1.
Cambridge, Massachusetts
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Cambridge is a city in Middlesex County, Massachusetts, and is a part of the Boston metropolitan area. According to the 2010 Census, the population was 105,162. As of July 2014, it was the fifth most populous city in the state, behind Boston, Worcester, Springfield, Cambridge was one of the two seats of Middlesex County prior to the abolition of county government in 1997, Lowell was the other. The site for what would become Cambridge was chosen in December 1630, because it was located safely upriver from Boston Harbor, Thomas Dudley, his daughter Anne Bradstreet, and her husband Simon, were among the first settlers of the town. The first houses were built in the spring of 1631, the settlement was initially referred to as the newe towne. Official Massachusetts records show the name capitalized as Newe Towne by 1632, the original village site is in the heart of todays Harvard Square. In the late 19th century, various schemes for annexing Cambridge itself to the city of Boston were pursued and rejected, in 1636, the Newe College was founded by the colony to train ministers. Newe Towne was chosen for the site of the college by the Great and General Court primarily—according to Cotton Mather—to be near the popular, in May 1638 the name of the settlement was changed to Cambridge in honor of the university in Cambridge, England. Hooker and Shepard, Newtownes ministers, and the colleges first president, major benefactor, in 1629, Winthrop had led the signing of the founding document of the city of Boston, which was known as the Cambridge Agreement, after the university. It was Governor Thomas Dudley who, in 1650, signed the charter creating the corporation which still governs Harvard College, Cambridge grew slowly as an agricultural village eight miles by road from Boston, the capital of the colony. By the American Revolution, most residents lived near the Common and Harvard College, with farms and estates comprising most of the town. Coming up from Virginia, George Washington took command of the volunteer American soldiers camped on Cambridge Common on July 3,1775, most of the Tory estates were confiscated after the Revolution. On January 24,1776, Henry Knox arrived with artillery captured from Fort Ticonderoga, a second bridge, the Canal Bridge, opened in 1809 alongside the new Middlesex Canal. The new bridges and roads made what were formerly estates and marshland into prime industrial and residential districts, in the mid-19th century, Cambridge was the center of a literary revolution when it gave the country a new identity through poetry and literature. Cambridge was home to some of the famous Fireside Poets—so called because their poems would often be read aloud by families in front of their evening fires, the Fireside Poets—Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, James Russell Lowell, and Oliver Wendell Holmes—were highly popular and influential in their day. Cambridge was incorporated as a city in 1846, the citys commercial center began to shift from Harvard Square to Central Square, which became the downtown of the city around this time. The coming of the railroad to North Cambridge and Northwest Cambridge then led to three changes in the city, the development of massive brickyards and brickworks between Massachusetts Ave. For many decades, the citys largest employer was the New England Glass Company, by the middle of the 19th century it was the largest and most modern glassworks in the world
2.
Redding, Connecticut
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Redding is a town in Fairfield County, Connecticut, United States. The population was 9,158 at the 2010 census. According to the United States Census Bureau, Redding has an area of 32.1 square miles, of which 31.5 square miles is land and 0.6 square miles. Redding borders Bethel, Danbury, Easton, Newtown, Ridgefield, Redding has four primary sections, Redding Center, Redding Ridge, West Redding, and Georgetown, which is situated at the junction of Redding, Ridgefield, Weston and Wilton. Reddings topography is dominated by three ridges, running north to south, with intervening valleys featuring steep slopes and rocky ledges in some sections. Four streams flow south through Redding toward Long Island Sound, the Aspetuck River, the Little River, the Norwalk River, the Saugatuck River flows through the Saugatuck Reservoir, Reddings largest body of water which stretches south into Weston. The reservoir was created in 1938 through the flooding of a portion of the Saugatuck River Valley, as of the census of 2010, there were 9,158 people,3,470 households, and 2,593 families residing in the town. Redding has the third lowest population density in Fairfield County at 285.3 people per square mile, between 2000 and 2010, Reddings population increased 10. 7%. There were 3,811 housing units as of 2010, up 23. 5% from a decade earlier, for an average density of 118.7 units per square mile. The racial makeup of the town as of 2010 was 94. 90% White,0. 70% African American,0. 10% Native American,2. 20% Asian,2. 10% from other races or from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2. 60% of the population, individuals comprised 21. 3% of all households and 12. 1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.63 and the family size was 3.07. In the town, the population was out with 26. 0% under the age of 18,3. 2% from 18 to 24,16. 3% from 25 to 44,36. 2% from 45 to 64. The median age was 46.4 years, for every 100 females there were 92.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.4 males, the median income for a household in 2000 was $104,137, and the median income for a family was $109,250. In 2009, the family income rose to $141,609. Males had an income of $77,882 versus $52,250 for females. The per capita income for the town was $50,687, about 1. 2% of families and 1. 8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 2. 1% of those under age 18 and 3. 5% of those age 65 or over
3.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
4.
Art Students League of New York
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The Art Students League of New York is an art school located on West 57th Street in Manhattan, New York City, New York. Although artists may study full-time, there have never been any degree programs or grades, the League also maintains a significant permanent collection of student and faculty work, and publishes an online journal of writing on art-related topics, entitled LINEA. The breakaway group of students included women, and was originally housed in rented rooms at 16th Street. Influential board members from this period included painter Thomas Eakins. Membership continued to increase, forcing the League to relocate to larger spaces. In 1889, the League participated in the founding of the American Fine Arts Society, together with the Society of American Artists, the American Fine Arts Building at 215 West 57th Street, constructed as their joint headquarters, has continued to house the League since 1892. In the late 1890s and early 1900s an increasing number of artists came to study. Among them was a young Miss Wilhelmina Weber Furlong and eventually her husband Thomas Furlong, the avant-garde couple served the league in executive and administrative roles and as student members throughout the American modernism movement. Alice Van Vechten Brown, who would later develop some of the first art programs in American higher education, in the years after World War II, the G. I. Bill played an important role in the history of the League by enabling returning veterans to attend classes. As of 2010, the League remains an important part of New York City art life, from 1906 until 1922, and again after the end of World War II from 1947 until 1979, the League operated a summer school of painting at Woodstock, New York. In 1995, the Leagues facilities expanded to include the Vytlacil campus in Sparkill, New York, named after and based upon a gift of the property, since its inception, the Art Students League has employed notable professional artists as instructors and lecturers. Most engagements have been for a year or two, and some, like those of sculptor George Grey Barnard, were quite brief. Others have taught for decades, notably Frank DuMond and George Bridgman, bridgmans successor was Robert Beverly Hale. In 1988, Robert Cenedella took over the George Grosz Chair, luis Mora, Robert Neffson, Maxfield Parrish, Jules Pascin, Joseph Pennell, Richard C. Pionk, Larry Poons, Richard Pousette-Dart, Abraham Rattner, Peter Reginato, Frank J. Alden Weir, and William Zorach
5.
Sculpture
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Sculpture is the branch of the visual arts that operates in three dimensions. It is one of the plastic arts, a wide variety of materials may be worked by removal such as carving, assembled by welding or modelling, or molded, or cast. However, most ancient sculpture was painted, and this has been lost. Those cultures whose sculptures have survived in quantities include the cultures of the ancient Mediterranean, India and China, the Western tradition of sculpture began in ancient Greece, and Greece is widely seen as producing great masterpieces in the classical period. During the Middle Ages, Gothic sculpture represented the agonies and passions of the Christian faith, the revival of classical models in the Renaissance produced famous sculptures such as Michelangelos David. Relief is often classified by the degree of projection from the wall into low or bas-relief, high relief, sunk-relief is a technique restricted to ancient Egypt. Relief sculpture may also decorate steles, upright slabs, usually of stone, techniques such as casting, stamping and moulding use an intermediate matrix containing the design to produce the work, many of these allow the production of several copies. The term sculpture is used mainly to describe large works. The very large or colossal statue has had an enduring appeal since antiquity, another grand form of portrait sculpture is the equestrian statue of a rider on horse, which has become rare in recent decades. The smallest forms of life-size portrait sculpture are the head, showing just that, or the bust, small forms of sculpture include the figurine, normally a statue that is no more than 18 inches tall, and for reliefs the plaquette, medal or coin. Sculpture is an important form of public art, a collection of sculpture in a garden setting can be called a sculpture garden. One of the most common purposes of sculpture is in form of association with religion. Cult images are common in cultures, though they are often not the colossal statues of deities which characterized ancient Greek art. The actual cult images in the innermost sanctuaries of Egyptian temples, of which none have survived, were rather small. The same is true in Hinduism, where the very simple. Some undoubtedly advanced cultures, such as the Indus Valley civilization, appear to have had no monumental sculpture at all, though producing very sophisticated figurines, the Mississippian culture seems to have been progressing towards its use, with small stone figures, when it collapsed. Other cultures, such as ancient Egypt and the Easter Island culture, from the 20th century the relatively restricted range of subjects found in large sculpture expanded greatly, with abstract subjects and the use or representation of any type of subject now common. Today much sculpture is made for intermittent display in galleries and museums, small sculpted fittings for furniture and other objects go well back into antiquity, as in the Nimrud ivories, Begram ivories and finds from the tomb of Tutankhamun
6.
Legion of Honour
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The Legion of Honour, full name National Order of the Legion of Honour, is the highest French order of merit for military and civil merits, established 1802 by Napoléon Bonaparte. The order is divided into five degrees of increasing distinction, Chevalier, Officier, Commandeur, Grand Officier and Grand-Croix. The orders motto is Honneur et Patrie and its seat is the Palais de la Légion dHonneur next to the Musée dOrsay, in the French Revolution, all French orders of chivalry were abolished, and replaced with Weapons of Honour. The Légion however did use the organization of old French orders of chivalry, the badges of the legion also bear a resemblance to the Ordre de Saint-Louis, which also used a red ribbon. Napoleon originally created this to ensure political loyalty, the organization would be used as a facade to give political favours, gifts, and concessions. The Légion was loosely patterned after a Roman legion, with legionaries, officers, commanders, regional cohorts, the highest rank was not a grand cross but a Grand Aigle, a rank that wore all the insignia common to grand crosses. The members were paid, the highest of them extremely generously,5,000 francs to an officier,2,000 francs to a commandeur,1,000 francs to an officier,250 francs to a légionnaire. Napoleon famously declared, You call these baubles, well, it is with baubles that men are led, do you think that you would be able to make men fight by reasoning. That is good only for the scholar in his study, the soldier needs glory, distinctions, rewards. This has been quoted as It is with such baubles that men are led. The order was the first modern order of merit, under the monarchy, such orders were often limited to Roman Catholics, and all knights had to be noblemen. The military decorations were the perks of the officers, the Légion, however, was open to men of all ranks and professions—only merit or bravery counted. The new legionnaire had to be sworn in the Légion and it is noteworthy that all previous orders were crosses or shared a clear Christian background, whereas the Légion is a secular institution. The jewel of the Légion has five arms, in a decree issued on the 10 Pluviôse XIII, a grand decoration was instituted. This decoration, a cross on a sash and a silver star with an eagle, symbol of the Napoleonic Empire, became known as the Grand Aigle. After Napoleon crowned himself Emperor of the French in 1804 and established the Napoleonic nobility in 1808, the title was made hereditary after three generations of grantees. Napoleon had dispensed 15 golden collars of the legion among his family and this collar was abolished in 1815. The Légion dhonneur was prominent and visible in the French Empire, the Emperor always wore it and the fashion of the time allowed for decorations to be worn most of the time
7.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
8.
