale for the name in the accompanying book Cosmographiae Introductio, for Waldseemüller, no one should object to the naming of the land after its discoverer. He used the Latinized version of Vespuccis name, but in its feminine form America, following the examples of Europa, Asia and Africa. Later, other mapmakers extended the name America to the continent, In 1538. Some argue that the convention is to use the surname for naming discoveries except in the case of royalty, a minutely explored belief that has been advanced is that America was named for a Spanish sailor bearing the ancient Visigothic name of Amairick. Another is that the name is rooted in a Native American language, the term North America maintains various definitions in accordance with location and context. In Canadian English, North America may be used to refer to the United States, alternatively, usage sometimes includes Greenland and Mexico, as well as offshore islands
19.
French and Indian War
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The French and Indian War comprised the North American theater of the worldwide Seven Years War of 1754–1763. At the start of the war, the French North American colonies had a population of roughly 60,000 European settlers, the outnumbered French particularly depended on the Indians. Following months of localised conflict, the nations declared war on each other in 1756. The name French and Indian War, used mainly in the United States, British and European historians use the term the Seven Years War, as do English speaking Canadians. French Canadians call it La guerre de la Conquête or the Fourth Intercolonial War, fighting took place primarily along the frontiers between New France and the British colonies, from Virginia in the south to Newfoundland in the north. It began with a dispute over control of the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers, called the Forks of the Ohio, and the site of the French Fort Duquesne. The dispute erupted into violence in the Battle of Jumonville Glen in May 1754, in 1755, six colonial governors in North America met with General Edward Braddock, the newly arrived British Army commander, and planned a four-way attack on the French. None succeeded, and the effort by Braddock proved a disaster, he lost the Battle of the Monongahela on July 9,1755. In 1755, the British captured Fort Beauséjour on the border separating Nova Scotia from Acadia, orders for the deportation were given by William Shirley, Commander-in-Chief, North America, without direction from Great Britain. The Acadians, both captured in arms and those who had sworn the loyalty oath to His Britannic Majesty, were expelled. Native Americans were likewise driven off their land to make way for settlers from New England, after the disastrous 1757 British campaigns, the British government fell. France concentrated its forces against Prussia and its allies in the European theatre of the war, between 1758 and 1760, the British military launched a campaign to capture the Colony of Canada. They succeeded in capturing territory in surrounding colonies and ultimately the city of Quebec, though the British later lost the Battle of Sainte-Foy west of Quebec, the French ceded Canada in accordance with the Treaty of Paris. The outcome was one of the most significant developments in a century of Anglo-French conflict, France ceded its territory east of the Mississippi to Great Britain. It ceded French Louisiana west of the Mississippi River to its ally Spain, in compensation for Spains loss to Britain of Florida. Frances colonial presence north of the Caribbean was reduced to the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, the conflict is known by multiple names. In British America, wars were often named after the sitting British monarch, such as King Williams War or Queen Annes War. As there had already been a King Georges War in the 1740s, British colonists named the war in King Georges reign after their opponents
20.
Great Britain in the Seven Years' War
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Great Britain was one of the major participants in the Seven Years War which lasted between 1756 and 1763. The war started poorly for Britain, which suffered many deaths from the plague and scurvy, and at the hands of France in North America during 1754–55, and in the loss of Minorca in 1756. The same year Britains major ally Austria switched sides and aligned itself with France, for the next seven years these two nations were ranged against a growing number of enemy powers led by France. In 1759 Britain enjoyed an Annus Mirabilis with success over the French on the continent, in North America, in 1761 Britain also came into conflict with Spain. The following year British forces captured Havana and Manila, the western and eastern capitals of the Spanish Empire, by this time the Pitt-Newcastle ministry had collapsed, Britain was short of credit and the generous peace terms offered by France and its allies were accepted. Through the crown, Britain was allied to the Electorate of Hanover and Kingdom of Ireland and it also directed the military strategy of its various colonies around the world including British America. In India British possessions were administered by the East India Company, by the early 1750s many saw another major war as imminent, and Austria was preparing its forces for an attempt to retake Silesia from Prussia. The British Prime Minister, the Duke of Newcastle, had acceded to the premiership in 1754 following the death of his brother Henry Pelham. Newcastle had thirty years experience as a Secretary of State and was a figure on the diplomatic scene. Despite enjoying a majority in the House of Commons he was extremely cautious and vulnerable to attacks led by men such as William Pitt. Newcastle fervently believed that peace in Europe was possible so long as the Old System, one of the major concerns for the British government of the era was colonial expansion. During the eighteenth century the British colonies in North America had become more populous, the territory most prized by the new settlers was the Ohio Country, which was also claimed by France. As well as having potential, it was considered strategically key. French control of territory would block British expansion westwards and eventually French territory would surround the British colonies. A number of delegations to London urged the government to take more decisive action in the Ohio dispute. The Ohio country located between Britains Thirteen Colonies and Frances New France saw France and Britain clash, in 1753 the French sent an expedition south from Montreal that began constructing forts in the upper reaches of the Ohio River. Washington and some native allies ambushed a company of French scouts at the Battle of Jumonville Glen in late May 1754, in the skirmish the French envoy Joseph Coulon de Villiers de Jumonville was left dead, leading to a diplomatic incident. The French responded in force from Fort Duquesne, and in July Washington was forced to surrender at the Battle of Fort Necessity, despite the conflict between them, the two nations were not yet formally at war
21.
Province of Carolina
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The Province of Carolina was an English and later a British colony of North America. Carolina was founded in what is modern day North Carolina, Sir Robert Heath, attorney-general of King Charles I of England, was granted the Cape Fear region of America, incorporated as the Province of Carolina, in 1629. The charter was unrealized and ruled invalid, and a new charter was issued to a group of eight English noblemen, Charles II granted the land to the eight Lords Proprietors in return for their financial and political assistance in restoring him to the throne in 1660. Charles II intended for the newly created province to serve as an English bulwark to contest lands claimed by Spanish Florida, led informally by Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury, the Province of Carolina was controlled from 1663 to 1729 by these lords and their heirs. In 1691, dissent over the governance of the led to the appointment of a deputy governor to administer the northern half of Carolina. The division between the northern and southern governments became complete in 1712, but both remained in the hands of the same group of proprietors. A rebellion against the proprietors broke out in 1719 which led to the appointment of a governor for South Carolina in 1720. After nearly a decade in which the British government sought to locate and buy out the proprietors, both North and South Carolina became royal colonies in 1729. On October 30,1629, King Charles I of England granted a patent to Sir Robert Heath for the south of 36 degrees and north of 31 degrees, under the name, in honor of that king. Heath wanted the land for French Huguenots, but when Charles restricted use of the land to members of the Church of England, Heath assigned his grant to George, King Charles I was executed in 1649 and Heath fled to France where he died. Following the 1660 restoration of the monarchy, Heaths heirs attempted to reassert their claim to the land, the eight were called Lords Proprietors or simply Proprietors. The 1663 charter granted the Lords Proprietor title to all of the land from the border of the Virginia Colony at 36 degrees north to 31 degrees north. The charter also granted all the land, between these northerly and southerly bounds, from the Atlantic, westward to the shores of the Pacific Ocean, of the eight, the one who demonstrated the most active interest in Carolina was Lord Shaftesbury. The Lords Proprietors, operating under their charter, were able to exercise their authority with nearly the independence of the king himself. Within three generations of Columbus, the Spanish from their Florida base had issued up the coast permeating North Carolina, a hostile Virginia tribe drove them back to Georgia. A Scottish contingent had meanwhile settled in South Carolina only to be extirpated by the Spanish, the Spanish were again beaten back to Georgia. The Albemarle Settlements, preceding the royal charter by ten years, by 1664, the region was organized as Albemarle County. In 1663, Captain William Hilton had noted the presence of a cross erected by the Spaniards that still stood before the town meeting house of the Indians living at what later became Port Royal
22.