Central Park
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Central Park is an urban park in Manhattan, New York City. Central Park is the most visited park in the United States, with 40 million visitors in 2013. The park was established in 1857 on 778 acres of city-owned land, construction began the same year and the parks first area was opened to the public in the winter of 1858. Construction continued during the American Civil War farther north, and was expanded to its current size of 843 acres in 1873, Central Park was designated a National Historic Landmark by the U. S. Department of the Interior in 1962. The Conservancy is a organization that contributes 75 percent of Central Parks $65 million annual budget and is responsible for all basic care of the 843-acre park. Between 1821 and 1855, New York City nearly quadrupled in population, as the city expanded northward up Manhattan, people were drawn to the few existing open spaces, mainly cemeteries, to get away from the noise and chaotic life in the city. Since Central Park was not part of the original Commissioners Plan of 1811, John Randel, Jr. surveyed the grounds. The only remaining surveying bolt from his survey is still visible, it is embedded in a rock just north of the present Dairy and the 65th Street Transverse, the bolt marks the location where West 65th Street would have intersected Sixth Avenue. The state appointed a Central Park Commission to oversee the development of the park, Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux developed what came to be known as the Greensward Plan, which was selected as the winning design. The Greensward Plan called for some 36 bridges, all designed by Vaux, ranging from rugged spans of Manhattan schist or granite, to lacy Neo-Gothic cast iron, several influences came together in the design. Landscaped cemeteries, such as Mount Auburn and Green-Wood had set examples of idyllic, naturalistic landscapes, the most influential innovations in the Central Park design were the separate circulation systems for pedestrians, horseback riders, and pleasure vehicles. The crosstown commercial traffic was entirely concealed in sunken roadways, screened with densely planted shrub belts so as to maintain a rustic ambiance, before the construction of the park could start, the area had to be cleared of its inhabitants. Most lived in villages, such as Harsenville, the Piggery District, or Seneca Village, or in the school. Approximately 1,600 residents were evicted under the rule of eminent domain during 1857, Seneca Village and parts of the other communities were razed to make room for the park. During the parks construction, Olmsted fought constant battles with the park commissioners, between 1860 and 1873, most of the major hurdles to construction were overcome and the park was substantially completed. The work was documented with technical drawings and photographs. More gunpowder was used to clear the area than was used at the Battle of Gettysburg during the American Civil War, the parks commissioners assigned a name to each of the original 18 gates in 1862. The names were chosen to represent the diversity of New York Citys trades, for example, Mariners Gate for the entrance at 85th Street
9.
Cultural depictions of Joan of Arc
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Joan of Arc has inspired artistic and cultural works for nearly six centuries. The following lists cover various media to include items of historic interest, enduring works of high art, the entries represent portrayals that a reader has a reasonable chance of encountering rather than a complete catalog. Lesser known works, particularly from early periods, are not included, in this article, many of the excluded items are derivative of better known representations. For instance, Schillers play inspired at least 82 different dramatic works during the nineteenth century, most of the others survive only in research libraries. As another example, in 1894, Émile Huet listed over 400 plays, portrayals of Joan of Arc are numerous. For example, in 1979 the Bibliothèque Municipale in Rouen, France held a gallery containing over 500 images, the story of Joan of Arc was a popular subject for dramatization in the 1940s. There were also three radio dramatizations of the story of Joan during those years, one of them specifically written with a World War II framework, for purposes of classification, popular culture music is a separate section from operas and oratorios. Films include made-for-television movies and miniseries, in 1909, the Paris hairdresser Antoine took Joan of Arc as the inspiration for the bob, which ended centuries of taboo against women who cut their hair. The style became popular in the 1920s and was associated with liberated women, nearly all subsequent Western hair fashions are designed for women who cut their hair at least occasionally. Such haircut is still known in French as coupe à la Jeanne dArc, during the Cristero War in 1927, a group of female Cristeros named themselves after Joan of Arc. They obtained money, supplies, and intelligence for the male combatants and they often smuggled weapons into war zones and cared for the wounded. By the end of the war they had 35,000 participants, ^ Pernoud 1999, pp.240,246. Nadia Margolis, Joan of Arc in History, Literature, régine Pernoud and Marie-Véronique Clin, Joan of Arc, Her Story, trans. International Joan of Arc Society film list Médailles Jeanne d’Arc, French site containing pictures and descriptions of Medallions devoted to Joan of Arc
10.
Alpheus Hyatt
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Alpheus Hyatt was an American zoologist and palaeontologist. Alpheus Hyatt II was born in Washington, D. C. to Alpheus Hyatt, after the war he worked for a time at the Essex Institute (now the Peabody Essex Museum in Salem, Massachusetts. He and a colleague founded American Naturalist and Hyatt served as editor from 1867 to 1870, the River Road building gave him access to the Annisquam River, a salt water estuary. This enterprise was moved to Woods Hole and became the Woods Hole Marine Biological Laboratory in 1888, Hyatt studied under Louis Agassiz and was a proponent of Neo-Lamarckism with Edward Drinker Cope. In 1875 he was elected a fellow of the National Academy of Sciences, transformation of Planorbis, A Practical Illustration of the Evolution of Species. Cycle in the Life of the Individual and in the Evolution of Its Own Group, whyld, Bea. Anna Hyatt Huntington and the Huntington Great Danes. National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir
11.
Paleontology
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Paleontology or palaeontology is the scientific study of life that existed prior to, and sometimes including, the start of the Holocene Epoch. It includes the study of fossils to determine organisms evolution and interactions with each other, paleontological observations have been documented as far back as the 5th century BC. The science became established in the 18th century as a result of Georges Cuviers work on comparative anatomy, and developed rapidly in the 19th century. The term itself originates from Greek παλαιός, palaios, i. e. old, ancient, ὄν, on, i. e. being, creature and λόγος, logos, i. e. speech, thought, study. Paleontology lies on the border between biology and geology, but differs from archaeology in that it excludes the study of modern humans. It now uses techniques drawn from a range of sciences, including biochemistry, mathematics. The final quarter of the 20th century saw the development of molecular phylogenetics, molecular phylogenetics has also been used to estimate the dates when species diverged, but there is controversy about the reliability of the molecular clock on which such estimates depend. The simplest definition is the study of ancient life, paleontology is one of the historical sciences, along with archaeology, geology, astronomy, cosmology, philology and history itself. This means that it aims to describe phenomena of the past, hence it has three main elements, description of the phenomena, developing a general theory about the causes of various types of change, and applying those theories to specific facts. Sometimes the smoking gun is discovered by an accident during other research. Paleontology lies on the boundary between biology and geology since paleontology focuses on the record of past life but its source of evidence is fossils. In addition paleontology often uses techniques derived from other sciences, including biology, osteology, ecology, chemistry, techniques developed in engineering have been used to analyse how ancient organisms might have worked, for example how fast Tyrannosaurus could move and how powerful its bite was. As knowledge has increased, paleontology has developed specialised subdivisions, vertebrate paleontology concentrates on fossils of vertebrates, from the earliest fish to the immediate ancestors of modern mammals. Invertebrate paleontology deals with fossils of such as molluscs, arthropods. Paleobotany focuses on the study of plants, but traditionally includes the study of fossil algae. Palynology, the study of pollen and spores produced by plants and protists. Micropaleontology deals with all microscopic fossil organisms, regardless of the group to which they belong, one example is the development of oxygenic photosynthesis by bacteria, which hugely increased the productivity and diversity of ecosystems. This also caused the oxygenation of the atmosphere, together, these were a prerequisite for the evolution of the most complex eukaryotic cells, from which all multicellular organisms are built
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Zoology
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The term is derived from Ancient Greek ζῷον, zōion, i. e. animal and λόγος, logos, i. e. knowledge, study. The history of zoology traces the study of the kingdom from ancient to modern times. This ancient work was developed in the Middle Ages by Muslim physicians. During the Renaissance and early period, zoological thought was revolutionized in Europe by a renewed interest in empiricism. Microscopy revealed the unknown world of microorganisms, laying the groundwork for cell theory. The growing importance of natural theology, partly a response to the rise of mechanical philosophy, over the 18th and 19th centuries, zoology became an increasingly professional scientific discipline. Naturalists began to reject essentialism and consider the importance of extinction, cell theory provided a new perspective on the fundamental basis of life. These developments, as well as the results from embryology and paleontology, were synthesized in Charles Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection. In 1859, Darwin placed the theory of evolution on a new footing, by his discovery of a process by which organic evolution can occur. Darwin gave new direction to morphology and physiology, by uniting them in a biological theory. The end of the 19th century saw the fall of spontaneous generation, cell biology studies the structural and physiological properties of cells, including their behavior, interactions, and environment. This is done on both the microscopic and molecular levels, for single-celled organisms such as bacteria as well as the cells in multicellular organisms such as humans. Understanding the structure and function of cells is fundamental to all of the biological sciences, the similarities and differences between cell types are particularly relevant to molecular biology. Anatomy considers the forms of macroscopic structures such as organs and organ systems and it focuses on how organs and organ systems work together in the bodies of humans and animals, in addition to how they work independently. Anatomy and cell biology are two studies that are related, and can be categorized under structural studies. Physiology studies the mechanical, physical, and biochemical processes of living organisms by attempting to understand how all of the function as a whole. The theme of structure to function is central to biology, for example, what is learned about the physiology of yeast cells can also apply to human cells. The field of animal physiology extends the tools and methods of physiology to non-human species
13.
Harvard University
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Although never formally affiliated with any denomination, the early College primarily trained Congregationalist and Unitarian clergy. Its curriculum and student body were gradually secularized during the 18th century, james Bryant Conant led the university through the Great Depression and World War II and began to reform the curriculum and liberalize admissions after the war. The undergraduate college became coeducational after its 1977 merger with Radcliffe College, Harvards $34.5 billion financial endowment is the largest of any academic institution. Harvard is a large, highly residential research university, the nominal cost of attendance is high, but the Universitys large endowment allows it to offer generous financial aid packages. Harvards alumni include eight U. S. presidents, several heads of state,62 living billionaires,359 Rhodes Scholars. To date, some 130 Nobel laureates,18 Fields Medalists, Harvard was formed in 1636 by vote of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1638, it obtained British North Americas first known printing press, in 1639 it was named Harvard College after deceased clergyman John Harvard an alumnus of the University of Cambridge who had left the school £779 and his scholars library of some 400 volumes. The charter creating the Harvard Corporation was granted in 1650 and it offered a classic curriculum on the English university model—many leaders in the colony had attended the University of Cambridge—but conformed to the tenets of Puritanism. It was never affiliated with any denomination, but many of its earliest graduates went on to become clergymen in Congregational. The leading Boston divine Increase Mather served as president from 1685 to 1701, in 1708, John Leverett became the first president who was not also a clergyman, which marked a turning of the college toward intellectual independence from Puritanism. When the Hollis Professor of Divinity David Tappan died in 1803 and the president of Harvard Joseph Willard died a year later, in 1804, in 1846, the natural history lectures of Louis Agassiz were acclaimed both in New York and on the campus at Harvard College. Agassizs approach was distinctly idealist and posited Americans participation in the Divine Nature, agassizs perspective on science combined observation with intuition and the assumption that a person can grasp the divine plan in all phenomena. When it came to explaining life-forms, Agassiz resorted to matters of shape based on an archetype for his evidence. Charles W. Eliot, president 1869–1909, eliminated the position of Christianity from the curriculum while opening it to student self-direction. While Eliot was the most crucial figure in the secularization of American higher education, he was motivated not by a desire to secularize education, during the 20th century, Harvards international reputation grew as a burgeoning endowment and prominent professors expanded the universitys scope. Rapid enrollment growth continued as new schools were begun and the undergraduate College expanded. Radcliffe College, established in 1879 as sister school of Harvard College, Harvard became a founding member of the Association of American Universities in 1900. In the early 20th century, the student body was predominately old-stock, high-status Protestants, especially Episcopalians, Congregationalists, by the 1970s it was much more diversified
14.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
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The Massachusetts Institute of Technology is a private research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, often cited as one of the worlds most prestigious universities. Researchers worked on computers, radar, and inertial guidance during World War II, post-war defense research contributed to the rapid expansion of the faculty and campus under James Killian. The current 168-acre campus opened in 1916 and extends over 1 mile along the bank of the Charles River basin. The Institute is traditionally known for its research and education in the sciences and engineering, and more recently in biology, economics, linguistics. Air Force and 6 Fields Medalists have been affiliated with MIT, the school has a strong entrepreneurial culture, and the aggregated revenues of companies founded by MIT alumni would rank as the eleventh-largest economy in the world. In 1859, a proposal was submitted to the Massachusetts General Court to use newly filled lands in Back Bay, Boston for a Conservatory of Art and Science, but the proposal failed. A charter for the incorporation of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Rogers, a professor from the University of Virginia, wanted to establish an institution to address rapid scientific and technological advances. The Rogers Plan reflected the German research university model, emphasizing an independent faculty engaged in research, as well as instruction oriented around seminars, two days after the charter was issued, the first battle of the Civil War broke out. After a long delay through the war years, MITs first classes were held in the Mercantile Building in Boston in 1865, in 1863 under the same act, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts founded the Massachusetts Agricultural College, which developed as the University of Massachusetts Amherst. In 1866, the proceeds from sales went toward new buildings in the Back Bay. MIT was informally called Boston Tech, the institute adopted the European polytechnic university model and emphasized laboratory instruction from an early date. Despite chronic financial problems, the institute saw growth in the last two decades of the 19th century under President Francis Amasa Walker. Programs in electrical, chemical, marine, and sanitary engineering were introduced, new buildings were built, the curriculum drifted to a vocational emphasis, with less focus on theoretical science. The fledgling school still suffered from chronic financial shortages which diverted the attention of the MIT leadership, during these Boston Tech years, MIT faculty and alumni rebuffed Harvard University president Charles W. Eliots repeated attempts to merge MIT with Harvard Colleges Lawrence Scientific School. There would be at least six attempts to absorb MIT into Harvard, in its cramped Back Bay location, MIT could not afford to expand its overcrowded facilities, driving a desperate search for a new campus and funding. Eventually the MIT Corporation approved an agreement to merge with Harvard, over the vehement objections of MIT faculty, students. However, a 1917 decision by the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court effectively put an end to the merger scheme, the neoclassical New Technology campus was designed by William W. Bosworth and had been funded largely by anonymous donations from a mysterious Mr. Smith, starting in 1912. In January 1920, the donor was revealed to be the industrialist George Eastman of Rochester, New York, who had invented methods of production and processing
15.
Henry Hudson Kitson
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Sir Henry Hudson Kitson was an English born American sculptor who sculpted many representations of American military heroes. Often known as H. H. Kitson he was born in Huddersfield, West Yorkshire, England and died at Tyringham and his knighthood was bestowed upon him by Romanias Queen Elisabeth after he sculpted a marble bust of her in the early 1900s. Harry, as he was known by his numererous brothers and sisters, William Kitson was in business with another Englishman Robert Ellin, their firm, Ellin & Kitson, were identified as architectural sculptors. They specialized in carving and wood work in commercial structures and churches. Some buildings they worked on were the Equitable Building, the Tilden Mansion, the Astor Memorial Redos, Harry and Samuel James Kitson the next oldest brother were both associated with Ellin & Kitson doing sculptural work. Kitson also was enrolled in the École nationale supérieure des arts décoratifs studying under Millet and he returned first in 1884/5 to NYC to his eldest brother Williams business but in 1886 removed to Boston where his sculptor brother Sam had established a studio. Once there Kitson received numerous commissions and began teaching, John William Kitson died in 1888 and Samuel James had returned to Boston after a stay in Washington DC. The youngest brother Robert Lewellen Kitson a water-colorist joined his brothers in Boston about 1902. In 1893, Henry married Theo Alice Ruggles, a student of his. Theo and Harry had three children, Theo, John, who became an engineer, and Dorothy. None of the children had issue, the noted sculptor Gaston Lachaise worked in his atelier. Many of Henry Hudson Kitson papers are in the Archives of American Art in Washington, Kitson only carried a British passport. He was the author of public monuments, and left behind his home, Santarella. The home, which Kitson modified extensively, was recently restored, vicksburg National Military Park has the following works by Kitson. Thomas O. Selfridge, Jr.1913 Confederate Maj. Gen. Martin L. Smith 1911 Boston area Nathaniel P
16.
Boston
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Boston is the capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. Boston is also the seat of Suffolk County, although the county government was disbanded on July 1,1999. The city proper covers 48 square miles with a population of 667,137 in 2015, making it the largest city in New England. Alternately, as a Combined Statistical Area, this wider commuting region is home to some 8.1 million people, One of the oldest cities in the United States, Boston was founded on the Shawmut Peninsula in 1630 by Puritan settlers from England. It was the scene of several key events of the American Revolution, such as the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Siege of Boston. Upon U. S. independence from Great Britain, it continued to be an important port and manufacturing hub as well as a center for education, through land reclamation and municipal annexation, Boston has expanded beyond the original peninsula. Its rich history attracts many tourists, with Faneuil Hall alone drawing over 20 million visitors per year, Bostons many firsts include the United States first public school, Boston Latin School, first subway system, the Tremont Street Subway, and first public park, Boston Common. Bostons economic base also includes finance, professional and business services, biotechnology, information technology, the city has one of the highest costs of living in the United States as it has undergone gentrification, though it remains high on world livability rankings. Bostons early European settlers had first called the area Trimountaine but later renamed it Boston after Boston, Lincolnshire, England, the renaming on September 7,1630 was by Puritan colonists from England who had moved over from Charlestown earlier that year in quest of fresh water. Their settlement was limited to the Shawmut Peninsula, at that time surrounded by the Massachusetts Bay and Charles River. The peninsula is thought to have been inhabited as early as 5000 BC, in 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Colonys first governor John Winthrop led the signing of the Cambridge Agreement, a key founding document of the city. Puritan ethics and their focus on education influenced its early history, over the next 130 years, the city participated in four French and Indian Wars, until the British defeated the French and their Indian allies in North America. Boston was the largest town in British America until Philadelphia grew larger in the mid-18th century, Bostons harbor activity was significantly curtailed by the Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812. Foreign trade returned after these hostilities, but Bostons merchants had found alternatives for their investments in the interim. Manufacturing became an important component of the economy, and the citys industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance by the mid-19th century. Boston remained one of the nations largest manufacturing centers until the early 20th century, a network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region facilitated shipment of goods and led to a proliferation of mills and factories. Later, a network of railroads furthered the regions industry. Boston was a port of the Atlantic triangular slave trade in the New England colonies
17.
Equus (genus)
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Equus is a genus of mammals in the family Equidae, which includes horses, asses, and zebras. Within Equidae, Equus is the only recognized extant genus, comprising seven living species, the term equine refers to any member of this genus, including horses. Like Equidae more broadly, Equus has numerous species known only from fossils. The genus most likely originated in North America and spread quickly to the Old World, Equines are odd-toed ungulates with slender legs, long heads, relatively long necks, manes and long tails. All species are herbivorous, and mostly grazers with simpler digestive systems than ruminants, while the domestic horse and donkey exist worldwide, wild equine populations are limited to Africa and Asia. In both systems, females take care of their offspring but males may play a role as well, Equines communicate with each other both visually and vocally. Human activities have threatened wild equine populations and out of the seven living species, only the plains zebra remains widespread and abundant. The word equus is Latin for horse, and is cognate with the Greek ἵππος, horse, and Mycenaean Greek i-qo /ikkʷos/, the genus Equus was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1758. It is the only recognized extant genus in the family Equidae, the first equids were small, dog-sized mammals adapted for browsing on shrubs during the Eocene, around 54 million years ago. These animals had three toes on the feet and four on the front feet with small hooves in place of claws. Equids developed into larger, three-toed animals during the Oligocene and Miocene, from there, the tridactyl toes became progressively smaller through the Pleistocene until the emergence of the single-toed Equus. The genus Equus, which all extant equines, is believed to have evolved from Dinohippus. One of the oldest species is Equus simplicidens, described as zebra-like with a head shape. The oldest material to date was found in Idaho, USA, the genus appears to have spread quickly into the Old World, with the similarly aged E. livenzovensis documented from western Europe and Russia. Molecular phylogenies indicate that the most recent common ancestor of all modern equines lived ~5.6 mya, mitochondrial evidence supports the division of Equus species into non-caballoid and caballoids or true horses. Of the extant equine species, the lineage of the asses may have diverged first, zebras appear to be monophyletic and differentiated in Africa where they are endemic. Molecular dating indicates the caballoid lineage diverged from the non-caballoids 4 mya, genetic results suggest that all North American fossils of caballine equines, as well as South American fossils traditionally placed in the subgenus E. belong to E. ferus. Remains attributed to a variety of species and lumped together as New World stilt-legged horses probably all belong to a species that was endemic to North America
18.
Hermon Atkins MacNeil
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Hermon Atkins MacNeil was an American sculptor born in Everett, Massachusetts. He is known for designing the Standing Liberty quarter, and for sculpting Justice, chapu and Alexandre Falguière in Paris. Returning to America, he aided Philip Martiny in the preparation of models for the Worlds Columbian Exposition. In 1906 he became a National Academician and his first important work was The Moqui Runner, which was followed by A Primitive Chant, and The Sun Vow, all figures of the North American Indian. Several of his earlier American Indian sculptures served as the inspiration for his contribution to the long running Society of Medalists. One of his works is the sculpture in Columbus, Ohio. In 1909 he won in competition a commission for a soldiers and sailors monument in Albany. Perhaps his best known work is as the designer of the Standing Liberty quarter, which was minted from 1916 to 1930 and he also made Justice, the Guardian of Liberty on the east pediment of the United States Supreme Court building. MacNeil was one of a dozen sculptors invited to compete in the Pioneer Woman statue competition in 1927, one of his last works was the Pony Express statue dedicated in 1940 in St. Joseph, Missouri. His wife, Carol Brooks MacNeil, also a sculptor of distinction, was a pupil of Frederick William MacMonnies, the Sun Vow The Moqui Runner Hermon Atkins MacNeil. Archived from the original on 2011-08-17
19.
Gutzon Borglum
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John Gutzon de la Mothe Borglum was an American artist and sculptor. He is most associated with his creation of the Mount Rushmore National Memorial at Mount Rushmore, the son of Danish-American immigrants, Gutzon Borglum was born in 1867 in St. Charles in what was then Idaho Territory. Borglum was a child of Mormon polygamy and his father, Jens Møller Haugaard Børglum, had two wives when he lived in Idaho, Gutzons mother, Christina Mikkelsen Borglum and Gutzons mothers sister Ida, who was Jenss first wife. Jens Borglum decided to leave Mormonism and moved to Omaha, Nebraska where polygamy was illegal and taboo. Jens Borglum worked mainly as a woodcarver before leaving Idaho to attend the Saint Louis Homeopathic Medical College in Saint Louis, at that point the family broke up as Jens decided to only take one wife, Ida, with him. Upon his graduation from the Missouri Medical College in 1874, Dr. Borglum moved the family to Fremont, Nebraska, Gutzon Borglum remained in Fremont until 1882, when his father enrolled him in St. Marys College, Kansas. After a brief stint at Saint Marys College, Gutzon Borglum relocated to Omaha, Nebraska and he was trained in Paris at the Académie Julian, where he came to know Auguste Rodin and was influenced by Rodins impressionistic light-catching surfaces. He also won the Logan Medal of the Arts and his reputation soon surpassed that of his younger brother, Solon Borglum, already an established sculptor. In 1925, the moved to Texas to work on the monument to trail drivers commissioned by the Trail Drivers Association. He completed the model in 1925, but due to lack of funds it was not cast until 1940 and it stands in front of the Texas Pioneer and Trail Drivers Memorial Hall next to the Witte Museum in San Antonio. Borglum lived at the historic Menger Hotel, which in the 1920s was the residence of a number of artists, while living and working in Texas, Borglum took an interest in local beautification. He promoted change and modernity, although he was berated by academicians, a fascination with gigantic scale and themes of heroic nationalism suited his extroverted personality. His head of Abraham Lincoln, carved from a block of marble, was exhibited in Theodore Roosevelts White House and can be found in the United States Capitol Crypt in Washington. Borglum was highly suited to the environment surrounding the contracts for public buildings and monuments. In 1908, Borglum won a competition for a statue of the Civil War General Philip Sheridan to be placed in Sheridan Circle in Washington, a second version of General Philip Sheridan was erected in Chicago, Illinois, in 1923. Borglum was active in the committee organized the New York Armory Show of 1913. He moved into an estate in Stamford, Connecticutin 1914 and lived there for 10 years. Borglum was an member of the Ancient Free and Accepted Masons, raised in Howard Lodge #35, New York City, on June 10,1904
20.