Yamasee War
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Some of the Native American Indian groups played a minor role while others launched attacks throughout South Carolina in an attempt to destroy the colony. Native Americans killed hundreds of colonists and destroyed many settlements, traders in the field were killed throughout what is now southeastern United States. Abandoning settled frontiers, people fled to Charles Town, where starvation set in as supplies ran low, the survival of the South Carolina colony was in question during 1715. The tide turned in early 1716 when the Cherokee sided with the colonists against the Creek, the last of South Carolinas major Native American foes withdrew from the conflict in 1717, bringing a fragile peace to the colony. The Yamasee War was one of the most disruptive and transformational conflicts of colonial America and it was one of the American Indians most serious challenges to European dominance. For over a year the colony faced the possibility of annihilation, about 7% of South Carolinas white citizenry was killed, making the war bloodier than King Philips War, which is often cited as North Americas bloodiest war involving Native Americans. The geopolitical situation for British, Spanish, and French colonies, the war marks the end of the early colonial era of the American South. The Yamasee War and its aftermath contributed to the emergence of new Indian confederated nations, such as the Muscogee Creek, the origin of the war was complex. Reasons for fighting differed among the many Indian groups who participated, the Tuscarora War and its lengthy aftermath played a major role in the outbreak of the Yamasee War. The Tuscarora, an Iroquoian-speaking tribe of the interior, began attacking colonial settlements of North Carolina in 1711, South Carolina settlers mustered armies and campaigned twice against the Tuscarora, in 1712 and 1713. These armies were made up mainly of allied Indian troops, the Yamasee had been strong military allies of South Carolina colonists for many years. Yamasee warriors made up the core of both Carolina armies, other Indians were recruited over a large area from diverse tribes that in some cases were traditional enemies of one another. This military collaboration brought Indians of the region into closer contact with one another. The Indians saw the disagreements and weaknesses of the British colonies, as South Carolina, North Carolina, essentially all of the tribes that helped South Carolina during the Tuscarora War joined in attacking settlers in the colony during the Yamasee War, just two or three years later. The Yamasee emerged during the 17th century in the frontier between South Carolina and Spanish Florida. At first allied with the Spanish, the Yamasee moved north in the late 17th century and they lived near the mouth of the Savannah River and around Port Royal Sound. For years, the Yamasee profited from their relation with the British, by 1715, they found it difficult to obtain the two trade items most desired by the British—deerskins and Indian slaves. Some historians have suggested that when the British took a census of their people that year, with demand for deerskins rising over an ever-larger region, deer had become rare in Yamasee territory
23.
Fort Duquesne
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Fort Duquesne was a fort established by the French in 1754, at the convergence point of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers in what is now downtown Pittsburgh in the U. S. state of Pennsylvania. It was destroyed by the British, and replaced by Fort Pitt in 1758, the site of both forts is now occupied by Point State Park, where the outlines of the two forts have been laid in brick. Englishman William Trent had established a successful trading post at the forks as early as the 1740s. Both the French and the British were keen to gain advantage in the area, as the area was within the drainage basin of the Mississippi River, the French claimed it as theirs. Lieutenant Governor of the Virginia Colony, Robert Dinwiddie, saw this as threatening to the claims to land in the area by Virginians. Washington reached Fort Le Boeuf in December and was rebuffed by the French. Following Washingtons return to Virginia in January 1754, Dinwiddie sent Virginians to build Fort Prince George at the Forks of the Ohio, work began on the fort on February 17. By April 18, a much larger French force of five hundred under the command of Claude-Pierre Pécaudy de Contrecœur arrived at the forks, the French knocked down the tiny British fort and built Fort Duquesne, named in honor of Marquis Duquesne, the governor-general of New France. The fort was built on the model as Fort Frontenac on Lake Ontario. Meanwhile, Washington, newly promoted to Colonel of the newly created Virginia Regiment, set out on 2 April 1754 with a force to build a road to. Washington was at Wills Creek in south central Pennsylvania when he received news of the forts surrender, on May 25, Washington assumed command of the expedition upon the death of Colonel Joshua Fry. Two days later, Washington encountered a Canadian scouting party near a place now known as Jumonville Glen, Washington attacked the Canadians killing 10 in the early morning hours, and took 21 prisoners, of whom many were killed by the natives. More importantly for world history, the Battle of Jumonville Glen is widely considered the start of the French and Indian War. Washington then ordered construction of Fort Necessity at a large clearing known as the Great Meadows, on 3 July 1754, the counterattacking French and Canadians forced Washington to surrender Fort Necessity, but allowed Washington and his men to return home without their armaments. Even though Fort Duquesnes location at the forks looked strong on a map—controlling the confluence of three rivers—the reality was rather different, the site was low, swampy, and prone to flooding. In addition, the position was dominated by highlands located directly across the Monongahela River, Pécaudy de Contrecœur was preparing to abandon the fort in the face of Braddocks advance in 1755, and was only saved when the advancing British force was annihilated. The French held Fort Duquesne during the French and Indian War, the French held the fort successfully early in the war, turning back the expedition led by General Edward Braddock during the 1755 Battle of the Monongahela. George Washington served as one of General Braddocks aides, a smaller attack by James Grant in September 1758 was repulsed with heavy losses
24.
Pittsburgh
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Pittsburgh is a city in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania in the United States, and is the county seat of Allegheny County. The city proper has a population of 304,391. The metropolitan population of 2,353,045 is the largest in both the Ohio Valley and Appalachia, the second-largest in Pennsylvania, and the 26th-largest in the U. S. The city features 30 skyscrapers, two inclines, a fortification and the Point State Park at the confluence of the rivers. Aside from steel, Pittsburgh has led in manufacturing of aluminum, glass, shipbuilding, petroleum, foods, sports, transportation, computing, autos, and electronics. For part of the 20th century, Pittsburgh was behind only New York and Chicago in corporate headquarters employment, Americas 1980s deindustrialization laid off area blue-collar workers and thousands of downtown white-collar workers when the longtime Pittsburgh-based world headquarters moved out. The area has served also as the federal agency headquarters for cyber defense, software engineering, robotics, energy research. The area is home to 68 colleges and universities, including research and development leaders Carnegie Mellon University, the region is a hub for Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design, sustainable energy, and energy extraction. Pittsburgh was named in 1758 by General John Forbes, in honor of British statesman William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham. The current pronunciation, which is unusual in English speaking countries, is almost certainly a result of a printing error in some copies of the City Charter of March 18,1816. The error was repeated commonly enough throughout the rest of the 19th century that the pronunciation was lost. After a public campaign the original spelling was restored by the United States Board on Geographic Names in 1911. The area of the Ohio headwaters was long inhabited by the Shawnee, the first known European to enter the region was the French explorer/trader Robert de La Salle from Quebec during his 1669 expedition down the Ohio River. European pioneers, primarily Dutch, followed in the early 18th century, Michael Bezallion was the first to describe the forks of the Ohio in a 1717 manuscript, and later that year European fur traders established area posts and settlements. In 1749, French soldiers from Quebec launched an expedition to the forks to unite Canada with French Louisiana via the rivers, during 1753–54, the British hastily built Fort Prince George before a larger French force drove them off. The French built Fort Duquesne based on LaSalles 1669 claims, the French and Indian War, the North American front of the Seven Years War, began with the future Pittsburgh as its center. British General Edward Braddock was dispatched with Major George Washington as his aide to take Fort Duquesne, the British and colonial force were defeated at Braddocks Field. General John Forbes finally took the forks in 1758, Forbes began construction on Fort Pitt, named after William Pitt the Elder while the settlement was named Pittsborough
25.