Bronx Zoo
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The Bronx Zoo is a zoo located in the Bronx, a borough of New York City, within Bronx Park. It is the largest metropolitan zoo in the United States and among the largest in the world, on average, the zoo has 2.15 million visitors each year and is world-renowned for its large and diverse animal collection, and its award-winning exhibitions. It comprises 265 acres of lands and naturalistic habitats, through which the Bronx River flows. The zoo is part of a system of four zoos and one aquarium managed by the Wildlife Conservation Society. Credit for this belonged chiefly to Club members Madison Grant and C. Grant LaFarge, the zoo opened its doors to the public on November 8,1899, featuring 843 animals in 22 exhibits. The first zoo director was William Temple Hornaday, who had 30 years of service at the zoo, Heins & LaFarge designed the original permanent buildings as a series of Beaux-Arts pavilions grouped around the large circular sea lion pool. In 1934, the Rainey Memorial Gates, designed by noted sculptor Paul Manship, were dedicated as a memorial to noted big game hunter Paul James Rainey, the gates were listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1972. The Rockefeller Fountain, that adorns the gardens just inside the Fordham Road Gate, was once a famous landmark in Como. Originally built by Biagio Catella in 1872, it stood in the square by the lakeside. It was bought by William Rockefeller in 1902 for 3,500 lire, in 1968, the fountain was designated an official New York City landmark, and is one of the few local monuments to be honored in this way. The New York Zoological Societys seal was designed by famed wildlife-artist Charles R. Knight, the seal depicted a rams head and an eagle to reflect the societys interest in preserving North American wildlife. While no longer in use, the seal can still be found on the lawn in the center of Astor Court. On December 17,1902, the zoo one of the seven zoos outside of Australia. The first animal was a male obtained from famous German animal dealer, the animal died on August 15,1908. The zoo received a male on January 26,1912, from the Beaumaris Zoo in Tasmania. The zoo received their final two animals from Sydney animal dealer, Ellis S. Joseph, the first was an unsexed individual who arrived on November 7,1916, in poor condition and died seven days later. The second and final animal was a female purchased from the Beaumaris Zoo by Joseph for £25 and then was resold to the zoo, arriving on July 14,1917. On a visit, the director of the Melbourne Zoo, Mr. Le Souef, said upon seeing the animal, I advise you to take excellent care of that specimen, for when it is gone, the species soon will be extinct
21.
Circus
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The term circus also describes the performance which has followed various formats through its 250-year modern history. Philip Astley is credited with being the father of the circus when he opened the first circus in 1768 in England. Early circuses were almost exclusively demonstrations of equestrian skills with a few types of acts to link the horsemanship performances. Performances developed significantly through the next fifty years, with large scale theatrical battle reenactments becoming a significant feature, as styles of performance have changed since the time of Astley, so too have the types of venues where these circuses have performed. The earliest modern circuses were performed in open air structures with limited covered seating, from the late 18th to late 19th century custom-made circus buildings were built with various types of seating, a centre ring, and sometimes a stage. The traditional large tents, commonly known as Big Tops were introduced in the mid 19th century as touring circuses superseded static venues and these tents eventually became the most common venue and remain so to the present day. Contemporary circuses perform in a variety of venues including tents, theatres, many circus performances are still held in a ring usually 13 m in diameter. This dimension was adopted by Philip Astley in the late 18th century as the minimum diameter that enabled a horse rider to stand upright on a cantering horse to perform their tricks. In the book De Spectaculis early Christian writer Tertullian claimed that the first circus games were staged by the goddess Circe in honour of her father Helios, the modern and commonly held idea of a circus is of a Big Top with various acts providing entertainment therein. For many, circus history begins with Englishman Philip Astley, while for others its origins go back much further—to Roman times. In Ancient Rome, the circus was a building for the exhibition of horse and chariot races, equestrian shows, staged battles, gladiatorial combat, the Roman circus buildings were, however, not circular but rectangular with semi circular ends. The lower seats were reserved for persons of rank, There were also various state boxes for the giver of the games, the circus was the only public spectacle at which men and women were not separated. It was constructed during the monarchy and, at first, built completely from wood, after being rebuilt several times, the final version of the Circus Maximus could seat 250,000 people, it was built of stone and measured 400m in length and 90m in width. Next in importance were the Circus Flaminius and the Circus Neronis, a fourth circus was constructed by Maxentius, its ruins have helped archaeologists reconstruct the Roman circus. For some time after the fall of Rome, large buildings fell out of use as centres of mass entertainment. Instead, itinerant performers, animal trainers and showmen travelled between towns throughout Europe, performing at local fairs, Astley performed stunts in a 42 ft diameter ring, which is the standard size used by circuses ever since. Astley referred to the arena as a Circle and the building as an amphitheatre. Joseph Grimaldi, the first mainstream clown, had his first major role as Little Clown in the pantomime The Triumph of Mirth, or, the Royal Circus opened in London on 4 November 1782 by Charles Dibdin and his partner Charles Hughes
22.
Philadelphia Museum of Art
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The Philadelphia Museum of Art is an art museum originally chartered in 1876 for the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia. The main museum building was completed in 1928 on Fairmount, a located at the northwest end of the Benjamin Franklin Parkway at Eakins Oval. The museum administers collections containing over 240,000 objects including major holdings of European, American and Asian origin, the various classes of artwork include sculpture, paintings, prints, drawings, photographs, armor and decorative arts. The attendance figure for the museum was 751,797 in 2015, the museum is also one of the largest art museums in the world based on gallery space. The museum also administers the historic houses of Mount Pleasant and Cedar Grove. The museum and its annexes are owned by the City of Philadelphia, as of 2017, the standard adult admission price is $20 which allows entrance to the main building and all annexes for two consecutive days. The museum is closed on Mondays except on some holidays, several special exhibitions are held in the museum every year, including touring exhibitions arranged with other museums in the United States and abroad. Special exhibitions may have a charge for entrance. Philadelphia celebrated the 100th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence with the 1876 Centennial Exposition and its art building, Memorial Hall, was intended to outlast the Exhibition and house a permanent museum. The Pennsylvania Museum and School of Industrial Art opened on May 10,1877 and its permanent collection began with objects from the Exhibition and gifts from the public impressed with the Exhibitions ideals of good design and craftsmanship. European and Japanese fine and decorative art objects and books for the Museums library were among the first donations, the location outside of Center City, however, was fairly distant from many of the citys inhabitants. Admission was charged until 1881, then was dropped until 1962, starting in 1882, Clara Jessup Moore donated a remarkable collection of antique furniture, enamels, carved ivory, jewelry, metalwork, glass, ceramics, books, textiles and paintings. The Countess de Brazzas lace collection was acquired in 1894 forming the nucleus of the lace collection, in 1893 Anna H. Wilstach bequeathed a large painting collection, including many American paintings, and an endowment of half a million dollars for additional purchases. Works by James Abbott McNeill Whistler and George Inness were purchased within a few years, in the early 1900s, the Museum started an education program for the general public, as well as a membership program. Fiske Kimball was the director during the rapid growth of the 1920s. After World War II the collections grew with gifts, such as the John D. McIlhenny, early modern art dominated the growth of the collections in the 1950s, with acquisitions of the Louise and Walter Arensberg and the A. E. Gallatin collections. The gift of Philadelphian Grace Kellys wedding dress is perhaps the best known gift of the 1950s, extensive renovation of the building lasted from the 1960s through 1976. Major acquisitions included the Carroll S. Tyson, Jr. and Samuel S. White III and Vera White collections,71 objects from designer Elsa Schiaparelli, in 1976 there were celebrations and special exhibitions for the centennial of the Museum and the bicentennial of the nation
23.
American Academy of Arts and Letters
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The American Academy of Arts and Letters is a 250-member honor society, its goal is to foster, assist, and sustain excellence in American literature, music, and art. The Academys galleries are open to the public on a published schedule, opened in 2014, a permanent exhibit is the recreated studio of composer Charles Ives. The auditorium is sought out by musicians wishing to live because the acoustics are considered among the worlds finest. The Academy was created in 1904 by the membership of the National Institute of Arts, the first seven academicians were elected from ballots cast by the entire membership. In 1908 poet Julia Ward Howe was elected, and thus became the first female academician, in 1976 the two groups combined under the name American Academy and Institute of Arts and Letters. In 1992 members adopted the current organizational title, the oldest organization associated with the group was founded in 1865 at Boston. The American Social Science Association produced the National Institute of Arts, the qualification for membership in this body was to have made notable achievements in art, music, or literature. The membership was at first limited to 150, in 1904 the membership was increased by the Institutes introducing a two-tiered structure,50 elite members and 200 regular members. The people in the group were gradually elected over the next several years. The larger group was called the Institute, while the group was called the Academy. The strict two-tiered system persisted for 72 years, in 1976 members created an organization called the American Academy and Institute of Arts and Letters. The combined Academy/Institute structure had a maximum of 250 living United States citizens as members, plus up to 75 foreign composers, artists and it also established the annual Witter Bynner Poetry Prize in 1980 to support the work of a young poet. The two-tiered system persisted until 1993, when it was completely abandoned, the Academy holds a Congressional charter under Title 36 of the United States Code, which means that it is one of the comparatively rare Title 36 corporations in the United States. The 1916 statute of incorporation established this institution amongst a number of other patriotic. The federal incorporation was originally construed primarily as an honor, the special recognition neither implies nor accords Congress any special control over the Academy, which remains free to function independently. Active sponsors of Congressional action were Senator Henry Cabot Lodge of Massachusetts, the process which led to the creation of this federal charter was accompanied by controversy, and the first attempt to gain the charter in 1910 failed. Sen. Lodge re-introduced legislation which passed the Senate in 1913, the Academy was incorporated under the laws of the State of New York in 1914, which factors in decision-making which resulted in Congressional approval in 1916. The Academy occupies three buildings on the west end of the Audubon Terrace complex created by Archer M. Huntington, the heir to the Southern Pacific Railroad fortune and a noted philanthropist
24.
Archer Milton Huntington
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Archer Milton Huntington was the son of Arabella Huntington and the stepson of railroad magnate and industrialist Collis P. Huntington. A lifelong friend of the arts, he is known for his works in the field of Hispanic Studies. On August 6,1895, he married Helen Manchester Gates, like her mother, Helen was a writer. Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan appealed for their release through diplomatic channels, Archer and Helen had no children and divorced in 1918. Archer married sculptor Anna Hyatt on March 10,1923, and they founded Brookgreen Gardens sculpture center and nature reserve near Myrtle Beach and her large scale sculptures adorn the Audubon Terrace at the Hispanic Society of America in New York City. March 10 was both his and his brides birthday and they then called March 103 in 1 day and it is still celebrated at Atalaya and Brookgreen Gardens in South Carolina. Archer and Anna had no children, Huntington is primarily known for his scholarly works in the field of Hispanic Studies and for founding The Hispanic Society of America in New York City. The society, founded in 1904, is a museum and rare books library whose collections of Hispanic materials are unrivaled outside Spain, Spanish impressionist painter Joaquin Sorolla met Huntington in England in 1908. Huntington soon made him a member of the Hispanic Society, and this grand exhibition comprised 356 paintings,195 of which sold. Sorolla spent five months in America and painted more than twenty portraits, in 1911, Huntington contracted with Sorolla to paint 14 magnificent murals that came to be known as The Provinces of Spain. These are considered to be the major commission of Sorollas career and his enormous canvases hang in the Sorolla Room of the Hispanic Society building in Manhattan, the room was opened in 1926 following Sorollas death. A major restoration of this room was completed in 2010, during the restoration of the Sorolla Room, the murals toured major art museums in Spain. Huntingtons wife, Anna Hyatt Huntington, sculpted the bronze statues, in 1915, Huntington donated land on which the American Academy of Arts and Letters could construct a permanent New York City home. The land was adjacent to the Hispanic Society and he also donated land and funds to relocate the Numismatic Society and the Museum of the American Indian to the same complex, Audubon Terrace. A portion of Brookgreen Gardens is a reserve, and another section is leased to the state for Huntington Beach State Park. The gardens, historic sites, and their adjacent residence Atalaya Castle are a National Historic Landmark. In 2006, this amounted to $40,000 per year, including a $35,000 salary. In 1939, the Huntingtons donated their mansion at 1083 Fifth Avenue, the property is home to the National Academy Museum and Art School
25.
Brookgreen Gardens
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Brookgreen Gardens is a sculpture garden and wildlife preserve, located just south of Murrells Inlet, in South Carolina. Brookgreen Gardens was opened in 1932, and is built on four former rice plantations, originally, what is now Brookgreen Gardens was four rice plantations. The plantations from south to north were The Oaks, Brookgreen, Springfield, the current gardens and surrounding facilities lie completely on the former Brookgreen Plantation, which was owned by Joshua John Ward, the largest American slaveholder. Only a handful of relics survive on the former plantations, the Alston cemetery survives on the grounds of The Oaks plantation. Gov. Joseph Alston and his child are buried in the cemetery, the same grave is a memorial to the governors wife Theodosia Burr Alston, daughter of Vice President Aaron Burr, who was lost at sea. Her ghost is said to haunt the Grand Strand, looking for her father, the rice mill at Laurel Hill is all that remains of the plantation today. During the American Civil War, Confederates built a structure on the grounds to block Union Navy ships from coming into the tidal rivers. It is the creation of Archer and Anna Hyatt Huntington of Connecticut and it is also a nature and historical preserve with a small zoo and a nature exhibition center. Archer and Anna Hyatt Huntington first visited the property in 1929, because they were captivated by the beauty of it, they purchased nearly 9,100 acres of forest, swamp, rice fields and beachfront. They intended to establish a home on the coast, but Anna saw the potential of the property. Archer, stepson of philanthropist Collis Huntington, and Anna have donated property and contributed much to U. S. arts and her sculpture of Joan of Arc is a feature of New York Citys Riverside Park. About 1445 works of American figurative sculpture are displayed at the Archer, many of the works are creations of sculptress Hyatt Huntington, but other artists are also featured. Walkways and garden paths link the sculptures in their garden, fountain, or landscape settings. A1, 600-acre area of Brookgreen Gardens was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978, the sculpture garden portion,551 acres, of Brookgreen Gardens was included in the designation of Atalaya and Brookgreen Gardens as a National Historic Landmark in 1984. Atalaya Castle is just across U. S.17 which cuts through the former combined Huntington property. For enslaved Africans on Brookgreen Plantation, this hill was a bridge between the world of work and the familiarity of life in the slave village beyond the crest of the hill. The rhythms of life – planting, growing, harvesting, threshing – changed seasonally for everyone on the rice plantation, the Lowcountry Trail Audio Tour is a public education program that emphasizes historic preservation. The tour winds along the Ricefield Overlook and adjacent rice field and is free with garden admission, a 30-minute fictional story about life on Brookgreen Plantation unwinds progressively as listeners walk the trail
26.
Myrtle Beach, South Carolina
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Myrtle Beach /ˈmɜːrtəlˈbiːtʃ/ is a coastal city on the east coast of the United States in Horry County, South Carolina. It is situated on the center of a large and continuous stretch of beach known as the Grand Strand in northeastern South Carolina. Myrtle Beach is one of the centers of tourism in the United States because of the citys warm subtropical climate and extensive beaches. As of the 2010 census, the population of the city was 27,109 with the Myrtle Beach metropolitan area population at 465,391 according to a 2013 estimate. Since then, the portion of the Myrtle Beach area has developed dramatically. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 23.55 square miles. According to the Köppen climate classification, Myrtle Beach has a subtropical climate or Cfa – typical of the Gulf. The city enjoys abundant sunshine year-round with more than 2800 hours annually, the summer season is long, hot, and humid in Myrtle Beach. Average daytime highs are from 83 to 91 °F and average lows are near 70 °F. The Bermuda High pumps in humidity from the tropical Atlantic toward Myrtle Beach, the warm Atlantic Ocean reaches 80 °F or higher in the summer months off Myrtle Beach, making for warm and sultry summer nights. Summer thunderstorms are common in the hot season in Myrtle Beach, in summer, thunderstorms normally build during the heat of the day – followed by brief and intense downpours. Myrtle Beach has mostly mild winters of short duration, Average daytime highs range from 57 to 61 °F, Myrtle Beach averages 33 days annually with frost, though in some years less than 15 days will see frost. Snowfall is very rare in Myrtle Beach, however a few times every 15 or 20 years a trace of snow might fall, in February 2010, a rare 2.8 inches of snow fell in Myrtle Beach. The spring and fall months are mild and sunny in Myrtle Beach. The beach season in Myrtle Beach normally runs from late April through late October, SST are often in the lower 80s off South Carolina in summer and early fall. Summer thunderstorms can be severe, but are brief, but tornadoes are rare in Myrtle Beach, tropical cyclones occasionally impact Myrtle Beach, though weaker tropical storms and weak tropical lows are more common. Like most areas prone to cyclones, a direct hit by a major hurricane is infrequent in Myrtle Beach. The last hurricane to cause significant damage in Myrtle Beach was Hurricane Hugo in 1989, the worst hurricane in the history of Myrtle Beach was Hurricane Hazel in 1954
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South Carolina
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South Carolina /ˌsaʊθ kærəˈlaɪnə/ is a state in the southeastern region of the United States. The state is bordered to the north by North Carolina, to the south and west by Georgia across the Savannah River, South Carolina became the eighth state to ratify the U. S. Constitution, doing so on May 23,1788. South Carolina became the first state to vote to secede from the Union on December 20,1860, after the American Civil War, it was readmitted into the United States on June 25,1868. South Carolina is the 40th most extensive and the 23rd most populous U. S. state and its GDP as of 2013 was $183.6 billion, with an annual growth rate of 3. 13%. The capital and largest city is Columbia with a 2013 population of 133,358, South Carolina is named in honor of King Charles I of England, under whose reign the English colony was first formed, with Carolus being Latin for Charles. There is evidence of activity in the area about 12000 years ago. Along the Savannah River were the Apalachee, Yuchi, and the Yamasee, further west were the Cherokee, and along the Catawba River, the Catawba. These tribes were village-dwellers, relying on agriculture as their food source. The Cherokee lived in wattle and daub houses made with wood and clay, about a dozen separate small tribes summered on the coast harvesting oysters and fish, and cultivating corn, peas and beans. Travelling inland as much as 50 miles mostly by canoe, they wintered on the plain, hunting deer and gathering nuts. The names of these survive in place names like Edisto Island, Kiawah Island. The Spanish were the first Europeans in the area, in 1521, founding San Miguel de Gualdape, established with 500 settlers, it was abandoned within a year by 150 survivors. In 1562 French settlers established a settlement at what is now the Charlesfort-Santa Elena archaeological site on Parris Island, three years later the Spanish built a fort on the same site, but withdrew following hostilities with the English navy. In 1629, King Charles I of England established the Province of Carolina an area covering what is now South and North Carolina, Georgia, in the 1670s, English planters from the Barbados established themselves near what is now Charleston. Settlers built rice plantations in the South Carolina Lowcountry, east of the Atlantic Seaboard fall line, settlers came from all over Europe. Plantation labor was done by African slaves who formed the majority of the population by 1720, another cash crop was the Indigo plant, a plant source of blue dye, developed by Eliza Lucas. Meanwhile, in Upstate South Carolina, west of the Fall Line, was settled by farmers and traders. Colonists overthrew the rule, seeing more direct representation
28.
National Academy Museum and School
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Durand, Thomas Cole, Martin E. Thompson, and others to promote the fine arts in America through instruction and exhibition. The Academy is an honorary organization, a school. The school offers instruction, master classes, intensive critiques, various workshops. The museum houses a collection of over 7,000 works of American art from the 19th, 20th. The Academy has been located at several locations over the years, notable among them was a building built during 1863-1865, designed by architect P. B. Wight in Venetian Gothic style, which was modeled on the Doges Palace in Venice, another locale was at West 109th Street and Amsterdam Avenue in Manhattan. Since 1942 the academy has occupied a mansion that was the home of sculptor Anna Hyatt Huntington and Archer Milton Huntington at Fifth Avenue. The original founders of the National Academy of Design were students of the American Academy of the Fine Arts, samuel F. B. Morse and other students set about forming the drawing association to meet several times each week for the study the art of design. Still, the association was viewed as a dependent organization of the American Academy, an attempt was made to reconcile the difference and maintain a single academy by appointing six of the artists from the association as directors of the American Academy. When four of the nominees were not elected, however, the frustrated artists resolved to form a new academy, among the teaching staff were numerous artists, including Will Hicok Low, who taught from 1889 to 1892. The famous American poet William Cullen Bryant also gave lectures, architect Alexander Jackson Davis taught at the Academy. Painter Lemuel Wilmarth was the first full-time instructor Gulian C, verplanck, a Congressman and a man of letters, gave an address at the school in 1824. and Silas Dustin was a curator
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Collis P. Huntington State Park
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Collis P. Huntington State Park is a state-owned, public recreation area in the towns of Redding, Newtown, and Bethel in Fairfield County, Connecticut. The state park is noted for Anna Hyatt Huntingtons sculptures of bears and her work can also be seen in the heroic sculpture of General Israel Putnam at Putnam Memorial State Park in Redding. The park bears the name of railroad magnate Collis Potter Huntington, the parks web of multi-use trails is open to hikers, cyclists, and equestrians. The park is managed by the Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection, one of Luttgens improvements, a miniature stone lighthouse, may still be seen. The remains of a steam paddlewheeler that once plied the ponds have not been found. Joseph E. Sterrett, a principal with the firm of Price, Waterhouse, acquired the estate, including its mansion, Villa Linta. After Villa Linta burned down, the land was purchased by Archer M. Huntington, the park was opened to the public following Anna Huntingtons death in 1973. The park has trails for hiking, mountain biking, horseback riding, trails include the northern section of the Aspetuck Valley Trail, which connects with the adjacent Centennial Watershed State Forest. Park ponds are available for canoeing and fishing, archery-only deer hunting is offered from mid-September through December. Huntington State Park Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection Huntington State Park Map Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection
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Woodlawn Cemetery (Bronx, New York)
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Woodlawn Cemetery is one of the largest cemeteries in New York City and is a designated National Historic Landmark. Located in Woodlawn, Bronx, New York City, it has the character of a rural cemetery, Woodlawn Cemetery opened during the Civil War in 1863, in what was then southern Westchester County, in an area that would be annexed to New York City in 1874. Holly Woodlawn, after changing her name to such, falsely told people she was the heiress to Woodlawn Cemetery, the Cemetery covers more than 400 acres and is the resting place for more than 300,000 people. It is also the site of the Annie Bliss Titanic Memorial, the cemetery contains seven Commonwealth war graves – six British and Canadian servicemen of World War I and an airman of the Royal Canadian Air Force of World War II. As of 2007, plot prices at Woodlawn were reported as $200 per square foot, Woodlawn was the destination for many human remains disinterred from cemeteries in more densely populated parts of New York City, Rutgers Street church graves were also moved to Woodlawn. Most graves were re-interred with a date of December 20,1866 into the Rutgers Plot. West Farms Dutch Reformed Church, at Boone Avenue and 172nd Street in The Bronx, had most of its graves moved to Woodlawn Cemetery in 1867 and interred in the Rutgers Plot, bensonia Cemetery, also known as Morrisania Cemetery, was originally a Native American burial ground. The graves were moved to Woodlawn Cemetery with a date of April 21,1871. Public School #138, in The Bronx, is now on the site, harlem Church Yard cemetery internees were moved to Woodlawn. Most graves were re-interred with a date of August 1,1871 into the Sycamore Plot. Nagle Cemetery remains were moved in November–December 1926 and reinterred in Primrose Plot, Lot 16150, identities of those interred are apparently unknown. The Dyckman-Nagle Burying Ground, West 212th Street at 9th Avenue, in the Borough of Manhattan, was established in 1677. In 1905, the remains, with the exception of Staats Morris Dyckman, by 1927, the Dyckman graves were finally moved to Woodlawn Cemetery. The former Dutch colonial-era cemetery is now a 207th Street subway train yard, the fictional cemetery of the Synagogue in Brooklyn in Once Upon a Time in America is moved here, while naming the place Riverdale Cemetery
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The Bronx
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The Bronx is the northernmost of the five boroughs of New York City, within the U. S. state of New York. Since 1914, the Bronx has had the boundaries as Bronx County, a county of New York. The Bronx is divided by the Bronx River into a section in the west, closer to Manhattan. East and west street addresses are divided by Jerome Avenue—the continuation of Manhattans Fifth Avenue, the West Bronx was annexed to New York City in 1874, and the areas east of the Bronx River in 1895. Bronx County was separated from New York County in 1914, about a quarter of the Bronxs area is open space, including Woodlawn Cemetery, Van Cortlandt Park, Pelham Bay Park, the New York Botanical Garden, and the Bronx Zoo in the boroughs north and center. These open spaces are situated primarily on land reserved in the late 19th century as urban development progressed north. The name Bronx originated with Jonas Bronck, who established the first settlement in the area as part of the New Netherland colony in 1639, the native Lenape were displaced after 1643 by settlers. This cultural mix has made the Bronx a wellspring of both Latin music and hip hop. The Bronx, particularly the South Bronx, saw a decline in population, livable housing, and the quality of life in the late 1960s. Since then the communities have shown significant redevelopment starting in the late 1980s before picking up pace from the 1990s until today, the Bronx was called Rananchqua by the native Siwanoy band of Lenape, while other Native Americans knew the Bronx as Keskeskeck. It was divided by the Aquahung River, the origin of Jonas Bronck is contested. Some sources claim he was a Swedish born emigrant from Komstad, Norra Ljunga parish in Småland, Sweden, who arrived in New Netherland during the spring of 1639. Bronck became the first recorded European settler in the now known as the Bronx and built a farm named Emmanus close to what today is the corner of Willis Avenue. He leased land from the Dutch West India Company on the neck of the mainland north of the Dutch settlement in Harlem. He eventually accumulated 500 acres between the Harlem River and the Aquahung, which known as Broncks River or the Bronx. Dutch and English settlers referred to the area as Broncks Land, the American poet William Bronk was a descendant of Pieter Bronck, either Jonas Broncks son or his younger brother. More recent research indicates that Pieter was probably Jonas nephew or cousin, the Bronx is referred to with the definite article as The Bronx, both legally and colloquially. The region was named after the Bronx River and first appeared in the Annexed District of The Bronx created in 1874 out of part of Westchester County
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Syracuse University
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Syracuse University, commonly referred to as Syracuse, Cuse, or SU, is a private research university in Syracuse, New York, United States. The institutions roots can be traced to the Genesee Wesleyan Seminary, founded in 1831 by the Methodist Episcopal Church in Lima, after several years of debate over relocating the college to Syracuse, the university was established in 1870, independent of the college. Since 1920, the university has identified itself as nonsectarian, although it maintains a relationship with The United Methodist Church, the campus is in the University Hill neighborhood of Syracuse, east and southeast of downtown, on one of the larger hills. Its large campus features a mix of buildings, ranging from nineteenth-century Romanesque Revival structures to contemporary buildings. Syracuse University athletic teams, known as the Orange, participate in 20 intercollegiate sports, SU is a member of the Atlantic Coast Conference for all NCAA Division I athletics, except for the mens rowing and womens ice hockey teams. SU is also a member of the Eastern College Athletic Conference, the Genesee Wesleyan Seminary was founded in 1831 by the Genesee Annual Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church in Lima, New York, south of Rochester. In 1850, it was resolved to enlarge the institution from a seminary into a college, or to connect a college with the seminary, however, the location was soon thought by many to be insufficiently central. Its difficulties were compounded by the set of technological changes. The trustees of the college then decided to seek a locale whose economic. Meanwhile, there were years of dispute between the Methodist ministers, Lima, and contending cities across the state, over proposals to move Genesee College to Syracuse. At the time, the ministers wanted a share of the funds from the Morrill Land Grant Act for Genesee College and they agreed to a quid pro quo donation of $25,000 from Senator Cornell in exchange for their support for his bill. Cornell insisted the bargain be written into the bill and Cornell became New York States Land Grant University in 1865. In 1869, Genesee College obtained New York State approval to move to Syracuse, but Lima got an injunction to block the move. By that time, however, the injunction had been made moot by the founding of a new university on March 24,1870. On that date the State of New York granted the new Syracuse University its own charter, the City of Syracuse had offered $100,000 to establish the school. Bishop Jesse Truesdell Peck had donated $25,000 to the school and was elected the first president of the Board of Trustees. Rev. Daniel Steele, a former Genesee College president, served as the first administrative leader of Syracuse until its Chancellor was appointed, the university opened in September 1871 in rented space downtown. George F. Comstock, a member of the new Universitys Board of Trustees, had offered the school 50 acres of farmland on a hillside to the southeast of the city center