Shawnee
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The Shawnee are an Algonquian-speaking ethnic group indigenous to North America. Pushed west by European-American pressure, the Shawnee migrated to Missouri and Kansas, Other Shawnee did not remove to Oklahoma until after the Civil War. The Shawnee language, an Algonquian language, was spoken by 200 people in 2002, the language is written in the Latin script. It has a dictionary and portions of the Bible were translated into Shawnee, some scholars believe that the Shawnee are descendants of the people of the precontact Fort Ancient culture of the Ohio region, although this is not universally accepted. Fort Ancient culture flourished from 1000 to 1650 CE among a people who predominantly inhabited lands along the Ohio River in areas of southern Ohio, northern Kentucky, Fort Ancient culture was once thought to have been an extension of the Mississippian culture. But, scholars now believe Fort Ancient culture developed independently and was descended from the Hopewell culture, uncertainty surrounds the fate of the Fort Ancient people. There is a gap in the record between the most recent Fort Ancient sites and the oldest sites of the Shawnee. The latter were recorded by European explorers as occupying this area at the time of encounter, the Shawnee traditionally considered the Lenape of the East Coast mid-Atlantic region, who were also Algonquian speaking, as their grandfathers. The Algonquian nations of present-day Canada regarded the US Shawnee as their southernmost branch, along the East Coast, the Algonquian-speaking tribes were mostly located in coastal areas, from Quebec to the Carolinas. Algonquian languages have similar to the archaic shawano meaning south. However, the stem šawa- does not mean south in Shawnee, in one Shawnee tale, Sawage is the deity of the south wind. Curtin translates Sawage as it thaws, referring to the weather of the south. šaawaki is attested as the spirit of the South, or the South Wind, in account, in one of Voegelins tales. Europeans reported encountering Shawnee over a geographic area. One of the earliest mentions of the Shawnee may be a 1614 Dutch map showing some Sawwanew located just east of the Delaware River, later 17th-century Dutch sources also place them in this general location. Accounts by French explorers in the same century usually located the Shawnee along the Ohio River, where the French encountered them on forays from eastern Canada, a Shawnee town might have from forty to one hundred bark-covered houses similar in construction to Iroquois longhouses. Each village usually had a house or council house, perhaps sixty to ninety feet long. According to one European legend, some Shawnee were descended from a party sent by Chief Opechancanough, ruler of the Powhatan Confederacy 1618–1644, the party was led by his son, Sheewa-a-nee
26.
Ohio Country
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The Ohio Country was the name used in the 18th century for the regions of North America west of the Appalachian Mountains and in the region of the upper Ohio River south of Lake Erie. This area was disputed in the century by France and Great Britain. One of the first frontier regions of the United States, the area encompassed roughly all of present-day Ohio, northwestern West Virginia, western Pennsylvania, and eastern Indiana. After the Revolution and resolution of claims to the territory, the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 established the boundaries of the Northwest Territory. The territory included all the land of the United States west of Pennsylvania and it covered all of the modern states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and the northeastern part of Minnesota. The area covered more than 260,000 square miles, in the 17th century, the area north of the Ohio River had been occupied by the Algonquian-speaking Shawnee and some Siouan language-speaking tribes. The Iroquois conquered and absorbed the Erie tribe, who were one of the Iroquoian language family, the Ohio Country remained largely uninhabited for decades, and was used primarily as a hunting ground by the Iroquois. In the 1720s, a number of Native American groups began to migrate to the Ohio Country from the East, by 1724, Delaware Indians had established the village of Kittanning on the Allegheny River in present-day western Pennsylvania. With them came those Shawnee who had settled in the east. Other bands of the scattered Shawnee tribe began to return to the Ohio Country in the decades that followed, a number of Seneca and other Iroquois also migrated to the Ohio Country, moving away from the French and British imperial rivalries south of Lake Ontario. The Seneca were the westernmost of the Iroquois nations based in New York, in the late 1740s and the second half of the 18th century, the British angled for control of the territory. In 1749, the British Crown, via the colonial government of Virginia, with the arrival of the Europeans, both Great Britain and France claimed the area and both sent fur traders into the area to do business with the Ohio Country Indians. The Iroquois League claimed the region by right of conquest, the rivalry between the two European nations, the Iroquois, and the Ohio natives for control of the region played an important part in the French and Indian War from 1754 through 1760. After initially remaining neutral, the Ohio Country Indians largely sided with the French, armed with supplies and guns from the French, they raided via the Kittanning Path against British settlers east of the Alleghenies. After they destroyed Fort Granville in the summer of 1756, the colonial governor John Penn ordered Lt. Colonel John Armstrong to destroy the Shawnee villages west of the Alleghenies, the British defeated the French and their allies. Meanwhile, other British and colonial forces drove the French from Fort Duquesne and building Fort Pitt, in the 1763 Treaty of Paris, France ceded control of the entire Ohio region to Great Britain, without consulting its native allies, who still believed they had territorial claims. Colonies such as Pennsylvania and Virginia claimed some of the lands by their original charters. The British ordered the settlers to leave or get special permission to stay
27.
Ostenaco
–
Ostenaco, lived c.1703 –1780. He preferred to go by the title he had earned at any early age, Utsidihi, He was known as a great orator. Ostenaco was a war chief of the Cherokee town Tomotley, and had resided previously in Great Tellico and he was probably born in Great Hiwassee, finally migrating later in life to the town of Ultiwa on Ooltewah Creek during the Cherokee–American wars. During the French and Indian War, Ostenaco at first aided the Colony of Virginia against the French, in 1756, he led 130 Cherokees in a joint Virginia-Cherokee campaign on the frontier of what is now West Virginia. In 1757 and 1758, his war party raided the French stronghold at Fort Duquesne, Ostenaco gave a speech and ceremonially buried a hatchet in the ground, symbolizing a state of peace between the English and the Cherokee. On January 2,1762, Timberlake returned to Tomotley with Ostenaco, Timberlake spent the next few weeks studying Cherokee habits and making notes for his maps of the Overhill country. At the end of January, rumors began trickling in from Cherokee scouts of renewed hostilities with rival tribes to the north, Timberlake grew anxious and begged Ostenaco to guide him back to Virginia. Ostenaco reluctantly agreed, and the party set out on March 10,1762, the party arrived in Williamsburg in early April. While in Williamsburg, Timberlake and Ostenaco attended a party at William & Mary College at which Ostenaco professed his desire to meet the king of England. A young Thomas Jefferson, then a student at the college, later wrote of Ostenaco, I knew much of the great Outassete and he was always the guest of my father on his journeys to and from Williamsburg. I was in his camp when he made his great farewell oration to his people the evening before he departed for England. The moon was in full splendour, and to her he seemed to address himself in his prayers for his own safety on the voyage, in May 1762, Timberlake, Sumter, and three distinguished Cherokee leaders, including Ostenaco, departed for London. Arriving in early June, the Cherokee were an immediate attraction, the poet Oliver Goldsmith waited for three hours to meet the Cherokee, and offered a gift to Ostenaco. They sat for Sir Joshua Reynolds to take their portraits, the Cherokee returned to North America with Sergeant Sumter on about August 25,1762. During the Second Cherokee War, Ostenaco was the war leader of the Cherokee Lower Towns in western South Carolina/northeast Georgia. In 1776 he led their attack against the Province of Georgia, after the destruction of the Lower Towns in the retaliation which followed, Ostenaco led his people west. The majority resettled in what is now far northern Georgia, with Ustanali as their chief town, some followed him into the Cherokee–American wars with Dragging Canoe, and settled with him in the Chickamauga region at the town of Ultiwa. Ostenaco died at the home of his grandson, Richard Timberlake, evans, E. Raymond, Notable Persons in Cherokee History, Ostenaco, Journal of Cherokee Studies, Cherokee, Museum of the Cherokee Indian,1, 41–54 Timberlake, Henry, Williams, Samuel, eds
28.