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Archives of American Art
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The Archives of American Art is the largest collection of primary resources documenting the history of the visual arts in the United States. More than 20 million items of material are housed in the Archives research centers in Washington, D. C. As a research center within the Smithsonian Institution, the Archives houses materials related to a variety of American visual art, all regions of the country and numerous eras and art movements are represented. Among the significant artists represented in its collection are Jackson Pollock, Lee Krasner, Marcel Breuer, Rockwell Kent, John Singer Sargent, Winslow Homer, John Trumbull, and Alexander Calder. In addition to the papers of artists, the Archives collects documentary material from art galleries, art dealers, the Archives of American Art was founded in Detroit in 1954 by then Director of the Detroit Institute of Art, E. P. Richardson, and art collector Lawrence A. Fleischman, concerned about the lack of material relating to American art, the two organized the Archives of American Art with the support of scholars and businessmen. Their intention was to collect materials related to American artists, art dealers, institutions and writers, in 1970 the Archives became part of the Smithsonian Institution, moving its processing center and storage facility from Detroit to the Old Patent Office Building in Washington, D. C. Currently the collection and offices are located at the Victor Building, on 9th Street NW, every year the Archives honors individual contributions to the American art community with the Archives of American Art Medal and art historians with the Lawrence A. Fleischman Award for Scholarly Excellence in the Field of American Art History and these awards are presented at the Archives annual benefit and have been rewarded to Mark di Suvero, Chuck Close, John Wilmerding and others. C. Boston, Detroit, and at the DeYoung Museum in San Francisco, todays affiliates consist of the DeYoung, Boston Public Library, the Amon Carter Museum and The Huntington Library. The Archives also offers microfilm for interlibrary loan at no charge, microfilm is no longer being produced at the Archives as it has been superseded by digitization. With funding from the Terra Foundation for American Art Digitization Program, the Archives has fully digitized numerous collections, the Archives relies heavily on grants and private donations to fund the archival processing and care of collections. In 2009 the Archives acquired 88 collections totaling 717 linear feet, the Archives holds a unique collection of material from notable artists, dealers, critics and collectors. While papers and documents make up a portion of the Archives. These include a bird nest and a Kewpie doll from the collection of artist Joseph Cornell, painter George Luks death mask, and a cast iron model car that belonged to Franz Kline. The earliest letter in the collection was written by John Smibert in 1743, the Archives maintain over 50 paper collections of African American artists. Subjects covered in these personal papers include the experience, racism within the arts. The collection includes the sketchbooks of Palmer Hayden, Horace Pippins illustrated journal of his service during World War I
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Metropolitan Museum of Art
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The Metropolitan Museum of Art, colloquially the Met, is located in New York City and is the largest art museum in the United States, and is among the most visited art museums in the world. Its permanent collection contains two million works, divided among seventeen curatorial departments. The main building, on the edge of Central Park along Manhattans Museum Mile, is by area one of the worlds largest art galleries. A much smaller second location, The Cloisters at Fort Tryon Park in Upper Manhattan, contains a collection of art, architecture. On March 18,2016, the museum opened the Met Breuer museum at Madison Avenue in the Upper East Side, it extends the museums modern, the Met maintains extensive holdings of African, Asian, Oceanian, Byzantine, Indian, and Islamic art. The museum is home to collections of musical instruments, costumes and accessories, as well as antique weapons. Several notable interiors, ranging from first-century Rome through modern American design, are installed in its galleries, the Metropolitan Museum of Art was founded in 1870. The founders included businessmen and financiers, as well as leading artists and thinkers of the day and it opened on February 20,1872, and was originally located at 681 Fifth Avenue. The Met maintains extensive holdings of African, Asian, Oceanian, Byzantine, the museum is also home to encyclopedic collections of musical instruments, costumes and accessories, and antique weapons and armor from around the world. A number of interiors, ranging from 1st century Rome through modern American design, are permanently installed in the Mets galleries. In addition to its permanent exhibitions, the Met organizes and hosts traveling shows throughout the year. The director of the museum is Thomas P. Campbell, a long-time curator and it was announced on February 28th,2017 that Campbell will be stepping down as the Mets director and CEO, effective June. On March 1st,2017 the BBC reported that Daniel Weiss shall be the acting CEO until a replacement is found, Beginning in the late 19th century, the Met started to acquire ancient art and artifacts from the Near East. From a few tablets and seals, the Mets collection of Near Eastern art has grown to more than 7,000 pieces. The highlights of the include a set of monumental stone lamassu, or guardian figures. The Mets Department of Arms and Armor is one of the museums most popular collections. Among the collections 14,000 objects are many pieces made for and used by kings and princes, including armor belonging to Henry VIII of England, Henry II of France, Rockefeller donated his more than 3, 000-piece collection to the museum. The Mets Asian department holds a collection of Asian art, of more than 35,000 pieces, the collection dates back almost to the founding of the museum, many of the philanthropists who made the earliest gifts to the museum included Asian art in their collections
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Malvina Hoffman
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Malvina Hoffman was an American sculptor and author, well known for her life-size bronze sculptures of people. She also worked in plaster and marble, Hoffman created portrait busts of working-class people and significant individuals. She was particularly known for her sculptures of dancers, such as Anna Pavlova and her sculptures of culturally diverse people, entitled Hall of the Races of Mankind, was a popular permanent exhibition at the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago. It was featured at the Century of Progress International Exposition at the Chicago Worlds Fair of 1933 and she was commissioned to execute commemorative monuments and was awarded many prizes and honors, including a membership to the National Sculpture Society. In 1925, she was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Associate member, many of her portraits of individuals are among the collection of the New York Historical Society. She maintained a salon, a gathering of artistic and personal acquaintances. She was highly skilled in techniques, often casting her own works. Hoffman published a work on historical and technical aspects of bronze casting, Sculpture Inside and Out. Malvina Hoffman was born in New York City, the fourth of six children of the concert pianist and composer, Richard Hoffman and her mother, also a pianist, presided over her education at home until she was 10 years of age. The Hoffmans regularly entertained artists and musicians in their home, Hoffman attended Veltin School for Girls, Chapin, and Brearley private schools. While at Brearley, she took evening classes at the Womans School for Applied Design and she studied painting with John White Alexander in 1906, and also with Harper Pennington. Hoffman developed her skill as an artist during her studies with George Grey Barnard, Herbert Adams and she worked as an assistant to sculptor Alexander Phimister Proctor at his MacDougal Street studio in Greenwich Village in 1907. In 1908, Hoffman traveled to Paris with Katharine Rhoades and Marion H. Beckett and she made a bust of her father, her first finished sculpture, in 1909, two weeks prior to his death. It was exhibited at the National Academy the following year, also in 1910, she won an honorable mention for a sculpture of her future husband, Samuel Grimson, at the Paris Salon. Hoffman gravitated towards sculpture due to the freedom she felt when creating a three-dimensional work of art. After her fathers death in 1910, Hoffman moved to Europe with her mother and they first visited London, where they attended the ballet of Alexander Glazunovs Autumn Bacchanale. Hoffman was inspired by the combination of motion and control exhibited by Mikhail Mordkin, mother and daughter visited Italy before moving to Paris. She worked as an assistant for Janet Scudder
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Evelyn Beatrice Longman
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Evelyn Beatrice Longman was the first woman sculptor to be elected a full member of the National Academy of Design in 1919. Her allegorical figure works were commissioned as monuments and memorials, adornment for public buildings, the daughter of Edwin Henry and Clara Delitia Longman, she was born on a farm near Winchester, Ohio. At the age of 14, she earned a living working in a Chicago dry-goods store, at the 1893 Worlds Columbian Exposition, which she visited when she was almost 19 years old, Longman was inspired to become a sculptor. She attended Olivet College in Michigan for one year but returned to Chicago to study anatomy, drawing, working under Lorado Taft at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago, she earned her diploma for the four-year course of study in only two years. In 1901, Longman moved to New York, where she studied with Hermon Atkins MacNeil and Daniel Chester French. Recently, a smaller Bronze version, a statuette dated 1903, was located and in 2007 was sold at auction for $7, Longmans 1915 Genius of Electricity, a gilded male nude, was commissioned by AT&T Corporation for the top of their corporate headquarters in downtown Manhattan. The figure was reproduced on Bell Telephone directories across the country from 1938 until the 1960s, around 1920, Longman assisted Daniel Chester French and Henry Bacon by creating some of the sculptural decorations for the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D. C. In 1923, she won the Watrous Gold Medal for best sculpture and she is also often noted for sculpting the hands on the Lincoln Memorial, although this is not confirmed to be true. She assisted with many aspects of the Lincoln Memorial, but French himself modeled the hands, in 1918, she was hired by Nathaniel Horton Batchelder, the Headmaster of the Loomis Chaffee School, to sculpt a memorial to his late wife. Two years later she married Batchelder, moving to Connecticut at the height of her career, during the next 30 years, Longman completed dozens of commissions, both architectural and independent works, throughout the United States. She was an member of the Loomis Chaffee School, donating countless items that are currently held still at the school as well as in the surrounding town. After her husbands retirement, Evelyn moved her studio to Cape Cod and it is rumored that after her death, her husband scattered her ashes at Chesterwood, the home and studio of her former employer and mentor, Daniel Chester French. Victory, commissioned for the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in Saint Louis, great Bronze Memorial chapel doors at the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis. Wreaths, eagles and inscriptions on the walls of the Lincoln Memorial, Washington. Aenigma, bust of German actress Kate Parsenow and it now stands in the lobby AT&Ts downtown Dallas, TX headquarters. Fountain of Ceres in the Court of the Four Seasons at the Panama-Pacific International Exposition, lAmour in the Palace of Fine Arts at the Panama-Pacific International Exposition San Francisco. Senator Allison Monument Des Moines, Iowa, spirit of Victory, Spanish–American War Memorial in Bushnell Park, Hartford, Connecticut. Victory of Mercy, Loomis Chaffee School, Windsor, CT, Edison,12.5 foot bronze portrait bust of Thomas Alva Edison in Washington D. C. at the Naval Research Laboratory
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Columbia University
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Columbia University is a private Ivy League research university in Upper Manhattan, New York City. It was established in 1754 as Kings College by royal charter of George II of Great Britain, after the American Revolutionary War, Kings College briefly became a state entity, and was renamed Columbia College in 1784. Columbia is one of the fourteen founding members of the Association of American Universities and was the first school in the United States to grant the M. D. degree. The university also has global research outposts in Amman, Beijing, Istanbul, Paris, Mumbai, Rio de Janeiro, Santiago, Asunción, Columbia administers annually the Pulitzer Prize. Additionally,100 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with Columbia as students, researchers, faculty, Columbia is second only to Harvard University in the number of Nobel Prize-winning affiliates, with over 100 recipients of the award as of 2016. In 1746 an act was passed by the assembly of New York to raise funds for the foundation of a new college. Classes were initially held in July 1754 and were presided over by the colleges first president, Dr. Johnson was the only instructor of the colleges first class, which consisted of a mere eight students. Instruction was held in a new schoolhouse adjoining Trinity Church, located on what is now lower Broadway in Manhattan, in 1763, Dr. Johnson was succeeded in the presidency by Myles Cooper, a graduate of The Queens College, Oxford, and an ardent Tory. In the charged political climate of the American Revolution, his opponent in discussions at the college was an undergraduate of the class of 1777. The suspension continued through the occupation of New York City by British troops until their departure in 1783. The colleges library was looted and its sole building requisitioned for use as a hospital first by American. Loyalists were forced to abandon their Kings College in New York, the Loyalists, led by Bishop Charles Inglis fled to Windsor, Nova Scotia, where they founded Kings Collegiate School. After the Revolution, the college turned to the State of New York in order to restore its vitality, the Legislature agreed to assist the college, and on May 1,1784, it passed an Act for granting certain privileges to the College heretofore called Kings College. The Regents finally became aware of the colleges defective constitution in February 1787 and appointed a revision committee, in April of that same year, a new charter was adopted for the college, still in use today, granting power to a private board of 24 Trustees. On May 21,1787, William Samuel Johnson, the son of Dr. Samuel Johnson, was unanimously elected President of Columbia College, prior to serving at the university, Johnson had participated in the First Continental Congress and been chosen as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention. The colleges enrollment, structure, and academics stagnated for the majority of the 19th century, with many of the college presidents doing little to change the way that the college functioned. In 1857, the college moved from the Kings College campus at Park Place to a primarily Gothic Revival campus on 49th Street and Madison Avenue, during the last half of the 19th century, under the leadership of President F. A. P. Barnard, the institution assumed the shape of a modern university
38.
New-York Historical Society
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The New-York Historical Society presents exhibitions, public programs, and research that explore the rich history of New York and the nation. The New-York Historical Society Museum & Library has been at its present location since 1908, the granite building was designed by York & Sawyer in a classic Roman Eclectic style. Louise Mirrer has been the president of the Historical Society since 2004 and she was previously Executive Vice Chancellor for Academic Affairs of the City University of New York. Beginning in 2005, the museum presented a groundbreaking exhibit on Slavery in New York. It included an art exhibit by artists invited to use museum collections in their works, the Society generally focuses on the developing city center on Manhattan Island, and the Long Island Historical Society was founded in 1863. It was later renamed as the Brooklyn Historical Society, located in the borough across the East River and this borough was consolidated into the City of Greater New York in 1898. The BHS also has materials pertaining to the city and its region. The New-York Historical Society holds a collection of historical artifacts, works of American art. Grant, Tiffany designer Clara Driscol, and the history of the Constitution, the New-York Historical Society’s museum is the oldest in New York City and predates the founding of the Metropolitan Museum of Art by nearly 70 years. Its art holdings comprise more than 1.6 million works, the Historical Society also holds an important collection of paintings and drawings by marine artist James Bard. Its research library contains more than three books, pamphlets, maps, atlases, newspapers, broadsides, music sheets, manuscripts, prints, photographs. Grant’s terms of surrender for Robert E, the Society operates a website showing many images from its collection. In 2015 it announced the digitization and posting of over a thousand negatives by photographer Robert L. Bracklow from the late 19th, the Historical Society was founded on November 20,1804, largely through the efforts of John Pintard. He was for some years secretary of the American Academy of Fine Arts and he was also among the first to agitate for a free school system. The first meeting comprised 11 of the citys most prominent citizens, at the meeting, a committee was selected to draw up a constitution, and by December 10, the Historical Society was officially organized. It had already collected the start of a collection, several oil portraits and 38 engraved portraits. The Historical Society suffered under heavy debt during its early decades, in 1809, it organized a celebration of the 200th anniversary of the arrival of Henry Hudson in New York Harbor. Inspired by the event, the Historical Society petitioned and later obtained an endowment from the New York State Legislature, the failure of the lottery resulted in a debt that forced the Society to mortgage some of its books, which were not redeemed until 1823
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Hispanic Society of America
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A second building, on the north side of the terrace, was added in 1930. Exterior sculpture in front of that includes work by Anna Hyatt Huntington and nine major reliefs by the Swiss-American sculptor Berthold Nebel. The Hispanic Society complex was designated a National Historic Landmark in 2012, the museum contains more than 18,000 works in every medium, ranging from prehistoric times to the 20th century. A major component of this museum is the Sorolla Room which was reinstalled in 2010 and it displays the Vision of Spain,14 massive paintings commissioned by Archer Huntington that Sorolla created from 1911 to 1919. These magnificent paintings, totaling over 200 linear feet, ring the large room, the library contains over 250,000 books,200,000 documents,175,000 photographs, and 15,000 prints. The rare books library maintains 15,000 books printed before 1700 and it also holds the manuscript Black Book of Hours Horae Beatae Virginis Mariae ad usum Romanum, one of only a handful of such works, and the enormous Map of the World by Juan Vespucci. Beginning January 1,2017, the museum is closed for renovations until the fall of 2019. The $15 million project will replace the roof and lighting. While the museum is closed, many of its works will be lent to other institutions, about 200 of the societys most important works will be displayed from April through September 2017 at the Museo del Prado in Madrid. List of Books Printed Before 1601 in the Library of the Hispanic Society of America – via HathiTrust, official website A Collection in Context, The Hispanic Society of America by the Media Center for Art History, Columbia University
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Cathedral of Saint John the Divine
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The Cathedral of St. John the Divine, officially the Cathedral Church of Saint John, The Great Divine in the City and Diocese of New York, is the cathedral of the Episcopal Diocese of New York. It is located in New York City on Amsterdam Avenue between West 110th Street and 113th Street in Manhattans Morningside Heights neighborhood, designed in 1888 and begun in 1892, the cathedral has undergone radical stylistic changes and the interruption of the two World Wars. Originally designed in the Byzantine Revival-Romanesque Revival styles, the plan was changed after 1909 to a Gothic Revival design, after a large fire on December 18,2001, it was closed for repairs and reopened in November 2008. It remains unfinished, with construction and restoration a continuing process, as a result, it is often nicknamed St. John the Unfinished. There is a dispute whether this cathedral or Liverpool Cathedral is the worlds largest Anglican cathedral. It is also the fourth largest Christian church in the world, the interior covers 121,000 sq ft, spanning a length of 601 ft and height 232 ft. The interior height of the nave is 124 feet, the cathedral houses one of the nations premier textile conservation laboratories to conserve the cathedrals textiles, including the Barberini tapestries to cartoons by Raphael. The laboratory also conserves tapestries, needlepoint, upholstery, costumes, in 1887 Bishop Henry Codman Potter of the Episcopal Diocese of New York called for a cathedral to rival the Catholic St. Patricks Cathedral in Manhattan. An 11. 5-acre property, on which the Leake and Watts Orphan Asylum had stood, was purchased by deed for the cathedral in 1891. After an open competition, a design by the New York firm of George Lewis Heins, the foundations were completed at enormous expense, largely because bedrock was not struck until the excavation had reached 72 feet. The walls were built around eight massive 130-ton, 50-foot granite columns, each turned as one piece, sourced from Vinalhaven, Maine and said to be the largest in the world. The columns, which were transported to New York on a specially constructed barge towed by the steam tug Clara Clarita. The first services were held in the crypt, under the crossing in 1899, the Ardolino brothers from Torre di Nocelli, Italy, did much of the stone carving work on the statues designed by the English sculptor John Angel. After the large dome made of Guastavino tile was completed in 1909. Grant LaFarge, and hire the noted Gothic Revival architect Ralph Adams Cram to design the nave, in 1911, the choir and the crossing were opened, and the foundation for Crams nave began to be excavated in 1916. J. Sanford Saltus, namesake of the American Numismatic Societys Saltus Award, Manning with a life-size statue of Joan of Arc for the Cathedrals French Chapel, which was dedicated in January 1923. The first stone of the nave was laid, and the west front was undertaken in 1925, Bishop Manning had announced a $10 million capital campaign to raise money for this project at a major press conference, the New York campaign committee was headed by Franklin D. Roosevelt. Work at the church went on during the Great Depression as a result of monies raised in this campaign, the Cathedral was opened end-to-end for the first time on November 30,1941, a week before the bombing of Pearl Harbor
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Riverside Park (Manhattan)
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Riverside Park is a scenic waterfront public park on the Upper West Side of the borough of Manhattan in New York City, operated and maintained by the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation. The park consists of a narrow 4-mile strip of land between the Hudson River and the gently curving rise-and-fall of Riverside Drive, Riverside Park also contains part of the Manhattan Waterfront Greenway, which encircles Manhattans waterfronts with car-free bike routes. The 191 acres of land which form the area of the Park were undeveloped prior to construction of the Hudson River Railroad. The first proposal to convert the riverside precipice into a park was contained in a written by William R. Martin. In 1866, a bill introduced into the Legislature by commissioner Andrew Green was approved, the first segment of park was acquired through condemnation in 1872, the conceptual plan for a new park and road was drawn by Frederick Law Olmsted, designer of the nearby Central Park. With the beginning of the City Beautiful movement in the twentieth century. Stuart Williamson designed the extension with its decorative viaduct, castle-like retaining walls, in 1937, Robert Moses completed the Westside Improvement Project to transform the park, which had become a haven for squatters. Mosess project added new landfill west of the tracks, covered the New York Central rail line, the park and the parkway were done so skillfully that the public is generally unaware that the Freedom Tunnel, a rail tunnel now used by Amtrak, is underneath. The project, which cost more than $100 million in the 1930s, was twice as big as the Hoover Dam project, the project plan by Gilmore D. Clarke and Clinton Loyd added 132 acres to the park and took recreation into consideration. Facing great opposition and hobbled by his financial position, Trump agreed in 1990 to adopt a new plan for the site put forward by six civic groups. In order to expand Riverside Park by 25 acres, Trumps proposed shopping mall would be removed, a new Riverside Boulevard would curve above the relocated highway, with the park sloping down toward the river. Portions of the rail yard, such as the New York Central Railroad 69th Street Transfer Bridge. Pier I at 70th Street, part of the railyard, was rebuilt, it maintains its original length of 795 feet, phase 2 comprises a waterfront section from 70th Street to 65th Street. Phase 2, opened in June 2003, has two plazas at 66th and 68th Streets, as well as a jagged waterfront, phase 3, opened in August 2006, stretches from 65th Street to 62nd Street on the waterfront. Phase 4 opened in 2007 along the waterfront from 62nd to 57th Streets, the design of Phases 5, and 6, located between the current and future highway alignments, is partially tied to the fate of the highway relocation, the timing of which is still uncertain. However the Parks Department has approved a design for two sections, construction will start in 2017. Relocating the highway will require reconstruction of the park. The most used sections of Riverside Park are on the slopes between the Hudson and Riverside Drive from 72nd Street to 125th Street
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Abastenia St. Leger Eberle
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Abastenia St. Leger Eberle was an American sculptor. Her most famous piece The White Slave representing child prostitution caused controversy when exhibited at the 1913 Armory Show, a native of Webster City, Iowa, her father was a doctor and her mother a musician. Her family later moved to Kansas, then Missouri, before settling in Canton and she initially studied to become a professional musician, but her father noticed her talent for modeling. She received lessons from one of his patients before enrolling at the Art Students League in New York and she achieved early success with her sculpture Men and Bull, created in collaboration with Anna Hyatt, which was shown at the 1904 exhibition of the Society of American Artists. In 1906 she was elected to the National Sculpture Society, in 1920, she was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Associate Academician. St. Leger Eberle worked in a related to Art Nouveau. She produced mainly portrait sculpture and decorative work for fountains, some of her work is in the collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art. However, she is best known for works that combined realism with emphasis on the flow of drapery. The White Slave was exhibited at the 1913 Armory Show in New York, and caused a storm of violent controversy because of its combination of contemporary realism. The sculpture represented child prostitution, which at the time was called white slavery. Following this success she created a number of sculptures depicting working class children from the Lower East Side, depicting them at play and these represented the vitality of the citys immigrant population. By 1930 she had forced to leave New York because of financial. Eberle submitted works to the mixed sculpturing category of the art competitions at the 1928 and 1932 Summer Olympics, several of her sculptures are on display at the Kendall Young Library, in Webster City, Iowa, where she was born. Eberle believed that art should have a function, writing that artists had no right to work as an individualist with no responsibility to others. Must see for them to themselves and each other. Armory Show, A Turning Point,1913 NYC Knoxville Museum of Art, American Women Artists, The 20th Century, Oct.26,4,1990 Queensboro Community College Art Gallery. March 11, 1990–Apr.5,1990 The Discovery Museum, Bridgeport, CT, They Earned Their Keep The Struggles and Successes of American Women Artists,10,1993 – May 30,1993 Parrish Art Museum, Southampton, NY Feb.20, 1994–Apr. 10,1994 Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Figure in American Sculpture, Feb.23,1995 – May 14,1995 Montgomery Museum of Fine Arts, June 22,10,1995 Wichita Art Museum, Oct.19, 1995–Jan