Tomotley
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Tomotley is a prehistoric and historic Native American site in Monroe County, Tennessee, in the southeastern United States. The Tomotley site is now submerged by Tellico Lake, an impoundment of the Little Tennessee River managed by the Tennessee Valley Authority, the site is visible from Toqua Beach and the Toqua Boat Ramp, both of which are managed by the Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency. The impoundment of the river in 1979 by Tellico Dam created Tellico Lake, which covers the rivers lower 33 miles as well as the lower 22 miles of its tributary, the Tellico River. The Tomotley site was situated along the bank of the Little Tennessee just north of the rivers confluence with Toqua Creek. The Overhill Cherokee village of Toqua and its associated prehistoric site was located on the side of Toqua Creek. Toqua Beach and the Toqua Boat Ramp, which overlook the Tomotley site, are located along Tennessee State Route 360, the root of the name Tomotley is unknown, although it is generally believed to have originated before the Cherokee occupation. The ethnologist, James Mooney, suggested a possible Creek origin, pointing out the similarity to the Creek town of Tamali. Tomotley first appears in the European colonial historical record in 1756 under the governorship of Attakullakulla and that same year, a small English force under Captain Raymond Demeré arrived in the area to build and garrison Fort Loudoun. The garrison was greeted at Tomotley by Kanagatucko, who told Demeré, I am now old and my life is not more than an inch long. William de Brahm, who designed the fort, resided at Tomotley while the fort was being constructed in late 1756, around this time, a sharp political rift occurred between pro-French and pro-English factions in the Cherokee hierarchy. When pro-French sentiments began to prevail in the key Overhill town of Great Tellico, its pro-English headman, by the time Henry Timberlake visited the Little Tennessee Valley on his peace mission in 1761, Ostenaco was governor of Tomotley. During the American Revolution and Cherokee–American wars, most of the Overhill towns were destroyed by American forces, Tomotleys location at a strategic ford along the Little Tennessee led to its being the first of the Overhill towns captured by William Christians expedition in 1776. When John Sevier invaded the three years later, he reported that Tomotley was still in ruins. The first major archaeological investigation at the Tomotley site was conducted by J. W. Emmert of the Smithsonian Institution in the 1880s, Emmert located two mounds at the site, one of which was 8 feet high and had a diameter of 58 feet. In anticipation of the inundation of the lower Little Tennessee Valley by the creation of Tellico Lake, test excavations were conducted at the Tomotley site that same year in an attempt to locate the historical village. As the Tellico Dam project stalled, the University of Tennessee was able to more extensive excavations at Tomotley in 1973,1974. The excavations located 19 Cherokee and pre-Cherokee structures, including Tomotleys councilhouse,18 human burials, and several thousand ceramic, stone, excavations also uncovered a number of Euro-American artifacts, some of which may have originated with the Fort Loudoun garrison. The dwellings uncovered at Tomotley provided some of the strongest evidence of non-Overhill occupation, of the 19 structures uncovered at Tomotley, one was octagonal, and the rest were either square or rectangular in shape
29.
Ohio River
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The Ohio River, which streams westward from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, to Cairo, Illinois, is the largest tributary, by volume, of the Mississippi River in the United States. The 981-mile river flows through or along the border of six states, through its largest tributary, the Tennessee River, the basin includes many of the states of the southeastern U. S. It is the source of drinking water for three million people and it is named in Iroquoian or Seneca, Ohi, yó, lit. Good River or Shawnee, Pelewathiipi and Spelewathiipi, the river had great significance in the history of the Native Americans, as numerous civilizations formed along its valley. For thousands of years, Native Americans used the river as a major transportation, in 1669, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle led a French expedition to the Ohio River, becoming the first Europeans to see it. After European-American settlement, the served as a border between present-day Kentucky and Indian Territories. It was a transportation route for pioneers during the westward expansion of the early U. S. In his Notes on the State of Virginia published in 1781–82, Thomas Jefferson stated and its current gentle, waters clear, and bosom smooth and unbroken by rocks and rapids, a single instance only excepted. During the 19th century, the river was the boundary of the Northwest Territory. Where the river was narrow, it was the way to freedom for thousands of slaves escaping to the North, many helped by free blacks and whites of the Underground Railroad resistance movement. The Ohio River is a transition area, as its water runs along the periphery of the humid subtropical. It is inhabited by fauna and flora of both climates, in winter, it regularly freezes over at Pittsburgh but rarely further south toward Cincinnati and Louisville. At Paducah, Kentucky, in the south, near the Ohios confluence with the Mississippi, Paducah was founded there because it is the northernmost ice-free reach of the Ohio. The Ohio River is formed by the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers at Point State Park in Pittsburgh, from there, it flows northwest through Allegheny and Beaver counties, before making an abrupt turn to the south-southwest at the West Virginia–Ohio–Pennsylvania triple-state line. From there, it forms the border between West Virginia and Ohio, upstream of Wheeling, West Virginia, the river then follows a roughly southwest and then west-northwest course until Cincinnati, before bending to a west-southwest course for most of its length. The course forms the borders of West Virginia and Kentucky. The Ohio drains parts of 15 states in four regions, northeast New York, a small area of the southern border along the headwaters of the Allegheny. Pennsylvania, a corridor from the corner to north central border
30.
Iroquois
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The Iroquois or Haudenosaunee are a historically powerful northeast Native American confederacy. The Iroquois have absorbed many other peoples into their cultures as a result of warfare, adoption of captives, the historic Erie, Susquehannock, Wyandot, and St. Lawrence Iroquoians, all independent peoples, spoke Iroquoian languages. In 2010, more than 45,000 enrolled Six Nations people lived in Canada, the most common name for the confederacy, Iroquois, is of somewhat obscure origin. The first time it appears in writing is in the account of Samuel de Champlain of his journey to Tadoussac in 1603, other spellings occurring in the earliest sources include Erocoise, Hiroquois, Hyroquoise, Irecoies, Iriquois, Iroquaes, Irroquois, and Yroquois. In the French spoken at the time, this would have been pronounced as or. In 1883, Horatio Hale wrote that the Charlevoix etymology was dubious, Hale suggested instead that the term came from Huron, and was cognate with Mohawk ierokwa they who smoke or Cayuga iakwai a bear. Hewitt responded to Hales etymology in 1888 by expressing doubt that either of those words even exist in the respective languages, a more modern etymology is that advocated by Gordon M. Day in 1968, who elaborates upon an earlier etymology given by Charles Arnaud in 1880. Arnaud had claimed that the word came from Montagnais irnokué, meaning terrible man, Day proposes a hypothetical Montagnais phrase irno kwédač, meaning a man, an Iroquois, as the origin of this term. More recently, Peter Bakker has proposed a Basque origin for Iroquois. g and he proposes instead that the word derives from hilokoa, from the Basque roots hil to kill, ko, and a. He also argues that the /l/ was rendered as /r/ since the former is not attested in the inventory of any language in the region. Thus the word according to Bakker is translatable as the killer people, a different term, Haudenosaunee, is the designation more commonly used by the Iroquois to refer to themselves. It is also preferred by scholars of Native American history who consider the name Iroquois to be derogatory in origin. An alternate designation, Ganonsyoni, is encountered as well. More transparently, the Iroquois confederacy is also referred to simply as the Six Nations. The history of the Iroquois Confederacy goes back to its formation by the Peacemaker in 1142, each nation within the Iroquoian family had a distinct language, territory and function in the League. Iroquois influence extended into present-day Canada, westward along the Great Lakes, the League is governed by a Grand Council, an assembly of fifty chiefs or sachems, each representing one of the clans of one of the nations. The original Iroquois League or Five Nations, occupied areas of present-day New York State up to the St. Lawrence River, west of the Hudson River. The League was composed of the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, in or close to 1722, the Tuscarora tribe joined the League, having migrated from the Carolinas after being displaced by Anglo-European settlement
31.
Fort Toulouse
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The French founded the fort in 1717, naming it for Louis-Alexandre de Bourbon, comte de Toulouse. The number of troops in garrison varied between 20 to 50 French Colonial Marines, living and working at the fort, the Marines traded extensively with the local Creek Native Americans and cultivated friendly relations with them. According to tradition, the French commander Captain Jean Baptiste Louis DeCourtel Marchand married the high-status Creek woman Sehoy in about 1720, later generations of Sehoys descendants include the Creek chiefs Alexander McGillivray, and William Weatherford, who inherited their status in the matrilineal tribe from their mothers clans. Due to the living conditions at the fort, which was neglected by the French government. They killed Captain Marchand and captured the other officers, tying them up leaving the fort. The imprisoned officers managed to escape, and with the help of nearby Creek, they captured the mutineers, by the early 1740s, conditions had improved at the fort. Many soldiers had married French women from Mobile or intermarried with the local Creek and they and other settlers developed numerous farms nearby, which led to improved food supplies. The humid climate caused deterioration of the fort by the late 1740s, under the direction of Captain Francois Saucier, soldiers finished the reconstruction of Fort Toulouse about 1751. It cost nearly half of the budget for the whole Louisiana colony. In 1763 the Treaty of Paris ended the French and Indian War, as the French had been defeated by the British and ceded their territory, the French garrison spiked their cannons and left for New Orleans and an eventual return to France for some. The British chose not to occupy the Fort, which collapsed into decay. In 1776 the naturalist William Bartram noted visiting the area while studying local flora, during the War of 1812 and the simultaneous Creek War, General Andrew Jackson encamped his troops on the site of the old Fort Toulouse. He ordered construction of a fort, which was named Fort Jackson by General Joseph Graham in honor of Jacksons victories against the Creek. The site was declared a National Historic Landmark by the Department of Interior in 1960, during the American Bicentennial, local groups supported reconstruction of Fort Toulouse. But the replica was built upon the outline of the much larger Fort Jackson rather than the historic French fort. In the 1980s the park was acquired by the Alabama Historical Commission and it dismantled the incorrect replica and constructed a replica of Fort Toulouse near its original site. This will allow for a reconstruction of Ft. Jackson on its site. Archeological excavations have been continuing at the site, supervised by Dr. Craig Sheldon of Auburn University at Montgomery, the fort is located southwest of Wetumpka, off of U. S. Highway 231
32.
Overhill Cherokee
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This name was used by 18th-century European traders and explorers from British colonies along the Atlantic coast, as they had to cross the mountains to reach these settlements. During and following the American Revolutionary War, in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the town of Tanasi became the namesake for the state of Tennessee. Many prominent Cherokee leaders, including Attakullakulla, Oconastota, Nancy Ward, in the 1970s, most of the former Overhill sites were submerged by the impoundment of the Little Tennessee River in a Tennessee Valley Authority project. Different cultures of indigenous peoples had lived along the river for 12,000 years, the Overhill settlements were concentrated around three rivers at the base of the Great Smoky Mountains and the Unicoi Mountains, in what are now Monroe and Polk counties in Tennessee. The northernmost of three rivers, the Little Tennessee, was the locus for a string of prominent Overhill settlements situated between modern-day Vonore and Calderwood Dam. Other important settlements were situated along the Hiwassee River south of modern Etowah and these were often found in the game-rich coves of the northern part of the range and near the junctions of major streams. Mialoquo – located in present-day Monroe County, on an island in the middle of the Little Tennessee River. This was just north of the modern U. S. Route 411 bridge, mooney believed Mialoquo might have been the village of Nilaque, which the naturalist John Bartram recorded visiting. The term Mialoquo means Great Island,35. 61534°N84. 24048°W /35.61534, -84.24048 Tuskegee – located at the confluence of the Tellico and Little Tennessee rivers south of modern-day Fort Loudoun State Park. Tuskegee was the birthplace of Sequoyah, noted as the first person to create a written alphabet. 35. 59167°N84. 20222°W /35.59167, -84.20222 Tomotley – located in present-day Monroe County, Timberlake reported a councilhouse in Tomotley that would sound a death hallow to signify the return of a war party. 35. 56984°N84. 17248°W /35.56984, -84.17248 Tanasi – located in present-day Monroe County, the town was the capital of the Overhill Cherokee c. The Little Tennessee was originally called the Tennessee, which was an alternate spelling of Tanasi. European-American settlers eventually applied the name to the entire state,35. 55005°N84. 13374°W /35.55005, -84.13374 Chota – located in present-day Monroe County, along the Little Tennessee River, about 10 miles south of modern-day Vonore. Chota was the de facto Cherokee capital in the mid-18th century, at the time of Timberlakes visit in 1761, Chota consisted of a large councilhouse, which could seat 500, and about 60 houses. The towns name is sometimes spelled Echota,35. 55507°N84. 13104°W /35.55507, -84.13104 Citico – located in present-day Monroe County, at the confluence of Citico Creek and the Little Tennessee River. The towns name is sometimes spelled Settaco,35. 54887°N84. 09891°W /35.54887, -84.09891 Chilhowee – located in present-day Blount and Monroe counties at the confluence of Abrams Creek and the Little Tennessee River. The junction of modern U. S. Route 129 and Foothills Parkway is nearby
33.