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Louisiana Purchase Exposition
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The Louisiana Purchase Exposition, informally known as the St. Louis Worlds Fair, was an international exposition held in St. Louis, Missouri, United States, from April 30 to December 1,1904. Local, state, and federal funds totaling $15 million were used to finance the event, more than 60 countries and 43 of the 45 American states maintained exhibition spaces at the fair, which was attended by nearly 19.7 million people. Historians generally emphasize the prominence of themes of race and empire, from the point of view of the memory of the average person who attended the fair, it primarily promoted entertainment, consumer goods and popular culture. In 1904, St. Louis hosted a Worlds Fair to celebrate the centennial of the 1803 Louisiana Purchase, an additional $5 million was generated through private donations by interested citizens and businesses from around Missouri, a fundraising target reached in January 1901. The fundraising mission was aided by the support of President of the United States William McKinley. The exposition remained in operation from its opening until December 1,1904, the fairs 1, 200-acre site, designed by George Kessler, was located at the present-day grounds of Forest Park and on the campus of Washington University, and was the largest fair to date. There were over 1,500 buildings, connected by some 75 miles of roads and it was said to be impossible to give even a hurried glance at everything in less than a week. The Palace of Agriculture alone covered some 20 acres, exhibits were staged by approximately 50 foreign nations, the United States government, and 43 of the then-45 U. S. states. These featured industries, cities, private organizations and corporations, theater troupes, over 19 million individuals were in attendance at the fair. In conjunction with the Exposition the U. S, post Office issued a series of five commemorative stamps celebrating the 100th anniversary of the Louisiana Purchase. Louisiana Purchase Commemoratives Kessler, who designed many parks in Texas. A popular myth says that Frederick Law Olmsted, who had died the year before the Fair, designed the park, there are several reasons for this confusion. First, Kessler in his twenties had worked briefly for Olmsted as a Central Park gardener, second, Olmsted was involved with Forest Park in Queens, New York. Third, Olmsted had planned the renovations in 1897 to the Missouri Botanical Garden several blocks to the southeast of the park, finally, Olmsteds sons advised Washington University on integrating the campus with the park across the street. Taylor quickly appointed Emmanuel Louis Masqueray to be his Chief of Design, Masqueray resigned shortly after the Fair opened in 1904, having been invited by Archbishop John Ireland of St. Paul, Minnesota to design a new cathedral for the city. Paul J. Pelz was architect for the Palace of Machinery, many African Americans contributed to architecture design, but were not credited. Florence Hayward, a freelance writer in St. Louis in the 1900s was determined to play a role in the Worlds Fair. She negotiated a position on the otherwise all-male Board of Commissioners, Hayward learned that one of the potential contractors for the fair was not reputable and warned the Louisiana Purchase Exposition Company
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El Cid
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Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar, better known as El Cid, or simply Rodrigo, was a Castilian nobleman and military leader in medieval Spain. The Moors called him El Cid, which meant the Lord, and the Christians, El Campeador and he was born in Vivar, a town near the city of Burgos. After his death, he became Castiles celebrated national hero and the protagonist of the most significant medieval Spanish epic poem, El Cantar de Mio Cid. Born a member of the nobility, El Cid was brought up at the court of King Ferdinand the Great and served Ferdinands son, Sancho II of León. He rose to become the commander and royal standard-bearer of Castile upon Sanchos ascension in 1065, Rodrigo went on to lead the Castilian military campaigns against Sanchos brothers, Alfonso VI of León and García II of Galicia, as well as in the Muslim kingdoms in Al-Andalus. He became renowned for his prowess in these campaigns, which helped expand Castilian territory at the expense of the Muslims. When conspirators murdered Sancho in 1072, Rodrigo found himself in a tight spot, since Sancho was childless, the throne passed to his brother Alfonso, the same whom El Cid had helped remove from power. Although Rodrigo continued to serve the Castilian sovereign, he lost his ranking in the new court which treated him at arms length, finally, in 1081, he was ordered into exile. El Cid found work fighting for the Muslim rulers of Zaragoza, while in exile, he regained his reputation as a strategist and formidable military leader. He repeatedly turned out victorious in battle against the Muslim rulers of Lérida and their Christian allies, in 1086, an expeditionary army of North African Almoravids inflicted a severe defeat to Castile, compelling Alfonso to overcome the resentments he harbored against El Cid. The terms for the return to the Christian service must have been attractive enough since Rodrigo soon found himself fighting for his former Lord and he gradually increased his control over Valencia, the Islamic ruler, al-Qadir, became his tributary in 1092. When the Almoravids instigated an uprising that resulted in the death of al-Qadir, Valencia finally fell in 1094, and El Cid established an independent principality on the Mediterranean coast of Spain. He ruled over a society with the popular support of Christians. El Cids final years were spent fighting the Almoravid Berbers and he inflicted upon them their first major defeat in 1094, on the plains of Caurte, outside Valencia, and continued resisting them until his death. Although Rodrigo remained undefeated in Valencia, his son, and heir. After El Cids death in 1099, his wife, Jimena Díaz, succeeded him as ruler of Valencia, to this day, El Cid remains a Spanish popular folk-hero and national icon. Numerous plays, films, folktales, songs, and even video games continue to memorialize the traditions of allegiance that his allegories typify, the Mozarabs or the Arabs that served in his ranks may have addressed him in this way, which the Christians may have transliterated and adopted. Historians, however, have not yet found contemporary records referring to Rodrigo as Cid, arab sources use instead Rudriq, Ludriq al-Kanbiyatur or al-Qanbiyatur
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Seville, Spain
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Seville is the capital and largest city of the autonomous community of Andalusia and the province of Seville, Spain. It is situated on the plain of the river Guadalquivir, the inhabitants of the city are known as sevillanos or hispalenses, after the Roman name of the city, Hispalis. Its Old Town, with an area of 4 square kilometres, the Seville harbour, located about 80 kilometres from the Atlantic Ocean, is the only river port in Spain. Seville is also the hottest major metropolitan area in the geographical Western Europe, Seville was founded as the Roman city of Hispalis. It later became known as Ishbiliya after the Muslim conquest in 712, in 1519, Ferdinand Magellan departed from Seville for the first circumnavigation of the Earth. Spal is the oldest known name for Seville and it appears to have originated during the Phoenician colonisation of the Tartessian culture in south-western Iberia and, according to Manuel Pellicer Catalán, meant lowland in the Phoenician language. During Roman rule, the name was Latinised as Hispalis, nO8DO is the official motto of Seville. It is popularly believed to be a rebus signifying the Spanish No me ha dejado, meaning It has not abandoned me, the eight in the middle represents a madeja, or skein of wool. The emblem is present on the flag and features on city property such as manhole covers. Seville is approximately 2,200 years old, the passage of the various civilisations instrumental in its growth has left the city with a distinct personality, and a large and well-preserved historical centre. The city was known from Roman times as Hispalis, important archaeological remains also exist in the nearby towns of Santiponce and Carmona. The walls surrounding the city were built during the rule of Julius Caesar. Following Roman rule, there were successive conquests of the Roman province of Hispania Baetica by the Vandals, the Suebi, Seville was taken by the Moors, Muslims from North of Africa, during the conquest of Hispalis in 712. It was the capital for the kings of the Umayyad Caliphate, the Moorish urban influences continued and are present in contemporary Seville, for instance in the custom of decorating with herbaje and small fountains the courtyards of the houses. However, most buildings of the Moorish aesthetic actually belong to the Mudéjar style of Islamic art, developed under Christian rule and inspired by the Arabic style. Original Moorish buildings are the Patio del Yeso in the Alcázar, the city walls, in 1247, the Christian King Ferdinand III of Castile and Leon began the conquest of Andalusia. The decisive action took place in May 1248 when Ramon Bonifaz sailed up the Guadalquivir, the city surrendered on 23 November 1248. The citys development continued after the Castilian conquest in 1248, Public buildings constructed including churches, many of which were built in the Mudéjar style, and the Seville Cathedral, built during the 15th century with Gothic architecture
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Valencia
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Its urban area extends beyond the administrative city limits with a population of around 1. 5–1.6 million people. Valencia is Spains third largest metropolitan area, with a population ranging from 1.7 to 2.5 million, the Port of Valencia is the 5th busiest container port in Europe and the busiest container port on the Mediterranean Sea. The city is ranked at Gamma in the Globalization and World Cities Research Network, Valencia was founded as a Roman colony by the consul Decimus Junius Brutus Callaicus in 138 BC, and called Valentia Edetanorum. In 1238 the Christian king James I of Aragon reconquered the city and divided the land among the nobles who helped him conquer it and he also created a new law for the city, the Furs of Valencia, which were extended to the rest of the Kingdom of Valencia. In the 18th century Philip V of Spain abolished the privileges as punishment to the kingdom of Valencia for aligning with the Habsburg side in the War of the Spanish Succession, Valencia was the capital of Spain when Joseph Bonaparte moved the Court there in the summer of 1812. It also served as capital between 1936 and 1937, during the Second Spanish Republic, the city is situated on the banks of the Turia, on the east coast of the Iberian Peninsula, fronting the Gulf of Valencia on the Mediterranean Sea. Valencia is integrated into an area on the Costa del Azahar. Valencias main festival is the Falles, the traditional Spanish dish, paella, originated in Valencia. The original Latin name of the city was Valentia, meaning strength, or valour, the Roman historian Livy explains that the founding of Valentia in the 2nd century BC was due to the settling of the Roman soldiers who fought against an Iberian rebel, Viriatus. It is not clear if the term Balansiyya was reserved for the entire Taifa of Valencia or also designated the city, by gradual sound changes, Valentia /waˈlentia/ has become Valencia or in Castilian and València in Valencian. In Valencian, the grave accent <è> /ɛ/ contrasts with the acute accent <é> /e/—but the word València is an exception to this rule and it is spelled according to Catalan etymology, though its pronunciation is closer to Vulgar Latin. Valencia stands on the banks of the Turia River, located on the eastern coast of the Iberian Peninsula, at its founding by the Romans, it stood on a river island in the Turia,6.4 km from the sea. The Albufera, a lagoon and estuary about 11 km south of the city, is one of the largest lakes in Spain. The City Council bought the lake from the Crown of Spain for 1,072,980 pesetas in 1911, in 1986, because of its cultural, historical, and ecological value, the Generalitat Valenciana declared it a natural park. Valencia has a Mediterranean climate with short, very mild winters and long, hot and its average annual temperature is 18.4 °C.23.0 °C during the day and 13.8 °C at night. In the coldest month – January, the temperature typically during the day ranges from 14 to 21 °C. In the warmest month – August, the temperature during the day typically ranges from 28–34 °C. Generally, similar temperatures to those experienced in the part of Europe in summer last about 8 months