Hiwassee River
–
The river is 147 miles long. The river is dammed by the Tennessee Valley Authority in four locations, chatuge Dam, Mission Dam, Hiwassee Dam, and Apalachia Dam. The stretch of the river flows between Apalachia Dam and Apalachia Powerhouse features reduced flow and is shadowed by the John Muir Trail in Tennessees Cherokee National Forest. The river features Class I through Class III rapids, depending on water levels, after exiting the mountains through a gorge, the Hiwassee flows under US-411 and broadens, meandering through rural Polk and Bradley counties. The river crosses under U. S. Route 11 at Calhoun and Charleston, Tennessee, at this point the river interfaces with the impoundment of Chickamauga Dam, and many marshes and wetlands surround the main channel, providing areas for hunting and fishing. The Hiwassee passes under Interstate 75 on the border of McMinn, the Hiwassee continues westward to pass under TN-58s historic, and narrow, bridge on its way to the confluence with the Tennessee River. This area of the river is enjoyed by boaters, fishermen, major tributaries include Valley River, Nottely River, Coker Creek, Big Lost Creek, Spring Creek, Conasauga Creek, and Toccoa/Ocoee River. The Hiwassee River has been known by variant spellings. The best-known of these is Hiawassee, which is also the name of the Georgia town through which the river flows, other alternate spellings include Heia Wassea and Highwassee, and some less obvious related names include Eufasee, Eufassee, Euphasee and Quannessee. Some Cherokee say the name came from the Cherokee word Ayuhwasi, the Muskogee say the rivers name is the Koasati and Hitchiti, Creek language words for the copperhead snake. The river is known for its many copperheads, even today, various Muskogean ethnic groups occupied the region for many centuries before the arrival of the Cherokee. Spanish explorers visited the region in the 16th century, hernando de Soto probably crossed the Hiwassee River near its confluence with the Tennessee River at Hiwassee Island, in the spring of 1541 AD. Juan Pardo probably followed a trail that paralleled the river in 1567 AD, all town names and indigenous words that were recorded by de Sotos chroniclers in present-day Georgia, North Carolina and Tennessee, can be easily translated by contemporary Muskogean dictionaries. Most of the words are of the Koasati and Hitchiti languages, none of the words are Cherokee. The earliest European maps from the 17th century vaguely show the Hiwassee River Basin occupied by a branch of the Apalachee. The Kusa were one of the branches of the Upper Creek. The Tama-tli of the Altamaha River Basin in southeastern Georgia are known to have had a colony in the valley between Andrews, North Carolina and the Hiwassee River at Murphy, North Carolina. The initial contacts by English explorers and traders in the 1690s found most of the valley occupied by Muskogean
34.
Tellico River
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The Tellico River rises in the westernmost mountains of the U. S. state of North Carolina, but it flows mainly through Monroe County, Tennessee. With a length of 52.8 miles, it is a tributary of the Little Tennessee River. The Tellico River and its tributaries are renowned for their brook, brown. Upstream from Tellico Lake, above Tellico Plains, Tennessee, the Tellico is a trout stream. It meanders through a gorge before reaching the broad plains downstream of Tellico Plains. The Tellico River rises in the Unicoi Mountains near the Cherokee County/Graham County line, the North Carolina side includes the Upper Tellico Off-highway vehicle area. After the river crosses into Tennessee and enters the Cherokee National Forest, it is joined by its major tributaries, the Bald and North rivers. After exiting the mountains, the river enters Tellico Plains, a flat and isolated area carved out by the river and several tributaries, namely Morgan Creek. A 4-mile stretch of the river above Tellico Plains runs parallel to the Cherohala Skyway, beyond Tellico Plains, the river winds its way northward through rural Monroe County, Tennessee, before entering the slack waters of Tellico Lake. This lower section of the river absorbs several major streams, including Ballplay Creek, fort Loudoun, a reconstructed 18th-century fort that is now the focus of a state park, stands on an island at the Tellico Rivers confluence with the Little Tennessee River. The Tellico River basin was logged by the Babcock Lumber Company in the early 20th century, the present-day road up the Tellico River from Tellico Plains was built on the old Babcock logging railroad bed. After the Tellico River basin forests were cut, Babock sold the land to the United States Forest Service, the Tellico Rivers rocky descent provides class III-IV whitewater recreation. The runs are especially popular during the spring because of water levels. The narrow extreme rapids on the Tellico River are well suited for kayaks, canoes - C1s and duckies, the word Tellico was the name of several Cherokee towns, the largest of which was Great Tellico, located on the Tellico River near present-day Tellico Plains, Tennessee. In Cherokee the word is properly written Talikwa. According to James Mooney, the Cherokee meaning of the word was lost, the origin of the word is believed to be Muskogee. A Muskogean town named Taliko was thriving on the Tellico River when Spanish explorers visited in area in the mid-16th century, list of Tennessee rivers Tellico River Gauge at Tellico Plains from American Whitewater Tennessee Scenic Rivers Association
35.
Great Tellico
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Great Tellico was a Cherokee town at the site of present-day Tellico Plains, Tennessee, where the Tellico River emerges from the Appalachian Mountains. Great Tellico was one of the largest Cherokee towns in the region and its name in Cherokee is more properly written Talikwa. It is sometimes spelled Telliquo, Telliquah or, in Oklahoma, there were several Cherokee settlements named Tellico, the largest of which is distinguished from the others by calling it Great. The meaning of the word Talikwa is thought to be lost by the Cherokees, however, in an article authored by reporter Tesina Jackson of the Cherokee Phoenix the meaning of the word is stated as the open place where the grass grows. The Warrior Path— a branch of the Great Indian Warpath— passed through Great Tellico, linking it to Chota in the north and Great Hiwassee in the south, the Trading Path became the main route of trade between the British and the Cherokee during the 18th century. In the early 18th century, Great Tellico was the de facto capital of the Overhill Cherokee, several prominent Cherokee leaders came from the town, such as Moytoy of Tellico. After his death in 1741, Great Tellico began to fade, by the 1750s, Chota was largely recognized as the principal town of the Overhill Cherokee Mooney, James Myths of the Cherokee Duncan, Barbara R. and Riggs, Brett H. Cherokee Heritage Trails Guidebook. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, ISBN 0-8078-5457-3 The Unicoi Turnpike historical marker
36.
Great Hiwassee
–
Great Hiwassee was an important Overhill Cherokee town from the late 17th through the early 19th centuries. It was located on the Hiwassee River in present-day Polk County, Tennessee, the site is now part of the Tennessee Forestry Divisions East Tennessee Nursery. The town was linked to Great Tellico and Chota to the north, via the Great Indian Warpath, duncan, Barbara R. and Riggs, Brett H. Cherokee Heritage Trails Guidebook. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill
37.
Principal Chiefs of the Cherokee
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In the eighteenth century, when the people were organized by clans and towns, they would appoint a leader for negotiations with the Europeans. They called him Uku, or First Beloved Man, the title of Principal Chief was created in 1794 when the Cherokee began to formalize a centralized political structure, forming the original Cherokee Nation. The Cherokee Nation–East adopted a constitution in 1827, creating a government with three branches, legislative, executive, and judicial. The Principal Chief was elected by the National Council, which was the legislature of the Nation, the Cherokee Nation–West adopted a similar constitution in 1833. The reunited nation adopted one constitution in 1839, in 1868, the Eastern Band created a separate and distinct constitution and formalized the position of Principal Chief. The position had existed in the east since the time of Yonaguska, in 1906, the US government dismantled the Cherokee Nations governmental structure under the Dawes Act. Following passage of the federal Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 and the Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act of 1936, the Bureau of Indian Affairs approved their constitution in 1940. The president began appointing a Principal Chief for the non-UKB Cherokee in 1941, in 1975, these Cherokee drafted their constitution as the Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma, which was ratified on June 26,1976. In 1999, they approved several changes to the constitution, including the removal of the phrase of Oklahoma from their name. Before 1794, the Cherokee had no standing national government and their structure was based on clans and towns, which had various leaders. The clans had functions within each town and the tribe, the towns appointed some leaders to represent the tribe to British, French, and American authorities. The range of titles were usually translated into English as chief. The term emperor is placed in quotes, since this title was created by Sir Alexander Cuming and was not accepted by the tribe as a whole, Moytoy of Citico, war chief during the Anglo-Cherokee War, nephew of the Moytoy of Tellico. They migrated first to the Chickamauga region, then to the Five Lower Towns area—further west and southwest of there—in order to continue fighting. In time, these Chickamauga Cherokee became a majority of the nation, the separation ended at a reunification council with the Cherokee Nation in 1809. Hanging Maw of Coyatee, listed above, claimed the title as his right by tradition, many Cherokee and the US government recognized him as Principal Chief. Little Turkey Black Fox Pathkiller Big Tiger, self-proclaimed chief of the faction of those in the Nation following Whitepaths teachings. Charles R. Hicks, de facto head of government from 1813 William Hicks John Ross William Hicks and they named their capital there Tahlontiskee
38.
Standing Turkey
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Standing Turkey, also known as Cunne Shote succeeded his uncle, Kanagatucko, as First Beloved Man of the Cherokee upon the latters death in 1760. He held his title until the end of the Anglo-Cherokee War in 1761, Standing Turkey was one of three Cherokee leaders to go with Henry Timberlake to London in 1762-1763, the others being Ostenaco and Pouting Pigeon. Standing Turkey was part of the Cherokee Bird Band, the wild Turkey of America, the group of Cherokee sought and received permission by Standing Turkey to settle in Spanish Louisiana, in the region of the White River. Old Frontiers, The Story of the Cherokee Indians from Earliest Times to the Date of Their Removal to the West,1838
39.
Coosa chiefdom
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The Coosa chiefdom was a powerful Native American paramount chiefdom near what are now Gordon and Murray counties in Georgia, in the United States. It was inhabited from about 1400 until about 1600, and dominated several smaller chiefdoms, the total population of Coosas area of influence, reaching into present-day Tennessee and Alabama, has been estimated at 50,000. Coosa was also the name of one of the four towns of the Muscogee Creek confederacy. The Coosa chiefdom was centered along the Coosawattee River in present-day Gordon, the capital of Coosa, as a modern archaeological site it is known as Little Egypt, had a large plaza and three platform mounds, as well as residential dwellings. Archeologists have defined these as the Dallas, Lamar, and Mouse Creek phases of pottery and these type variations could indicate that the chiefdom underwent three archaeological phases and changes in culture, each with distinct pottery and artifact styles. Only one other village had a mound, the associated with the chiefdom had only residential dwellings. Hernando de Soto and his expedition entered the Coosa chiefdom in 1540, chroniclers recorded that the chiefdom then consisted of eight villages. Archaeologists have identified the remains of seven of these, including the capital, the population of the Coosa is thought to have been between about 2,500 to 4,650 people. This paramount chiefdom consisted of seven or more smaller chiefdoms, representing about 50,000 people, by the close of the 16th century, most of the core area of the Coosa was abandoned. The surviving population withdrew to a few villages along the Coosa River in Alabama, northern Georgia was occupied by the Cherokee in the early 18th century, but later abandoned. During the French and Indian War, a contingent of Muskogee under a chief named The Mortar reoccupied the site in 1759 in support of Ostenaco, by the mid-1780s, the site was occupied by Cherokee. The chroniclers of the de Soto Expedition recorded the name of the Coosa as Coça and this Old Spanish spelling would be pronounced today as Koo-sha. The early French maps recorded several member towns of the Creek Confederacy as being occupied by the Cousha or Coushetta, the Cherokee first appeared to use the word kusa to mean the Creek people of the Upper Towns, who were competitors and enemies. According to James Mooney, they called the Muskogee Creek Ani-Kusa or Ani-Gusa, from Kusa, English speakers adopted Coosa as a frontier English version of the early Cherokee word. The contemporary Cherokee name for all Creek Indians is ani-kusa, list of sites and peoples visited by the Hernando de Soto Expedition Cusabo Mississippian culture Southeastern Ceremonial Complex Four Mothers Society Abihka Tuckabutche Tallapoosas Fagan, Brian. Ancient North America, The Archaeology of a Continent, pp. 487–488 Hudson, Charles M. Knights of Spain, Warriors of the Sun, Hernando De Soto and the Souths Ancient Chiefdoms, University of Georgia Press,1997. ISBN 0-8203-1888-4 Hudson, Charles M. Conversations with the High Priest of Coosa, Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Press,2003
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Muscogee
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The Muscogee, also known as the Creek and the Creek Confederacy, are a group of related Indigenous peoples of the Southeastern Woodlands. Originally from Tennessee, Georgia, Alabama, and northern Florida, Muscogee people were relocated in the early 19th century to Indian Territory, Alabama, Louisiana. Their languages, Muscogee and Hitchiti-Mikasuki, belong to the Eastern Muskogean branch of the Muscogean language family, the Muscogee are descendants of the Mississippian culture peoples, who built earthwork mounds at their regional chiefdoms located throughout the Mississippi River valley and its tributaries. Early Spanish explorers encountered ancestors of the Muscogee when they visited Mississippian-culture chiefdoms in the Southeast in the mid-16th century, the Muscogee were the first Native Americans considered to be civilized under George Washingtons civilization plan. The result was a weakening of the Creek Nation and the ceding of Creek lands to the US. During the Indian Removal of the 1830s, most of the Muscogee Confederacy were forcibly relocated to Indian Territory, at least 12,000 years ago, Native Americans or Paleo-Indians lived in what is today the Southern United States. Paleo-Indians in the Southeast were hunter-gatherers who pursued a range of animals, including the megafauna. During the time known as the Woodland period, from 1000 BCE to 1000 CE, locals developed pottery, the Mississippian culture arose as the cultivation of maize from Mesoamerica led to population growth. Increased population density gave rise to urban centers and regional chiefdoms, stratified societies developed, with hereditary religious and political elites, and flourished in what is now the Midwestern, Eastern, and Southeastern United States from 800 to 1500 CE. The early historic Muscogee were descendants of the builders of the Mississippian culture along the Tennessee River in modern Tennessee, Georgia. They may have related to the Tama of central Georgia. At the time the Spanish made their first forays inland from the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, many centers of the Mississippians were already in decline. The region is best described as a collection of moderately sized native chiefdoms interspersed with autonomous villages. After Cabeza de Vaca, a castaway who survived the ill-fated Narváez expedition, returned to Spain, Hernando de Soto was a Spanish explorer and conquistador who led the first expedition into the interior of the North American continent. De Soto, convinced of the riches, wanted Cabeza de Vaca to go on the expedition, from 1540–1543, de Soto explored through present-day Florida and Georgia, and then westward into the Alabama and Mississippi area. The areas were inhabited by historic Muscogee Native Americans, de Soto brought with him a well-equipped army. He attracted many recruits from a variety of backgrounds who joined his quest for riches in the Americas, as the de Soto expeditions brutalities became known to the indigenous peoples, they decided to defend their territory. The Battle of Mabila was a point for the de Soto venture, the battle broke the back of the Spanish campaign
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Chickasaw
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The Chickasaw are an indigenous people of the Southeastern Woodlands. Their traditional territory was in the Southeastern United States of Mississippi, Alabama and they are of the Muskogean language family and are federally recognized as the Chickasaw Nation. That is where they encountered European explorers and traders, having relationships with French, the United States considered the Chickasaw one of the Five Civilized Tribes, as they adopted numerous practices of European Americans. Most Chickasaw now live in Oklahoma, the Chickasaw Nation in Oklahoma is the 13th largest federally recognized tribe in the United States. Its members are related to the Choctaw and share a history with them. The Chickasaw are divided in two groups, the Impsaktea and the Intcutwalipa and they traditionally followed a system of matrilineal descent, in which children were considered to be part of the mothers clan, whence they gained their status. Some property was controlled by women, and hereditary leadership in the tribe passed through the maternal line, the name Chickasaw, as noted by anthropologist John Swanton, belonged to a Chickasaw leader. Chickasaw is the English spelling of Chikashsha, meaning rebel or comes from Chicsa, Chickasaw The origin of the Chickasaw is uncertain. When Europeans first encountered them, the Chickasaw were living in villages in what is now Northeastern Mississippi and their oral history says they migrated along with the Choctaw from west of the Mississippi River into present-day Mississippi in prehistoric times. The Mississippian Ideological Interaction Sphere spanned the Eastern Woodlands, the Mississippian cultures emerged from previous moundbuilding societies by 880 CE. They built complex, dense villages supporting a society, with centers throughout the Mississippi and Ohio River Valleys. In the 15th century, proto-Chickasaw people left the Tombigbee Valley after the collapse of the Moundville chiefdom and settled into the upper Yazoo, historians Arrell Gibson and anthropology John R. Swanton believed the Chickasaw Old Fields were in Madison County, Alabama. Another version of the Chickasaw creation story is that they arose at Nanih Waiya and it is also sacred to the Choctaw, who have a similar story about it. The mound was built about 1400 years before the coalescence of each of these peoples as ethnic groups, after various disagreements, the American Indians attacked the De Soto expedition in a nighttime raid, nearly destroying it. The Chickasaw began to trade with the British after the colony of Carolina was founded in 1670, with British-supplied guns, the Chickasaw raided their neighbors and enemies the Choctaw, capturing some members and selling them into Indian slavery to the British. When the Choctaw acquired guns from the French, power between the tribes became more equalized and the raids stopped. Allied with the British, the Chickasaw were often at war with the French, skirmishes continued until France ceded its claims to the region east of the Mississippi River after being defeated by the British in the Seven Years War. Following the American Revolutionary War, in 1793-94, Chickasaw fought as allies of the new United States under General Anthony Wayne against the Indians of the old Northwest Territory
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Catawba people
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The Catawba — also known as Issa or Essa or Iswä but most commonly Iswa — are a federally recognized tribe of Native Americans, known as the Catawba Indian Nation. They live in the Southeast United States, along the border of North Carolina near the city of Rock Hill, the Catawba were once considered one of the most powerful Southeastern Siouan-speaking tribes in the Carolina Piedmont. The Catawba and other Siouan peoples are believed to have coalesced as individual tribes in the Southeast, living along the Catawba River they were named one of the most powerful tribes in the south. Primarily involved in agriculture, the Catawba were friendly toward early European colonists, the Catawba allied during the American Revolutionary War with the Patriot colonists against the British. Decimated by earlier smallpox epidemics, tribal warfare and social disruption, the people ceded their homeland to South Carolina in 1840 by a treaty, it was not approved by the United States Senate and was automatically invalided. Terminated as a tribe by the government in 1959, the Catawba Indian Nation reorganized to reassert its government. In 1973 began its struggle to gain federal recognition and it accomplished this in 1993, along with a $50 million settlement by the federal government and state of South Carolina of its longstanding land claims. It was also recognized by the state of North Carolina in 1993. Its headquarters is at Rock Hill, South Carolina, as of 2006, the population of the Catawba Nation has increased to about 2600, most in South Carolina, with smaller groups in Oklahoma, Colorado, Ohio, and elsewhere. The Catawba Reservation, located in two disjoint sections in York County, South Carolina east of Rock Hill, reported a 2010 census population of 841 inhabitants, the Catawban language, which is being revived, is part of the Siouan family. From the earliest period, the Catawba have also known as Esaw, or Issa. They called both the present-day Catawba and Wateree rivers Iswa, the Iroquois frequently included them under the general term Totiri, or Toderichroone, also known as Tutelo. The Iroquois collectively used this term to apply to all the southern Siouan-speaking tribes, Albert Gallatin classified the Catawba as a separate, distinct group among Siouan tribes. When the linguist Albert Samuel Gatschet visited them in 1881 and obtained a large vocabulary showing numerous correspondences with Siouan, further investigations by Horatio Hale, Gatschet, James Mooney, and James Owen Dorsey proved that several tribes of the same region were also of Siouan stock. They migrated to Kentucky and to Botetourt County, Virginia, by 1660 they had migrated south to the Catawba River, contesting it with the Cherokee in the area. The Kentucky River was also known as the Catawba River at times, Catawba Tribe was later a subtribe under Cherokee Chiefs authority at times. But, 20th-century anthropologist James Mooney later dismissed most elements of Schoolcrafts record as absurd, the invention and surmise of the would-be historian who records the tradition. He pointed out that, aside from the French never having been known to help the Iroquois, Mooney accepted the tradition that the Catawba and Cherokee had made the Broad River their mutual boundary, following a protracted struggle
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Citico (Cherokee town)
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Citico is a prehistoric and historic Native American site in Monroe County, Tennessee, in the southeastern United States. The sites namesake Cherokee village was the largest of the Overhill towns, the Mississippian village that preceded the sites Cherokee occupation is believed to have been the village of Satapo visited by the Juan Pardo expedition in 1567. The Citico site is now submerged by the Tellico Lake impoundment of the Little Tennessee River, the modern community of Citico Beach has developed along the shoreline above the ancient site. The lake is managed by the Tennessee Valley Authority and the Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency, Citico is located in an area where the Great Smoky Mountains and the Unicoi Mountains give way to the Appalachian Ridge-and-Valley Province. Citico Beach is located along Highway 455 approximately 14 miles south of Vonore, the Citico site is also visible from the Harrison Branch boat ramp, which is located just off U. S. Route 1292 miles south of Pumpkin Center. On October 16,1567, an expedition led by Spanish explorer Juan Pardo arrived at a known as Satapo while en route to Coosa. Research conducted by anthropologist Charles Hudson in the 1980s suggests that Satapo was situated at the Citico site in Monroe County, and that the two names are linguistically related. After the expedition made its way to Satapo the following day, a friendly native warned Pardo of a plot against him, Hudson speculates that when the Cherokee replaced Satapos Muskogeean-speaking Mississippian inhabitants, the Cherokee kept the sites name. However, as the Cherokee language lacks bilabial stops, the p sound in Satapo was replaced with a k sound, a Cherokee village thrived at Citico when English explorers and traders began entering the Tennessee Valley in large numbers in the early 18th century. Citicos head man was among the chiefs who met with Colonel George Chicken at Tanasi in 1725 to form an alliance against the hostile Creeks. Citico appears on George Hunters 1730 map of the Cherokee region, Captain Henry Timberlake, who visited the Overhill towns on a peace mission in 1761–1762, reported 204 warriors at Citico, the most of any Overhill town. Cheulah, the man of Citico, greeted Timberlake with a ceremonial dance involving 400 townspeople. At a pipe-smoking ceremony held afterward at the Citico townhouse, Timberlake recalled smoking so many peace pipes that he could not stir for several hours, the Overhill Cherokee consistently found themselves at odds with encroaching Euro-American settlers. After the Cherokee aligned themselves with the British in the American Revolution, when Chief Dragging Canoe refused to settle for peace, Christian burned five Overhill towns, including Citico. Historian J. G. M. Ramsey reported a conference between militia commander John Sevier and Cherokee Chief Hanging Maw held at the original Citico in 1782 in which the two agreed to a truce. In the late 1780s, a group of scouts led by Captain John Fain, was collecting apples at the site of Citico when they were ambushed by a band of Cherokees. 16 of Fains men were killed and 4 were wounded, a militia force led by Captain Nathaniel Evans arrived shortly thereafter to find several scalped and disemboweled bodies. Evans eventually linked up with Seviers larger force, and the force set out in pursuit of the hostile Cherokee
Great Britain
